{"text": "Life Cycle Assessment Michael Z. Hauschild Ralph K. Rosenbaum Stig Irving Olsen Editors Theory and Practice\n\nLife Cycle Assessment\n\nMichael Z. Hauschild \u2022 Ralph K. Rosenbaum Stig Irving Olsen Editors Life Cycle Assessment Theory and Practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 0, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Front Matter", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Editors Michael Z. Hauschild Department of Management Engineering Technical University of Denmark Kongens Lyngby Denmark Ralph K. Rosenbaum IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research group and ELSA-PACT Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment Montpellier France Stig Irving Olsen Department of Management Engineering Technical University of Denmark Kongens Lyngby Denmark ISBN 978-3-319-56474-6 ISBN 978-3-319-56475-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017946049 \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 This work is subject to copyright", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Front Matter", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Front Matter", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Front Matter", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is an old observation that \u2018What gets measured gets managed\u2019, and that what is not measured or measurable runs the risk of being neglected. It is therefore important that we have tools for assessing the sustainability of our choices when we develop the technologies and systems that shall help us determine and meet the needs of the present generations in a way that does not compromise the ability of our descendants to meet their needs in the future. As you will learn from this book, we must take a life cycle perspective when we want to assess the sustainability of the solutions that lie in front of us. You will be presented with many examples of problem shifting where solutions that improve or solve a targeted problem unintentionally create other problems of environmental, economic or social nature somewhere else in the systems of processes and stakeholders affected by our choice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If we do not consider the totality of these systems in our analysis, we will fail to notice these unwanted consequences of our decision and we will not be able to take them into consideration. We also have to consider a broad range of potential impacts in our assessment, in fact all those is that the system can contribute to and that we consider relevant in the context of our decision-situation. Life Cycle Assessment, LCA, offers this totality\u2014it analyses the whole life cycle of the system or product that is the object of the study and it covers a broad range of impacts for which it attempts to perform a quantitative assessment. The focus of LCA has mainly been on the environmental impacts although both social and economic impacts can be included as well", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The focus of LCA has mainly been on the environmental impacts although both social and economic impacts can be included as well. It is an important assessment tool as demonstrated by the central role that it has been given in the environmental regulation in many parts of the world and certified by its ISO standardization and the strong increase in its use over the last decades by companies from all trades and all over the world. Engineers and scientists who develop decision support, or make decisions where sustainability is a concern, should understand the need to view the solutions in a life cycle perspective and to consider possible trade-offs between environmental impacts and between the three sustainability dimensions. Designers and engineers who design and develop products and technical systems should be able to critically v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "read and evaluate life cycle assessment information about the alternatives that they are considering, and the environmental sustainability specialists among them should also be able to perform the LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Why this Book? It is the purpose of this book to offer the reader the theory and practice of LCA in one volume comprising: \u2022 A textbook, explaining the LCA methodology and the theory behind it in a pedagogical way with a meaningful balance between depth and accessibility \u2022 A cookbook offering recipes with concrete actions needed to perform an LCA \u2022 A repository of information about experience with the use and adaptation of LCA and LCA-based approaches within policy-making, decision support and life cycle engineering and management, and a collection of chapters presenting results and methodological challenges from the use of LCA in some of the central technological application areas of LCA Focus is on environmental impacts but life cycle sustainability assessment is considered through introductory chapters on social LCA and on life cycle costing. Who is the Target Audience? The book was written to support the LCA learning of \u2022 University students, from undergraduate to Ph.D", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Who is the Target Audience? The book was written to support the LCA learning of \u2022 University students, from undergraduate to Ph.D. level \u2022 Researchers and (university) teachers \u2022 Professionals looking to get started on LCA and quantitative (environmental) sustainability assessment \u2022 LCA practitioners looking to deepen their knowledge of specific aspects of LCA methodology (e.g. uncertainty management) and LCA practice in specific areas (e.g. electro-mobility, buildings, biomaterials, etc.) and looking for relevant literature for further reading. The structure of the book with separate and comprehensive parts on LCA methodology (theory), LCA cookbook (own practice) and LCA applications (practice of others) allows it to cater to the needs of this rather broad group of potential users. vi", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 9, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Who Wrote the Book? A total of 68 authors contributed to the writing of this book (see short presentations of contributors at the end of each chapter). The core team consisted of researchers from the division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment at the Department of Management Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark, where the three editors have or have had their employment (Ralph Rosenbaum now is an Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment at the French National Research Institute of Science and Technology for Environment and Agriculture (Irstea) in Montpellier, France). Other contributions were solicited from leading experts within each field from the rest of the world, in particular for discussion of the different applications of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 10, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other contributions were solicited from leading experts within each field from the rest of the world, in particular for discussion of the different applications of LCA. Who made it Possible? A book like this requires much work apart from the writing of the text before your eyes, and it had never reached your hands without the indispensable contributions from staff of the division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment at the Department of Management Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark. We also wish to thank all contributing authors for their timely and fine contributions, their constructive collaboration and not least their patience with a production process that lasted far beyond what was planned when we started. We hope that this book will find a broad audience worldwide and strengthen the assessment of sustainability in the future, because what gets measured gets managed... Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild Montpellier, France Ralph K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 11, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z. Hauschild Montpellier, France Ralph K. Rosenbaum Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Stig Irving Olsen vii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 12, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Preface", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part I About This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Z. Hauschild, Ralph K. Rosenbaum and Stig Irving Olsen Main Characteristics of LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Christine Molin and Alexis Laurent LCA History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Christine Molin and Michael Z. Hauschild LCA Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent, Christine Molin and Morten W. Ryberg LCA and Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andreas Moltesen and Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part II Introduction to LCA Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Z. Hauschild Goal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 13, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": 75, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Michael Z. Hauschild Goal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak and Stig Irving Olsen Scope Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Alexis Laurent, Stig Irving Olsen, Andrea Corona and Michael Z. Hauschild ix", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 14, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": 75, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Inventory Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Andreas Moltesen, Alexis Laurent, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Andrea Corona, Morten Birkved and Michael Z. Hauschild Life Cycle Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Michael Z. Hauschild, Anne-Marie Boulay, Peter Fantke, Alexis Laurent, Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez and Marisa Vieira Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Stylianos Georgiadis and Peter Fantke Life Cycle Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Z. Hauschild, Alexandra Bonou and Stig Irving Olsen Critical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ralph K. Rosenbaum and Stig Irving Olsen Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tuomas J. Mattila Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction . .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 15, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ralph K. Rosenbaum and Stig Irving Olsen Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tuomas J. Mattila Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan-Markus R\u00f6dger, Louise Laumann Kj\u00e6r and Aris Pagoropoulos Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andreas Moltesen, Alexandra Bonou, Arne Wangel and Kossara Petrova Bozhilova-Kisheva Part III Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice. . . . . . . . . Ralph K. Rosenbaum Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Sonnemann, E.D. Gemechu, S. Sala, E.M. Schau, K. Allacker, R. Pant, N. Adibi and S. Valdivia Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arne Wangel Organisational LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 16, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Pant, N. Adibi and S. Valdivia Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arne Wangel Organisational LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Julia Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and Matthias Finkbeiner Future-Oriented LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stig Irving Olsen, Mads Borup and Per Dannemand Andersen Life Cycle Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Niki Bey Ecodesign Implementation and LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tim C. McAloone and Daniela C.A. Pigosso x", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 17, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental Labels and Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jeppe Frydendal, Lisbeth Engel Hansen and Alexandra Bonou Cradle to Cradle and LCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anders Bj\u00f8rn and Michael Z. Hauschild LCA of Energy Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexis Laurent, Nieves Espinosa and Michael Z. Hauschild LCA of Electromobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Felipe Cerdas, Patricia Egede and Christoph Herrmann LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benjamin Goldstein and Freja Nygaard Rasmussen LCA of Food and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teunis J. Dijkman, Claudine Basset-Mens, Assumpci\u00f3 Ant\u00f3n and Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 18, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Teunis J. Dijkman, Claudine Basset-Mens, Assumpci\u00f3 Ant\u00f3n and Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Susanne Vedel Hjuler and Sune Balle Hansen LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peter Fantke and Alexi Ernstoff LCA of Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mirko Miseljic and Stig Irving Olsen LCA of Drinking Water Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Berit Godskesen, Noa Meron and Martin Rygaard LCA of Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henrik Fred Larsen LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ioannis Bakas, Alexis Laurent, Julie Clavreul, Anna Bernstad Saraiva, Monia Niero, Emmanuel Gentil and Michael Z. Hauschild LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 19, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gitte Lemming S\u00f8ndergaard and Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Part IV LCA Cookbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Z. Hauschild and Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part V Report Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051 Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent and Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak xi", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 20, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Heidi B. Bugge, S\u00f3nia M. Carvalho, Leise Jebahar, Jon Rasmussen, Caroline M. White and Stig Irving Olsen Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10 . . . . . 1147 Ralph K. Rosenbaum Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 xii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 21, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Contents", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "About the Editors Michael Z. Hauschild is Professor in Life Cycle Assessment and Head of the division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment at the Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark. He has been overall responsible for the department\u2019s life cycle engineering research activities, teaching and professional training for more than a decade. A chemical engineer and ecotoxicologist of training, he entered the field of life cycle assessment method development and application with the EDIP project (Environmental Design of Industrial Products) 1992\u20131997. Together with colleagues he developed and documented one of the first full life cycle assessment methods and received the Great Environmental Prize of the Nordic Council of Ministers 1997 for this work. He has worked internationally in various scientific working groups and held the chair of the SETAC-Europe task force on ecotoxicity assessment in LCIA 1998\u20132002", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 22, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "He has worked internationally in various scientific working groups and held the chair of the SETAC-Europe task force on ecotoxicity assessment in LCIA 1998\u20132002. 2002\u20132006 he chaired the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative task force on Assessment of Toxic Impacts in LCIA facilitating the development of the UNEP/SETAC consensus model USEtox for evaluation of human and ecotoxicity in LCA, and since 2017 he has chaired the task force on ecotoxic impacts. He has been a member of the editorial board of The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment since 1998, subject editor for LCIA of human and ecotoxic impacts since 2008, and he has been subject editor on LCA for the Journal of Industrial Ecology since 2010. As a consultant he has assisted in the development of the European Comission\u2019s International Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) guideline for LCA and the development of recommendations for life cycle impact assessment under the ILCD system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 23, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, he is the founding Chair of the Nordic Life Cycle Association, NorLCA, aimed at broad dissemination of life cycle thinking in the Nordic countries and has been active in the International Academy for Production Engineering (CIRP) in agenda setting and support of life cycle engineering activities. He has been teaching LCA methodology and application to university students and professionals in xiii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 24, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "industry and administration during his whole career; at the Technical University of Denmark close to 1000 master of engineering students since the late 1990s have graduated from the LCA course that he has been active in developing, renewing and running through around 20 years. Ralph K. Rosenbaum is Head of the Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment \u201cELSA-PACT\u201d at the French National Research Institute of Science and Technology for Environment and Agriculture (Irstea) in Montpellier. Originally from Germany, he received his Environmental Engineering degree (Diplomingenieur) from the Technical University Berlin in 2003. He then pursued his Ph.D. thesis entitled \u201cMultimedia and Food Chain Modelling of Toxics for Comparative Risk and Life Cycle Impact Assessment\u201d at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) until 2006. In early 2007 he joined the team of CIRAIG at the \u00c9cole Polytechnique Montreal, Canada as researcher and lecturer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 25, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In early 2007 he joined the team of CIRAIG at the \u00c9cole Polytechnique Montreal, Canada as researcher and lecturer. Before becoming affiliated with Irstea in 2014, he was appointed Associate Professor at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) in Copenhagen in 2010. In 2015 he defended his Habilitation (\u201cHabilitation \u00e0 Diriger des Recherches\u201d\u2014HDR), entitled: \u201cIncreasing precision and applicability of life cycle impact assessment in the context of comparative environmental sustainability studies\u201d at the University of Montpellier, France. Passionate about quantitative environmental sustainability assessment including Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) since 1997, Ralph Rosenbaum is an expert in environmental modelling, as well as application and development of LCA methodology and teaching related to sustainability and environmental assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 26, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "He is co-author of the UNEP-SETAC consensus model for the evaluation of comparative toxicity USEtox and the LCIA methods IMPACT 2002+, Impact World+ and LC-Impact. Since 2007 he has been a subject editor of The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment for impacts of chemicals on human health. He has been active in several international expert working groups of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative since its launch in 2002. He was member of the SETAC North America LCA Steering Committee from 2008 to 2010 and the SETAC Europe LCA Steering Committee from 2012 to 2018 and appointed to the LCIA Method Developers Advisory Group of the European LCA Platform project (ILCD) of the EU Commission in 2007. Since 2007 he has been developing and running courses on sustainability, LCA and related concepts and methods, teaching hundreds of professionals from industry, academia and government, as well as more than 600 students from Bachelor to Ph.D", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 27, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "level on three continents, and supervising numerous masters, Ph.D. and postdoc projects. xiv", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 28, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Stig Irving Olsen is Associate Professor at the division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment at DTU Management Engineering at Technical University of Denmark. He graduated as environmental biologist from University of Copenhagen with a postgraduate education in Toxicology from the same university. He has a total of 9 years experience as a consultant in the field of toxicology and ecotoxicology. After some years as a consultant, he did an industrial Ph.D. working on \u201cLife Cycle Assessment of basic chemicals\u201d from Technical University of Denmark with five industrial partners, the main one being Novo Nordisk. He combined his knowledge and entered into methods development for life cycle impact assessment of toxic impacts, an area in which he was chairman for SETAC working groups during 1999\u20132001 and later member of an ensuing WG", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 29, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "He found interest in nanotechnology with the increasing societal focus, the potential environmental benefits, and the potential risks of nanoparticles and he became a member of a working group at the Danish board of technology and was invited to a number of governmental workshops in the USA and EU. He has also studied other emerging technologies such as third-generation biofuels. He has served as a reviewer of research proposals for EU, Sweden, Germany, Portugal and Switzerland. He is senior editor and member of founding board for the journal Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management and submission editor for The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. He has been teaching LCA and particularly application of simple LCA for 15 years in four different courses and has supervised numerous bachelors, masters, and Ph.D. students in the field of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 30, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "He has been teaching LCA and particularly application of simple LCA for 15 years in four different courses and has supervised numerous bachelors, masters, and Ph.D. students in the field of LCA. Contributors Naeem Adibi PLATEFORME [avniR]-cd2e, Loos-en-Gohelle, France; WELOOP, Lens, France Karen Allacker Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering Science, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium Per Dannemand Andersen Division for Technology and Innovation Management, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Assumpci\u00f3 Ant\u00f3n IRTA, Food and Agricultural Research Institute, Centre de Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain Ioannis Bakas Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Claudine Basset-Mens CIRAD, UPR Hortsys, ELSA\u2014Research Group, Montpellier Cedex 5, France xv", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 31, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Niki Bey Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Morten Birkved Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Anders Bj\u00f8rn Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 32, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lyngby, Denmark; CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, Montreal, QC, Canada Anne-Marie Boulay LIRIDE, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, Canada; CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, Canada Alexandra Bonou Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Mads Borup Division for Technology and Innovation Management, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Kossara Petrova Bozhilova-Kisheva Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs.Lyngby, Denmark Heidi B. Bugge Ecolabelling Denmark, Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark S\u00f3nia M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 33, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bugge Ecolabelling Denmark, Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark S\u00f3nia M. Carvalho Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Felipe Cerdas Chair of Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Braunschweig, Brunswick, Germany Julie Clavreul Residual Resources Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Andrea Corona Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Teunis J. Dijkman Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark xvi", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 34, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Patricia Egede Chair of Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Braunschweig, Brunswick, Germany Alexi Ernstoff Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; EPFL Innovation Park, Quantis International, Lausanne, Switzerland Nieves Espinosa Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University of Denmark, Roskilde, Denmark; Product Policy Bureau, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Sevilla, Spain Peter Fantke Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Matthias Finkbeiner Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Department of Environmental Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin, Berlin, Germany Jeppe Frydendal Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark Eskinder Gemechu", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 35, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of Sustainable Engineering, Department of Environmental Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin, Berlin, Germany Jeppe Frydendal Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark Eskinder Gemechu ISM-CyVi, UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, Talence, France Emmanuel Gentil Copenhagen Resource Institute, Copenhagen K, Denmark Stylianos Georgiadis Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; Global Decision Support Initiative, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Berit Godskesen HOFOR (Greater Copenhagen Utility), Copenhagen, Denmark Benjamin Goldstein Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Lisbeth Engel Hansen Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark Sune Balle Hansen Division of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 36, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Engel Hansen Danish Standards Foundation, Nordhavn, Denmark Sune Balle Hansen Division of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Michael Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 37, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Christoph Herrmann Chair of Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Braunschweig, Brunswick, Germany xvii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 38, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Susanne Vedel Hjuler Division of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark; Novozymes A/S, Bagsv\u00e6rd, Denmark Leise Jebahar Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Louise Laumann Kj\u00e6r Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Henrik Fred Larsen Danish Road Directorate, Hedehusene, Denmark Alexis Laurent Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Julia Mart\u00ednez-Blanco Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Department of Environmental Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin, Berlin, Germany Tuomas J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 39, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mattila Finnish Environment Institute SYKE, Luonnonkoneisto Engineering Co-operative, Helsinki, Finland Tim C. McAloone Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Noa Meron The Porter School of Environmental Studies, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel Mirko Miseljic Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Christine Molin Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 40, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lyngby, Denmark Christine Molin Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Andreas Moltesen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Monia Niero Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, Montpellier, France xviii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 41, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Stig Irving Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Aris Pagoropoulos Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Rana Pant European Commission, Directorate D: Sustainable Resources, Bioeconomy Unit, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy Daniela C.A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 42, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Pigosso Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Freja Nygaard Rasmussen Faculty of Engineering and Science, Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark Jon Rasmussen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Jan-Markus R\u00f6dger Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Ralph K. Rosenbaum IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT\u2014Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, Montpellier, France Morten W. Ryberg Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 43, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ryberg Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Martin Rygaard Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Serenella Sala European Commission, Directorate D: Sustainable Resources, Bioeconomy Unit, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy Anna Bernstad Saraiva SAGE/COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Erwin M. Schau European Commission, Directorate D: Sustainable Resources, Bioeconomy Unit, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy Gitte Lemming S\u00f8ndergaard Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark xix", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 44, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Guido Sonnemann ISM-CyVi, UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, Talence, France Sonia Valdivia World Resources Forum, St. Gallen, Switzerland Marisa Vieira PR\u00e9 Consultants bv, Amersfoort, The Netherlands Arne Wangel Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Caroline M. White Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark xx", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 45, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Editors and Contributors", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part I", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 46, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Introduction", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 1 About This Book Michael Z. Hauschild, Ralph K. Rosenbaum and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract To reach the UN sustainable development goal, there is a need for comprehensive and robust tools to help decision-making identify the solutions that best support sustainable development. The decisions must have a system perspective, consider the life cycle, and all relevant impacts caused by the solution. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that has these characteristics and the ambition with this book is to offer a comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to the tool and its underlying methodological considerations and potential applications. The book consists of five parts. The first part introduces LCA. The second part is a text book aiming at university students from undergraduate to PhD level, and professionals from industry and within policy making", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 47, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 3, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The first part introduces LCA. The second part is a text book aiming at university students from undergraduate to PhD level, and professionals from industry and within policy making. It follows ISO 14040/14044 structure, draws upon a variety of LCA methods published over the years, especially the ILCD, and offers prescriptions and recommendations for all the most important methodological choices that you meet when performing an LCA. The third part introduces applications of LCA and life cycle thinking by policy- and decision-makers in government and industry. The fourth part is a Cookbook guiding you through the concrete actions to undertake when performing an LCA. The fifth part contains some appendices. The book can be used as a text book, the chapter can be read as stand alone, and you can use the Cookbook as a manual on how to perform an LCA. M.Z. Hauschild (&) \u0001 S.I", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 48, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 3, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The book can be used as a text book, the chapter can be read as stand alone, and you can use the Cookbook as a manual on how to perform an LCA. M.Z. Hauschild (&) \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: mzha@dtu.dk R.K. Rosenbaum IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT\u2014Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, Montpellier, France \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 49, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 3, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.1 Our generation is facing daunting challenges of a changing climate and an overall increasing pressure on the environment, challenges that are under the influence of human-made activities. Reflecting on these environmental conditions and their relationship to social and economic challenges that we face, a sustainable development was coined in 1987 by UN\u2019s World Commission for Environment and Development as a development that \u201c... meets the needs of the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs\u201d (UN WCED 1987). In 2015 the 193 member states of the United Nations adopted 17 goals to \u2018end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all as part of a new sustainable development agenda\u2019 by 2030, setting targets for the way in which the present generations can meet their needs (UN 2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 50, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 4, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To meet the goals and targets, sustainability must gain strong prominence in decision support for professionals who are responsible for creating solutions for the future, but also for everybody else who, in today\u2019s global economy, is both a stakeholder and a decision-maker with a role to play concerning sustainability as a consumer, as member of a local community, or as a voter. Each individual needs answers and information based on comprehensive and robust tools to help them decide what best supports a sustainable development, from small- to large-scale decisions. To avoid the often seen problem shifting where solutions to a problem creates several new and often ignored problems, these decisions must take a systems perspective. They must consider what in this book is referred to as the life cycle of the solution, and they need to consider all the relevant impacts caused by the solution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 51, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 4, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They must consider what in this book is referred to as the life cycle of the solution, and they need to consider all the relevant impacts caused by the solution. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that has these characteristics, and there is a strong and growing need for professionals who understand or even master this tool and who know how to critically appraise and use the information that it provides. It is our ambition with this book to offer a comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to the tool and its underlying methodological considerations and potential applications. 1.2 Structure of This Book The book consists of five parts. The first part sets the scene. First, if you are a newcomer to LCA, you get a short introduction to important characteristics of LCA and some of its strengths and weaknesses, illustrated through a collection of questions that LCA can\u2014or cannot be used for answering", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 52, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 4, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This short introduction is followed by a presentation of the history of LCA from its early beginnings half a century ago to today, with a focus on methodological developments, growth in number and variety of applications and international harmonization and consensus building. Finally, LCA is positioned in the context of sustainability and its use as a tool for quantitative sustainability assessment is discussed. M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 53, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 4, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The second part is a textbook aiming at university students from undergraduate to PhD level, and professionals from industry and within policy making who need a thorough and pedagogical introduction to LCA methodology. The textbook has been developed based on a cumulated experience from more than three decades with teaching LCA to engineering students at undergraduate and master level courses at Technical University of Denmark and Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, Canada, and it is intended to provide a complete curriculum for such courses. The structure of the introduction to the LCA methodology follows the ISO framework (as presented and elaborated in the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards (ISO 2006a, b)), and we have strived to keep the use of technical terms in accordance with the ISO terminology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 54, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 5, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When it comes to the methodological details, the ISO standards refrain from prescriptions or recommendations for many of the detailed decisions and choices that must be made by a practitioner who wants to perform an LCA. Here, we have sought inspiration in LCA methods published over the years, including the EDIP method (Wenzel et al. 1997; Hauschild and Wenzel 1998), the Ecoinvent methodologies (Weidema et al. 2013), the Consequential LCA (Ekvall and Weidema 2004), as well as more recent projects within the UNEP/ SETAC Life Cycle Initiative and the development of the IMPACT World+ (http:// www.impactworldplus.org), the LC-Impact (http://www.lc-impact.eu), or the ILCD life cycle impact assessment methods (Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 55, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 5, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013), and not least in the detailed guidance offered by the General guide for Life Cycle Assessment, the \u2018ILCD Handbook\u2019 that was elaborated by the European Commission to serve as the methodological backbone of its International Reference Life Cycle Data System (EC-JRC 2010). The ILCD Handbook was developed through a broad international consultation process with LCA experts, stakeholders and the public from all over the world with the ambition to minimize ambiguity in LCA studies and provide governments and businesses with a basis for assuring quality and consistency of life cycle data, methods and assessments (EC-JRC 2010; Pennington et al. 2010; Sala et al. 2012). Building on methodological elements from previously published LCA methods, it offers prescriptions and recommendations for all the most important methodological choices that you meet when performing an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 56, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 5, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We use the ILCD method as a solidly founded, well documented, and detailed reference methodology that is in full accordance with the ISO standards and details methodology descriptions far beyond them. This part of the textbook offers separate chapters on each phase of the LCA methodology and additional chapters on life cycle costing and social life cycle assessment as well as chapters on central methodological aspects like uncertainty management and sensitivity analysis, and use of input\u2013output analysis in LCA. The third part of the book offers a collection of chapters introducing applications of LCA and life cycle thinking by policy- and decision-makers in government and industry, written by authors who are experts in the field of their chapter. They start out with policy applications around the world and organizational LCA, then move on to industrial applications, life cycle management, ecodesign, environmental labels and declarations, and the Cradle to cradle concept", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 57, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 5, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The focus then moves on to the application of LCA to different technological areas like energy About This Book", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 58, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 5, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "systems, buildings, food and waste management. Eleven chapters present, within each their technological area, the main types of findings from published LCA studies, identifying methodological considerations that are particularly relevant and highlighting potential pitfalls when performing or using LCA studies within that area. The fourth part consists of a Cookbook which takes you through all the phases of the LCA once more, but this time with concrete actions to undertake when performing an LCA. The ambition with the cookbook is to provide you with the recipes for performing an LCA. Where Part II answers the numerous \u2018why\u2019 questions, the Cookbook answers the \u2018what\u2019 and \u2018how\u2019 questions. It is intended to guide you through the many steps, activities and decisions that are needed to perform an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 59, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 6, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is intended to guide you through the many steps, activities and decisions that are needed to perform an LCA. The Cookbook follows the main structure of the ISO 14044 standard and gives detailed instructions on all the central activities, based on selection of those provisions and actions in the ILCD Handbook that are generally needed in order to perform an LCA. The fifth part of the book is an appendix collection with supporting material for use in LCA teaching like a reporting template offering the student a recommended structure for an LCA report, an example of a complete LCA report on a case study based on student results from an LCA course, and an overview and comparison of existing life cycle impact assessment methods to compliment the methodology chapter on this phase of the LCA. 1.3 How to Use This Book? As you will see, you may use this book as a textbook, focusing on the description of the theory in Part II", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 60, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 6, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.3 How to Use This Book? As you will see, you may use this book as a textbook, focusing on the description of the theory in Part II. All the basic elements of the methodology are presented in chapters with clearly defined learning objectives. An exemplary LCA case study weaves through the methodology chapters and is used, where relevant, to give practical examples of the presented methodological elements. The case study is compiled at the end in a full LCA report in Part V of the book, illustrating the use of the reporting template and serving as an example for students of how a good student LCA report may look. You can select chapters from Part III of the book on the LCA applications that are relevant in your didactic context, and you can use the Cookbook in Part IV and the reporting template and example LCA report in Part V for support to perform a real LCA if this is part of your learning", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 61, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 6, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Each chapter of the book was written in a way that allows it to also function as stand-alone material for studying the respective aspects that it presents. The chapters can thus also be read on their own in order to deepen your knowledge on their specific topics. Once you have taken the learning from the book, you can use the Cookbook as a manual on how to perform an LCA. The cookbook is based on the ILCD guideline and it is thus not a universally endorsed LCA method\u2014in fact, such a method does not exist beyond the ISO standards. We have, however, found that this guideline is useful as a reference because of its very detailed prescriptions. In cases M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 62, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 6, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "where you disagree with certain provisions or where a different approach is more relevant for the study that you perform, it will still serve as a reference for transparently and efficiently reporting about the method that you have used by specifying the points where you have chosen a different approach. Whether you aspire to be a practitioner of LCA or a user of LCA information, the textbook will also serve as a repository of LCA experience with the wealth of information on the many application areas presented in Part III of the book. We wish you a fruitful learning with the book and success with your future LCA activities! EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 63, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 7, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union (2010) Ekvall, T., Weidema, B.P.: System boundaries and input data in a consequential life cycle inventory analysis. Int. J. LCA 9(3), 161\u2013171 (2004). doi:10.1007/BF02994190 Hauschild, M.Z., Wenzel, H.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Vol. 2\u2014Scientific Background, 565 pp. Chapman & Hall, UK, Kluwer, Hingham. ISBN 0412 80810 2 (1998) Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guin\u00e9e, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., Pant, R.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013697 (2013) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 64, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 7, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Pennington, D.W., Chomkhamsri, K., Pant, R., Wolf, M.-A., Bidoglio, G., K\u00f6gler, K., Misiga, P., Sponar, M., Lorz, B., Sonnemann, G., Masoni, P., Wang, H., Ling, L., Castanho, C., Sau Soon, C., Fieschi, M., Filareto, A., Hauschild, M.: ILCD handbook public consultation workshop\u2014 International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD). Int. J. LCA 15(3), 231\u2013237 (2010) Sala, S., Pant, R., Hauschild, M., Pennington, D.: Research needs and challenges from science to decision support. Lesson learnt from the development of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) recommendations for life cycle impact assessment. Sustainability 4(7), 1412\u20131425 (2012) UN: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 65, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 7, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sustainability 4(7), 1412\u20131425 (2012) UN: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (2017). Accessed 4 March 2017 UN WCED: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1987) Weidema, B.P., Bauer, C., Hischier, R., et al.: The Ecoinvent Database: Overview and Methodology, Data Quality Guideline for the Ecoinvent Database Version 3 (2013). www. ecoinvent.org Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Vol. 1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development, 544 pp. Chapman & Hall, UK, Kluwer, Hingham (1997). ISBN 0 412 80800 5 About This Book", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 66, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 7, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biographies Michael Z. Hauschild involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Ralph K. Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology. Interested in LCIA modelling of emissions and water/soil resource use, operationalisation of uncertainty management and spatial differentiation. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 67, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 8, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 68, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "1 About This Book", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 8, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 2 Main Characteristics of LCA Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Christine Molin and Alexis Laurent Abstract Life cycle assessment (LCA) has a number of defining characteristics that enables it to address questions that no other assessment tools can address. This chapter begins by demonstrating how the use of LCA in the late 2000s led to a drastic shift in the dominant perception that biofuels were \u201cgreen\u201d, \u201csustainable\u201d or \u201ccarbon neutral\u201d, which led to a change in biofuel policies. This is followed by a grouping of the LCA characteristics into four headlines and an explanation of these: (1) takes a life cycle perspective, (2) covers a broad range of environmental issues, (3) is quantitative, (4) is based on science. From the insights of the LCA characteristics we then consider the strengths and limitations of LCA and end the chapter by listing 10 questions that LCA can answer and 3 that it cannot", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 69, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 9, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From the insights of the LCA characteristics we then consider the strengths and limitations of LCA and end the chapter by listing 10 questions that LCA can answer and 3 that it cannot. Learning objectives After studying this chapter the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the relevance of LCA as a tool for environmental management. \u2022 Explain four main characteristics of LCA. \u2022 Demonstrate an understanding of strengths and limitations of LCA by providing examples of environment-related questions that LCA can answer and questions that LCA cannot answer. A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 M. Owsianiak \u0001 C. Molin \u0001 A. Laurent Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 C. Molin \u0001 A. Laurent CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 70, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 9, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Molin \u0001 A. Laurent CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 71, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 9, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.1 Why Is LCA Important? Biofuel Case LCA has a number of defining characteristics. Before elaborating on these characteristics a real life case is presented to show how the use of LCA provided new insights and led to major changes in policy. This is the case of first generation biofuels used in the transport sector. The use of biofuels is not a new trend. They were used in the form of wood and peat before the industrialisation and were pretty much the only source of fuels then. This changed with the emergence of cheap fossil fuels, first in the form of coal, later followed by oil and natural gas. By the end of the twentieth-century fossil fuels had become the dominating source for meeting the world\u2019s primary energy demand. At the same time the transportation sector of developed nations was responsible for an increasing share of the total national energy demands [e.g. EC (2012)]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 72, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 10, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the same time the transportation sector of developed nations was responsible for an increasing share of the total national energy demands [e.g. EC (2012)]. While electricity and heat increasingly were supplied by other sources than fossil fuels, a similar transition could not be observed for transportation energy (IEA 2015). The 2000s witnessed a renewed interest in using biofuels in the transportation sector, spurred by increasing oil prices, the question of energy security and concerns over climate change. Biofuels were seen as potentially cost competitive with gasoline and diesel and they were considered means to reduce dependencies on large exporters of oil, many of which were (and are) located in politically unstable regions of the world. In the early 2000s biofuels in the transportation sector were also generally considered much better for the climate than fossil fuels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 73, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 10, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the early 2000s biofuels in the transportation sector were also generally considered much better for the climate than fossil fuels. The reasoning was that the CO2 emitted from the combustion of biofuels has a \u201cneutral\u201d effect on climate change, because it belongs to the biogenic carbon cycle, meaning that it used to be in the atmosphere before being taken up, via photosynthesis, by the plants that were the sources of the biofuel and that it will be taken up by new plants again. By contrast, CO2 emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels originates in carbon that belongs to the much slower geological carbon cycle and can be considered as effectively isolated from the atmosphere, because it would have stayed in the ground for millions of years, had it not been extracted to be used as fuel. While the distinction between biogenic and fossil CO2 is important, LCA studies (Zah and Laurance 2008; Fargione et al. 2008; Searchinger et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 74, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 10, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While the distinction between biogenic and fossil CO2 is important, LCA studies (Zah and Laurance 2008; Fargione et al. 2008; Searchinger et al. 2008) have shown that it was a mistake to: (1) consider the use of biofuels in the transport sector inherently \u201cclimate neutral\u201d (2) disregard potential increases in environmental problems other than climate change from a transition from fossil fuels to biofuels. Regarding the first point, LCA takes a life cycle perspective when evaluating environmental impacts of a product or a system. In this case it means not only considering the use stage of the biofuel, i.e. where its chemical energy is transformed to kinetic energy in a vehicle\u2019s combustion engine, but also considering the industrial and agricultural processes prior to the delivery of the biofuel to the fuel tank of the vehicle (see Fig. 2.1).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 75, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 10, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When taking a life cycle perspective it is clear that no biofuel is \u201cclimate neutral\u201d, because of the inputs of fossil fuels needed in industrial processes prior to the use stage. In addition, a consequence of the increased demand for biofuel crops may be the conversion of natural land (such as forest) to cultivated land and this releases the carbon bound in the natural biomass (e.g. wood) and the soil as CO2. Sometimes the conversion of natural land happens as an indirect consequence, i.e. forest is being cleared to make room for the crops that used to be cultivated at the piece of land now used for biofuel crops. This means that a country that increases its production of biofuel crops, at the expense of a decrease in food crops may indirectly contribute to a loss of natural land (e.g. forest) somewhere else, possibly on a different continent, due to the mechanisms of international trade", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 76, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 11, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "forest) somewhere else, possibly on a different continent, due to the mechanisms of international trade. Regarding the second point, LCA considers multiple environmental issues (and sometimes social issues, see Chap. 16) when evaluating a product or a system. This is an important attribute in the case of biofuels because the release of nutrients from fertilizer use and synthetic chemicals from pesticide use, lead to eutrophication and toxic effects on freshwater ecosystems and elsewhere, and because the cultivation requires large amounts of land and water for irrigation, which can lead to biodiversity loss and water scarcity. Social impacts from an increased production of biofuels have also been reported in the form of increasing food prices. The insights provided by LCA were a key reason for the rapid change in perspective on biofuels by policy-makers and media that began around 2008", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 77, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 11, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The insights provided by LCA were a key reason for the rapid change in perspective on biofuels by policy-makers and media that began around 2008. For example, in 2010 the European Commission amended its legislation on biofuels by introducing a set of sustainability criteria, which relates to life cycle emissions of greenhouse gases and prohibits the conversion of land with previously \u201chigh carbon stock\u201d and \u201chigh biodiversity\u201d for the production of biofuels (EC 2010). With the above text, we are not arguing that the transportation sector should abandon biofuels as a strategy to reduce its use of fossil fuels and climate impacts. We are merely trying to show that the world is not black and white and that a more holistic perspective is required when evaluating and guiding technological changes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 78, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 11, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We are merely trying to show that the world is not black and white and that a more holistic perspective is required when evaluating and guiding technological changes. 2.2 Main Characteristics Having made a case for LCA with the topic of biofuels, we now turn to describing its main characteristics in slightly more technical terms and end the chapter by listing its strengths and limitations. Raw materials Biorefinery Distribution Car driving Fig. 2.1 Graphic representation of the biofuels life cycle from feedstock to end user (Icons made by Flaticon from www.flaticon.com) Main Characteristics of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 79, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 11, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2.1 Takes a Life Cycle Perspective The life cycle metaphor is borrowed from the field of biology. For example, the life cycle of a butterfly starts with an egg, which bursts and lets a caterpillar out that turns into a pupa from which a butterfly emerges that eventually dies after laying eggs for the cycle to be repeated. In much the same way a man-made object starts its lifecycle by the harvesting and extraction of resources, followed by production, use and eventually management of the object as waste, which marks the end of the life cycle. Recycling or reuse can be seen as \u201cnew eggs\u201d for the life cycles of other man-made objects. The objects studied in LCA are often physical products and the term \u201cproduct system\u201d signals that a life cycle perspective is taken, i.e. that all the processes required to deliver the function of the product are considered. For example, the function of a car fuel is to propel a car", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 80, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 12, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "that all the processes required to deliver the function of the product are considered. For example, the function of a car fuel is to propel a car. As illustrated in the case above, the delivery of this function requires a number of industrial and agricultural processes that can be conceptually organised in stages of the life cycle of a biofuel (see Fig. 2.1). The core reason for taking a life cycle perspective is that it allows identifying and preventing the burden shifting between life cycle stages or processes that happens if efforts for lowering environmental impacts in one process or life cycle stage unintentionally create (possibly larger) environmental impacts in other processes or life cycle stages. As shown above, the substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels reduces impacts on climate change from the use stage but increases climate change impacts from the harvest and extraction stage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 81, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 12, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As shown above, the substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels reduces impacts on climate change from the use stage but increases climate change impacts from the harvest and extraction stage. Although LCA is mostly used to study product systems, it can also be used to study more complex man-made objects, such as companies (see Chap. 22), energy-, transport- or waste management systems (see Chaps. 26, 27 and 35) and infrastructure and cities (see Chap. 28). In all applications the assessment takes a life cycle perspective having the function of the studied entity as focal point. 2.2.2 Covers a Broad Range of Environmental Issues In LCA, the comprehensive coverage of processes over the life cycle is complemented by a comprehensive coverage of environmental issues. Rather than focusing exclusively on, say, climate change, which generally receives most attention these days, LCA covers a broad range of environmental issues, typically around fifteen (see Chap. 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 82, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 12, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). These issues include climate change, freshwater use, land occupation and transformation, aquatic eutrophication, toxic impacts on human health, depletion of non-renewable resources and eco-toxic effects from metals and synthetic organic chemicals. The core reason for considering multiple environmental issues is to avoid burden shifting, which is also why a life cycle perspective is taken. Here burden shifting happens if efforts for lowering one type of environmental impact unintentionally increase other types of environmental impacts.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 83, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 12, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As shown above, decreasing impacts on climate change by substituting fossil fuels with biofuels has the potential to cause an increase in other environmental issues such as water scarcity, eutrophication, land occupation and transformation. 2.2.3 Is Quantitative LCA results answer the question \u201chow much does a product system potentially impact the environment?\u201d Part of the answer may be \u201cthe impact on climate change is 87 kg of CO2 equivalents\u201d. The quantitative nature of LCA means that it can be used to compare environmental impacts of different processes and product systems. This can, for example, be used to judge which products or systems are better for the environment or to point to the processes that contribute the most to the overall impact and therefore should receive attention", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 84, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 13, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA results are calculated by (1) mapping all emissions and resource uses and, if possible, the geographical locations of these, and (2) use factors derived from mathematical cause/effect models to calculate potential impacts on the environment from these emissions and resource uses. The first step often involves thousands of emissions and resource uses, e.g. \u201c0.187 kg CO2, 0.897 kg nitrogen to freshwater, 0.000000859 kg dioxin to air, 1.54 kg bauxite, 0.331 m3 freshwater...\u201d. In the second step the complexity is reduced by classifying these thousands of flows into a manageable number of environmental issues, typically around fifteen (see above). Quantifications generally aim for the \u201cbest estimate\u201d, meaning that average values of parameters involved in the modelling are consistently chosen (see Chap. 10). 2.2.4 Is Based on Science The quantification of potential impacts in LCA is rooted in natural science. Flows are generally based on measurements, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 85, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 13, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). 2.2.4 Is Based on Science The quantification of potential impacts in LCA is rooted in natural science. Flows are generally based on measurements, e.g. water gauges or particle counters at industrial sites or mass balances over the processes. The models of the relationships between emission (or resource consumption) and impact are based on proven causalities, e.g. the chemical reaction schemes involving nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the formation of atmospheric ground level ozone (smog) or on empirically observed relationships, e.g. between the concentration of phosphorous in a lake and the observed numbers of species and their populations. On top of its science core, LCA requires value judgement, which is most evident in the optional step of assigning weights to different types of environmental problems to evaluate the overall impact of a product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 86, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 13, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA strives to handle value judgement consistently and transparently and in some cases allows practitioners to make modelling choices based on their own values, for example with respect to the number of years into the future that environmental impacts should be considered in the assessment. Main Characteristics of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 87, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 13, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.3 Strengths and Limitations of LCA A main strength of LCA is its comprehensiveness in terms of its life cycle perspective and coverage of environmental issues. This allows the comparison of environmental impacts of product systems that are made up of hundreds of processes, accounting for thousands of resource uses and emissions that are taking place in different places at different times. However, the comprehensiveness is also a limitation, as it requires simplifications and generalisations in the modelling of the product system and the environmental impacts that prevent LCA from calculating actual environmental impacts. Considering the uncertainties in mapping of resource uses and emissions and in modelling their impacts and the fact that calculated impacts are aggregated over time (e.g. tomorrow and in 20 years) and space (e.g. Germany and China) it is more accurate to say that LCA calculates impact potentials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 88, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 14, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "tomorrow and in 20 years) and space (e.g. Germany and China) it is more accurate to say that LCA calculates impact potentials. Another strength in the context of comparative assessments is that LCA follows the \u201cbest estimate\u201d principle. This generally allows for unbiased comparisons because it means that the same level of precaution is applied throughout the impact assessment modelling. A limitation related to following the \u201cbest estimate\u201d principle is, however, that LCA models are based on the average performance of the processes and do not support the consideration of risks of rare but very problematic events like marine oil spills or accidents at industrial sites. As a consequence, nuclear power, for example, appears quite environmentally friendly in LCA because the small risk of a devastating disaster, like the ones that happened in Chernobyl, the Ukraine or Fukushima, Japan, is not considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 89, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 14, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A final limitation worth keeping in mind is that, while LCA can tell you what (product system) is better for the environment, it cannot tell you if better is \u201cgood enough\u201d. It is therefore wrong to conclude that a product is environmentally sustainable, in absolute terms, with reference to an LCA showing that the product has a lower environmental impact than another product. Chapter 5 elaborates on the relationship between LCA and sustainability. The above characteristics mean that LCA is suitable for answering some questions and unsuitable for answering others. Box 2.1 provides examples of questions that LCA can and cannot answer. Box 2.1. What LCA can and cannot answer Examples of questions LCA can answer: 1. Is paper, plastic or textile bags the most environmentally friendly option for carrying groceries back from the supermarket? 2. From an environmental point of view should we use glass fibre composite or steel for the car body? 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 90, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 14, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From an environmental point of view should we use glass fibre composite or steel for the car body? 3. How can the overall environmental impact of a refrigerator be minimised with the least effort?", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 91, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 14, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4. What is the most environmentally friendly way to package and transport food? 5. From an environmental perspective, should plastics be incinerated or recycled and which parameters do the conclusion depend on? 6. Where is the environmental optimum in the trade-off between minimising heat loss and minimising the use of impact-intensive materials in a window (see illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39)? 7. Should a plastic zipper be added to cheese packaging to reduce household food waste and thereby reduce the overall environmental impacts of cheese? 8. Is it more environmentally friendly to do the dishes manually or using a dishwasher? 9. Should a company target its own processes, its suppliers, its customers or the waste management sector in the effort of reducing the environmental impact of its products? 10. Are electric cars more environmentally friendly than conventional internal combustion engine cars and what are the important parameters deciding this (see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 92, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 15, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Are electric cars more environmentally friendly than conventional internal combustion engine cars and what are the important parameters deciding this (see Chap. 27)? Examples of questions LCA cannot answer: 1. Should taxes on old diesel cars be increased to reduce emissions of particles and thereby reduce hospital spending on treating lung diseases? Explanation: LCA cannot be used to compare the societal disadvantages of higher taxes with advantages of less pollution. Cost benefit analysis combined with Health Assessment Studies would be a better tool for answering this question. 2. Do current emissions from a specific factory lead to pollutant concentrations above regulatory thresholds in nearby aquatic ecosystems? Explanation: LCA is not designed to evaluate impacts of a single emission source on local ecosystems and contains no information on regulatory thresholds. Chemical risk assessment is a more appropriate tool for answering this question. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 93, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 15, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chemical risk assessment is a more appropriate tool for answering this question. 3. Do total global emissions of endocrine disruptors cause polar bears to become hermaphrodites? Explanation: LCA is not designed to assess a specific effect on a specific organism from a specific group of chemicals. It would be more meaningful to measure the concentration of endocrine disruptors in (deceased) polar bears and compare those measurements with observed occurrences of hermaphrodite individuals. Main Characteristics of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 94, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 15, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EC: Communication from the Commission on the practical implementation of the EU biofuels and bioliquids sustainability scheme and on counting rules for biofuels. Brussels (2010) EC: EU transport in figures. Statistical Pocketbook 2012. Brussels (2012) Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., et al.: Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt. Science 319, 1235\u20131238 (2008). doi:10.1126/science.1152747 IEA: Recent energy trends in OECD. Excerpt from energy balances of OECD countries (2015) Searchinger, T., Heimlich, R., Houghton, R.A., et al.: Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land-use change. Science 319, 1238\u20131240 (2008). doi:10.1126/science.1151861 Zah, R., Laurance, W.: Biofuel\u2019s impact on environment. Ind. Bioprocess 30, 9 (2008) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 95, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 16, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1126/science.1151861 Zah, R., Laurance, W.: Biofuel\u2019s impact on environment. Ind. Bioprocess 30, 9 (2008) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Christine Molin active in the field of LCA since 1992. Special interest in the development and dissemination of LCA and in the use of LCA in small and medium sized enterprises. Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 96, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 16, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 97, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "2 Main Characteristics of LCA", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 16, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 3 LCA History Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Christine Molin and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract The idea of LCA was conceived in the 1960s when environmental degradation and in particular the limited access to resources started becoming a concern. This chapter gives a brief summary of the history of LCA since then with a focus on the fields of methodological development, application, international harmonisation and standardisation, and dissemination. LCA had its early roots in packaging studies and focused mainly on energy use and a few emissions, spurring a largely un-coordinated method development in the US and Northern Europe. Studies were primarily done for companies, who used them internally and made little communication to stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 98, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 17, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Studies were primarily done for companies, who used them internally and made little communication to stakeholders. After a silent period in the 1970s, the 1980s and 1990s saw an increase in methodological development and international collaboration and coordination in the scientific community and method development increasingly took place in universities. With the consolidation of the methodological basis, application of LCA widened to encompass a rapidly increasing range of products and systems with studies commissioned or performed by both industry and governments, and results were increasingly communicated through academic papers and industry and government reports. To this day, methodological development has continued, and increasing attention has been given to international scientific consensus building on central parts of the LCA methodology, and standardisation of LCA and related approaches", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 99, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 17, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain how LCA emerged and what characterised the early years of development. A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 M. Owsianiak \u0001 C. Molin \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 C. Molin \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 100, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 17, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Outline the history of LCA from the 1970s to the present in terms of methodological development, application, international harmonisation and standardisation and dissemination. 3.1 Concerns over environmental pollution and energy and material scarcity have motivated the development of life-cycle-oriented approaches for environmental profiling of products. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has experienced a strong development both in methodology and applications since the first life-cycleoriented methods were proposed in the 1960s. Today LCA is defined as \u201ca tool to assess the potential environmental impacts and resources used throughout a product\u2019s life cycle, i.e. from raw material acquisition, via production and use stages, to waste management\u201d (ISO 2006b). In this chapter, we present a brief account of the history of LCA in terms of methodological development, standardisation and regulation, application, and education and dissemination", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 101, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 18, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this chapter, we present a brief account of the history of LCA in terms of methodological development, standardisation and regulation, application, and education and dissemination. Important elements of the history are summarised chronologically in Table 3.1. 3.2 Methodological Development Life-cycle-oriented methods that were precursors of today\u2019s LCA were developed in the 1960s in collaboration between universities and industry. They were known as Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA) (Hunt et al. 1992) or Ecobalances until the term LCA became the norm in the 1990s. The method development initiated in the US and mainly took place there and in Northern Europe. Early methods could be characterised as material and energy accounting and were inspired by material flow accounting, as they were focused on inventorying energy and resource use (crude oil, steel, etc.), emissions and generation of solid waste, from each industrial process in the life cycle of product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 102, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 18, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As inventories got more complex, the initial focus on accounting the physical flows in a product life cycle was gradually extended with a translation of the inventory results into environmental impact potentials. In other words, from a list of resource uses and emissions a set of indicator scores for an assessed product was calculated, representing contributions to a number of impacts categories, such as climate change, eutrophication and resource scarcity. In the early years of the LCA history, environmental concerns addressed by the methods tended to shift with public concerns, and there was no consistency or harmonisation of the applied methods. In some years, the focus was on the generation of solid waste, which was considered problematic, especially in the US, where landfilling was the dominant waste management practice. In other years,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 103, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 18, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 3.1 Selected events in LCA history Event Year Note The (perhaps) first LCA-oriented study was presented on energy requirements for the production of chemical intermediates and products World Energy Conference, Harold Smith Coca Cola commissions its first study comparing beverage containers Not public The methodological foundation for environmentally extended input/output analysis is made Leontief (1970) Publication of the first public and peer-reviewed LCA study \u201cResource and Environmental Profile Analysis of Nine Beverage Container Alternatives\u201d, commissioned by the US EPA EPA (1974) First impact assessment method based on critical volumes introduced BUS (1984) The first widely used commercial LCA software, GaBi, was released in its first version Thinkstep (2016) SimaPro, another widely used commercial LCA software, was released in its first version PR\u00e9 (2016) The term \u201clife cycle assessment\u201d was coined SETAC (1991) Emergence of a number of LCI databases managed by different", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 104, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 19, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "widely used commercial LCA software, was released in its first version PR\u00e9 (2016) The term \u201clife cycle assessment\u201d was coined SETAC (1991) Emergence of a number of LCI databases managed by different institutions Early 1990s First environmental theme-oriented impact assessment methodology, CML92 Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 105, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 19, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1992) SETAC Code of Practice published in effort to harmonise LCA framework, terminology and methodology SETAC (1993b) The academic journal fully dedicated to LCA, The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, was born ISO 14040 standard on LCA principles and framework released ISO 14040 ISO 14041 standard on goal and scope definition released ISO 14041 Damage-oriented methodology Eco-indicator 99 emerges Goedkoop and Spriensma (2000) ISO 14042 standard on life cycle impact assessment released ISO 14042 ISO 14043 standard on life cycle interpretation released ISO 14043 UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative launched The LCI database ecoinvent version 1.01 is released Ecoinvent (2016) Establishing of a general methodological framework and guideless for LCA through ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 A framework for Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis was proposed Kl\u00f6pffer (2008) ILCD handbook published EC (2010) PEF and OEF guidelines published and later LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 106, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 19, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "when the price on oil was fluctuating or high, energy use was the focus of early studies. Public concerns also shifted with respect to emissions, which in some periods were deemed to be sufficiently controlled by regulation and voluntary measures by industry, but at other times considered very problematic. Early impact assessment methods tended to represent impacts from emissions in the form of dilution volumes of air or water needed to dilute the emissions to safe levels, or below regulatory thresholds [e.g. the Swiss Ecopoint method from the 1980s (Ahbe et al. 1990)]. During the 1990s many impact assessment methods evolved, and the ambition has since then been to quantify all relevant environmental impacts, independent of shifting public concerns, with the goal of avoiding burden shifting. The first impact assessment methodology to cover a comprehensive set of midpoint impact categories, as we know them today, was CML92 (Heijungs et al. 1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 107, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 20, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The first impact assessment methodology to cover a comprehensive set of midpoint impact categories, as we know them today, was CML92 (Heijungs et al. 1992). It was released in 1992 by the Institute of Environmental Sciences at Leiden University in the Netherlands. The Swedish EPS method (Steen 1999a, b) looking at the damages caused took a different approach focusing on the damages to ecosystems and human health, rather than midpoint impacts, an approach that was followed by the Dutch Eco-indicator 99 methodology released in 1999 with a more science-based approach to the damage modelling (Goedkoop and Spriensma 2000). The early 1990s also saw the birth of a number of life cycle inventory databases managed by different institutes and organisations and covering different industrial sectors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 108, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 20, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The early 1990s also saw the birth of a number of life cycle inventory databases managed by different institutes and organisations and covering different industrial sectors. Due to differences in data standards and quality, the resource uses and emissions of a single industrial process could, however, differ substantially in the different databases, but at this point in the development, the focus was on expanding the coverage and for many processes, there were no data at all. This situation was improved in 2003 with the release of the first ecoinvent database (v 1.01) covering all industrial sectors and aiming for consistent data standards and quality (ecoinvent 2016). In parallel to this development in process-based LCA, a \u201ctop-down\u201d approach was developed based on the work of the economist Wassily Leontief on input-output analysis of economies (Leontief 1970)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 109, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 20, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In parallel to this development in process-based LCA, a \u201ctop-down\u201d approach was developed based on the work of the economist Wassily Leontief on input-output analysis of economies (Leontief 1970). This \u201ctop-down\u201d approach to constructing an inventory is based on combining the national statistics of the trade between sectors with information on sector-specific environmental loads to arrive at an environmentally extended input/output analysis (EEIOA see more in Chap. 14). Inherent in the discussion of LCI data was also a more fundamental difference in the perception of the product life cycle and LCA and its potential application. The attributional perspective aims to quantify the environmental impacts that can be attributed to the product system based on a mapping of the emission and resource flows that accompany the product as it moves through its life cycle, applying representative average data for all processes involved in the life cycle in a book keeping approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 110, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 20, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The consequential perspective is concerned with the potential consequences of the decision based on the results of the LCA, and involves modelling of the broader economic system that the decision affects (see Sect. 8.5).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 111, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 20, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The modelling of increasingly complex product systems and the proliferation of LCI data and impact assessment methodologies created a need for dedicated LCA software and the first versions of both SimaPro and GaBi, two widely used software, were released around 1990 (Thinkstep 2016; PR\u00e9 2016). In the twenty-first century, impact assessment methods have continuously been refined and several methodologies have emerged and are frequently being updated. The first impact assessment methods took into account the often large differences in the environmental hazards of the individual emissions. The realisation that there can be very large differences also in the sensitivity of the environment receiving the impacts lead to the release of the EDIP2003 method (Hauschild and Potting 2005) with spatially differentiated impact assessment methods covering non-global impacts like eutrophication and acidification", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 112, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 21, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With the globalisation of production and an increased focus on biobased products in LCA, methods for impact assessment of extraction-related impacts like water use and land use have seen a lot of activity in the 2000s and 2010s. Hybrid LCA has emerged to reap the benefits of process-based and input/output based inventory analysis. Acknowledging that sustainability also has a social dimension, a growing activity has attempted to develop methods for Social LCA to quantify social impacts of product life cycles. A framework for life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) has emerged for performing assessments and aims to take into account an environmental, social and economic dimension of sustainability (see Chap. 5). 3.3 Application Many of the early process-based LCA studies analysed packaging, which was a great consumer concern around the 1970s. For example, moulded pulp trays were compared to plastic trays and plastic bottles were compared to refillable glass bottles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 113, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 21, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, moulded pulp trays were compared to plastic trays and plastic bottles were compared to refillable glass bottles. Studies were typically commissioned by companies producing or using the packaging, such as Coca Cola in a pioneering study in 1969. Rather than disclosing studies directly to consumers, the results were mainly used for internal purposes, such as guiding reduction of life cycle impacts. LCA also caught the interest of government early on. For example, the US EPA commissioned a large peer reviewed study, which was published in 1974, with the aim of informing regulation on packaging (US EPA 1974). However, at that time the EPA decided that using LCA as a direct regulatory tool was impractical, because it was thought to require LCAs to be carried out on thousands of products followed by extensive micro-managing of private businesses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 114, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 21, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "During the 1980s, life-cycle-related tools received little attention in North America, but in Europe, a revival started around the middle of the decade with an increased interest in the impacts of milk packaging that inspired a number of large LCA studies performed in different European countries. All studies compared alternative packaging systems for milk distribution to private consumers (Bundesamt f\u00fcr Umweltschutz 1984; Franke 1984; Lundholm and Sundstr\u00f6m 1985; LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 115, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 21, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mekel and Huppes 1990; Pommer et al. 1991). A comparison of the studies shows that although they aimed to answer the same question (is returnable packaging or milk cartons preferable from an environmental and resource perspective?), and although they compared more or less the same packaging technologies, they reached very different conclusions. Rather than disqualify LCA as a serious decision support tool, these findings triggered an international collaboration among scientists and LCA practitioners from industry and consultancy on furthering LCA methodology development and harmonisation, as reflected in the strong international development work and standardisation in the 1990s. Concurrent with the fast methodological development of the 1990s the application of LCA expanded to include numerous other types of products during this decade as reflected in the proliferation of LCA-based ecolabels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 116, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 22, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The first LCA-supported Nordic Ecolabel was initiated in 1989 to guide consumers towards products with the lowest environmental impacts, and the number of product categories covered by criteria grew rapidly under this and other ecolabels like the European Flower label and the German Blaue Engel (see Chap. 24 on Eco-labelling and environmental product declarations). Several European countries launched national product-oriented environmental strategies with LCA as the methodological backbone, presaging the European Integrated Product Policy(IPP) to be adopted at EU level in 2003 with policy instruments like the aforementioned ecolabels, environmental product declarations, green public purchase and integration of environmental aspects into standards development. After the turn of the century, product applications continued to grow in number and broaden in scope, also inspired by the increased political focus on LCA in EU and other parts of the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 117, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 22, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After the turn of the century, product applications continued to grow in number and broaden in scope, also inspired by the increased political focus on LCA in EU and other parts of the world. LCA studies were increasingly used to analyse questions on the macro scale related to, for example, national energy systems and waste management systems. A 2006 survey of LCA practitioners found that LCA results were primarily used in business strategy, research and development and product or process design, but that education, policy development and labelling/product declarations were also frequent uses (Smith Cooper and Fava 2006). A similar survey from 2011 found that most practitioners made LCA studies in the agriculture (56%) and food sectors (62%), while practitioners working with other consumer goods (38%) and energy (37%) industries were somewhat less frequent (Teixeira and Pax 2011). The growth in the private sector\u2019s use of LCA in the period is reflected in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 118, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 22, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The growth in the private sector\u2019s use of LCA in the period is reflected in Fig. 3.1 which shows the development in the total annual number of corporate responsibility reports mentioning LCA. The year 2008 became an important year in the history of LCA for policy support, as the European Commission initiated its Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan, incorporating the previous IPP and waste and resource strategies and having LCA as the analytical backbone, but this time without the micromanagement regulation scope explored by the US EPA three decades earlier. The use of LCA in policy development is discussed in Chap. 18. In 2009, The Sustainability Consortium was formed with the US retailer Walmart as a central partner with the mission to create a more sustainable consumer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 119, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 22, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "goods industry through the implementation of credible, transparent, and LCA-based reporting systems in the value chains of consumer products, targeting both environmental and social impacts. The activities of the sustainability consortium have the potential to strengthen the applicationof LCA further in the main regions supplying consumer products to the North American market, notably China and Southeast Asia. 3.4 International Harmonisation and Standardisation With the awakening interest in LCA in the late 1980s, it soon became clear that there was a strong need for developing the methodology and harmonising the evolving methods to ensure consistency between studies. 3.4.1 Scientific Collaboration and Consensus Building The global Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry organised a workshop on \u201cA Technical Framework for Life Cycle Assessment\u201d in 1990 (SETAC 1991)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 120, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 23, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This first event was followed by a series of workshops targeting central elements of the LCA methodology: in Leiden in the Netherlands (1991) (SETAC 1992), Sandestin Florida (SETAC 1993a) and Wintergreen (1992) (SETAC 1994) where central elements of LCA methodology were discussed with the aim of developing a common framework and agree on principles and research needs. The series culminated in a Code of Practice workshop held in Sesimbra, Fig. 3.1 Development in number of published corporate responsibility reports mentioning LCA (\u201cLife cycle analysis\u201d or \u201clife cycle assessment\u201d) per year from 2000 to 2015. Based on a search in the PDF Search Tool of CorporateRegister (2016) carried out on April 25th, 2016 LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 121, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 23, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Portugal, in 1993 leading to the development of the first official guidelines for LCA (SETAC 1993b)\u2014a Code of practice for LCA. Through the rest of the 1990s SETAC working groups in Europe and North America further discussed the methodological elements with particular focus on inventory modelling and life cycle impact assessment, regularly publishing their recommendations in SETAC working group reports presenting the agreed state of the art and delivering recommendations for further research. The working groups helped coordinate the method development and strengthen the collaboration between the different research teams developing the LCA methods and they played an important role in the strong developments in LCA methodology through the 1990s. The work in these international fora was building on several important national and regional methodology development projects like the Nordic LCA Guideline project (Nordic Council of Ministers 1992; Lindfors et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 122, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 24, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1995), The Dutch LCA Handbook (Guin\u00e9e et al. 2002) and the Danish EDIP project (Wenzel et al. 1997; Hauschild and Wenzel 1998) In the late 1990s, leading researchers from the SETAC working group on life cycle impact assessment reached out to the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) to create a partnership to ensure further development of good LCA practice and global dissemination beyond Europe, North America and Japan, which had thus far been the main activity centres. The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative was launched in 2002 and its changing working groups have taken over the method development activities of SETAC and increasingly focused on the dissemination of life cycle practices to the emerging economies through development of training materials and support with access to tools and data. The methodological recommendations have gained a more authoritative status with a formalised review procedure under the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 123, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 24, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The methodological recommendations have gained a more authoritative status with a formalised review procedure under the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. 3.4.2 International Standardisation Taking off after the development of the SETAC code of practice for LCA in 1993, a formal standardisation process was initiated under the auspices of the International Organization of Standardization (ISO) to develop a global standard for LCA, building on the previous years\u2019 accomplishments in the scientific consensus building. The standard was to meet concerns from industry who increasingly wanted to use LCA for product development and marketing of greener products, but experienced that the lack of a standardised methodology meant that different studies of the same product could give opposite results depending on the concrete methodological choices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 124, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 24, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The standard development resulted in the adoption and release of four standards over the next seven years, addressing the principles and framework (ISO 14040), the goal and scope definition (ISO 14041), the life cycle impact assessment (ISO 14042) and the life cycle interpretation (ISO 14043). In a 2006 revision, the latter three were compiled in the ISO 14044 standard detailing the requirements and guidelines, without changing any requirements in the standards.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 125, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 24, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ISO 14040 series standards concern the LCA methodology, but in the ISO 14000 series of Environmental Management standards, there are also standards and technical guidance reports on the applications of LCA for e.g. eco-design (ISO 14062, ISO 14006), communication of environmental performance (ISO 14020 series on ecolabels and ISO 14063), and greenhouse gas reporting and reduction (ISO 14064). 3.4.3 Standardisation of Methodology Beyond the ISO Standards: The European ILCD LCA methodology was very young and rather immature while the ISO standardisation process took place in the 1990s, and the resulting standards are therefore not very detailed on specific methodological choices but rather focused on the framework and the fundamental principles of LCA. This is one of the reasons why the work of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative was needed to evaluate alternative practices and develop recommendations from a scientific point of view", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 126, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 25, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is one of the reasons why the work of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative was needed to evaluate alternative practices and develop recommendations from a scientific point of view. It was also the background for a process initiated by the European Commissionin the mid-2000s to develop an International Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) with a database of life cycle inventory data and a series of methodological guidelines. With the development of the Integrated Product Policy and the action plan for Sustainable Consumption and Production, there was a need for a strong methodological basis of the LCA which was the method used for judging alternatives and communicating on the impacts of products and consumption", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 127, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 25, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ISO standards left too many possibilities for ambiguities in the applied methodology and in a consultation process, the EU Commission\u2019s Joint Research Centre\u2019s Institute for Environment and Sustainability developed a comprehensive guideline in LCA (EC-JRC 2010) that builds on the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards, and over 394 pages specifies the majority of the methodological choices that are left open by the ISO standards. Adherence to the ILCD guideline is intended to ensure more consistent and reproducible results of LCAs performed by different practitioners and hence increase comparability of LCA results from different studies. We have compiled the central provisions of the ILCD guideline as a Cookbook for LCA in Chap. 37 and the core methodological Chaps. (7\u201313) are inspired by and consistent with the ILCD guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 128, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 25, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We have compiled the central provisions of the ILCD guideline as a Cookbook for LCA in Chap. 37 and the core methodological Chaps. (7\u201313) are inspired by and consistent with the ILCD guidelines. The ILCD work also involved a comparative analysis of all available LCIA methodologies (around 2008) comparing their approaches to assessment of the different midpoint and endpoint impact categories and identifying a recommendable practice for each impact category. The collection of best practices for each impact category was compiled as the ILCD impact assessment method (EC-JRC 2011). After the release of the ILCD guidelines in 2012, the EU Commission launched the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) and Organisational Environmental Footprint (OEF) Guidelines as abbreviated and LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 129, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 25, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "slightly revised versions of the ILCD guidelines targeting different categories of products or services to be applied by companies and organisations reporting on their environmental performance. 3.5 Dissemination Early studies commissioned by companies were often not published due to confidential information on industrial processes and the difficulty of communicating results in non-technical language. The first peer-reviewed LCA-like study was the packaging study commissioned by the US EPA (see Sect. 3.2) published in 1974. After the development of the ISO 14040 series standards on LCA, starting in 1997, it became a common practice for companies to publish peer-reviewed LCA reports to document environmental claims, although full disclosure of underlying data is still rare due to confidentiality issues. Academic journals have become an important medium for the dissemination of LCA studies, whether made to support decisions in, e.g. companies, or for research purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 130, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 26, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Academic journals have become an important medium for the dissemination of LCA studies, whether made to support decisions in, e.g. companies, or for research purposes. In 1996, the first academic journal fully dedicated to LCA was born, The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. This journal and other journals have seen a sharp increase in the number of published papers related to life cycle assessment, from less than 100 in 1998 to more than 1300 in 2013 as illustrated in Fig. 3.2, which indicates an exponential development of the number of publications in this period. The publication of LCA reports outside academic journals is difficult to map, but is likely to have seen a similar development as indicated by the increase in company use of LCA illustrated in Fig. 3.1. Fig. 3.2 Development in number of published LCA-related academic articles in English per year according to Web of Science (WoS) (Chen et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 131, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 26, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3.1. Fig. 3.2 Development in number of published LCA-related academic articles in English per year according to Web of Science (WoS) (Chen et al. 2014). The high R2 value for the fitted exponential function indicates an exponential development. Reprinted with permission of Springer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 132, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 26, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 3.3 shows that many of the English language LCA-related academic papers originate in the US and Europe, but that countries like Japan, China and South Korea have also had a noticeable publication activity. The limited activity on LCA in most emerging economies is clearly visible. Reasons for this are discussed in Chap. 19 on Globalisation and mainstreaming of LCA. Note, however, that LCA studies published in other languages than English are not included in Fig. 3.3, which therefore may lead to an underestimation of academic publications from emerging economies. 3.6 Concluding Remarks LCA is a young discipline with 50 years of history and less than 30 years of intense development and application. Over the years, the methodology and applications have matured in the sense that scientific consensus and standards have emerged on how to perform LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 133, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 27, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Over the years, the methodology and applications have matured in the sense that scientific consensus and standards have emerged on how to perform LCA. The field has expanded in other ways when considering the number of publications, application domains and the geographical distribution of LCA competences. Table 3.1 summarises some of the important events in the history of LCA. Fig. 3.3 Geographical distribution of articles published from 1998 to 2013 considering primary authors only (Hou et al. 2015). Reprinted with permission of Springer LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 134, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 27, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ahbe, S., Braunschweig, A., M\u00fcller-Wenk, R.: Methodology for ecobalances based on ecological optimization. In: BUWAL (SAFEL) Environment Series No. 133, Bern (1990) Bundesamt f\u00fcr Umweltschutz: \u00d6kobilanzen von Packstoffen (Life-cycle assessment of packaging materials, in German). Bern, Switzerland. (Schriftenreihe Umweltschutz No. 24) (1984) Chen, H., Yang, Y., Yang, Y., Jiang, W., Zhou, J.: A bibliometric investigation of life cycle assessment research in the web of science databases. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19(10), 1674\u20131685 (2014) CorporateRegister. (2016). http://www.corporateregister.com. Accessed 25 Apr 2016 EC-JRC: European Commission-Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 135, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 28, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014 Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European context\u2014Based on Existing Environmental Impact Assessment Models and Factors. First edition 2011, EUR 24571 EN. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxemburg (2011) Ecoinvent: History. http://www.ecoinvent.org/about/history/history.html. (2016). Accessed 16 June 2016 Franke, M.: Umweltauswirkungen durch Getr\u00e4nkeverpackungen\u2014Systematik zur Ermittlung der Umweltauswirkungen von komplexen Prozessen am Beispiel von Einweg-und Mehrweg-Getr\u00e4nkebeh\u00e4ltern (Environmental impacts from beverage packaging\u2014methodology for analysis of environmental impacts from complex processes with the example of oneway and returnable beverage containers, in German)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 136, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 28, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EF-Verlag f\u00fcr Energie- u. Umwelttechnik, Berlin, Germany (1984) Goedkoop, M.J., Spriensma, R.: Eco-indicator 99, a damage oriented method for lifecycle impact assessment, methodology report (update April 2000) (2000) Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., de Koning, A., van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., de Bruijn, J.A., van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J. (eds.) Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Series: Eco-efficiency in industry and science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Hardbound. ISBN 1-4020-0228-9; Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-0557-1 (2002) Hauschild, M.Z., Potting, J.: Spatial Differentiation in LCA Impact Assessment\u2014The EDIP 2003 Methodology, Environmental News No. 80; Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark (2005) Hauschild, M.Z., Wenzel, H.: Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2\u2014Scientific Background, 565 pp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 137, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 28, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "80; Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark (2005) Hauschild, M.Z., Wenzel, H.: Environmental assessment of products. Volume 2\u2014Scientific Background, 565 pp. Chapman & Hall, UK/Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham. ISBN 0412 80810 2 (1998) Heijungs, R., Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Huppes, G., Lankreijer, R.M., Udo de Haes, H.A., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Ansems, A.M.M., Eggels, P.G., van Duin, R., de Goede, H.P.: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of products. Guide and Backgrounds. Centre of Environmental Science (CML), Leiden University, Leiden (1992) Hou, Q., Mao, G., Zhao, L., Du, H., Zuo, J.: Mapping the scientific research on life cycle assessment: a bibliometric analysis. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20(4), 541\u2013555 (2015) Hunt, R.G., Sellers, J.D., Franklin, W.E.: Resource and environmental profile analysis: a life cycle environmental assessment for products and procedures. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 138, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 28, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 12(12), 245\u2013269 (1992) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Kl\u00f6pffer, W.: Life cycle sustainability assessment of products. Int. J. Life Cycle 13(2), 89\u201394 (2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 139, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 28, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Leontief, W.: Environmental repercussions and economic structure. An input-output approach. Rev. Econ. Stat. 52, 262\u2013271 (1970) Lindfors, L.-G., Christiansen, K., Hoffman, L., Virtanen, Y., Juntilla, V., Hanssen, O.-J., R\u00f8nning, A., Ekvall, T., Finnveden, G.: Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. Nord1995:20, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen (1995) Lundholm, M.P., Sundstr\u00f6m, G.: Resource and Environmental Impact of Tetra Brik Carton and Refillable and Non-refillable Glass Bottles. Tetra Brik Aseptic Environmental Profile, AB Tetra Pak, Malm\u00f6 (1985) Mekel, O.C.L., Huppes, G.: Environmental Effects of Different Package Systems for Fresh Milk. Centrum voor Milieukunde, Rijksuniversiteit, Leiden, NL. (CML-Mededelingen no. 70) (1990) Nordic Council of Ministers: Product Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 140, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 29, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Centrum voor Milieukunde, Rijksuniversiteit, Leiden, NL. (CML-Mededelingen no. 70) (1990) Nordic Council of Ministers: Product Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Methodology. Nord 1992:9, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen (1992) Pommer, K., Hillersborg, A.S., Hirsbak, S., Hoffman, L., Schmidt, A.: Environmental Assessment of Milk Packaging. Return Bottles in Polycarbonate Compared to Disposable Cartons (in Danish). Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark. (Environmental project No. 168) (1991) PR\u00e9:. Company History. https://www.pre-sustainability.com/company-history. Accessed 16 June SETAC: In: Fava, J., Denison, R., Jones, B., Curran, M.A., Vigon, B., Selke, S., Barnum, J. (eds.) SETAC Workshop Report: A Technical Framework for Life-Cycle Assessment. Smugglers Notch, Vermont, August 18\u201323 1990. SETAC Press (1991) SETAC: Life-Cycle Assessment\u2014Inventory, Classification, Valuation and Data Bases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 141, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 29, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Smugglers Notch, Vermont, August 18\u201323 1990. SETAC Press (1991) SETAC: Life-Cycle Assessment\u2014Inventory, Classification, Valuation and Data Bases. 2\u20133 December 1991, Leiden, The Netherlands (1992) SETAC: In: Fava, J., Consoli, F., Denison, R., Dickson, K., Mohin, T., Vigon, B. (eds.) Conceptual Framework for Life Cycle Impact Assessment. Workshop Report Sandestin FL, February 1\u20137, 1992. SETAC Press (1993a) SETAC: Guidelines for Life-cycle Assessment: A \u201ccode of Practice\u201d: from the SETAC Workshop Held at Sesimbra, Portugal, 31 March-3 April 1993. SETAC Brussels and Pensacola (1993b) SETAC: In: Fava, J., Jensen, A.A., Lindfors, L.-G., Pomper, S., De Smet, B., Warren, J., Vigon, B. (eds.) Life-Cycle Assessment Data Quality: A Conceptual Framework. Workshop Report Wintergreen, Virginia, October 1992. SETAC Press (1994) Smith Cooper, J., Fava, J.A.: Life-cycle assessment practitioner survey\u2014summary of results. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 142, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 29, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Workshop Report Wintergreen, Virginia, October 1992. SETAC Press (1994) Smith Cooper, J., Fava, J.A.: Life-cycle assessment practitioner survey\u2014summary of results. J. Ind. Ecol. 10(4), 12\u201314 (2006) Steen, B.: A Systematic Approach to Environmental Priority Strategies in Product Development (EPS). Version 2000-general system characteristics; CPM report 1999:4, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden (1999a) Steen, B.: A Systematic Approach to Environmental Priority Strategies in Product Development (EPS). Version 2000-Models and data of the default method; CPM report 1999:5, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden (1999b) Teixeira, R., Pax, S.: A survey of life cycle assessment practitioners with a focus on the agri-food sector. J. Ind. Ecol. 15, 817\u2013820 (2011). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00421.x Thinkstep: A brief history of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). http://www.gabi-software.com/news/ news-detail/article/a-brief-history-of-life-cycle-assessment-lca/", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 143, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 29, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00421.x Thinkstep: A brief history of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). http://www.gabi-software.com/news/ news-detail/article/a-brief-history-of-life-cycle-assessment-lca/. (2016). Accessed 16 June 2016 US EPA: Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis of Nine Beverage Container Alternatives \u2014Final Report. EPA/530/SW-91c. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1974) Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Volume 1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development, 544 pp. Chapman & Hall/UK, Kluwer Academic Publishers/Hingham. ISBN 0 412 80800 5 LCA History", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 144, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 29, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Christine Molin Active in the field of LCA since 1992. Special interest in the development and dissemination of LCA and in the use of LCA in small and medium sized enterprises. Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 145, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 30, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 146, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "3 LCA History", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 30, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 4 LCA Applications Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent, Christine Molin and Morten W. Ryberg Abstract The chapter gives examples of applications of LCA by the central societal actors in government, industry and citizens, and discusses major motivations and challenges for the use of LCA to support science-based decision-making from their respective perspectives. We highlight applications of LCA in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation, present different purposes of LCA application in industry at both product and corporate levels, and discuss challenges for LCA applications in small- and medium-sized enterprises. Our synthesis demonstrates the importance of LCA as a tool to quantify environmental impacts of products and systems and support decisions around production and consumption and highlights factors that prevent its even more widespread application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 147, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 31, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the main motivations for use of LCA by governments, industry, and citizens and their main types of LCA applications. \u2022 Demonstrate an understanding of the challenges and opportunities in the different types of LCA applications. M. Owsianiak (&) \u0001 A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 C. Molin \u0001 M.W. Ryberg Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: miow@dtu.dk A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 148, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 31, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.1 Background Recent decades have witnessed numerous applications of LCA to support decisions in an environmental sustainability context (see Chap. 3). Much efforts have been made to facilitate the application of LCA and life cycle thinking in society ranging from the regulatory and governmental level, through industry and production to the level of citizens and consumers. The dissemination of LCA has been aided by a number of initiatives for supporting and harmonizing the application of the tool. In 1997 the first version of the ISO 14040 standard (later updated as ISO 2006a) was published in an attempt to harmonize the framework and principles of LCA and to increase transparency and comparability of LCA studies. In 2001, The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) joined forces in the launch of a global Partnership to strengthen the dissemination and use of LCA worldwide, known as the Life Cycle Initiative (LCI)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 149, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 32, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The purpose of the initiative was to \u201cenable users around the world to put life cycle thinking into effective practice\u201d. Another initiative supporting a more widespread application of LCA was The European Commission\u2019s project, The European Platform of Life Cycle Assessment, launched in 2005. Its objective was to \u201cpromote life cycle thinking in business and in policy making\u201d in the European Union by focusing on underlying data and methodological needs. The homepages of these initiatives provide a wide palette of information, tools and support (http://www.lifecycleinitiative.org; http://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/). In parallel, many initiatives have been launched at the national level to facilitate and support the application of LCA, often under the auspices of governmental institutions such as environmental protection agencies (see Chap. 3), inspiring numerous private and public LCA consultancies to emerge in assistance to companies or institutions without the in-house LCA expertise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 150, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 32, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3), inspiring numerous private and public LCA consultancies to emerge in assistance to companies or institutions without the in-house LCA expertise. Recent widespread LCA-related services are an elaboration of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) or performance of Greenhouse Gasaccounting. Moreover, universities, research institutions and private companies often enter into close collaboration on LCA methodology development and application of LCA via, e.g. commercial projects or industrial PhDs. Here, we present examples of applications and discuss major motivations and challenges for the use of LCA to support decision-making from the perspectives of decision-makers within governments, industry and citizens. More details are given in Part III of the book with chapters dedicated to different stakeholders and multiple examples of the use of LCA within different technology domains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 151, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 32, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "More details are given in Part III of the book with chapters dedicated to different stakeholders and multiple examples of the use of LCA within different technology domains. Chapter 18 gives a more detailed introduction to the use of LCA and life cycle thinking in policymaking in different parts of the world, and Chap. 19 discusses the globalization of the use of LCA. Life cycle management (LCM) within business and industry is the topic of Chap. 22, while Chap. 24 introduces the use of LCA in the development and management of environmental labels and declarations.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 152, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 32, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.2 Government Perspective Application of LCA and life cycle based approaches can support policy formulation, policy implementation and regulation imposed by policies, and can be used to perform evaluation of policies. As part of the pan-European project CALCAS (Coordination Action for innovation in Life Cycle Analysis for Sustainability), reviews were conducted in mid-2000s to identify LCA applications to support different stages of the policy cycle, i.e. their formulation, implementation and evaluation (CALCAS 2008). Table 4.1 presents and overview of such applications. Since then, the pressing need to move towards more sustainable societies has made LCA increasingly recognized in high policy-level, and its role in the policy cycle has been formalized in some countries or regions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 153, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 33, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, in Europe, the European Commission has listed LCA as one of the reference models for the impact assessment of policies in the European Union (EU) within its \u201cbetter regulation guidelines\u201d document published in 2015 (European Commission 2015). This holds a potential to increase the use of LCA in retrospective assessments of existing policy frameworks (i.e. evaluations or fitness checks) and prospective assessments of future possible policy options (policy development)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 154, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 33, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 4.1 Examples of LCA applications at different stages of the policy cycle Topic Initiation year and/or geographical scope LCA as a knowledge tool in policy formulation Environmental technologies action plan (ETAP) 2004; EU Integrated product policy (IPP) 2003; EU Directive on the eco-design of energy using products (EuP) 2005; EU Strategy for the sustainable use of natural resources Sustainable production and consumption action plan (SCP) 2007; EU Biofuels Germany Application of pesticides Costa Rica Supporting the implementation of information based instruments: LCA & policy implementation Eco-labelling Various countries Environmental product declarations (EPD) Various countries Strategic environmental assessment directive Public procurement EU, Japan Construction products directive 1989; EU Ordinance on the avoidance and recovery of packaging wastes Germany Waste management France, Mexico, japan LCA as a tool for policy evaluation Thematic strategy on prevention and recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 155, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 33, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1989; EU Ordinance on the avoidance and recovery of packaging wastes Germany Waste management France, Mexico, japan LCA as a tool for policy evaluation Thematic strategy on prevention and recycling of waste & Waste framework directive 2005; EU Waste oil directive 2000; EU Based on CALCAS (2008) LCA Applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 156, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 33, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.2.1 Policy Formulation As an example of LCA used for policy formulation, the European Commission has promoted Integrated Product Policy (IPP) to minimize environmental impacts of products by considering all stages of their life cycle, from the cradle to grave (Mudgal 2008). The IPP comprises various instruments and tools, ranging from soft instruments that act through influencing the market (like environmental labelling or green taxation), through subsidies to industries (e.g. financial support to pioneers), to hard regulation such as the Eco-design Directive for Energy-related Products (ErP), which establishes a regulatory framework for eco-design of products that use energy and products that allow for generation, transfer and measurement of energy (Directive 2009/125/EC)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 157, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 34, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This directive is an example of how life cycle thinking has guided policymaking within the EU, where the focus has shifted from manufacturing processes, to a focus on the use of products and their disposal (Wenzel et al. 1997; Azapagic and Perdan 2000). Many other examples of the use of LCA in policy formulation are given in Chap. 18. A major challenge to the applicationof LCA in these contexts is the communication of environmental performance of products. It is often done using different approaches to life cycle inventory modelling and life cycle impact assessment, which may lead to inconsistent and sometimes misleading results. To facilitate the communication of reliable and reproducible information about the environmental performance of products and organizations, the European Commission has elaborated LCA-based methods for product environmental footprint (PEF), and organization environmental footprint (OEF) (Finkbeiner 2014; Galatola and Pant 2014) (see also Chap. 24)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 158, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 34, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24). 4.2.2 Policy Implementation and Evaluation Governments may use LCA as decision support to advice the introduction of novel technologies in the market (e.g. the use of biofuels, or introduction of electric cars) or the selection of waste management systems (e.g. EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC imposing \u201cto handle waste in a way that does not have a negative impact on the environment or human health\u201d and requiring the need for life cycle thinking in waste management) (European Parliament and Council 2008; Meylan et al. 2014). In Denmark, LCA was used in the 1990s to guide the development of the current Danish collection system for beverage containers (glass and plastic bottles and aluminium cans) and it has been used for assessment of recycling strategies for various waste fractions. The country has also operated with panels of key actors along the product life cycle who were consulted in the development of product-oriented policy initiatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 159, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 34, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The country has also operated with panels of key actors along the product life cycle who were consulted in the development of product-oriented policy initiatives. In Switzerland, findings from an LCA study were used to justify compensation rates to municipalities according to how waste glass packaging is collected and what disposal option is chosen by the municipality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 160, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 34, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Meylan et al. 2014). In Sweden LCA was used to assess environmental impacts of introducing waste incineration tax, considered to \u201cencourage waste reduction and increase materials recycling and biological treatment\u201d (Bj\u00f6rklund and Finnveden 2007). While the proposed design of such a tax would result in increased recycling, the LCA found that this would lead to only small environmental improvements. Thus, it was proposed that the design of the tax should include the fossil carbon content of the waste. Such examples can also be found outside Europe. In the United States, the California Oil Recycling Enhancement Act was initiated in 2009 to support management of used oil and support selection of least-polluting options (refining and reuse, distillation or combustion with energy recovery) by the state (Reed 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 161, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 35, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This act \u201crequires that the Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery coordinate, with input from representatives of all used oil stakeholders, a comprehensive life cycle assessment of California\u2019s used lubricating and industrial oil management process\u201d (CalRecycle 2012). 4.3 Industry Perspective The application of LCA in enterprises can be classified into five main purposes: (i) decision support in product and process development; (ii) marketing purposes (e.g. Eco-labelling); (iii) development and selection of indicators used in monitoring of environmental performance of products or plants; (iv) selection of suppliers or subcontractors; and (v) strategic planning (Huang and Hunkeler 1995; B\u00fcltmann 1997; Hanssen 1999; Baumann 2000; Heiskanen 2000; Frankl and Rubik 2000; Ekvall 2012). We note that LCA applications within industry may well serve more than one purpose, and often the same LCA can be used for different purposes within acompany (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 162, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 35, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We note that LCA applications within industry may well serve more than one purpose, and often the same LCA can be used for different purposes within acompany (e.g. product development is often combined with marketing efforts). Furthermore, as experience with using LCA grows in an enterprise, one application can trigger another (e.g. insights gained from an LCA into product environmental performance can lead to decisions about selection of suppliers or setting strategies). We also note that although LCA has traditionally been developed as a tool to be used at product level, and is still used as such, there is an increasing interest in using LCA at the corporate level to reflect the performance of the company or individual plants in a life cycle perspective. This is particularly relevant for (but not limited to) large enterprises and for applications related to monitoring of environmental performance and strategic planning", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 163, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 35, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is particularly relevant for (but not limited to) large enterprises and for applications related to monitoring of environmental performance and strategic planning. 4.3.1 Applications at Product Level At product level, LCA is often used during product development and for identifying environmental hotspots of a product or process either within the organization or in its supply chain. For instance, a survey showed that the German industry in the LCA Applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 164, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 35, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1990s mainly used LCA internally, to identify hotspots in products and systems, followed by product and process optimization (B\u00fcltmann 1997; Frankl and Rubik 2000). Another survey showed that large Danish companies, represented by 39 companies considered to cover 90\u2013100% of Danish enterprises having practical experience with LCA in the 1990s, indicated that LCA had revealed new environmental aspects of their products that they had not anticipated. In 79% of the cases, this led to setting new priorities for environmental efforts, including changes in products and processes, like saving or substituting materials (Broberg and Christensen 1999). In parallel to application in product and process development, LCA is often used for marketing purposes at different levels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 165, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 36, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In parallel to application in product and process development, LCA is often used for marketing purposes at different levels. As public concerns about the state of the environment have become increasingly pronounced and consumers more environmentally conscious, enterprises have also placed a larger focus on quantifying their environmental performance, using LCA and communicating this to the public as a way to brand their enterprise as green. Here, the major company expectations to the use of LCA are to get a competitive advantage and increase the company image or reputation (Broberg and Christensen 1999). Ecolabels or environmental product declarations (Chap. 24) can signal good environmental performance and be used to make a given product more appealing for environmentally conscious consumers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 166, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 36, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecolabels or environmental product declarations (Chap. 24) can signal good environmental performance and be used to make a given product more appealing for environmentally conscious consumers. 4.3.2 Applications at Corporate Level The use of LCA to document and monitor environmental performance at the corporate level is today often limited to a few selected impact categories, typically footprint indicators (see Sect. 10.4) like carbon footprint and blue water footprint. This situation may change in the future together with the development of guidelines for organization environmental footprint (OEF) (Dubois and Humbert 2015). At the corporate level, industry can also use LCA for setting strategic objectives. For example, Unilever set a target of halving their environmental impact by 2030, considering the life cycle of their products (Unilever 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 167, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 36, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, Unilever set a target of halving their environmental impact by 2030, considering the life cycle of their products (Unilever 2015). Similarly, companies may want to carry out LCA to better understand their environmental performance in an effort to implement environmental management system (EMS) (Lewandowska et al. 2013, 2014). EMS is \u201ca tool to implement a structured program of continual improvement in environmental performance\u201d and \u201ca tool to manage and communicate an enterprise\u2019s environmental performance to internal and outside parties\u201d (Lombardo 2012). EMS standards nowadays often require a life cycle perspective in order to avoid greenwashing by companies outsourcing parts of their production to suppliers. There is thus often a relationship between the implementation of EMS and the implementation of LCA within companies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 168, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 36, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There is thus often a relationship between the implementation of EMS and the implementation of LCA within companies. For example, among Spanish automotive supplier companies who have received the EMS ISO 14001 certification and have a certified eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS), the use of LCA is a common practice (Gonzalez et al. 2008). Organizations who have implemented a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 169, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 36, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "certified EMS impose higher demands on their suppliers to adopt environmentally friendly practices (Gonzalez et al. 2008). The contributions made by LCA to EMS range from the identification of overall environmental aspects and identification of the activities in the life cycle that have the largest environmental burdens, to a comparison of alternative manufacturing routes (Stewart et al. 1999). A major challenge in this context seems to be putting the results into practice, mainly due to lack of power or information of stakeholders along the product supply chain (Nakano and Hirao 2011). 4.3.3 Challenges of Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises Small- and medium-sized enterprises (SME) can use LCA for the same reasons as large companies. Yet, small- (10\u201349 employees) and medium-sized (50\u2013249 employees) enterprises generally lag behind large companies in the implementation of LCA (Johnson and Schaltegger 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 170, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 37, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Yet, small- (10\u201349 employees) and medium-sized (50\u2013249 employees) enterprises generally lag behind large companies in the implementation of LCA (Johnson and Schaltegger 2015). The major reasons are thought to be the cost of an LCA, the need for changes in workplace routines, perceived complexity of the LCA methodology and shortage of qualified personnel to carry out an LCA (Kurczewski 2013). A study of 10 SMEs revealed that a downside of LCA is that it becomes too comprehensive and too complex to be easily understood, leaving an impression in some companies of LCA as a \u2018black box\u2019 (Zackrisson et al. 2008). A closer collaboration with an experienced LCA practitioner and an expert was found to resolve this problem in some of the cases (Zackrisson et al. 2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 171, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 37, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008). A closer collaboration with an experienced LCA practitioner and an expert was found to resolve this problem in some of the cases (Zackrisson et al. 2008). Similarly, based on a comprehensive literature review, Johnson and Schaltegger (2015) reported that major barriers for implementation of sustainability management tools (including LCA) by SMEs were (i) lack of awareness of sustainability issues; (ii) absence of perceived benefits; (iii) lack of knowledge and expertise on sustainability issues; (iv) lack of human and financial resources; (v) insufficient external drivers and incentives; (vi) unsuitability of formal management tools to fit the often informal and flexible SME structure; and (vii) complexity of tools. While the use of LCAs by SMEs was considered marginal (as of 2012), it is however reported to become more and more common (Baumann et al. 2012; Schischke et al. 2012; Kurczewski 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 172, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 37, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While the use of LCAs by SMEs was considered marginal (as of 2012), it is however reported to become more and more common (Baumann et al. 2012; Schischke et al. 2012; Kurczewski 2013). This may be due to the increased legislative focus on environmental performance, and the potential market benefits from having an environmentally friendly profile, not least through a market pull from large companies that are often important costumers. This is reflected by a survey of 146 European SMEs which revealed that most SMEs have limited knowledge of LCA, and have little internal knowledge of environmental assessments and their communication (Pamminger 2011). The main drivers for SMEs to start using environmental assessment tools have been the customer demand or the pressure from legislation (Pamminger 2011; Schischke et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 173, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 37, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main drivers for SMEs to start using environmental assessment tools have been the customer demand or the pressure from legislation (Pamminger 2011; Schischke et al. 2012). However, industries focusing on emerging renewable resource technologies, such as bio-based plastic, had more knowledge and were, in fact, keen on using LCA for communicating the environmental performance and benefits of their technology compared to LCA Applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 174, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 37, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "conventional technologies (Pamminger 2011). The authors\u2019 experience with LCA application by SMEs in Western Europe shows that SMEs are eager to contribute to an LCA (e.g. through provision of data) when a dedicated and sufficient budget is available, e.g. through the involvement in a larger research project. Experience also shows that SMEs typically find interest in identifying impact reduction opportunities, particularly those stemming from activities in the life cycle on which they themselves exert some influence. Similar findings were reported in European countries where the tradition of using LCA has historically not been that strong (Kurczewski 2013; Witczak et al. 2014). 4.4 Citizen Perspective LCA results can also serve as decision support for individuals, be it in their capacity of citizens or consumers. In many cases, these decisions relate to the private consumption of goods and services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 175, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In many cases, these decisions relate to the private consumption of goods and services. Consumers are knowingly or unknowingly exposed to LCA results, or conclusions drawn from LCA results, through ecolabels (see Chap. 24) or other consumer information from producers (e.g. printed on packaging) and media reporting academic findings, and they hold some power through their influence in the market of consumer products. Consumer decisions that may be supported by an LCA can range from choosing the product with the lowest environmental impact amongst a group of similar products (e.g. the more environmentally friendly vacuum cleaner), over choosing the most environmentally sound way of fulfilling a function (e.g. washing dishes by hand or in a dishwasher) to most effectively reducing the total personal environmental impact (e.g. reduce meat consumption, hot showers or car driving)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 176, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "washing dishes by hand or in a dishwasher) to most effectively reducing the total personal environmental impact (e.g. reduce meat consumption, hot showers or car driving). Besides decisions related to private consumption, citizens may also indirectly be affected by LCA results when following political discussions on large infrastructure-related decisions where LCA provides the underlying decision support. For example, municipalities often use LCA to support decisions on waste management infrastructure (European Commission 2008). If a political decision is made about increasing recycling and reducing landfilling or incineration, this will affect citizens, as they will have to sort their waste into recyclable fractions rather than throw all their waste into the same bin. Chapter 35 deals with the use of LCA in waste management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 177, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 35 deals with the use of LCA in waste management. 4.5 Concluding Remarks LCA is an important and useful tool to map environmental impacts and support policy development and concrete decisions, and for a company it can support the development of a positive image. There are, however, factors that hamper its more widespread application. This chapter has mainly addressed LCA applications in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 178, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 38, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "developed countries because this is where LCA has been applied the most and the needed data has been most available. However, large differences exist in the application of LCA between developed and developing countries in terms of both frequency and incentives. These differences and the challenges that they pose for a global dissemination of LCA and life cycle thinking are discussed in Chap. 19 on globalization and mainstreaming of LCA. The next chapter takes a closer look at the relationship between LCA and sustainable development. Azapagic, A., Perdan, S.: Indicators of sustainable development for industry: a general framework. Trans. IChemE 78, 243\u2013261 (2000). doi:10.1205/095758200530763 Baumann, H.: Introduction and organisation of LCA activities in industry. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 5, 363\u2013368 (2000). doi:10.1007/BF02978673 Baumann, M., Held, M., Herrmann, C., et al.: Ecodesign tool for SMEs in the electronics sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 179, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 39, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 5, 363\u2013368 (2000). doi:10.1007/BF02978673 Baumann, M., Held, M., Herrmann, C., et al.: Ecodesign tool for SMEs in the electronics sector. In: Electronics Goes Green 2012+, ECG 2012\u2014Joint International Conference Exhibition Proceedings (2012) Bj\u00f6rklund, A.E., Finnveden, G.: Life cycle assessment of a national policy proposal\u2014the case of a Swedish waste incineration tax. Waste Manag. 27, 1046\u20131058 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.wasman. 2007.02.027 Broberg, O., Christensen, P.: LCA experiences in Danish industry\u2014results of a survey. Int. J. LCA 4, 257\u2013262 (1999) B\u00fcltmann, A.: Produkt\u00f6kobilanzen und ihre Anwendung in Deutschen Unternehmen. Schriftenreihe des I\u00d6W. 112, 97 (1997) CALCAS (Co-ordination Action for Innovation in Life-Cycle Analysis for Sustainability): Critical Review of the Current Research Needs and Limitations Related to ISO-LCA Practice: Deliverable D7 of CALCAS Work Package 5, by Zamagni, A., P. Buttol, P. L. Porta, R Buonamici, P. Masoni, J. Guin\u00e9e, R", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 180, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 39, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Buttol, P. L. Porta, R Buonamici, P. Masoni, J. Guin\u00e9e, R. Heijungs, T. Ekvall, R. Bersani, A. Bie\u0144kowska, and U. Pretato (2008). http://www.calcasproject.net/ CalRecycle: Used oil recycling program (2012) Directive 2009/125/EC: Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products (recast). Off J Eur Union 10\u201335. doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2012.03.121 (2009) Dubois, C., Humbert, S.: How to calculate the LCA of a retailer. LCA Discuss. Forum 31(03), 2015 (2015) Ekvall, T.: Life cycle assessment. In: Ahmed K (ed) Getting to green: a sourcebook of pollution management policy tools for growth and competitiveness. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/560021468330349857/Getting-to-green-asourcebook-of-pollution-management-policy-tools-for-growth-and-competitiveness (2012) European Commission: Better Regulation Guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 181, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 39, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Commission staff working document. COM (2015) 215 final; SWD(2015) 111 final. May 2015. EU Commission. Strasbourg, FR. http://ec. europa.eu/smart-regulation/guidelines/docs/swd_br_guidelines_en.pdf (better regulation guidelines; accessed 26/10/2015) and http://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/guidelines/toc_tool_ en.htm (better regulation \u201ctoolbox\u201d; accessed 26/10/2015) (2015) European Commission: Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives (Text with EEA relevance) (2008) European Parliament and Council: Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on waste and repealing certain Directives (2008) LCA Applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 182, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 39, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finkbeiner, M.: Product environmental footprint\u2014breakthrough or breakdown for policy implementation of life cycle assessment? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 266\u2013271 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0678-x Frankl, P., Rubik, F.: Life cycle assessment in industry and business. Adoption patterns, applications and implications. In: IGARSS 2014 (2000). doi:10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2 Galatola, M., Pant, R.: Reply to the editorial \u201cproduct environmental footprint\u2014breakthrough or breakdown for policy implementation of life cycle assessment?\u201d Written by Prof. Finkbeiner (Int J Life Cycle Assess 19(2):266\u2013271). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1356\u20131360 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0740-3 Gonzalez, P., Sarkis, J., Adenso-Diaz, B.: Environmental management system certification and its influence on corporate practices. Evidence from the automotive industry. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 28, 1021\u20131041 (2008) Hanssen, O.J.: Status of life cycle assessment (LCA) activities in the nordic region. Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 183, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Evidence from the automotive industry. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag. 28, 1021\u20131041 (2008) Hanssen, O.J.: Status of life cycle assessment (LCA) activities in the nordic region. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4, 262\u2013262 (1999). doi:10.1007/BF02979177 Heiskanen, E.: Managers\u2019 interpretations of LCA: enlightenment and responsibility or confusion and denial? Bus. Strateg. Environ. 9, 239\u2013254 (2000). doi:10.1002/1099-0836(200007/08)9: 4<239:AID-BSE250>3.0.CO;2-6 Huang, E., Hunkeler, D.: Life cycle analysis: summary of a fortune 500 survey and a Japanese comparison. In: Vanderbilt Univ. US\u2013Japan Cent (1995) ISO: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014principles and framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) Johnson, M.P., Schaltegger, S.: Two decades of sustainability management tools for SMEs: how far have we come? J. Small Bus. Manag. (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 184, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Small Bus. Manag. (2015). doi:10.1111/jsbm.12154 Kurczewski, P.: Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs-part 1: background and framework. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0675-0 Lewandowska, A., Kurczewski, P., Kulczycka, J., Joachimiak, K., Matuszak-Flejszman, A., Baumann, H., Ciroth, A.: LCA as an element in environmental management systems\u2014 comparison of conditions in selected organisations in Poland, Sweden and Germany: part 1: background and initial assumptions. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 472\u2013480 (2013). doi:10. 1007/s11367-012-0480-1 Lewandowska, A., Matuszak-Flejszman, A.: Eco-design as a normative element of Environmental Management Systems\u2014the context of the revised ISO 14001:2015. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1794\u20131798 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0787-1 Lombardo, P.: Environmental management systems. In: Ahmed, K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 185, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1794\u20131798 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0787-1 Lombardo, P.: Environmental management systems. In: Ahmed, K. Getting to Green: A Sourcebook of Pollution Management Policy Tools for Growth and Competitiveness. World Bank, Washington, DC (2012). http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/560021468330 349857/Getting-to-green-a-sourcebook-of-pollution-management-policy-tools-for-growth-andcompetitiveness Meylan, G., Stauffacher, M., Kr\u00fctli, P., et al.: Identifying stakeholders\u2019 views on the eco-efficiency assessment of a municipal solid waste management system. J. Ind. Ecol. (2014). doi:10.1111/ jiec.12192 Mudgal, S.: Reporting on the Implementation of Integrated Product Policy (IPP). European Commission, DG Environment. Service Contract 0703307/2007/481297/G.4. http://ec.europa. eu/environment/ipp/pdf/bio_ipp.pdf. (2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 186, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "European Commission, DG Environment. Service Contract 0703307/2007/481297/G.4. http://ec.europa. eu/environment/ipp/pdf/bio_ipp.pdf. (2008). Accessed 11 August 2017 Nakano, K., Hirao, M.: Collaborative activity with business partners for improvement of product environmental performance using LCA. J. Clean. Prod. 19, 1189\u20131197 (2011). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2011.03.007 Pamminger, R.: Technical report on needs and demands of SMEs. Deliverable D1.1 LCA to go project within the European Commission\u2019s Seventh Framework Programme. http://www. LCA2go.eu. (2011). Accessed 11 August 2017 Reed, D.L.: Life-Cycle Assessment in Government Policy in the United States. PhD Thesis. University of Tennessee. http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/1394. (2012). Accessed 11 August 2017", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 187, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 40, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Schischke, K., Nissen, N.F., Sherry, J. et al.: Life cycle thinking in small and medium sized enterprises\u2014status quo and strategic needs in the electronics sector. In: Electronics Go Green 2012 (2012) Stewart, J.R., Collins, M.W., Anderson, R., Murphy, W.R.: Life Cycle Assessment as a tool for environmental management. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 1, 73\u201381 (1999). doi:10.1007/ s100980050013 Unilever: Unilever sustainable living plan. Summary of progress 2015. Mobilising Collective Action. https://www.unilever.com/Images/uslp-mobilising-collective-action-summary-ofprogress-2015_tcm244-424809_en.pdf. (2015). Accessed 11 August 2017 Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental assessment of products. In: Vol. 1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, p. 544", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 188, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 41, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Vol. 1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, p. 544. ISBN 0 412 80800 5 (1997) Witczak, J., Kasprzak, J., Klos, Z., et al.: Life cycle thinking in small and medium enterprises: the results of research on the implementation of life cycle tools in Polish SMEs-part 2: LCA related aspects. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0687-9 Zackrisson, M., Rocha, C., Christiansen, K., Jarnehammar, A.: Stepwise environmental product declarations: ten SME case studies. J. Clean. Prod. 16, 1872\u20131886 (2008). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2008.01.001 Author Biographies Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 189, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 41, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Christine Molin active in the field of LCA since 1992. Special interest in the development and dissemination of LCA and in the use of LCA in small and medium sized enterprises. Morten W. Ryberg environmental engineer working with LCA since 2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 190, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 41, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Special interest in the development and dissemination of LCA and in the use of LCA in small and medium sized enterprises. Morten W. Ryberg environmental engineer working with LCA since 2013. Primary focus on advancing absolute sustainability assessments by integrating and implementing environmental sustainability references in LCA. Other works include environmental assessment of coal cleaning technologies and of new carbonaceous materials. LCA Applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 191, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "4 LCA Applications", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 41, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 5 LCA and Sustainability Andreas Moltesen and Anders Bj\u00f8rn Abstract LCA is often presented as a sustainability assessment tool. This chapter analyses the relationship between LCA and sustainability. This is done by first outlining the history of the sustainability concept, which gained momentum with the Brundtland Commission\u2019s report \u2018Our Common Future report\u2019 in 1987, and presenting the most common interpretations of the concept, which generally comprise four dimensions: (1) measures of welfare, (2) inter-generational equity, (3) intra-generational equity and (4) interspecies equity. The relevance of environmental protection for dimensions 2 and 4 is then demonstrated, and the strategy of LCA to achieving environmental protection, namely to guide the reduction of environmental impacts per delivery of a function, is explained. The attempt to broaden the scope of LCA, beyond environmental protection, by so-called life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) is outlined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 192, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 43, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The attempt to broaden the scope of LCA, beyond environmental protection, by so-called life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) is outlined. Finally, the limitations of LCA in guiding a sustainable development are discussed. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the most common interpretations of the definition of sustainable development from Our Common Future. \u2022 Account for the relevance of environmental protection to sustainability. \u2022 Describe the type of sustainability strategy that LCA may support and discuss its limitations. A. Moltesen (&) \u0001 A. Bj\u00f8rn Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: andreasmoltesen@gmail.com A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 193, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 43, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 194, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 43, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.1 In 1987, the United Nations\u2019 World Commission on Environment and Development published its report Our Common Future, which is sometimes referred to as the Brundtland Report after its chairperson, Gro Harlem Brundtland (WCED 1987). The report was a response; on the one hand to the growing disparity between North and South and on the other hand to the increased awareness that many of the natural systems on which we depend were under increasing stress. Development of the South was seen as urgently needed, but the development had to be achieved in an environmentally sound way which would allow for a continued thriving of the world\u2019s population\u2014also in the future. The development in other words had to be sustainable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 195, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 44, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The development in other words had to be sustainable. While the term \u201csustainable development\u201d was already introduced in 1980 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the publication of Our Common Future created a widespread awareness of sustainable development and provided its most well-known definition: \u201c... development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs\u201d. By coupling the concern for the present and future generations, the concept of sustainable development, as defined in Our Common Future, provided a framework for thinking these two increasingly pressing global challenges together in one immensely influential term. The ability of present and future generations to meet their needs depends strongly on the life support functions of the earth and inherent in the definition of sustainable development is thus a concern for the health of the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 196, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 44, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The development of LCA can in many regards be seen as stemming from the same concern for environmental protection (see Chap. 3). A natural question may therefore be; How does LCA and sustainable development relate, and to what extent can LCA be used as a methodology for informing decisions towards sustainability? To answer these questions we will start by giving an overview of how sustainable development is understood in literature, followed by an analysis of the possibilities and limitations for LCA to support it. 5.2 What Is Sustainability? Since the publication of Our Common Future, many different definitions of \u201csustainable development\u201d or the related term \u201csustainability\u201d have been presented. In this chapter we will use these two terms interchangeably, but it should be mentioned that in literature, these concepts can be used with different connotations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 197, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 44, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this chapter we will use these two terms interchangeably, but it should be mentioned that in literature, these concepts can be used with different connotations. It is, for example, sometimes asserted that sustainable development is primarily about development (sometimes seen as synonymous with economic growth), whereas sustainability gives priority to the environment. Others have argued that the difference is rather that sustainable development should be seen as the process or journey to achieving sustainability. A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 198, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 44, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Proposals for definitions of sustainable development have been booming after the publication of Our Common Future, and have added several nuances and potential modifications to this definition. For example, some have argued against the one-sided focus on human needs. In the definition of sustainable development given above, there is little room for considering other living species than humans, unless these species directly serve as means to meet these human needs. In line with this, it has been argued that the definition is too narrow, and that other living species should be considered as well. Others have debated the word \u201cneed\u201d, and suggested several others and in many regards related words such as \u201cwellbeing\u201d, \u201cutility\u201d, \u201cwelfare\u201d and \u201caspiration\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 199, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 45, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Others have debated the word \u201cneed\u201d, and suggested several others and in many regards related words such as \u201cwellbeing\u201d, \u201cutility\u201d, \u201cwelfare\u201d and \u201caspiration\u201d. Finally, it should be mentioned that the researchers, especially within the economic discipline, have omitted the focus on the needs of the present and claimed that sustainability is simply about ensuring that the total utility or welfare of a society can be maintained over an infinite time horizon (Pezzey 1992). Despite these variations, there is a large degree of common ground in definitions of sustainability. Sustainability can be seen as comprising by the following four dimensions, with varying emphasis: 1. The first dimension relates to measures of welfare that is to be achieved in the population comprised by the definition (see Dimensions 2\u20134). This measure of welfare comprises several different concepts, such as \u201cneed\u201d, \u201cutility\u201d, \u201chappiness\u201d and \u201caspiration\u201d. Several others can be found in literature. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 200, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 45, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This measure of welfare comprises several different concepts, such as \u201cneed\u201d, \u201cutility\u201d, \u201chappiness\u201d and \u201caspiration\u201d. Several others can be found in literature. 2. The second dimension relates to the concern for inter-generational equity, i.e. a concern for the equity in the welfare (as defined by the first dimension) between this and future generations. In most cases, these future generations comprise anyone born in the future, i.e. from tomorrow till infinite time has passed. This concern, together with some version of the first dimension, is found in all definitions of sustainability. 3. The third dimension relates to intra-generational equity. Within this dimension, we consider the extent to which the measures of welfare are equally distributed within a generation both on a macro-scale (i.e. among developed and developing nations) and on a micro-scale (i.e. the equality within a given nation, region or local community)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 201, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 45, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "among developed and developing nations) and on a micro-scale (i.e. the equality within a given nation, region or local community). As noted above, there is a large difference in the definitions with regards to whether this dimension is considered at all. 4. The fourth and final dimension relates to interspecies equity, relating to whether it is only the welfare (however defined) of humans which is a goal, or whether also the thriving of other living organisms (independent of their potential to contribute to human welfare) is considered. It should be noted that most definitions (including the original definition given in Our Common Future) are anthropocentric (i.e. human centred) and therefore do not include this dimension. LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 202, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 45, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.3 Sustainability and the Environmental Concern Except from the fourth dimension of sustainability, which is typically not considered, there is no explicit consideration of environmental conservation in most definitions of sustainability. It may therefore seem odd that environmental protection is often seen as being more or less synonymous with sustainability. The reason should primarily be found in the concern for inter-generational equity. The rationale behind protecting the environment from a concern for inter-generational equity is that the natural resources and the services that nature provides are seen as the foundation for society. Without a functioning environment we will not be able to cultivate crops, secure clean air, be protected from ultraviolet radiation from the sun, etc. The idea is thus that protecting the environment is necessary to give future generations the same possibilities for achieving the levels of welfare that current generations are experiencing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 203, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 46, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The idea is thus that protecting the environment is necessary to give future generations the same possibilities for achieving the levels of welfare that current generations are experiencing. Thus, besides the concern for intra-generational equity, which is not ensured simply by protecting the environment, but which calls for initiatives related to combating poverty, sustainability includes a concern for environmental protection. The extent to which the environment should be protected as a condition for the inter-generational equity dimension of sustainability is, however, not clear-cut. Clearly, human needs cannot be met if humans cannot breathe due to air pollution or lack of oxygen. But the more detailed dependency of human needs on specific functions or qualities of the environment is disputed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 204, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 46, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "But the more detailed dependency of human needs on specific functions or qualities of the environment is disputed. For example, will the potential for meeting human needs be violated if the panda bear becomes extinct? And to what extent can technology replace the services and functions provided by ecosystems? While keeping this discussion in mind, researchers have attempted to quantify carrying capacities of ecosystemsthat must not be exceeded to maintain functions and other ecosystem aspects of interest. For example, the carrying capacities of different terrestrial ecosystems in Europeand elsewhere towards deposition of acidifying compounds (sometimes termed critical loads) have been calculated (Hettelingh et al. 2007). At the global scale planetary boundaries have been proposed and tentatively quantified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 205, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 46, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007). At the global scale planetary boundaries have been proposed and tentatively quantified. Planetary boundaries can be interpreted as carrying capacities for the entire Earth System towards various anthropogenic pressures, such as greenhouse gases and interference with nutrient cycles. If exceeded there is a substantial risk that the Earth System will change from its well-known and relatively stable state that has characterized the Holocene geological epoch in the past 12,000 years to an unknown state (Rockstr\u00f6m 2009; Steffen et al. 2015a). According to estimates, this exceedance has already happened for four of the nine proposed planetary boundaries, as shown in Fig. 5.1. As this chapter is about the role of LCA in the environmental protection needed to achieve sustainability we will only address the part of the sustainability definition pertaining to the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 206, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 46, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As this chapter is about the role of LCA in the environmental protection needed to achieve sustainability we will only address the part of the sustainability definition pertaining to the environment. Chapter 16 addresses the development of what has been termed Social LCA, addressing the social dimension of sustainability. A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 207, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 46, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fig. 5.1 Planetary boundaries. a Illustrates the concept of thresholds and boundaries in relation to an ecosystem\u2019s response to increasing human pressure. b Shows the proposed nine boundaries (two of them subdivided for specific pressures) and that mankind has currently exceeded four of them, two beyond the zone of uncertainty (Steffen et al. 2015a). Reprinted with permission from AAAS LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 208, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 47, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.4 Sustainability and LCA If sustainability entails that the environment has to be conserved, the question is How can we conserve the environment? What are the overall drivers that lead to environmental deterioration? These questions were first addressed in Holdren and Ehrlich (1974), whose work in a modified form lead to the formulation of the so-called IPAT equation, or I 1\u20444 P\u0001A\u0001T \u00f05:1\u00de where (I) is the environmental impact, (P) is the population, (A) is the per capita affluence and (T) is the technology factor. The formula expresses that the overall impact on the environment is controlled by the number of people on the planet, their affluence, expressed in material affluence per person, and technology\u2019s environmental intensity, expressed in environmental impact per material affluence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 209, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 48, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 5.2 shows the global development in population and various indicators of affluence, such as GDP, transportation and paper production, along with indicators of environmental pressures and impacts from 1750 to 2010. Figure 5.2a shows that while the world population has almost tripled from 1950 to 2010, all the indicators of affluence have increased at higher rates, meaning that the per capita affluence (\u201cA\u201d in the IPAT equation) has increased in the period (note that this increase has been unequal\u2014income differences between and within countries have increased in the period). Figure 5.2b shows that the combined effect of an increasing population and increasing per capita affluence (\u201cP\u201d and \u201cA\u201d in the IPAT equation) has led to increases in environmental pressure and impacts (\u201cI\u201d in the IPAT equation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 210, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 48, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that technological improvements in environmental impact per material affluence (\u201cT\u201d in the IPAT equation) have been insufficient for maintaining environmental pressures and impacts at a status quo, let alone for decreasing them. With the historical development in mind, the IPAT equation shows us that we, in theory, have three overall knots and handles to manipulate to ensure that loads on the environment do not exceed carrying capacities. Two of these three parameters, the number of people and their affluence, have been difficult to handle. In relation to the number of people, this can either be regulated by increasing mortality or reducing fertility, and in most parts of the world issues like these are not on the political agenda. In some parts of the world, for example in the EU, Russia and Japan, it is even seen as a political aim to increase fertility. However, despite this, projections show that the world population may stabilize around 10 billion in 2050", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 211, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 48, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, despite this, projections show that the world population may stabilize around 10 billion in 2050. With regards to the affluence, we have already established above that to increase the intra-generational equity, there is a need for increasing the affluence of the ones mostly in need. Reducing the overall affluence while increasing the affluence of the poorest inevitably calls for a decrease in the affluence of the richest part of the world population which is a difficult program for a political party striving for (re-)election A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 212, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 48, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in a liberal democracy as found in most affluent societies today. The \u201cA\u201d in the IPAT equation above is therefore expected to increase over time. What is left is the development of technology, which can allow us to regulate the environmental impact per consumed unit (the \u2018T\u2019 factor in the IPAT equation). To increase the output or functionality while keeping a constant environmental impact corresponds to increasing what is often termed eco-efficiency. According to the World Business Council of Sustainable Development \u201ceco-efficiency is achieved by the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bring quality of life while progressively reducing environmental impacts of goods and resource intensity throughout the entire life cycle to a level at least in line with the Earth\u2019s estimated carrying capacity\u201d (WBCSD 2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 213, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 49, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By increasing the eco-efficiency of existing products and technologies, the idea is thus that we will be able to consume the same, or more, while at the same time lowering the overall Fig. 5.2 Global development in a selection of a socio-economic indicators and b pressures and impacts on the environment from 1750 to 2010 (Steffen et al. 2015b). Reprinted by Permission of SAGE Publications, Ltd. LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 214, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 49, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "environmental burden of this consumption to a level that does not exceed carrying capacities. As outlined in the chapters above, and as will be further detailed in the remaining parts of this book, LCA shows how a specific functionality can be achieved in the most environmentally friendly way among a predefined list of alternatives, or in which parts of the life cycle it is particularly important to improve a product to reduce its environmental impacts, in other words, increase its eco-efficiency. LCA can therefore be seen as a methodology that can guide decisions towards improving one of the three dimensions in the IPAT equation, namely the technology (\u201cT\u201d) dimension. Fig. 5.2 (continued) A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 215, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 50, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.5 A Note on Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment It has been proposed to expand LCA into life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) to also encompass socialand economic aspects, in addition to environmental aspects of sustainability when analysing product life cycles (Kloepffer 2008; Zamagni 2012). The idea of LCSA builds on the so-called \u201cthree pillars\u201d (or three dimensions) interpretation of sustainability, according to which sustainability is composed of an environmental, social and economic pillar. This interpretation gained momentum with the concept of the \u201cTriple bottom line\u201d by Elkington (1997), who proposed that businesses should manage environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability in the same quantitative way that financial aspects are typically managed inaccounting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 216, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 51, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accordingly, Kloepffer (2008) proposed the following scheme for LCSA: LCSA 1\u20444 LCA \u00fe LCC \u00fe SLCA \u00f05:2\u00de LCC is an abbreviation for life cycle costingwhich aims to quantify all costs associated with the life cycle of a product that is directly covered by one or more of the actors in that life cycle. S-LCA is an abbreviation for social life cycle assessment, which has the goal of assessing the social impacts of a product over its life cycle. LCC and S-LCA are detailed in Chaps. 15 and 16 of this book. An important requirement of LCSA is that the three pillars of sustainability must be assessed using the same system boundaries, i.e. that the same elements of a product life cycle are considered in all three assessments (Kloepffer 2008) (see Chap. 8, for an elaboration on system boundaries). While LCSA is much less mature than LCA and there is a little agreement of how to actually perform it, two fundamental aspects of LCSA deserve highlighting in this chapter: 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 217, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 51, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While LCSA is much less mature than LCA and there is a little agreement of how to actually perform it, two fundamental aspects of LCSA deserve highlighting in this chapter: 1. LCSA seems to be based on the assumption that sustainability is something that can be balanced between an environmental, social and economic dimension. This is hinted by the scheme proposed by Kloepffer (2008), according to which a decrease in one sustainability dimension (e.g. environmental) can be compensated by an increase in another dimension (e.g. social). This conflicts with the concept of carrying capacity, according to which the meeting of human needs depends on a minimum level of environmental protection, as mentioned in Sect. 5.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 218, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 51, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "social). This conflicts with the concept of carrying capacity, according to which the meeting of human needs depends on a minimum level of environmental protection, as mentioned in Sect. 5.2. In our view it would therefore be misleading to assess a product that has a relatively good performance in an LCC and an S-LCA, but a relatively poor performance in an LCA, to be overall sustainable, because the bad performance in an LCA may be contributing to the exceedances of carrying capacities, which in the long term threatens the meeting of human needs and thus social (and economic) sustainability. This perspective is reflected by a popular quote, attributed to Dr. Guy McPherson: \u201cIf you really think that the environment is less important than the economy, try holding your breath while you count your money\u201d (McPherson 2009). LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 219, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 51, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. LCSA includes an economic dimension of sustainability. This is consistent with the common \u201cthree pillar\u201d interpretation of sustainability, but it can be questioned how relevant LCC is for sustainability assessments. This is because the costsquantified by LCC are only relevant to sustainability if these costs apply to the poor, which are of concern to the intra-generational equity dimension of sustainability (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2013). Yet, quantifying the monetary gains or losses for the poor is already an aspect commonly included in S-LCA (see Chap. 16). 5.6 Limitations to the Strategy for Achieving Sustainability Through LCA Even though LCA gives us the very valuable possibility of choosing the most eco-efficient way of achieving a specific functionality or service, this approach has some important limitations in regards to ensuring (environmental) sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 220, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 52, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Following the IPAT equation, and knowing the projections for the population growth and the goals for the increase inaverage affluence, it has been estimated that a factor 4, or higher, increase in the eco-efficiency of technologies or products is needed just to ensure a status quo with regards to our impacts on the environment (Reijnders 1998). But as shown in Fig. 5.1, status quo, with regards to some environmental impacts, is not good enough if we are to guarantee a sustainable development, because a number of planetary boundaries have already been exceeded. For some technologies and products an increase in \u201cT\u201d closer to a factor 10 may therefore be required. It is evident that a factor of 10 increase in the eco-efficiency of technologies or products in many cases will be difficult to achieve", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 221, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 52, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is evident that a factor of 10 increase in the eco-efficiency of technologies or products in many cases will be difficult to achieve. For example, even the most eco-efficient cars are far from a factor 10 more efficient than the average car, both regarding energy consumption during use and material consumption during production (Girod et al. 2014). In other cases, however, a factor 10 increase in the eco-efficiency of products has been achieved in isolated areas. Freon and other ozone depleting gases used in for example refrigerators have more or less been phased out as a result of the Montreal Protocol, leading to an eco-efficiency increase on this isolated area, far better than a factor of 10 (WMO 2014). However, one thing is to increase the eco-efficiency of the product, another is how we administer the gains achieved through the increased efficiency. History has demonstrated that the level of services that we want from products and technologies is not static", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 222, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 52, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "History has demonstrated that the level of services that we want from products and technologies is not static. As soon as new possibilities evolve we tend simply to expand our wants and expectations (which might not be the same as needs, depending on the interpretation of sustainability). Evidence suggests that increases in eco-efficiencies in some cases due to changes in wants and expectations lead to so-called \u201crebound effects\u201d. An example of a rebound effect could be if an increase in eco-efficiencyof the car engine leads the producer to increase the power of the motor, add extra A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 223, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 52, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "comfort to the car, or if costumers travel longer distances due to an improved fuel economy, reducing or eliminating the effect of the increase in eco-efficiency. Another example is seen in the lighting technologies: Since the light bulb was invented there has been an enormous increase in the energy efficiency, which has equally lead to a dramatic decrease in the price of light. But as our appetite for more light seems insatiable this increase in eco-efficiency has been met by a corresponding increase in demand\u2014with no signs of saturation. In fact, it has been found that the fraction of GDP spent on light has remained almost constant, close to 1% over the last three centuries in the UK and that this fraction is similar in other countries spanning diverse temporal, geographic, technological and economic circumstances (Tsao and Waide 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 224, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 53, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In sum, this implies that while LCA may help identify the most eco-efficient solution among a range of alternatives, the actual eco-efficiency that we may achieve through redesign and technological inventions is in many cases insufficient. Furthermore, the increases that are gained in eco-efficiency on the product or technology level may be counterbalanced by increases in demand. Impacts on the environment quantified using LCA can be put into a sustainability perspective by relating them to environmental carrying capacities (Bj\u00f8rn et al. 2015). This can facilitate an absolute evaluation of whether a studied product can be considered environmentally sustainable, and if not, how much further environmental impacts must be reduced for this to come true. Such an absolute perspective can complement the common relative perspective of LCA which is about identifying the product system that is better for the environment, but that might not be good enough from a sustainability perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 225, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 53, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Yet, even when an absolute perspective is taken LCA cannot, by itself, cover all relevant aspects of sustainability. Many sustainability researchers have argued that the narrow focus on eco-efficiency simply will not suffice. They propose that we have to look at the necessity of the services, and not only at providing the services in the most eco-efficient way. In other words, these researchers talk about the necessity to adjust the \u201cA\u201d, the affluence, in the IPAT equation. In this relation, the LCA falls short\u2014it is a tool to find the most eco-efficient way to deliver this service among a list of predefined alternatives\u2014not a tool for identifying the importance of various services. Increases in eco-efficiency are high on the agenda in many companies, not least because of the often accompanying cost reductions, and on this journey there is no doubt that the LCA will be an invaluable tool to show the way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 226, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 53, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, at the same time, we have to be open to the possibility that we may need to discuss not only how different services should be provided, but also the more sensitive and political question\u2014whether a service should be provided at all, if we are to ensure that the future generations are given the same possibilities for meeting their needs as we were given. LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 227, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 53, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bj\u00f8rn, A., Diamond, M., Owsianiak, M., et al.: Strengthening the link between life cycle assessment and indicators for absolute sustainability to support development within planetary boundaries. Environ Sci Technol 49, 6370\u20136371 (2015). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02106 Elkington, J.: Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Capstone Publ, Oxford (1997) Girod, B., van Vuuren, D.P., Hertwich, E.G.: Climate policy through changing consumption choices: Options and obstacles for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Glob. Environ. Chang. 25, 5\u201315 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.004 Hettelingh, J.-P., Posch, M., Slootweg, J., et al.: Critical loads and dynamic modelling to assess European areas at risk of acidification and eutrophication. Water Air Soil Pollut. Focus 7, 379\u2013384 (2007). doi:10.1007/s11267-006-9099-1 Holdren, J.P., Ehrlich, P.R.: Human population and the global environment. Am. Sci", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 228, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 54, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Air Soil Pollut. Focus 7, 379\u2013384 (2007). doi:10.1007/s11267-006-9099-1 Holdren, J.P., Ehrlich, P.R.: Human population and the global environment. Am. Sci. 62, 282\u2013292 (1974) J\u00f8rgensen, A., Herrmann, I.T., Bj\u00f8rn, A.: Analysis of the link between a definition of sustainability and the life cycle methodologies. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1440\u20131449 (2013). doi:10.1007/ s11367-013-0617-x Kloepffer, W.: Life cycle sustainability assessment of products. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 89\u201395 (2008). doi:10.1065/lca2008.02.376 McPherson, G.: Time for a revolution. http://guymcpherson.com/2009/05/time-for-a-revolution/ (2009). Accessed 1 June 2016 Pezzey, J.: Sustainable Development Concepts\u2014An Economic Analysis. World Bank Environment Paper No. 2. The World Bank, Washington DC (1992) Reijnders, L.: The factor X debate: setting targets for eco-efficiency. J. Ind. Ecol. 2, 13\u201322 (1998) Rockstr\u00f6m, J.: Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 229, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 54, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 2, 13\u201322 (1998) Rockstr\u00f6m, J.: Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity. Ecology and Society. 14(2), art. 32 (2009) Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockstr\u00f6m, J., et al.: Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science (2015a). doi:10.1126/science.1259855 Steffen, W., Broadgate, W., Deutsch, L., Gaffney, O., Ludwig, C.: The trajectory of the Anthropocene: the great Acceleration. Anthrop. Rev. 2(1), 81\u201398 (2015b) Tsao, J.Y., Waide, P.: The world\u2019s appetite for light: empirical data and trends spanning three centuries and six continents. Leukos 6, 259\u2013281 (2010) WBCSD: Eco-efficiency\u2014Creating More Value With Less Impact. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Washington DC (2000) WCED: Report of the World Commission On Environment And Development: Our Common Future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 230, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 54, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Washington DC (2000) WCED: Report of the World Commission On Environment And Development: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1987) WMO: Scientific Assessment Of Ozone Depletion: World Meteorological Organization, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project, Geneva (2014) doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0389-8 Zamagni, A.: Life cycle sustainability assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 373\u2013376 (2012). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0389-8 Author Biographies Andreas Moltesen has been working with LCA since 2006 with a particular focus on social life cycle assessment. He has later worked on life cycle assessments of biofuels and is currently particularly involved with life cycle assessments of transport systems. A. Moltesen and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 231, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 54, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. LCA and Sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 232, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "5 LCA and Sustainability", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 55, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part II", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 233, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Methodology", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 6 Introduction to LCA Methodology Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract In order to offer the reader an overview of the LCA methodology in the preparation of the more detailed description of its different phases, a brief introduction is given to the methodological framework according to the ISO 14040 standard and the main elements of each of its phases. Emphasis is on the iterative nature of the LCA process with its many feedback loops between the different phases. It is explained how the integrated use of sensitivity analysis helps identify key assumptions and key data and thus ensure effectiveness by directing the focus of the LCA practitioner to those parts of the study where additional work contributes most to strengthen the results and conclusions of the study. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to \u2022 Draw and explain the methodological framework for LCA. \u2022 Present an overview of the phases of LCA, their purpose and main elements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 234, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 59, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Present an overview of the phases of LCA, their purpose and main elements. \u2022 Explain the iterative nature of LCA and its rationale in terms of helping the LCA practitioner focus on what matters most for the results and conclusions of the study. 6.1 As described in Chap. 3, the need for agreement on common principles for how to perform an LCA was realised back in the 1980s. An international discussion of methodological issues took off around 1990 under the auspices of SETAC leading M.Z. Hauschild (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: mzha@dtu.dk \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 235, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 59, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to publication of state-of-the-art reports and codes of conduct for different parts of the LCA methodology throughout the 1990s and feeding into the standardisation process that went on in parallel. Although many methodological aspects are still under discussion and development continues today, the fundamental structure has been stable since the appearance of the first ISO 14040 standard in 1997, and it is also applied in major LCA methodologies like the CML (Guin\u00e9e 2002), EDIP97 (Wenzel et al. 1997), and by the ILCD guidelines from the EU Commission (EC-JRC 2010). The methodology chapters in Part II of this book give a detailed presentation of the LCA methodology structured according to the ISO framework and referring to the recommendations and requirements given by the ILCD guidelines. References are not given consistently to these sources throughout the chapters but unless otherwise mentioned, they are the basis of the presented methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 236, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 60, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "References are not given consistently to these sources throughout the chapters but unless otherwise mentioned, they are the basis of the presented methodology. The European ILCD guidelines for LCA (EC-JRC 2010) are strongly founded in the framework and methodological requirements of the ISO LCA standards (ISO 2006a, b) but they go further and offer methodological guidance at a much more detailed level than the standards do. They are the outcome of a comprehensive consultation process involving hearings of experts and stakeholders, and on this basis, we have chosen them as a useful reference for discussing LCA methodology and specifying methodological choices. In Chap. 37 the most important methodological actions and requirements of the ILCD guideline are presented in the form of a cookbook or checklist that you can refer to as a reference methodology to follow, or to deviate from at specific and transparently documented points of the methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 237, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 60, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.2 The Phases of LCA We begin in this introductory chapter with a brief description of the main methodological phases and the way in which their results are assessed and refined in a focused iterative process. This will give you an overview of the methodology before you dig into the details and peculiarities of its different phases and elements, and it will introduce you to the iterative approach, which is fundamental for performing a successful LCA. As illustrated in Fig. 6.1, the ISO standard distinguishes the methodological framework of LCA from its different applications, which are multiple such as product development, Ecolabelling, carbon footprint and other footprints (see Part III of the textbook for examples). Applications of LCA are treated in separate publications from the standard organisation. The LCA framework operates with four separate phases, Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 238, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 60, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.2.1 Goal and Scope Definition An LCA starts with a well-considered and deliberate definition of the goal of the study (see Chap. 7). Why is this study performed? Which question(s) is it intended to answer and for whom is it performed? The goal definition sets the context of the LCA study and is the basis of the scope definition (see Chap. 8) where the assessment is framed and outlined in accordance with the goal definition, primarily in terms of \u2022 Defining the functional unit: a quantitative description of the function or service for which the assessment is performed, and the basis of determining the reference flow of product that scales the data collection in the next LCA phase, the inventory analysis. \u2022 Scoping the product system, deciding which activities and processes belong to the life cycle of the product that is studied. \u2022 Selecting the assessment parameters, i.e. the impacts that shall be assessed in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 239, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 61, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Selecting the assessment parameters, i.e. the impacts that shall be assessed in the study. \u2022 Selecting the geographical and temporal boundaries and settings of the study and the level of technology that is relevant for the processes in the product system. \u2022 Deciding the relevant perspective to apply in the study: should it be a consequential study assessing the impacts that can be expected as a consequence of choosing one alternative over another, or should it be an attributional study assessing the impacts that are associated with the studied activity? \u2022 Identifying the need to perform critical review, in particular if the study is a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public. Direct applications: product development and improvement strategic planning public policy making marketing other Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Goal definition Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 240, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 61, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.1 Framework of LCA modified from the ISO 14040 standard Introduction to LCA Methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 241, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 61, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The goal definition and the ensuing scope definition are very important to consider when the results of the study are interpreted since these definitions involve choices that determine the collection of data and the way in which the system is modelled and assessed. They therefore have a strong influence on the validity of the conclusions and recommendations that are based on the results of the LCA. 6.2.2 Inventory Analysis Following the definition of goal and scope, the inventory analysis collects information about the physical flows in terms of input of resources, materials, semi-products and products and the output of emissions, waste and valuable products for the product system (see Chap. 9). The analysis studies all the processes that were identified as belonging to the product system, and the flows are scaled in accordance with the reference flow of product that is determined from the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 242, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 62, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Due to the comprehensiveness of most product systems, the inventory analysis often relies on generic data for many processes originating from databases with unit processes or cradle-to-gate data, presenting the in- and output flows for one unit process, e.g. for production of a material, generation of heat or electricity, transportation or waste management. Environmentally extended input\u2013output analysis can be used to support and qualify the collection of inventory data as discussed in Chap. 14. The outcome of the inventory analysis is the life cycle inventory, a list of quantified physical elementary flows for the product system that is associated with the provision of the service or function described by the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 243, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 62, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.2.3 Impact Assessment Taking the life cycle inventory as a starting point, the impact assessment translates the physical flows and interventions of the product system into impacts on the environment using knowledge and models from environmental science (see Chap. 10). The impact assessment consists of five elements of which the first three are mandatory according to the ISO 14040 standard: 1. Selection of impact categories representative of the assessment parameters that were chosen as part of the scope definition. For each impact category, a representative indicator is chosen together with an environmental model that can be used to quantify the impact of elementary flows on the indicator. 2. Classification of elementary flows from the inventory by assigning them to impact categories according to their ability to contribute by impacting the chosen indicator. M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 244, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 62, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3. Characterisation using environmental models for the impact category to quantify the ability of each of the assigned elementary flows to impact the indicator of the category. The resulting characterised impact scores are expressed in a common metric for the impact category. This allows aggregation of all contributions into one score, representing the total impact that the product system has for that category. The collection of aggregated indicator scores for the different impact categories (each expressed in its own metric) constitutes the characterised impact profile of the product system. 4. Normalisation is used to inform about the relative magnitude of each of the characterised scores for the different impact categories by expressing them relative to a common set of reference impacts\u2014one reference impact per impact category. Often the background impact from society is used as a reference", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 245, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 63, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Often the background impact from society is used as a reference. The result of the normalisation is the normalised impact profile of the product system in which all category indicator scores are expressed in the same metric. 5. Grouping or weighting supports comparison across the impact categories by grouping and possibly ranking them according to their perceived severity, or by weighting them using weighting factors that for each impact category gives a quantitative expression of how severe it is relative to the other impact categories. Quantitative weighting allows aggregation of all the weighted impact scores into one overall environmental impact score for the product system, which may be useful when the results of the LCA are used in decision support together with other condensed information like the economic costs of the alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 246, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 63, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main focus of this book is the traditional environmental LCA focusing on the environmental impacts of the product system, but for sustainability assessment, also social and economic impacts need to be considered. For these other dimensions of sustainability, a life cycle perspective is as relevant as it is for the environmental dimension and in a life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA\u2014See Chap. 5) they may be addressed through a social LCA (S-LCA) and a life cycle costing analysis (LCC). Both of these assessment techniques have their own distinct methodological foundation which shares the fundamental framework of environmental LCA but has many distinct elements in all phases of the methodology as introduced in Chaps. 15 (LCC) and 16 (S-LCA). Interpretation The results of the study are interpreted in order to answer the question(s) posed as part of the goal definition (see Chap. 12)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 247, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 63, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15 (LCC) and 16 (S-LCA). Interpretation The results of the study are interpreted in order to answer the question(s) posed as part of the goal definition (see Chap. 12). The interpretation considers both results of the inventory analysis and the impact assessment elements characterisation and, possibly, normalisation and weighting. The interpretation must be done with the goal and scope definition in mind and respect the restrictions that the scoping choices impose on a meaningful interpretation of the results, e.g. due to geographical, temporal or technological assumptions. Sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis are applied as part of the interpretation to guide the development of conclusions from the results, to appraise the robustness of the conclusions, and to identify the focus points for further work in order to further strengthen the conslusions. Introduction to LCA Methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 248, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 63, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.3 The Iterative Nature of LCA In Fig. 6.1 a number of arrows indicate that rather than a linearly proceeding process, LCA involves many feedback loops between the different phases of the LCA. Insights from the impact assessment are used in refining the inventory analysis and insights from both of these phases may feed back to the scope definition, e.g. in the setting of the boundaries of the product system, what to include and what to exclude. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis are thus not just performed in the interpretation at the end but throughout the study as part of both inventory analysis and impact assessment in order to identify the key figures or key assumptions of the study and the data that are associated with the largest uncertainties (see Chap. 11). Each phase of the methodology provides feedback to the previous phases of the study and helps target the next iteration of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 249, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 64, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11). Each phase of the methodology provides feedback to the previous phases of the study and helps target the next iteration of the LCA. The best precision is obtained with minimum work effort if the focus is on improving the key figures wherever possible and needed, and on reducing the largest uncertainties. In practice, the first iteration will often be a screening that covers the full life cycle, but in terms of inventory data largely is based on easily accessible data from available databases. Following the impact assessment, the parts of the product system that contribute most strongly to the total results can be identified, and the chosen boundaries of the product system can be tested. As a consequence, the scoping may have to be refined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 250, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 64, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As a consequence, the scoping may have to be refined. The impact assessment results also allow identifying those inventory data or assumptions made in the inventory analysis that have the largest influence on the overall results or for which the uncertainties are so large that they potentially could be key figures. These data should be the target of the next iteration, where effort should be focused on testing and refining these assumptions or data and get more representative or recent data. Based on the revised inventory a new impact assessment is performed, and the sensitivity analysis is performed once more to see which are now the key figures and key assumptions. Large uncertainties may also accompany the factors applied in the characterisation of some of the inventory flows in the impact assessment, and if the sensitivity analysis indicates that such uncertainties may have a decisive influence on the results, these factors will also be the target of a consecutive iteration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 251, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 64, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 6.2 illustrates the iterative approach to performing an LCA. As illustrated by the narrowing spiral in Fig. 6.2, the uncertainty of the LCA results is reduced through the repeated iterations, and these are carried on until the remaining uncertainty of the results is sufficiently small to meet the goal of the study. If the goal is to identify which among several alternatives has the lowest environmental impacts, the number of needed iterations may be low if the alternatives show large differences in their impacts, while a higher number of iterations will be needed if the alternatives are more similar. An LCA performed to support an environmental product declaration with a general requirement to the uncertainty of the impact scores can require a high number of iterations before all impact scores are determined within the stipulated level of uncertainty. M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 252, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 64, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With this overview of the LCA framework, its interconnected phases and how iteration is used to ensure effectiveness when performing an LCA, you are now prepared for diving into the intricate details of the many elements of the LCA methodology. Enjoy! This chapter is to a large extent based on the ILCD handbook and the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. Due to the scope of this chapter, some details have been omitted, and some procedures have been rephrased to make the text more relevant to students. For more details, the reader may refer to these texts: EC-JRC (2010) European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union. ISO: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014principles and framework (ISO 14040)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 253, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 65, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union. ISO: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014principles and framework (ISO 14040). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014requirements and guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Additional References Quoted in the Text Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., de Bruijn, H., van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2002). ISBN 1-4020-0228-9 Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products, vol. 1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA. USA (1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 254, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 65, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1\u2014 Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA. USA (1997). ISBN 0 412 80800 5 Fig. 6.2 Using sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis as integrated tools, the phases of the LCA methodology are repeated with focus on improving and strengthening the identified key figures and assumptions in consecutive iterations until the strength of the conclusions meets the requirements posed by the goal and scope definition Introduction to LCA Methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 255, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 65, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biography Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 256, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "6 Introduction to LCA Methodology", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 66, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 7 Goal Definition Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract The goal definitionis the first phase of an LCA and determines the purpose of a study in detail. This chapter teaches how to perform the six aspects of a goal definition: (1) Intended applications of the results, (2) Limitations due to methodological choices, (3) Decision context and reasons for carrying out the study, (4) Target audience, (5) Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public and (6) Commissioner of the study and other influential actors. The instructions address both the conduct and reporting of a goal definition and are largely based on the ILCD guidance document (EC-JRC in European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment \u2014Detailed Guidance. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 257, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 67, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 2010). Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Define the goal of any LCA study. \u2022 Explain the six goal aspects and their relevance for the subsequent LCA phases. A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 M. Owsianiak \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 258, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 67, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7.1 The goal definitionis the first phase of any LCA. Here, the purpose of the study is elaborately defined and described. This greatly influences the LCA because decisions made in later LCA phases (Chaps. 8\u201312) must be consistent with the goal definition. The influence may also go the other way, for example, if unforeseen data limitations in the inventory analysis (Chap. 9) necessitate a revision of the goal definition. Such a revision is an example of the iterative nature of LCA (see Chap. 6). The goal definition based on the ISO standard requirements generally contains six aspects: 1. Intended applications of the results 2. Limitations due to methodological choices 3. Decision context and reasons for carrying out the study 4. Target audience 5. Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public 6. Commissioner of the study and other influential actors. Each aspect must be considered when performing an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 259, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 68, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Target audience 5. Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public 6. Commissioner of the study and other influential actors. Each aspect must be considered when performing an LCA. Aspects 1 and 3 are central for doing an LCA because they have pervasive influence on decisions made in later LCA phases. On the other hand, aspects 2, 4, 5 and 6 mainly relate to communicating the results of an LCA. For these aspects, we further refer to Chaps. 13, 37\u201339, which provide specific guidance on and examples of the reporting and reviewing of LCA results. 7.2 Intended Applications of the Results All LCAs involve studying one or more product systems and this can be used in several applications, such as \u2022 Comparing environmental impacts of specific goods or services. \u2022 Identifying the parts of a product system that contribute most to its environmental impact (i.e. \u201chot spot identification\u201d, focusing in product development)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 260, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 68, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Identifying the parts of a product system that contribute most to its environmental impact (i.e. \u201chot spot identification\u201d, focusing in product development). \u2022 Evaluating improvement potentials from changes in product designs(analysis and \u2018what-if\u2019 scenarios in eco-design). \u2022 Documenting the environmental performance of products (e.g. in marketing using environmental product declarations or other types of product environmental footprints). \u2022 Developing criteria for an eco-label. \u2022 Developing policies that consider environmental aspects. It is important to determine the intended application(s) of the LCA results at the onset, because it influences later phases of an LCA, such as the drawing of system boundaries (Chap. 8), sourcing of inventory data (Chap. 9) and interpretation of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 261, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 68, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "results (Chap. 12). Often, several separate applications are intended in a study. For example, the intended applications of the results of the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39 were both to benchmark a new window design against three windows already on the market and to identify hot spots in the life cycle of the compared windows with the aim of guiding future impact reduction efforts. 7.3 Limitations Due to Methodological Choices This aspect can be seen as a critical reflection of what the LCA results can and cannot be used for. If a study only covers climate change (often referred to as a \u201ccarbon footprint\u201d study) it is, for example, important to stress that results cannot be used to claim a general environmental superiority of a studied product or conclude anything about its overall \u201cenvironmental friendliness\u201d. Also, if a comparative study disregards one or more life cycle stages, it is important to stress how that limits the interpretation of results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 262, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 69, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also, if a comparative study disregards one or more life cycle stages, it is important to stress how that limits the interpretation of results. For example, a study comparing the production of 1 tonne aluminum to the production of 1 tonne steel from mining to ingot cannot be used to identify the environmentally soundest material for use in a car, because the density difference of the two metals leads to differences in the amount of metal used for the car body and differences in the car mileage (fuel consumption per kilometre), causing different environmental impacts in the use stage and finally also in the disposal stage. In the illustrative window frame case study (Chap. 39) a stated limitation of the study was that a site-generic LCIA approach was taken in spite of impacts being concentrated around Scandinavia, where the natural environments, for some impact categories, do not correspond to the global average (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 263, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 69, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Scandinavian soils show a higher sensitivity to depositions of acidifying compounds). Note that the limitations stated here should only relate to the choices made in the goal and scope phases of an LCA (this chapter and Chap. 8). These choices all relate to the planning and use of an LCA. On the contrary, choices made during the inventory and impact assessment phases of an LCA (Chaps. 9 and 10) relate to unforeseen constraints and assumptions (for example with respect to data availability) and must be documented at a later point in an LCA report, for example, in the inventory analysis part (Chap. 9) or in the interpretation part of a report (see Chap. 12). 7.4 Decision Context and Reasons for Carrying Out the Study This is an important aspect of the goal definition because it strongly influences the appropriate elaboration of a life cycle inventory (Chap. 9). First, the reasons for carrying out a study must be understood. The reasons should be clearly connected Goal Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 264, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 69, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to the intended application of results (Sect. 7.2) and specifically address drivers and motivations with respect to decision-making. Figure 7.1 provides an example of reasons for carrying out a study in continuation of the intended applications. Note that there is some ambiguity about the differences between \u201cIntended application\u201d and \u201cReasons for carrying out the study\u201d in the ILCD guideline. As a rule of thumb the former should describe what a study does, while the latter should address why a study is made. The reasons for carrying out at study help understanding its decision context. In the example shown in Fig. 7.1 the study is motivated by a need for decision supporton governmental recommendations of paper waste handling. This means that the results and recommendations of the study can be expected to lead to changes in the analysed system. These changes may, in turn, lead to so-called \u201cstructural changes\u201d in other systems that the studied product system interacts with", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 265, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 70, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These changes may, in turn, lead to so-called \u201cstructural changes\u201d in other systems that the studied product system interacts with. A structural change occurs when a change in one product system has such a large influence on the demand for a good or a service that it leads to new equipment being installed (increase in production capacity) or existing equipment being prematurely taken out of use (decrease in production capacity). As a rule of thumb, structural changes can be assumed to take place if the analysed decision leads to an additional demand or supply of a product that exceed the average percentage of annual replacement of total capacity (100% divided by the average equipment lifetime in years, e.g. 20). Structural changes result in qualitative and quantitative differences of industries and this must be considered in the inventory modelling (Chap. 9)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 266, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 70, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20). Structural changes result in qualitative and quantitative differences of industries and this must be considered in the inventory modelling (Chap. 9). In combination the above considerations help identify three different decision context situations and any LCA should be classified into one of these as part of the goal definition. Box 7.1 presents these three decision contexts and Fig. 7.2 presents a decision tree for how to determine the correct decision context of an LCA study. Box 7.1 The Three Types of Decision Contexts Situation A (Micro-level decision support): The study results are intended used to support a decision, but the small scale of the studied product system means that regardless the decision made, it will not cause structural changes in the systems that the studied product system interacts with. Many studies that intend to compare individual product systems, identify hotspots within these (see Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 267, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 70, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Many studies that intend to compare individual product systems, identify hotspots within these (see Sect. 7.2) or document the environmental performance of a product Support decision on governmental recommendations for environmentally preferred future handling of paper waste from commercial and governmental offices in Australia Comparative assertion of the overall environmental impacts associated with nation-wide recycling (Option I) or incineration (Option II) of all used office paper in Australia Intended application Reasons for carrying out the study Fig. 7.1 Example of reasons for carrying out a study in continuation of the intended application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 268, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 70, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in the form of an environmental product declaration fall into this decision context. The decision support of the LCA study may lead to limited changes in other systems, e.g. a reduced demand for electricity, but the changes are not of a structural nature, e.g. no electricity production equipment will be prematurely taken out of use. Situation B (Meso/macro-level decision support): The study results are intended used to support a decision, and the scale of the studied product system is such that the decisions that are made are expected to cause structural changes in one or more processes of the systems that the studied product system interacts with. An example of a study that would be classified as belonging to this type of decision context is a study intended as decision support for policy development on potential nationwide substitution of diesel derived from oil with biodiesel for private cars", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 269, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 71, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such a decision will lead to structural changes in the biodiesel industry in the form of new equipment being installed to respond to the substantially increased demand for biofuels. Situation C (Accounting): The study is not to be used to support decisions and is of a purely descriptive nature. It is documenting what has already happened, or what will happen due to a decision that has already been taken. Therefore, the presence of the LCA study will not lead to changes (small or structural) on other systems. Interactions with other systems (whether taking place in the past or in the future), e.g. through energy generated from waste incineration, can either be included in the product system model (Situation C1) or considered partially in the LCA through allocation (see Chap. 8) (Situation C2). C1 is used unless C2 is specifically prescribed by the commissioner\u2019s goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 270, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 71, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8) (Situation C2). C1 is used unless C2 is specifically prescribed by the commissioner\u2019s goal of the study. Any decision to be taken from the LCA results? Are interactions with other systems included in the model? Are there any largescale consequences on some processes of the background system? Yes No Situation C2 Situation C1 No Yes No Yes Situation B Situation A Fig. 7.2 Decision tree for how to identify the correct decision context Goal Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 271, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 71, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 7.2 shows that the identification of the decision context depends on: \u2022 Whether the study is intended as decision support \u2022 Whether structural changes in interacting systems are expected from a decision supported by the study. \u2022 Whether it is chosen to model interactions with other systems as part of the product system model or to handle them partially through allocation (see Chap. 8). In the illustrative case of the window frames, the reason to carry out the study was to attract environmentally conscious consumers, through the use of an eco-label that the LCA results would help obtain. The study is thus to be used for decision support, but since it is concerned with a single product, this decision support is not expected to lead to structural changes in other systems. The decision context of the study is therefore Situation A (Micro-level decision support). 7.5 Target Audience The goal definition must state the target audience of the study, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 272, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 72, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The decision context of the study is therefore Situation A (Micro-level decision support). 7.5 Target Audience The goal definition must state the target audience of the study, i.e. to whom the results of the study are intended to be communicated. The target audience may be consumers, consumer organisations, companies (managers, product developers, etc.), government, NGOs and others. The target audience greatly influences the extent to which details of the study should be documented, the technical level of reporting (Chap. 8) and the interpretation of results (Chap. 12). In the illustrative window frame case study, the employees of the window producer NorWin\u2019s environmental and design departments are the target audience. Since this audience is unfamiliar with LCA, the content of the report was presented pedagogically by explaining technical terms that the readers could not be expected to be familiar with", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 273, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 72, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Since this audience is unfamiliar with LCA, the content of the report was presented pedagogically by explaining technical terms that the readers could not be expected to be familiar with. When the readers are unfamiliar with LCA it may also be appropriate to provide brief background information about LCA of the type given in Chap. 2 of this book. 7.6 Comparative Studies to Be Disclosed to the Public The goal definition should explicitly state whether the LCA study is of a comparative nature (see Sect. 7.2) and if it is intended to be disclosed to the public. If this is the case, the ISO standard specifies a number of requirements on the conduct and documentation of the study and an external review process, due to the potential consequences that the communication of the results of the study may have for external companies, institutions, consumers and other stakeholders. The ISO requirements are detailed in Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 274, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 72, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ISO requirements are detailed in Chap. 8 and are basically meant to ensure transparency and good quality of a study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 275, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 72, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7.7 Commissioner of the Study and Other Influential Actors The goal definition should also explicitly state who commissioned the study, who financed it (usually the commissioning organisation) and other organisations that have influence on the study, including those of the LCA experts conducting the study. This step of the goal definition is meant to highlight potential conflicts of interest to readers of the study. Such conflict of interest may occur if a key provider of data has an economic interest in particular LCA results and interpretations. In comparative studies, it may also lead to an unintentional bias of the data collection. The commissioner of the study will normally provide data that is up to date and reflects the current performance of the technology for the commissioner\u2019s own product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 276, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 73, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The commissioner of the study will normally provide data that is up to date and reflects the current performance of the technology for the commissioner\u2019s own product. In contrast, the data collection for the other product(s) in the comparison will typically have to be based on literature and databases and hence, due to the delay involved in publishing the data, represent the state of the art several years ago. This chapter is to a large extent based on the ILCD handbook and the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. Due to the scope of this chapter, some details have been omitted, and some procedures have been rephrased to make the text more relevant to students. For more details, the reader may refer to these texts: EC-JRC.: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed Guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 277, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 73, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) ISO.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 278, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 73, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Goal Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 279, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 73, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990\u2019s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 280, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "7 Goal Definition", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 74, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 8 Scope Definition Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Alexis Laurent, Stig Irving Olsen, Andrea Corona and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract The scope definition is the second phase of an LCA. It determines what product systems are to be assessed and how this assessment should take place. This chapter teaches howtoperform a scopedefinition.First, important terminologyand key concepts of LCA are introduced. Then, the nine items making up a scope definition are elaborately explained: (1) Deliverables. (2) Object of assessment, (3) LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes, (4) System boundaries and completeness requirements, (5) Representativeness of LCI data, (6) Preparing the basis for theimpactassessment,(7) Specialrequirementsforsystemcomparisons,(8) Critical review needs and (9) Planning reporting of results. The instructions relate both to the performance and reporting of a scope definition and are largely based on ILCD", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 281, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 75, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The instructions relate both to the performance and reporting of a scope definition and are largely based on ILCD. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Define the scope of any LCA study. \u2022 Explain each of the nine scope items and their relevance for the subsequent LCA phases. \u2022 Define a functional unit for any kind of LCA study. \u2022 Explain the fundamental characteristics of an attributional and a consequential modellingapproach and how the decision context determines the choice between them. \u2022 Explain how the iterative approach to LCA helps getting the system boundaries and completeness right. A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 M. Owsianiak \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 S.I. Olsen \u0001 A. Corona \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 282, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 75, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 283, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 75, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.1 The scope definition determines what product systems are to be assessed and how this assessment should take place. Together with the goal definition (Chap. 7) the scope definition serves as a firm guide for how the ensuing LCA phases should be performed (Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation, including uncertainty and sensitivity analysis) and for how the LCA should be reported. An overarching aim of the scope definition is to ensure and document the consistency of methods, assumptions and data and strengthen the reproducibility of the study. A scope definition consists of the following nine scope items: 1. Deliverables 2. Object of the assessment 3. LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes 4. System boundaries and completeness requirements 5. Representativeness of LCI data 6. Preparation of the basis for the impact assessment 7. Special requirements for system comparisons 8. Needs for critical review 9. Planning reporting of results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 284, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 76, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Representativeness of LCI data 6. Preparation of the basis for the impact assessment 7. Special requirements for system comparisons 8. Needs for critical review 9. Planning reporting of results. Each item must be considered when performing an LCA. Items 2\u20136 are central for doing an LCA because these have a pervasive influence on decisions made in later LCA phases. Aspects 1, 7, 8 and 9 mainly relate to reporting and communicating an LCA study. For these items, we further refer to Chaps. 13, 37\u201339, which provide specific guidance on the reviewing and reporting of LCAs. Note that the aspect of data quality requirements, which ILCD proposes as a separate scope item, is here considered under scope items 4 and 5. 8.2 Terminology and Key Concepts Before explaining the nine scope items, we present the terminology and key concepts that are used in this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 285, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 76, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.2 Terminology and Key Concepts Before explaining the nine scope items, we present the terminology and key concepts that are used in this chapter. 8.2.1 Unit Process and Flows A unit process is the smallest element considered in a life cycle inventory model (see below) for which input and output data are quantified. Unit processes can therefore be considered the building blocks of a life cycle inventory model that are \u201cglued together\u201d by input and output data, which can be organised into six categories of physical flows:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 286, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 76, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Input flows: 1. Materials 2. Energy 3. Resources Output flows: 4. Products 5. Waste to treatment 6. Emissions. Figure 8.1 shows a unit process of steel sheet rolling with an example of flows for each of the six categories. In practice, a unit process can represent a single process, e.g. the rolling of steel, but it can also represent an entire facility that contains many different processes, e.g. a slaughterhouse, if this offers the sufficient level of detail for the inventory modelling. The latter type of unit process may be physically subdivided into two or more new unit processes in a life cycle inventory model, see Sect. 8.5.4. Generally, unit processes do not gain or lose mass over time and the sum of all input flowsshould therefore be equal to the sum of all output flows at the level of elements (e.g. copper) and in aggregation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 287, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 77, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "copper) and in aggregation. Output flows belonging to the product or waste to treatment categories from one unit process can act as input flows belonging to the categories materials and energy for other unit processes and this is how unit processes are linked in a life cycle inventory model. By comparison, resources and emission flows are not exchanged between unit processes. They are referred to as elementary flows, and defined by ILCD (using a slight modification of the ISO definition) as \u201csingle substance or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the ecosphere without previous human transformation, or single substance or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the ecosphere without subsequent human transformation\u201d. The ecosphere can be understood as \u201cthe environment\u201d and is elaborated below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 288, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 77, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ecosphere can be understood as \u201cthe environment\u201d and is elaborated below. Note that a single substance should be seen as an ideal and that some elementary flows in existing LCA practice are heterogeneous materials (such Unit process: Steel sheet rolling Energy Ex: Electricity Resources Ex: Water Materials Ex: Steel, unalloyed Product Steel sheet Waste to treatment Ex: Mineral oil Emissions Ex: Particulates to air Elementary flows Fig. 8.1 The unit process of steel sheet rolling and examples of flows. The actual unit process contains 86 flows [inspired by: ecoinvent v3 (Weidema et al. 2013)] Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 289, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 77, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "as the elementary flow bauxite which contains different minerals, some of which, e.g. Al(OH)3, are sources of aluminium) or cover a group of individual substances (such as the elementary flow VOCs, volatile organic compounds). What makes resource flows differently from material and energy flows is that they have been \u201cdrawn from the ecosphere without previous human transformation\u201d. This means that resource flows are not outputs from other unit processes. In the steel sheet example of Fig. 8.1, the resource flow \u201cwater\u201d may be sourced directly from a river close to the location of the steel sheet rolling process (i.e. no previous human transformation), whereas unalloyed steel (a material flow) is the product flow of another unit process and acts as a material flow to the steel sheet rolling unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 290, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 78, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "no previous human transformation), whereas unalloyed steel (a material flow) is the product flow of another unit process and acts as a material flow to the steel sheet rolling unit process. Also, in the example of a unit process composed of an entire slaughterhouse, solar influx may be harvested directly in photovoltaic panels on the roof of the slaughterhouse to produce electricity and the solar influx is then a resource flow to the unit process because it has not undergone a previous human transformation. If the slaughterhouse instead was purchasing electricity from the grid, this electricity would be an energy flow to the slaughterhouse unit process because it has undergone previous human transformation, meaning that it is a product flow of another unit process (e.g. a coal-fired power plant). Similarly, what makes emission flows differently from waste flows is that they are \u201creleased into the ecosphere without subsequent human transformation\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 291, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 78, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a coal-fired power plant). Similarly, what makes emission flows differently from waste flows is that they are \u201creleased into the ecosphere without subsequent human transformation\u201d. This means that emissions are not inputs to other unit processes. In the steel sheet example shown in Fig. 8.1, particulates (emission flow) are emitted directly into the air, whereas mineral oil will go through treatment, i.e. be a material input for another unit process. Chapter 9 will further explain how these concepts are used to model an LCI. 8.2.2 The Technosphere and the Ecosphere LCA divides the world into a technosphere and an ecosphere, see Fig. 8.2. The technosphere can be understood as everything that is intentionally \u201cmanmade\u201d and also includes processes that are natural in origin, but manipulated by humans, such as photosynthesis when part of an agricultural system. All unit processes of an LCI model belong to the technosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 292, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 78, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All unit processes of an LCI model belong to the technosphere. The ecosphere is sometimes referred to as \u201cthe environment\u201d or \u201cnature\u201d in layman\u2019s terms and can be understood as everything which is not intentionally \u201cman-made\u201d. In the ecosphere reside those qualities that LCA has been designed to protect, i.e. ecosystems, human health and resource availability. These qualities are called Areas of Protection or damage categories in the field of LCA (see Chap. 10). Changes to the ecosphere can be considered unintentional \u201cman-made\u201d consequences of activities in the technosphere. Note that the ecosphere also undergoes natural changes, for example, via ice age cycles or natural ecological successions, which means that it can be difficult to choose an appropriate natural reference state against which human impacts should be measured, see Chap. 10.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 293, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 78, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Elementary flows are per definition the only flows that go across the boundary between the technosphere and the ecosphere (see Sect. 8.2.1) and it is because of these flows that the Areas of Protections are potentially impacted by the product systems assessed in LCA. Note that there is no clear-cut large-scale spatial separation between the technosphere and the ecosphere. The two spheres are in fact largely intermingled and therefore quite abstract. Surely, natural reserves and undeveloped land largely belong to the ecosphere, but the transportation and tourism infrastructure (roads, trash bins, etc.) going through them belong to the technosphere. In addition, though cities may appear like they belong 100% to the technosphere, the outdoor or indoor air that the population inhales belongs to the ecosphere, because human health can be impacted through air pollution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 294, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 79, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note also that the exact location of the boundary between the technosphere and the ecosphere is often debated in the LCA community, for example, with regards to agricultural systems (see Chaps. 29 and 30). 8.2.3 Foreground and Background System Often hundreds of unit processes are required to deliver the product studied in an LCA. It is useful to distinguish between unit processes belonging to the foreground Ecosphere Technosphere Legend Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Fig. 8.2 Division between ecosphere and technosphere for a generic product system. Elementary flows are represented by blue arrows, while flows within the technosphere are in black Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 295, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 79, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and background system. The foreground and background systems are indicated in Fig. 8.3 for a generic product system. The foreground system is commonly defined as comprising those processes of a product system that are specific to it. These processes are in the study of a product typically some of the tier-one suppliers, but may also be suppliers further up the supply chain (e.g. tier-two or tier-three) if these are known by the producer, e.g. through a system of material certification. The foreground system is largely modelled using primary data, i.e. data collected first-hand by the LCA practitioner, e.g. obtained through the commissioner of the study. From a management perspective, processes in the foreground system can often be changed by the decision-maker commissioning a study (e.g. a company), either because they are directly operated by the decision-marker (e.g. at the production site) or because the decision-maker has the power to change or influence the processes, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 296, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 80, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a company), either because they are directly operated by the decision-marker (e.g. at the production site) or because the decision-maker has the power to change or influence the processes, e.g. via purchase decisions or consumer information. In this context, a change can be choosing another supplier (introducing a different unit process in the model) or influencing the way a unit process is operated, thereby changing all or some of its six types of flows qualitatively and quantitatively. Ecosphere Technosphere Foreground system Background system Upstream Downstream System boundaries Legend Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Fig. 8.3 LCI model for the generic product system from Fig. 8.2. The green box represents the boundaries of the product system with the division between foreground and background systems indicated. Unit processes with grey shading belong to the foreground processes, while unit processes without shading belong to the background system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 297, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 80, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Unit processes with grey shading belong to the foreground processes, while unit processes without shading belong to the background system. Part of the background system lies upstream in the value chain and feeds into the foreground system. Another part lies downstream and receives input from the foreground system. Black arrows between unit processes indicate material, energy, product or waste flows. Blue arrows to and from each unit process represent elementary flows (resources and emissions)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 298, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 80, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The background system, in contrast, is commonly defined as those processes of a system that are not specific to it. Such processes take part in numerous product systems besides the one studied. Examples are society\u2019s electricity supply, the production of metallic copper, or the waste management systems. Neither of these is specific to the product under study, but typically purchased in a market without possibility to choose between specified individual suppliers. The background system is typically modelled using LCI databases, which contain average industry data representing the process in specific nations or regions. From a management perspective, processes in the background system can typically not be structurally changed by the decision-maker commissioning a study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 299, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 81, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From a management perspective, processes in the background system can typically not be structurally changed by the decision-maker commissioning a study (e.g. a company), because the decision-maker is only a minor customer and therefore can only exert limited power or because the suppliers are anonymous to the customer like the case of copper which is bought on the global metal market (an exception is Situation B studies where the decision-maker has influencing power on the background system, see Chap. 7). The distinction between foreground and background system is especially useful for planning data collection for the inventory analysis (see Chap. 9) and for making recommendations as part of the interpretation of LCA results (see Chap. 12). 8.2.4 Life Cycle Inventory Model and Results A life cycle inventory (LCI) model aims to link all unit processes that are required to deliver the product(s) studied in an LCA (glueing together the product system)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 300, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 81, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 8.3 shows an example of an LCI model for a generic product. An LCI result is an inventory of the aggregated quantities of elementary flows, separated into resources and emissions, from all the unit processes within the system boundary. These elementary flow quantities must be correctly scaled to the assessed product by considering the extent to which the function of each unit process is required to deliver the studied product (see Chap. 9). 8.2.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment LCIA is composed of selection of impact categories, classification and characterisation, normalisation and weighting (the latter two are optional steps according to ISO). Chapter 10 details these steps and only their main characteristics and purposes are presented here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 301, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 81, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 10 details these steps and only their main characteristics and purposes are presented here. Selection of Impact Categories, Classification and Characterisation The first step of LCIA involves selecting the impact categories that are relevant to consider in the LCA (considering the goal and scope of the study) and classifying the elementary flows of the LCI results into these impact categories. Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 302, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 81, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The classification is based on the identification of the environmental issues that each elementary flow can contribute to, such as water depletion, non-renewable resource depletion, climate change or freshwater eutrophication. The purpose of the next step, characterisation, is to translate the LCI results (quantities of elementary flows aggregated across all unit processes of an LCI model) into indicator scores for the different impact categories. This essentially reduces a list of hundreds of quantified flows (the LCI results) to a manageable number of indicator scores (typically around 10 or fewer) with a clear environmental meaning, which is practical when comparing the environmental performance of two or more products. Normalisation Normalisation is an optional step under ISO 14044:2006 to support the interpretation of the impact profile from the characterisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 303, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 82, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation Normalisation is an optional step under ISO 14044:2006 to support the interpretation of the impact profile from the characterisation. Normalisation means that indicator scores for all impact categories are expressed in a common metric, typically the annual contributions to total environmental impacts of an average person. This serves mainly three purposes: (1) for decision-makers to better understand the magnitude of characterised results by relating them to a common familiar and external reference, (2) to check for errors in the assessment resulting in unreasonably low or high normalised results and (3) to pave the road for weighting. Weighting Like normalisation, weighting is an optional step under ISO 14044:2006 to support the interpretation of the impact profile", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 304, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 82, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Weighting Like normalisation, weighting is an optional step under ISO 14044:2006 to support the interpretation of the impact profile. In weighting, the (typically normalised) indicator scores for the different impact categories are made comparable by assigning weights to each impact category that is intended to reflect their relative importance. This relative importance is inherently subjective and can be based on the opinion of experts, policymakers or the general public (or a combination of these). Weighting allows calculating a single indicator score by summing all the weighted impact scores. This is often considered useful by decision-makers wanting to understand which product system performs best \u201coverall\u201d in a comparison", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 305, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 82, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is often considered useful by decision-makers wanting to understand which product system performs best \u201coverall\u201d in a comparison. The detailed choices on impact assessment methods and factors are made in the impact assessment phase of the LCA but it is necessary to select the impact categories in the scoping phase to ensure that the inventory analysis collects data on all elementary flows of potential relevance for the selected impact categories. 8.3 Deliverables The types of deliverables should directly reflect the intended applications of results, as defined in the goal definition. To be compatible with the ISO 14044 standard an LCA study must include an impact assessment, and most LCA studies have two deliverables, the LCI results and the LCIA results. Some LCA studies (e.g. collection of data for unit process databases) only involve the construction of a life cycle inventory (LCI), in which case the only deliverable is the LCI results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 306, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 82, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Some LCA studies (e.g. collection of data for unit process databases) only involve the construction of a life cycle inventory (LCI), in which case the only deliverable is the LCI results. In any case, LCI results should be documented with full transparency (see Sect. 9.7) to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 307, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 82, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ensure reproducibility of the LCA study and potentially allow elements of the underlying LCI model to be used as data sources for other LCA studies, if results are publicly released. LCIA results must be documented by the numerical values of the characterised results for each impact category covered. If normalisation and weighting of characterised results is carried out (see Sect. 8.2.5) the results of these steps must also be documented numerically. 8.4 Object of Assessment 8.4.1 Functions All LCAs study one or more product systems composed of many unit processes that are active throughout the life cycles of the product system(s). To study these systems the functions they provide must be understood. Indeed, LCA is the environmental assessment of needs fulfilment focusing on functions first and then on the products needed to provide these functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 308, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 83, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Indeed, LCA is the environmental assessment of needs fulfilment focusing on functions first and then on the products needed to provide these functions. An LCA study should thus first define the functions from the perspective of the user (later the perspective will change when secondary functions are to be defined, see Sect. 8.5). For example, two different energy technologies may be compared on the basis of the function they provide of enabling the delivery of electricity to households (through a common distribution system). Functions are especially important to understand when comparing two or more product systems because a comparison is only fair and meaningful if the compared systems provide (roughly) the same function(s) to the user", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 309, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 83, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, a tablet and a newspaper both provide the function of a news media, but because the tablet provides more functions (access to other websites, word processing and other software) a direct comparison of environmental impacts of a newspaper and a tablet would not be meaningful. An LCA must therefore always be anchored in a precise, quantitative description of the function(s) provided by the analysed product system. In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39, the windows are compared based on their function of allowing daylight into a building. 8.4.2 Functional Unit To support a fair and relevant quantitative comparison of alternative ways of providing a function, knowledge of the functions provided by the alternative product systems must be used to define a functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 310, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 83, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A functional unit defines the qualitative aspects and quantifies the quantitative aspects of the function, which generally involves answering the questions \u201cwhat?\u201d, \u201chow much?\u201d, \u201cfor how long/how many times?\u201d, \u201cwhere\u201d and \u201chow well?\u201d. For example, a comparison of Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 311, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 83, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "outdoor paints may be based on the functional unit: \u201cComplete coverage of 1 m2 primed outdoor wall for 10 years in Germany in a uniform colour at 99.9% opacity\u201d. This is not to say that all LCAs on paint should have this functional unit. In other cases, for example, a particular colour or sheen may be considered an important function and should be included in the functional unit. It is important to understand that the functional unit should always include a function and not simply be a physical quantity, such as 1 kg, 1L or 1 MJ. For example, it would be wrong to compare paints on the basis of a functional unit of \u201c1L paint\u201d, since an identical quantity of different paints may deliver different functions, e.g. in terms of area of wall that can be covered, or the quality and duration of the coverage. Figure 8.4 illustrates how this functional unit is composed of answers to the five questions presented above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 312, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 84, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 8.4 illustrates how this functional unit is composed of answers to the five questions presented above. It is important to define the functional unit right because it significantly influences the way LCA is performed, its results and interpretation, especially in comparative studies (see Sect. 8.9). This is because the functional unit serves as a reference point for deciding which unit processes to include and to what extent they are drawn upon. It is therefore essential to ensure that the functional unit fully captures the relevant functional aspects of the studied systems. In the following paragraphs, we provide some guidance for defining a correct functional unit. To get started, two concepts from the product development field are generally useful. These are obligatory properties and positioning properties. The obligatory properties are features that the product must possess for any user to perceive it as a product (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 313, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 84, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These are obligatory properties and positioning properties. The obligatory properties are features that the product must possess for any user to perceive it as a product (e.g. ability to cover and protect the wall against the weather for an outdoor wall paint) and may also include legally required features (e.g. a car must have seat belts). These can usually be expressed in technical terms. The positioning properties, on the other hand, are optional features of a product, which can be used to position it as more attractive to the consumer in the competition with other similar products. Examples include price, colour, comfort, convenience, image, fashion and aesthetic aspects of the product. Positioning properties often vary from consumer to consumer as opposed to obligatory properties. Tables 8.1 and 8.2 show an example of obligatory and positioning properties for an outdoor wall paint and the window frame case study (Chap. 39), respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 314, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 84, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Tables 8.1 and 8.2 show an example of obligatory and positioning properties for an outdoor wall paint and the window frame case study (Chap. 39), respectively. After having listed the obligatory and positioning properties they need to be transformed into the functional unit, i.e. they should be used to address the Complete coverage of 1 m2 primed outdoor wall for 10 years in Germany in a uniform color at 99 .9 % opacity What? How much? What? For how long/ how many times? Where? How well? Fig. 8.4 Example of a functional unit composed of five questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 315, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 84, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "questions \u201cwhat?\u201d, \u201chow much?\u201d, \u201cfor how long/how many times?\u201d, \u201cwhere\u201d and \u201chow well?\u201d, as in the example of Fig. 8.4. When defining the functional unit it is useful to distinguish between its quantitative and qualitative aspects. The quantitative aspects always make up the answers to the \u201chow much?\u201d and \u201cfor how long/how many times?\u201d questions and often take part of the answer to the \u201chow well?\u201d question. In the example of an LCA on shopping bags quantitative functional aspects may be the volume (\u201chow much?\u201d), the number of shopping trips that the bag should be used for (\u201chow long/many times?\u201d) and strength, i.e. the weight that can be carried (\u201chow well?\u201d). For products that are continually in use (e.g. a fridge or a paint) the \u201chow long/many times?\u201d question should be addressed in the form of the time during which the product is in function (as in the paint example of Fig. 8.4). For products that are not in use all the time (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 316, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 85, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.4). For products that are not in use all the time (e.g. clothes, mobile phones) the \u201chow long/many times?\u201d question should instead be addressed by specifying the intensity of the use, either as the total duration of use (e.g. 1000 h) or the number of times that the function is provided (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 317, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 85, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "50 shopping trips for the Table 8.1 Derivation of functional unit on the basis of obligatory and positioning properties of an outdoor wall paint Obligatory properties Positioning properties Cover wall with uniform colour Protect wall against rain, sun and microalgae Provide surface that is easy to clean Meet health requirements for application Drip-free application Many different colour tones to select from Water-based Well covering (needs only one application) Functional unit Complete coverage of 1 m2 primed outdoor wall for 10 years in Germany at a uniform colour at 99.9% opacity Reference flow 0.67 L of water-based paint A (needs two applications and a re-paint every 21\u20442 years) 0.15 L of water-based paint B (low content of water, only needs one application and lasts 5 years until re-paint is required) Table 8.2 Derivation of functional unit on the basis of obligatory and positioning properties of windows Obligatory properties Positioning properties Allow daylight into a building", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 318, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 85, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "is required) Table 8.2 Derivation of functional unit on the basis of obligatory and positioning properties of windows Obligatory properties Positioning properties Allow daylight into a building through a physical barrier Protection from outdoor climate (thermal and noise insulation) Allow ventilation between indoor and outdoor Provide aesthetic functionality to the building Protection against breaking into the building Functional unit Allow daylight into a building through a physical barrier, equivalent to light being transmitted through an area of 1.23 \u0003 1.48 m2 with visible light transmittance of at least 0.7, for 20 years Reference flow 0.5\u20130.67 window frames, depending on material 1 window pane Paint for maintaining surface of window pane (dependent on frame material) Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 319, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 85, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "shopping back example above). In the window frame case study the \u201chow well?\u201d question was partly addressed quantitatively by defining a visible light transmittance (the fraction of light that a window allows into the building) of at least 0.7 in the functional unit. The magnitude of the quantitative aspects in the functional unit can be chosen more or less arbitrarily. However, for the users of an LCA, it often makes the most sense to relate it to the magnitudes of typical use by a person, a family or a community. In the example of Fig. 8.4 it would be less intuitive to relate to a functional unit involving the complete coverage of 1 km2 primed outdoor wall, while a good magnitude in the functional unit for a study of waste incinerators could be the household waste generated by the municipality in one year. The qualitative aspects cover the way in which the function is provided and are often not easily quantifiable and sometimes not even clear-cut", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 320, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 86, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The qualitative aspects cover the way in which the function is provided and are often not easily quantifiable and sometimes not even clear-cut. The \u201cwhat?\u201d and \u201cwhere\u201d questions require qualitative answers. In the example of Fig. 8.4 the \u201cwhat?\u201d question is answered by \u201ccomplete coverage of primed outdoor wall\u201d and the \u201cwhere?\u201d question by \u201cGermany\u201d. Other qualitative aspects are often used to answer the \u201chow well?\u201d question. These could be legal requirements, e.g. fire safety measures in a car or an office building, or technical standards, e.g. RAL code 3020 for the colour of paint. References to relevant legal requirements and technical standards in the functional unit are helpful, because they ensure comparability through adherence to the standard. To fully address the \u201chow well?\u201d question subjective or ambiguous elements related to user perception (e.g. fashion) are often important to include, to ensure comparability of different products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 321, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 86, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To fully address the \u201chow well?\u201d question subjective or ambiguous elements related to user perception (e.g. fashion) are often important to include, to ensure comparability of different products. For example, products may be discarded by users although they still fulfil their technical functions because they are no longer perceived as fashionable. For this reason, it is important to understand which aspects of a studied product\u2019s function, including non-technical aspects such as fashion, that are perceived as important by users. LCA practitioners carrying out a study are therefore advised to consult the users of the product or service that is studied to ensure that the definition of the functional unit captures their perception of the product\u2019s functionality. Those non-technical aspects that differ between compared products should either be included in the functional unit or considered separately in the interpretation phase of the LCA (see Chap. 12)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 322, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 86, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Those non-technical aspects that differ between compared products should either be included in the functional unit or considered separately in the interpretation phase of the LCA (see Chap. 12). The authors of this chapter have over the years encountered many types of mistakes in the definition of functional units. Box 8.1 provides selected examples of such mistakes and explains what is wrong with them and what needs to be considered to prevent making them. Box 8.1: Common Types of Mistakes when Defining the Functional Unit 1. Assuming that same physical quantity of product equals the same function: Example: \u201c1 kg of packaging material\u201d Explanation: A physical quantity, such as mass, is not a function. The mass required to provide a packaging function often depends on the material.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 323, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 86, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As an example, glass and PET in beverage packaging have different densities and physical properties, and different masses will therefore be required for providing the same function. To prevent mistakes like this, the functionality of the product should be considered (for example, what is the functionality of packaging?). 2. Being overly restrictive: Example: \u201cEnable watching of television with a 30 W power consumption for 10,000 h\u201d Explanation: A fixed power consumption is (except in special cases) not relevant to the user of a television and means that only televisions with that exact power consumption can be included in a study. To prevent mistakes like this, it must be ensured that the functional unit only covers what relates to the function of the product (to watch television). 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 324, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 87, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To prevent mistakes like this, it must be ensured that the functional unit only covers what relates to the function of the product (to watch television). 3. Incorrect use of technical standards or legal requirements: Example: \u201cDriving 1000 average person-kilometres in a diesel passenger car that fulfils the Euro 6 standard and therefore emitting less than 0.08 g NOX per kilometre (Euro 6 standard) during use\u201d Explanation: Often products can demonstrate compliance with the law or a voluntary standard when completing a test that does not represent the actual conditions of the product\u2019s use. A passenger car complying with the Euro 6 standard may emit more NOX than 0.08 g/km, depending on the driving pattern, climate, etc. A misinterpretation of a technical standard in the functional unit can therefore lead to mistakes in the LCI (in this case, underestimated NOX emissions). To prevent mistakes like this, the condition of the use must be considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 325, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 87, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To prevent mistakes like this, the condition of the use must be considered. Generally, a reference to a technical standard in the functional unit does not need to be accompanied by the exact meaning of the technical standard, as this will be dealt with in the LCI modelling step. It must be stressed that a solid insight in the relevant technological domain is required to define a meaningful functional unit. For example, good knowledge about biofuels, nanomaterials or remediation of contaminated sites is required to define meaningful functional units for these technologies. Chapters 26\u201336 discuss the application of LCA, including the definition of functional units, for a wide range of technological domains. 8.4.3 Reference Flows When the functional unit has been defined, the reference flows can be determined. A reference flow is the product flow to which all input and output flows for the processes in the product system must be quantitatively related", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 326, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 87, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A reference flow is the product flow to which all input and output flows for the processes in the product system must be quantitatively related. In other words, the Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 327, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 87, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "reference flow is the amount of product that is needed to realise the functional unit. For example, as shown in Table 8.1, 0.67 L of paint A is required to realise the functional unit in Fig. 8.4, while the same functional unit is realised with 0.15 L of paint B. The reference flow is typically different qualitatively and quantitatively for different products compared on the basis of a functional unit, due to differences in product properties and characteristics (e.g. viscosity and tear resistance of a paint). The reference flow is the starting point for the ensuing LCI analysis phase of an LCA (see Chap. 9), because it determines all the product flows required throughout the life cycle of the product system studied and their associated elementary flows (resource uses and emissions). It is very important not to confuse a reference flow with a functional unit (see Example 1 in Box 8.1). The former can only be known when the latter is correctly defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 328, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 88, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is very important not to confuse a reference flow with a functional unit (see Example 1 in Box 8.1). The former can only be known when the latter is correctly defined. One should, for example, never base an LCA on the comparison of 1 L of two different paints, unless a correctly defined functional unit has shown that the reference flows of the compared paints are quantitatively identical. It is important to understand the use situation in order to correctly define reference flows. For example, to define reference flows in a comparison of a disposable cardboard cup and a ceramic cup, the LCA practitioner must understand the number of times the two cups are used before they are discarded and how the ceramic cup is cleaned (by hand or dishwasher, and the associated consumption of detergent and water and its temperature). Tables 8.1 and 8.2 include functional unit and corresponding reference flows for the example of outdoor wall paint and the window frame case study (Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 329, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 88, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Tables 8.1 and 8.2 include functional unit and corresponding reference flows for the example of outdoor wall paint and the window frame case study (Chap. 39), respectively. 8.5 LCI Modelling Framework and Handling of Multifunctional Processes This part of the scope definition deals with the choice of an appropriate LCI modelling framework and ways to handle multifunctional processes. These choices must be made in accordance with the goal definition, particularly the identified decision context (Situation A, B or C, see Sect. 7.3), and they have a strong influence on the inventory analysis, the LCA results and their interpretation. 8.5.1 Secondary Functions and Multifunctional Processes To understand why different LCI modelling frameworks exist we first need to consider that a product system often delivers other types of function than the type dealt with in Tables 8.1 and 8.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 330, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 88, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The functions of Tables 8.1 and 8.2 all relate to obligatory or positioning properties and are intended functions made available to product users by, e.g. companies selling the products. They are called primary functions. In addition to those, secondary functions can also emerge in the life cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 331, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 88, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of a product system. Secondary functions are unintended functions that usually have low or no relevance to the users of a product, meaning that they are not contributing to the obligatory or positioning properties. Instead, secondary functions are relevant to other systems of the technosphere that the studied product system interacts with. The existence of secondary functions reflects the fact that some processes are multifunctional. A process is multifunctional when it provides more than one function, meaning that it either delivers more than one product output and/or provides more than one service. An example of a multifunctional process that delivers more than one product output is animal husbandry where the cow may deliver both milk, meat, hide, bone meal and other products with an economic value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 332, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 89, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The production of the hide is an example of a secondary function of the husbandry from the perspective of the user of a bottle of milk, since hide is neither an obligatory nor a positioning property of the milk. An example of a multifunctional process that both deliver more than one product output and provide more than one service is waste incineration. It provides the multiple services of getting rid of many different types of wastes (the obligatory property) and can deliver both electricity and heat while doing so. Thus, secondary functions of a product that is disposed of by incineration are the production of heat and electricity. These secondary functions are relevant from the perspective of the energy system that the product system interact with because a change in the volume of discarded products that is incinerated leads to a change in the amount of energy generated from incineration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 333, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 89, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Multifunctional processes constitute a methodological challenge in LCA, which is based on the idea of analysing individual product systems based on the primary functions they provide in order to determine the environmental impact from the product. In the real world, there is hardly any product system that exists in isolation. As soon as a by-product arises from a multifunctional process (e.g. animal husbandry), it is economic common sense to try to utilise it, often in a different context from the product system being analysed in the LCA. This means that the process becomes part of another product system as well, and that the environmental impacts from the process can no longer be fully ascribed to the product system studied. 8.5.2 The ISO 14044 Hierarchy to Solving Multifunctionality In order to solve multifunctionality issues, the ISO 14044 standard presents a hierarchy of solutions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 334, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 89, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.5.2 The ISO 14044 Hierarchy to Solving Multifunctionality In order to solve multifunctionality issues, the ISO 14044 standard presents a hierarchy of solutions. These solutions can both be used to make different product systems functionally comparable and to represent a single product system in a hotspot analysis. The levels of the hierarchy are presented below and the hierarchy is summarised as a decision tree in Fig. 8.5. Chapter 9 shows how to use to ISO hierarchy in practice when constructing an LCI. Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 335, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 89, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Subdivision of Unit Process First choice is to try to solve this problem through increasing the resolution of the modelling by dividing the multifunctional unit process into minor units to see whether it is possible in this way to separate the production of the product from the production of the co-product, and if so exclude the subprocesses that provide the additional functions from the product system, see Fig. 8.6. An example of subdivision is when a factory produces two products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 336, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 90, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.6. An example of subdivision is when a factory produces two products. Here, the subdivision approach may lead to the realisation that the factory actually contains a For each, can you sub-divide the multifunctional process ? Identify secondary functions Can you identify conventional or most probable alternative way to produce secondary functions? Perform subdivision of the process Cut off the subprocess providing the secondary function Integrate the secondary function into the system boundaries (displacement/ avoidance of impacts) Partition the environmental flows and associated impacts between the primary and the secondary functions, and cut off the part related to the secondary functions Can you perform meaningful allocation using causal physical relationship? Perform system expansion Perform allocation using physical causality Yes Yes Yes No No Can you perform meaningful allocation using representative physical relationship? Perform allocation using another parameter (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 337, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 90, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "economic) Perform allocation using representative physical parameter Yes No No Fig. 8.5 ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality presented in a decision tree", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 338, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 90, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "number of processes and that the processes needed for the production of the first product are physically separated from the processes needed for the production of the second product. This approach to solving multifunctionality does not always work. Even if you zoom to the molecular level of a cow, it is not possible to physically separate the metabolic processes in the cow that lead to the production of milk from the ones that lead to the production of meat or hide. System Expansion If subdivision fails to solve the multifunctionality problem, the ISO standard recommends trying to solve the problem by system expansion. In a comparison of two processes, this means expanding the second process with the most likely alternative way of providing the secondary function of the first process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 339, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 91, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In a comparison of two processes, this means expanding the second process with the most likely alternative way of providing the secondary function of the first process. In the comparison of power plant 1, which has district heating with co-generated heat as a secondary function, with a power plant 2, which only produces electricity, this means expanding the system of plant 2 with the most likely alternative way or combination of ways of providing district heat in that region (see Fig. 8.7). Expansion of system 2 with the alternative way to produce the secondary function of system 1 is equivalent to subtracting the alternative way from system 1 (which provides the function). This is also called to credit system 1 with the inputs and outputs which are avoided when its secondary service replaces this alternative production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 340, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 91, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is also called to credit system 1 with the inputs and outputs which are avoided when its secondary service replaces this alternative production. In the case of district heating being the secondary function, system expansion would thus be the same as crediting the power plant, which produces the district heat, through subtracting the impacts from the most likely alternative way of producing this heat as illustrated in Fig. 8.6. In Fig. 8.6 equation B follows from equation A by subtraction of the alternative way of district heating from both sides of the equal sign. The approach of system expansion is thus mathematically equivalent to crediting for avoided production. Crediting for avoided production is typically used to account for secondary functions in a hotspot analysis where there is not a comparison of two alternative systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 341, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 91, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Crediting for avoided production is typically used to account for secondary functions in a hotspot analysis where there is not a comparison of two alternative systems. For example, a product system that includes incineration can be credited for the avoided impacts from the production of heat and electricity by subtracting the avoided elementary flows in the inventory of the process (see Chap. 9 for technical details). In the milk example, system expansion can be performed by Materials Emissions to air, water and soil Product 1 Product 2 Materials Emissions to air, water and soil Product 1 Product 2 Unit process Fig. 8.6 Solving the multifunctionality problem by increasing the modelling resolution and sub-dividing the process into minor units which can unambiguously be assigned to either of the functional outputs Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 342, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 91, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "crediting the milk for the avoided impacts from alternative production of beef and other co-products. This alternative production might be the raising of cattle in a pure beef production system (which includes hides and other low-value co-products). Note that quality differences between dairy cow meat and cattle meat means that they may not be functionally equivalent. This may require the application of a value correction factor to the crediting. An important task in system expansion is to identify the process (or combination of processes) which is superseded by the co-product. This relates to the decision context (Situation A, B or C1/C2) identified in the goal definition (Sect. 7.4) and will be dealt with in Sect. 8.5.3. Allocation Sometimes it is not feasible to obtain complete functional equivalency between the compared systems or to isolate the primary function of a process from the secondary functions through system expansion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 343, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 92, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This may be the case when there is no alternative way to produce the secondary functions. A classic example of such a multi-output process is a petrochemical refinery with a variety of different organic substances as output without any mainstream alternative routes of production for these. It may also be the case when the most likely alternative route also has secondary functions, creating the need for further system expansion introducing alternative routes for the new level of secondary functions, which again may have secondary functions, creating the need for further system expansion and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 344, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 92, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the milk example, the alternative production of meat from raising of cattle for example leads to the co-production of horn (for example used in jewellery Combined heat and power plant 1 1.5 GWh heat 1 GWh electricity Power plant 2 1 GWh electricity Alternative production of district heating 1.5 GWh heat Combined heat and power plant 1 1.5 GWh heat 1 GWh electricity Alternative production of district heating 1.5 GWh heat Power plant 2 1 GWh electricity (a) (b) Fig. 8.7 Equivalent modelling approach when dealing with multifunctionality. a System expansion: to ensure equal functionality system 2 is expanded to include the secondary function of system 1. b Crediting: system 1 is credited for the production of the secondary function, in order to have equal functionality of system 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 345, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 92, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "production), which cannot be produced in isolation and for which there may not exist a functionally equivalent material. When system expansion is not feasible, or when it is in conflict with the goal definition (for Situation C2, see below), the ISO 14044 standard recommends dividing the inputs and outputs of the multifunctional process or system between the different products or functions. This is called allocation. If possible, the allocation should be performed in accordance with the underlying causal physical relationships between the different products or functions, reflecting the way in which the input and output quantities are affected by changes in the quantities of products or functions delivered by the process or system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 346, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 93, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, in the hypothetical example of a waste incineration plant that incinerates two waste inputs, batteries and plastic, emissions of the toxic metal cadmium from the process will originate entirely from the batteries, given that the plastic stream contains no cadmium and that cadmium cannot be formed in the waste incineration process. This conclusion on the origin of cadmium, based on deductive reasoning, could also have been reached empirically by measuring changes in cadmium emissions in response to changes in waste inputs (e.g. a doubling of cadmium emissions would be expected from a doubling of battery inputs). A causal physical relationship can thus be established and cadmium emissions can be allocated 100% to the batteries. In the case of the milk example, the International Dairy Association recommends that physical allocation be based on the different physiological feed requirements for an animal to produce milk and meat (IDF 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 347, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 93, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the absence of a causal physical relationship between the products, the ISO standard recommends performing the allocation according to representative parameters. This is possible when co-products provide identical or similar functions. In the case of a waste incineration plant that delivers both heat and electricity as output, the exergy content of the two flows may, depending on the study context, be used as a representative physical parameter or allocation key, because it reflects the potential of each energyform to perform mechanical work. Here, it is important that the representative physical parameter actually represents a common function of the co-products. In the example of an agricultural process that produces both wheat and straw, the energy content of the two flows can only be used as a representative parameter if they are both intended as animal fodder (a common function)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 348, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 93, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If instead, the wheat is intended as food for humans this choice of representative parameter would be wrong (food for humans deliver many more functions than energy, e.g. vitamins and taste). When no common representative physical parameter can be identified for the different outputs, another relationship must be found between them. As an example, the ISO standard mentions an economic relationship, and indeed, this is a frequently applied allocation parameter. In economic allocation the inputs and outputs of the process or system are divided between its products according to their respective economic values, e.g. determined as their long-term average market prices, or some shadow price in cases where there is no market, e.g. for intermediary products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 349, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 93, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "determined as their long-term average market prices, or some shadow price in cases where there is no market, e.g. for intermediary products. A justification for the use of economic allocation is that products are produced due to an incentive of financial income, and that a co-product with a market value close to 0 should be allocated a correspondingly low share of the non-product flows of a Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 350, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 93, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "process, compared to a primary product with a high market value. In the extreme situation where the value of the co-product is zero, its allocated share of the inputs and outputs also becomes zero in accordance with the fact that a zero-value output is not a co-product but waste and should be modelled as such. 8.5.3 LCI Modelling Framework: Attributional and Consequential LCA Traditionally, there have been two main LCI modelling frameworks: attributional and consequential modelling. In the ILCD guidelines, these were adapted to match the four decision context situations (i.e. A, B, C1 and C2). Understanding the difference between attributional and consequential modelling and when to use what has been one of the most difficult aspects of LCA, and there is still no consensus on this issue within the LCA community", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 351, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 94, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, some aspects of the terminology defined in the ILCD guidelines, in particular with regard to the definition and settings of attributional modelling, are inconsistent with the traditional views within the LCA community, thus adding more confusion to the matter (Ekvall et al. 2016). Below we first offer an explanation of the two modelling frameworks, including their handling of multifunctional processes and the use of average or so-called marginal LCI data (to be explained below). Where relevant we specify discrepancies between the ILCD guidelines and the traditional views. Table 8.3 summarises the explanation and discrepancies. We then provide guidance in compliance with the ILCD guidelines for selecting the LCI modelling framework with consideration to the goal definition. Attributional LCI modelling was initially the common practice when LCA development caught pace in the early-mid nineties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 352, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 94, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Attributional LCI modelling was initially the common practice when LCA development caught pace in the early-mid nineties. The overall aim of attributional modelling is to represent a product system in isolation from the rest of the technosphere or economy. The question addressed by attributional LCA can be said to Table 8.3 The meaning of the attributional and consequential modelling frameworks and their handling of multifunctionality LCI modelling framework Question to be answered Handling of multifunctional processes when subdivision is not possible Modelling of background system Before ILCD ILCD Attributional What environmental impact can be attributed to product X? Allocation System expansion or allocation Average processes Consequential What are the environmental consequences of consuming X? System expansion System expansion Marginal processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 353, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 94, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "be \u201cwhat environmental impact can be attributed to product X?\u201d or \u201cwhat environmental impact is product X responsible for?\u201d As hinted by these questions, there is an element of subjectivity involved in attributing impacts to a product system or deciding the impact responsibility of a product system. This subjectivity arises in the act of artificially separating the studied product system from the rest of the economy. This separation is artificial because many, if not most, product systems interact with other products systems through multifunctional processes, meaning that they, as explained in the previous section, cannot be described as physical entities in isolation. For example, from a strict physical perspective, the product system of a bottle of milk cannot be described in isolation and the assignment of processes that the product system is seen as \u201cresponsible for\u201d therefore involves choices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 354, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 95, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Before the ILCD guidelines came into place attributional modelling was generally associated with allocation as the approach to solving the issue of multifunctional processes, provided that subdivision (the preferred solution of the ISO hierarchy) was not possible. By contrast, ILCD in some cases recommends solving multifunctionality by system expansion within an attributional modelling framework (see below). Besides the issue of multifunctionality, attributional LCA is also associated with the use of average processes in the background system, which reflects the modelling of an average supply chain. In practice, this means that a market mix is used. This could be for the global aluminium market or the electricitymarket of a nation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 355, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 95, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, this means that a market mix is used. This could be for the global aluminium market or the electricitymarket of a nation. The former is composed of a range of bauxite mines with different ore grades and processing facilities that employ different production technologies, while the latter is composed of different energy conversion technologies, such as the combustion of coal, natural gas, oil and biomass, the harvesting of wind and solar power and the use of nuclear power. As an example, Fig. 8.8 shows the Danish electricity consumption mix in 2014. Consequential LCI modelling was developed around the year 2000 to eliminate the weakness inherent in the attributional LCA modelling framework due to the attempt to artificially separate a product from the rest of the economy. Its overall aim is to describe the changes to the economy caused by the introduction of the studied product system, i.e. the product system\u2019s consequence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 356, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 95, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Its overall aim is to describe the changes to the economy caused by the introduction of the studied product system, i.e. the product system\u2019s consequence. Consequential LCI modelling thus aims to answer the question \u201cWhat are the environmental consequences of consuming X?\u201d For example, a consequential LCA of a bottle of milk would attempt to model how the market responds to the change in demand for milk represented by the functional unit of the study (e.g. involving a milk volume of 1 L or a specified nutritional value). This is a very different approach than attributional modelling because the change in the economy can look very different than the representation of the isolated bottle of milk system. For example, the increased demand for milk may lead to an increase in the capacity for milk production (i.e. the numbers of cows giving milk), which in turn may lead to a reduction in the production of some meat (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 357, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 95, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the numbers of cows giving milk), which in turn may lead to a reduction in the production of some meat (e.g. beef from raising cattle) due to the increasing supply of meat from dairy cows. This corresponds to handling the multifunctional process of milk production by system expansion. A consequence of increased consumption of milk may therefore be a reduction in environmental impacts from the avoided Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 358, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 95, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "production of beef from cattle, which is somewhat counterintuitive. The market may also be influenced by an increased demand for a product in other cases than multifunctionality. For example, if an additional kg is demanded of a fish species that is already fished at its maximum level permitted by regulation (a production constraint) a consequence may be an increase in the production of another protein source that is not constrained, such as chicken, and the environmental impacts following this increase. The examples show that consequential modelling to a large extent relies on a good understanding of and ability to model the dynamics of the economic system, which requires a markedly different way of thinking than the engineering perspective on product supply chains that historically has been in the core of LCA (see Chap. 3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 359, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 96, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3). Contrary to attributional LCA, consequential LCA is not associated with the use of average processes for modelling the background system, but instead with the use of marginal processes. These are the processes that are employed or taken out of use as a response to an increase or decrease in the demand for a product, respectively. In the example of the Danish electricity system, the short-term marginal process will never be solar or wind, because solar irradiance or the wind are natural processes that cannot be \u201cturned up or down\u201d in response to a short-term change in electricity demand. Instead, the short-term marginal process in this example is a combustion process because it is possible to quickly adjust the rate at which something (e.g. coal or natural gas) is combusted in response to a change in electricity demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 360, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 96, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "coal or natural gas) is combusted in response to a change in electricity demand. The short-term marginal is often the combustion of natural gas, because this is a more expensive way of generating electricity than coal and thus sensitive to changes in Import from Germany Import from Norway Import from Sweden Natural Gas Oil Waste Wood chips Coal Wind Others 34% 14% 2% 5% 4% 14% 1% 14% 10% 3% Fig. 8.8 Danish electricity consumption mix in 2014 (low voltage, e.g. for domestic consumption). Imports from neighbouring countries can be further broken down into energy sources (Treyer and Bauer 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 361, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 96, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "electricity prices caused by changes in electricity demand (often, natural gas is only used during peak demand when a relatively high electricity price makes this technology economically viable). However, the relevant marginal processes to include in an LCI model are not always the ones that are affected as an immediate consequence of a decision, i.e. short-term marginal processes. Long-term marginal processes may be more relevant if a decision leads to large changes in supply or demand. Long-term marginal processes represent changes in the installed production capacity in response to the projected development of electricity demand. Often it is difficult to identify a single long-term marginal process, which is why a mix of potential long-term marginal processes is often used. Figure 8.9 shows such a mix for the long-term marginal electricity technology in the Danish market. See Chap. 9 on the identification of short- and long-term marginal processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 362, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 97, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 8.9 shows such a mix for the long-term marginal electricity technology in the Danish market. See Chap. 9 on the identification of short- and long-term marginal processes. It can be seen that fewer electricity production processes are part of the mix in Fig. 8.9 for consequential modelling than the mix in Fig. 8.8 for attributional modelling. For example, waste as an electricity source is not part of the consequential mix and this is because the long-term planning of waste incineration is thought to consider projections in future waste volumes (the primary function of waste incineration is to \u201cget rid of\u201d solid waste) rather than projections in future electricity demand. On the other hand, the construction of new wind turbines and coal-fired power plants (and to a very small extent, hydropower plants and rooftop photovoltaic panels) are thought to consider projections in future Danish electricity demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 363, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 97, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When to consider short- versus long-term marginal processes in consequential LCA and how to identify these are still being debated in the LCA community. Note that while the background system is modelled differently in attributional and consequential LCA, the foreground system is overall modelled in the same way, the only exception being the handling of multifunctional processes. Fig. 8.9 Danish market mix of long-term marginal electricity processes (low voltage, e.g. for domestic consumption) (Treyer and Bauer 2013) Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 364, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 97, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.5.4 Recommended Modelling Choices for the Identified Decision Context ILCD provides recommendations for model choices for each of decision contexts (Situation A, B, C1 and C2) identified as part of the goal definition (see Chap. 7). These recommendations are the outcome of a comprehensive consultation process within the LCA community. Since different actors with different views have had a saying in this consensus process leading up to the ILCD recommendations, they are somewhat internally inconsistent, as pointed out by, for example, Ekvall et al. (2016). Below we present the recommendations for each decision context and make notes about the parts that are disputed. Table 8.4 summarises the recommendations. Situation A Situation A concerns micro-level decision support (see Chap. 7) and the consequence of a decision (e.g. the introduction of a new product on the market) is therefore of interest", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 365, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 98, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation A Situation A concerns micro-level decision support (see Chap. 7) and the consequence of a decision (e.g. the introduction of a new product on the market) is therefore of interest. Ideally, the marginal process should therefore be identified and used for all background processes (such as electricity supply) and cases of multifunctionality (e.g. of an incineration process) should be handled by system expansion with marginal processes, provided that subdivision is not possible (see Sect. 8.5.2). This ideal for Situation A is logically consistent with a consequential modelling framework. Yet, ILCD recommends using an average market consumption mix for background processes and in cases of system expansion in the background system. ILCD terms this attributional modelling, although system expansion was previously associated with consequential modelling, as mentioned above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 366, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 98, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ILCD terms this attributional modelling, although system expansion was previously associated with consequential modelling, as mentioned above. The main reason for diverging from the ideal is that for the small changes studied under Situation A it can be very difficult to identify marginal processes, i.e. to understand the long- and short-term consequences on the market of introducing a small change in its composition of product systems. The actual market behaviour in response to small changes may also not be well-represented by simple mathematical Table 8.4 Summary of ILCD recommendations on LCI modelling choices Decision context LCI modelling framework (ILCD terminology) Handling of multifunctional processes when subdivision is not possible Modelling of background system Situation A Attributional System expansion Average processes Situation B Mix of attributional and consequential System expansion Mix of long-term marginal processes for processes structurally changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 367, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 98, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Average processes in all other cases Situation C1 Attributional System expansion Average processes Situation C2 Attributional Allocation Average processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 368, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 98, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "equations, which makes it difficult to model what will actually happen, short-term and long-term, when, for example, a light-bulb is turned on, compared to a situation where it is not turned on. There is therefore a risk of using wrong marginal processes and this is problematic because LCA results are often quite sensitive to the choices of marginal process (e.g. natural gas vs. wind for electricity supply). These considerations have lead ILCD to pragmatically recommend using average processes in the background system. It must be mentioned that some LCA experts prefer to pursue the ideal by using marginal processes in Situation A studies, which conflicts with the presented ILCD recommendations. Situation B Situation B concerns meso/macro-level decision support (see Chap. 7)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 369, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 99, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation B Situation B concerns meso/macro-level decision support (see Chap. 7). ILCD recommends the same modelling choices as for Situation A, with the exception that background processes in the studied product system that have been identified as being affected by structural changes as consequence of the analysed decision are recommended to be modelled as mix of the long-term marginal processes. The logic behind this exception is that marginal processes for suppliers that experience structural changes are easier to identify than marginal processes for suppliers that just experience changes in terms of the volume of products they deliver. The reason for the focus on the long-term marginal is that the consequences studied under Situation B are generally long term", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 370, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 99, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reason for the focus on the long-term marginal is that the consequences studied under Situation B are generally long term. Still, identifying the correct long-term marginal processes in Situation B can be challenging and this is why it is pragmatically recommended to use a mix of possible long-term marginal processes, rather than actual long-term marginal processes, such as the mix for electricity shown in Fig. 8.9. Chapter 9 addresses the calculation of such a mix. In light of the uncertainty involved, we advise to model the LCI using a range of different mixes to analyse how sensitive results are to the estimated mix (see Chap. 12). As for Situation A studies, some LCA experts prefer to pursue the ideal of using a fully consequential approach by only using marginal processes (either single process or a mix) in Situation B studies, which conflicts with the presented ILCD recommendations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 371, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 99, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation C Situation C relates to accounting, meaning that studies are not to be used to directly support decisions and are of purely descriptive nature, often describing what has already happened. Situation C1 considers interactions with other systems and ILCD recommends handling this interaction via system expansion (for solving multifunctional processes where subdivision is not possible) and use of average processes in the background system. This means that the recommendations of ILCD in practice are similar for Situation A and C1, even though the modelling ideals of Situation A and C1 are different. Situation C2 disregards interactions with other systems and ILCD therefore recommends that allocation be systematically used to solve multifunctional processes, provided that subdivision is not possible. Note that this conflicts with the ISO hierarchy, according to which system expansion should be performed when possible instead of allocation. Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 372, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 99, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.6 System Boundaries and Completeness Requirements System boundaries demarcate the boundaries between the studied product system and (1) the surrounding economy (technosphere) and (2) the environment (ecosphere). \u201cCompleteness requirements\u201d is a related concept that can be used to determine what processes should be included within the system boundaries to reach the degree of completeness in the product system modelling that is needed to be in agreement with the goal of a study (see details below). The setting of the system boundaries can have a large influence on LCA results because they determine the unit processes from which environmental impacts should be quantified. At this point in the scope definition, the system boundaries should be represented in a diagram that provides an overview of which parts of the studied product system(s) that are included and which are excluded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 373, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 100, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An appropriate level of detail in this diagram is the life cycle stages (such as production, manufacturing, transportation, retail, use and disposal) or the main processing steps. It is often useful to start with the process or life cycle stage that delivers the reference flow and then expand upstream and downstream. See Fig. 8.10 for an example diagram for the study of a steel sheet used to prevent accidents during roadworks. Note that the diagram does not need to contain individual unit processes, as this full level of detail will only be achieved in the actual construction of the inventory model (Chap. 9). Extraction of iron ore Crude steel production Steel rolling Use on road Collection for recycling System boundaries Pig iron production Extraction and production of materials Manufacturing Use Disposal Landfilling (a) (b) Fig. 8.10 a Example of system boundaries diagram for the life cycle of a steel sheet used to prevent accidents during roadworks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 374, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 100, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.10 a Example of system boundaries diagram for the life cycle of a steel sheet used to prevent accidents during roadworks. Only the main process steps in the life cycle are shown. b Illustration of steel sheets in use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 375, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 100, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.6.1 Ideal System Boundaries Ideally, within the system boundaries should be all the unit processes required to deliver the reference flow(s) defined by the functional unit. In cases where multifunctionality is handled by system expansion, this also includes processes from other systems that interact with the studied system. System boundaries should ideally be set so that all flows crossing them are elementary flows (resources and emissions). In other words, no material, energy, product or waste to treatment flows should cross the system boundaries. Ideal system boundaries thereby contain all the unit processes used to deliver the reference flow(s) by (1) generating energy and products (materials for other unit processes) from extracted resources and (2) treating waste flows to the point where the only outputs are emissions. Figure 8.11 illustrates an ideal system boundary for a simple hypothetical product system containing just fifteen unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 376, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 101, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 8.11 illustrates an ideal system boundary for a simple hypothetical product system containing just fifteen unit processes. In this case, the inventory model is fully complete, because all unit processes needed to deliver the reference flows are inside the system boundaries. Outside the system boundaries lies the rest of the technosphere (not shown in Fig. 8.9), i.e. the total body of other product systems in the global economy, and the ecosphere, i.e. which is affected by resource uses and emissions from the technosphere. Ecosphere Technosphere System boundaries Reference flow Legend Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Fig. 8.11 Setting of system boundaries for a simple hypothetical product system. The boundary contains all the unit processes required to deliver the reference flow (bold), and the only flows crossing the system boundaries are elementary flows (blue). Note that the rest of the technosphere is not shown Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 377, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 101, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.6.2 Reasons to Divert from Ideal System Boundaries There are three reasons to divert from working with ideal system boundaries: First, if a study does not take a full life cycle perspective the rule of only allowing elementary flows to cross the system boundary does not apply. A study taking a full life cycle perspective aims to cover all the processes that are needed to deliver the function(s) of interest upstream (extraction and production of raw materials and manufacturing) and downstream (disposal) to the use stage. By contrast, a so-called \u201ccradle-to-gate\u201d study is an example of a study not taking a full life cycle perspective because the system boundary ends at the gate of the factory where the studied product is produced. In this case, the product flow thus crosses the system boundary, as shown in Fig. 8.12 (based on the simple hypothetical product system shown in Fig. 8.11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 378, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 102, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this case, the product flow thus crosses the system boundary, as shown in Fig. 8.12 (based on the simple hypothetical product system shown in Fig. 8.11). The goal definition\u2019s intended applications of results decides whether a full life cycle perspective should be taken (see Chap. 7). This decision is usually also reflected by the functional unit (see Sect. 8.4.2). Second, in comparative studies it is justified to exclude identical processes if they deliver identical quantities of services (energy, materials or treatment of waste) in the systems studied. For example, in the illustrative case study on window frames (Chap. 39) comparing four windows, the processes involved in cleaning the Ecosphere Technosphere Reference flow System boundaries Legend Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Fig. 8.12 Setting of system boundaries for a simple hypothetical product system in a cradle-to-gate assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 379, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 102, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.12 Setting of system boundaries for a simple hypothetical product system in a cradle-to-gate assessment. In this case, the reference flow (bold) is crossing the system boundaries, to the rest of the technosphere; in addition to the elementary flows (blue) entering or leaving the ecosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 380, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 102, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "windows throughout their use stages were excluded from the system of each window because users are expected to clean the windows, that all have the same surface area, in the same way, using the same amount of water and detergent. While this kind of exclusion is allowed for comparisons between systems, it prevents a proper hotspot analysis because it is unknown how much the omitted processes contribute to overall environmental impacts. Third, constructing an LCI model with ideal boundaries is practically impossible. This is because the number of unit processes actually required to deliver a reference flow is often, even for simple products, enormous: Typically, unit processes require around 5\u201310 material or energy inputs that each needs to be produced by a unit process that in itself requires around 5\u201310 material or energy inputs, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 381, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, many product systems include examples of infinite loops where one process A requires input from another process B to deliver an output that is needed by process B to produce the input to process A. Every step back in a value chain represents a step back in time and ideal system boundaries would therefore need to encompass a large part of industrial history, which is not practically possible to model. Yet, amongst the enormous number of unit processes that should ideally be included in the system boundaries, only a minority actually have a quantitatively relevant contribution to the environmental impacts of the studied product system. For example, the ballpoint pens used by employees at a coal-fired power plant obviously have an insignificant contribution to the environmental impacts of a unit of power generation. Therefore, all LCA studies in practice cut-off some unit processes that are actually needed (although to a very limited extent) to deliver the reference flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 382, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, all LCA studies in practice cut-off some unit processes that are actually needed (although to a very limited extent) to deliver the reference flow. This presents a dilemma of the system scoping. You should include within your system boundaries the processes that matter, i.e. contribute significantly to the overall impacts from the product system, but how can you determine whether a process matters before you know what the total impacts are and can relate the impacts from the process to this number? The solution to this dilemma lies in the iterative approach to LCA that was introduced in Sect. 6.3 and presented for inventory modelling in Sect. 9.3. Figure 8.13 shows examples of excluded product flows. 8.6.3 Completeness Requirements: Quantitative or Qualitative? Completeness requirements are understood quantitatively by the ILCD guideline as the share (%) of a product\u2019s actual environmental impact that a study aims to capture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 383, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From this understanding, completeness requirements would, for example, be lower for a study that intends to provide an initial screening of hot spots for a company to familiarise itself with the concept of life cycle thinking (e.g. 70%), than for a study that intends to provide an environmental product declaration (EPD) for Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 384, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "consumers to consider environmental aspects of their purchasing (e.g. 90%). In an LCA guiding the choice between two product designs, the completeness requirement depends on the difference in impact between the product designs. If there is a large (expected) difference, the requirement to completeness would be lower than if the product designs have very similar impacts. In practice, it is often difficult to derive a quantitative completeness requirement from the, generally qualitative, goal definition. In addition, a quantitative completeness requirement is often not helpful for deciding whether a specific process should be included in the system or can be cut-off. To know whether a process can be cut-off one must know how much that process contributes to the total LCIA results for the product system. In other words, one must include the process to figure out if it can be excluded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 385, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, one must include the process to figure out if it can be excluded. To circumvent this paradox, some LCA practitioners take a more practical approach by deriving a mass-based cut-off criterion,such as 0.1% from quantitative completeness requirements. This would mean that processes delivering flows with a mass of less than 0.1% of the reference flow can be cut-off. We do not recommend following this approach blindly, because flows that are quantitatively small may still lead to large impacts and therefore have to be included in the modelling. For example, a low mass share of gold in a laptop can account for relatively large impacts due to mining Ecosphere Technosphere System boundaries A/S A/S A/S Legend Excluded product or waste flow Allocation/ Substitution Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Reference flow Fig. 8.13 Setting of system boundaries for a realistic product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 386, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.13 Setting of system boundaries for a realistic product system. In this case, some processes are not included within the system boundaries (cut-off), as illustrated by the excluded product and waste flows. The exact system boundaries depend on whether allocation or substitution is performed in the handling of multifunctional processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 387, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "activities, and a small quantity of radioactive waste, e.g. from hospital equipment, can require extensive waste treatment, and therefore be associated with environmental impacts that should not be neglected. Due to the limitations of working with quantitative completeness requirements, we here advocate a qualitative approach. This means specifying the parts of a life cycle that must be included in the system boundaries and arguing why cutting off other parts is acceptable. For example, an LCA practitioner may know from similar LCA studies or previous experience that transportation between the use stage and the waste management stage, or business trips of the employees of a tier-one supplier are negligible. For new LCA practitioners, it can be difficult to create reasonable completeness requirements and it is therefore always important to explicitly report and justify them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 388, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For new LCA practitioners, it can be difficult to create reasonable completeness requirements and it is therefore always important to explicitly report and justify them. Applying the iterative approach, the omission of any processes should be justified in a sensitivity analysis after the inventory analysis and impact assessment. If the sensitivity analysis indicates that the process may be important with the chosen completeness requirements, it should be included (and perhaps refined) in the next iteration. We stress that an LCA practitioner should not blindly apply \u201cdefault\u201d qualitative completeness requirements, such as disregarding the production and maintenance of infrastructure, to any study, but always base the requirements on a case-specific assessment. This is to avoid cutting off parts of a life cycle that are important in the specific study, although they may typically not be important", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 389, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is to avoid cutting off parts of a life cycle that are important in the specific study, although they may typically not be important. As with most items of the scope definition, completeness requirements are meant to guide the initial LCI analysis, but during this analysis unforeseen limitations may mean that the requirements are in practice not possible to follow. The LCA practitioner can either handle this situation by modifying the completeness requirements in a new iteration of the scope definition or by explicitly documenting in the LCI analysis the parts of the LCI model that do not fulfil the completeness requirements. 8.7 Representativeness of LCI Data It is the aim of LCA to reflect physical reality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 390, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.7 Representativeness of LCI Data It is the aim of LCA to reflect physical reality. This means that the model should represent what actually happens or has happened to the extent possible, and the unit processes applied to model the product system must be representative of the processes which are actually used in the analysed product system (in case of attributional LCA) or affected due to the introduction of the assessed product on the market (in the case of consequential LCA). Typically, parts of a foreground system will be based on data (elementary flows, etc.) collected first-hand by the LCA practitioner, e.g. from the company commissioning the study. This primary data is, provided that it contains no errors, per definition representative of the specific process occurring at the time that the data was collected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 391, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This primary data is, provided that it contains no errors, per definition representative of the specific process occurring at the time that the data was collected. Other parts of the foreground system and the entire background system, on the other hand, are constructed from other than first-hand data sources and when doing so it is important to consider how representative the chosen or Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 392, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "constructed unit processes are of the actual unit processes that they are models for. Representativeness of LCI data can be understood in three interrelated dimensions: geographical, time-related and technological. Based on the goal definition and knowledge about the studied product system, the scope definition must provide guidance and requirements for the inventory analysis with respect to representativeness of LCI data, as explained below for each dimension of representativeness. Besides serving as a guide for carrying out the inventory analysis, the representativeness of data should also be used in the interpretation of the results to reflect upon the extent to which the product system model corresponds to reality (Chap. 12). 8.7.1 Geographical Representativeness The geographical representativeness reflects how well the inventory data represents the actual processes regarding location-specific parameters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 393, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12). 8.7.1 Geographical Representativeness The geographical representativeness reflects how well the inventory data represents the actual processes regarding location-specific parameters. Geographical representativeness is important to consider because two processes delivering the same product output, but taking place in two different locations (e.g. nations), can be quite different in terms of the other flows (elementary flows, energy flows, material flows and waste to treatment). Differences between unit processes can be caused by geographical differences, such as local climate and proximity to natural resources, and regulatory differences, such as energy taxes and emission thresholds. In addition, when a mix of processes (market mix for attributional LCA and mix of marginal processes for consequential LCA) is used to model the background system or perform system expansion, the location of the mix used in the model versus the actual location of the mix must be considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 394, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, the electricity mixes of Denmark (mainly coal and wind power) and Sweden (mainly nuclear and hydropower) vary quite a lot; despite the close proximity of the two countries, see Fig. 8.14. This can in part be explained by geographical differences (Sweden has mountains and therefore a potential for generating hydropower\u2014Denmark is flat) and in part from social and political differences (Sweden has nuclear power plants\u2014 Denmark does not, largely due to public resistance). Due to the importance of geographical representativeness the LCA practitioner must in the scope definition define the geographical scope of the processes, or combinations of processes, taking place in the product system. The starting point should be the foreground system, where the locations of processes are typically known with high certainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 395, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The starting point should be the foreground system, where the locations of processes are typically known with high certainty. The LCA practitioner can then proceed to defining the geographical scope of upstream and downstream processes that typically are more uncertain the more \u201cprocess steps\u201d from the key processes they are in the model. The appropriate resolution of the geographical scopes (e.g. city, region, nation or continent) depends on factors such as the spatial coverage of regulation (typically following national borders), geographical variations (e.g. weather, climate) and the spatial extent of markets (some markets are very local, while others are global).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 396, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 8.5 shows the geographical scope for life cycle stages and processes in the illustrative case of window frames (Chap. 39). During an inventory analysis, it is common that some unit processes cannot be obtained for the described location, such as a specific country. In these cases, the LCA practitioner must choose the most representative unit process to approximate the actual unit process based on his or her knowledge of geographical variations in central factors such as climate, regulation and markets. For example, in a study Fig. 8.14 Swedish (a) and Danish (b) electricity consumption mix in 2014 (low voltage, e.g. for domestic consumption). Imports from neighbouring countries can be further broken down into energy sources. \u2018Others\u2019 is an aggregation of all energy sources contributing less than 1% to the mix (Treyer and Bauer 2013) Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 397, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 107, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "involving clothes washing in Vietnam the unit process for a certain waste water treatment process in Thailand may be a good approximation for a Vietnamese unit process if the treatment efficiency is the same, because of the climatic similarities between the two countries. If needed, the proxy process may be adjusted to better represent the actual process of the product system. Chapter 9 elaborates on the choices related to geographical representativeness when constructing an inventory model. The influence of a low geographical representativeness on the conclusionsof the study must be evaluated in the interpretation of the LCA results (see Chap. 12). 8.7.2 Time-Related Representativeness Just as two processes delivering the same product output can be different if they occur in different locations, they can also be different if they occur at different times", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 398, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 108, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is due to technological innovation and development, which often tends to lead to more efficient processes over time, meaningless input (energy, material and resource flows) and sometimes also less unwanted by-products (waste to be treated and emissions) per unit of output. The time-related representativeness reflects how well the inventory data represents the actual processes regarding the time (e.g. year) they occur. Technological innovation is \u201cfaster\u201d in some sectors than others", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 399, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 108, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "year) they occur. Technological innovation is \u201cfaster\u201d in some sectors than others. Therefore, a unit process that reflects the situation 10 years prior to the occurrence of the process in the product system can have a high time-related representativeness if it belongs to a mature sector with little technological Table 8.5 Geographical scope for life cycle stages and central unit processes in the window frames case study Stage Window type Wood Wood/aluminium PVC Wood/composite Materials Metal ores: not known Crude oil: Norway, Russia, Middle East Forestry: Finland \u2013 \u2013 Manufacturing Glass pane: Sweden Wood frame: Scandinavia Wood frame: Scandinavia PVC frame: Germany Composite frame: Germany Other elements: Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Assembly: Denmark Use (heat supply) Mainly Scandinavia, Germany Mainly Scandinavia, Germany Europe Mainly Scandinavia Disposal The same as the use stage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 400, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 108, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "innovation (such as the pulp and paper industry); but it can have a low representativeness if it is part of a sector with rapid technological development, such as IT, energy (with the growing focus on decarbonisation) and waste treatment (with the focus on waste avoidance and recycling of materials). In line with the requirements to define the geographical scope of processes, LCA practitioners must in the scope definition define the time frame of the processes in the different stages of the life cycle. Figure 8.15 gives an example of how time frames can be represented. These times are largely influenced by the expected lifetime of the studied product(s). For example, in a study involving furniture the expected lifetime, from consumer purchase to disposal, is decisive for the time at which waste treatment can be expected to occur. In other cases, the lifetime of installed capacity in the foreground system has a great influence on the time frames", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 401, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other cases, the lifetime of installed capacity in the foreground system has a great influence on the time frames. For example, in a study involving a decision to construct a new incineration plant, the number of years that it is planned to operate (typically 20\u201330 years) is decisive for the timing of the involved unit processes. In all cases, the intended application of results and reasons for carrying out a study, as stated in the goal definition, can guide the time-related requirements. In the illustrative case study on window frames, the time frame of the manufacturing and use stage is estimated to be 5 and 20 years, respectively. Following the formulation of the time-related requirements, the LCA practitioner must attempt to obtain the highest overall possible time-related representativeness when constructing the inventory model, within the time or budget constraints of the LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 402, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When comparing the time aspects of the obtained inventory data with the time-related requirements it must be noted that the time at which a dataset was published is usually not equivalent to the time for which its data is valid (several years may pass between the first-hand collection of data and the publication of the data). In the foreground system the focus should be on those processes taking place in the future that the results of an initial iteration show to be important and that is also expected to change relatively rapidly (see above). The available current or past data for these processes can be used to project how they will evolve in the future. For example, the electricity mix of the future might be projected from past trends along with plans issued by public authorities that govern the electricity system. See also Chap. 21 on prospective LCAs and technological foresight", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 403, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "See also Chap. 21 on prospective LCAs and technological foresight. Regarding the background system, LCA practitioners usually have to make do with the most recent process contained in the LCI database used, while considering any trade-offs Disposal Use Manufacturing Product development Fig. 8.15 Example of time frames expressed for different life cycle stages Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 404, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "with geographical representativeness. The influence of a low time-related representativeness on the conclusions of the study must be evaluated in the interpretation of the LCA results (see Chap. 12). In comparative studies it is important to investigate whether there is a risk that differences in time-related representativeness for the compared alternatives can lead to a bias that favours one product system over the others. This could, for example, be the case in a comparison of two technologies if the data of one technology is older (in terms of the year they are valid for) than the data of the other technology. Just as some LCIA methods are spatially differentiated, there are also LCIA methods that are temporarily differentiated, meaning that their results are affected by the timing of elementary flows (see Chap. 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 405, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). So far, this LCIA practice has been limited to mainly distinguishing between \u201cshort-term\u201d and \u201clong-term\u201d emissions, which is, for example, relevant when including landfilling processes, from which some emissions are projected to occur hundreds or even thousands of years after the landfilling of a given material. In addition, some climate change indicators consider when an emission occurs, which, for example, enables quantification of the benefits of temporary carbon storage. In specific cases, the difference of inventory data in the course of the year (especially hot and cold season) and the day (daytime/night) are relevant for a study. It is to be checked along the goal of the study whether such intra-annual or intra-day specific data might be needed (e.g. on night-time electricity base-load data for charging electric car batteries overnight)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 406, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "on night-time electricity base-load data for charging electric car batteries overnight). In all cases, the time-related information for elementary flows required by the LCIA methods chosen in the previous step of the scope definition should guide the data collection and output format of the inventory analysis. 8.7.3 Technological Representativeness Two identical products can be produced using two different technologies and thereby be associated with different (sets of) unit processes and related flows. For example, crude steel can be produced using an electric arc furnace (EAF) or a basic oxygen furnace (BOF), which are two very different technologies involving different inventory flows. Technological representativeness reflects how well the inventory data represents the actual technologies involved in the studied product system. Technological representativeness is interlinked with geographical and temporal representativeness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 407, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Technological representativeness is interlinked with geographical and temporal representativeness. For example, the technology mix involved in the production of electricity (coal power, natural gas, nuclear power, windmills, etc.) varies in space (e.g. from country to country) and over time. The LCA practitioner must use his or her knowledge about the product system to ensure (to the highest degree possible) that it is modelled using unit processes that reflect the actual technologies involved. It is important to ensure that the unit processes modelled in the system are in fact internally technologically compatible, meaning that the product output of one process should meet the quality requirements for input materials of the next process in the system. For example, if a unit process requires", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 408, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "steel that is stainless and heat resistant as material input, then it is incompatible with the product of a unit process producing basic grade steel without these properties. The scope definition should therefore contain a list of technologies that are known to be involved in the foreground system and in those parts of the background system for which such knowledge exists (typically energysupply, waste management and transportation), specifying representativeness requirements. This list should be partly based on the outcome of the geographical scope and time frames in terms of where and when processes are taking place. 8.8 Preparing the Basis for the Impact Assessment The planning of the impact assessment in the scope definition has two main purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 409, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.8 Preparing the Basis for the Impact Assessment The planning of the impact assessment in the scope definition has two main purposes. The first is to ensure that it is done in accordance with the goal definition and the second is to prepare for the inventory analysis where the elementary flows (resources and emissions) that should be included depend on the impact categories to be covered in the LCIA. These elementary flows may also depend on the particular LCIA methods that are used to model these impact categories because different LCIA methods can cover different elementary flows. Planning how to perform the LCIA prior to the life cycle inventory analysis therefore helps ensuring that the right data is being collected in the cycle inventory analysis. A brief guidance on the planning of the LCIA is given in the following sections. Chapter 10 gives a comprehensive introduction to the science behind LCIA and how to report results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 410, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A brief guidance on the planning of the LCIA is given in the following sections. Chapter 10 gives a comprehensive introduction to the science behind LCIA and how to report results. 8.8.1 Selection of Impact Coverage According to the ISO 14044 standard for LCA, the selection of impact categories to be covered by an LCA \u201cshall reflect a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the product system being studied, taking the goal and scope into consideration\u201d. This means that all environmental impacts where the product system has relevant contributions must be included in the impact assessment, unless the goal definition explicitly states otherwise. The latter is the case, e.g. in carbon or water footprinting studies, and in such studies the limitations imposed by the narrow impact coverage should be stressed in the goal definition and addressed the interpretation of results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 411, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other valid reasons to exclude one or more impact categories from the assessment is when an initial iteration of the LCA shows that they do not contribute to the differentiation between the alternatives in a comparative LCA, or when they have a negligible contribution to the overall impacts, estimated by aggregating indicator scores for different impact categories to a single score following normalisation and weighting (see Sect. 8.2.5). In this case, the excluded impact categories must be listed as deliberately omitted in the scope definition of Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 412, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the LCA report with reference to the outcome of the initial iteration. Transparency on the selection of impact categories is essential to avoid an \u201cinterest-driven\u201d selection of impact categories where impact categories are excluded, e.g. because they disfavour the product produced by the commissioner of a study in a comparative analysis. 8.8.2 Selection of LCIA Methods To support the choice between alternative LCIA methods that can be used to calculate an indicator score for the same impact category, ILCD has developed six criteria for evaluating the methods: 1. Completeness of scope: how well does the indicator and the characterisation model cover the environmental mechanisms associated with the impact category under assessment? 2. Environmental relevance: to what extent are the critical parts of the impact pathway included and modelled in accordance with the current state of the art? 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 413, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental relevance: to what extent are the critical parts of the impact pathway included and modelled in accordance with the current state of the art? 3. Scientific robustness and Certainty: how well has the model been peer reviewed, does it represent state of the art, can it be validated against monitoring data and are uncertainties reported? 4. Documentation, Transparency and Reproducibility: how accessible are the model, the model documentation, the characterisation factors and the applied input data? 5. Applicability: are characterisation factors provided for the important elementary flows for this impact category in a form that is straightforward to apply? 6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 414, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Applicability: are characterisation factors provided for the important elementary flows for this impact category in a form that is straightforward to apply? 6. Stakeholders\u2019 acceptance: has the model been endorsed by competent authorities, are the model principles and applied metric understandable for users of the LCA results in a business and policy contexts? These criteria can be difficult to apply for LCA practitioners that are not experts in LCIA modelling, but further insight can be gathered in Chaps. 10 and 40 gives an overview of available LCIA methods, discusses their main differences and how they perform on the six criteria. In practice, an LCA practitioner will often rely on the use of software to model the product system and perform the impact assessment and then simply calculate LCIA scores for all the impacts categories that are made available in the software as part of an LCIA method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 415, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An LCIA method is a collection of impact categories that aims to have a broad coverage of environmental issues, and it is typically developed by one research group (Hauschild et al., 2013). If several LCIA methods are available, it may be useful to apply more than one to test the sensitivity of the results to the choice of LCIA method (see Chap. 11). This is an easy way to explore the sensitivity of LCIA results because calculating results for multiple impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 416, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "categories in LCA software essentially takes the same time as calculating results for a single impact category. For some LCA studies, no LCIA method may cover an environmental impact that is considered relevant. In such cases, the LCA practitioner can choose to develop an LCIA method on their own and this development should be guided by the six criteria above. Often, however, the development of a new impact category is not feasible for an LCA practitioner, due to budget constraints and limited knowledge of the impact pathway. The potentially relevant environmental impacts that are not covered by the impact assessment should be highlighted in the scope definition and considered qualitatively in the interpretation of results (Chap. 12). An important aspect related to compatibility between the collected elementary flow of the life cycle inventory analysis and the ensuing LCIA is the degree of spatial differentiation of the LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 417, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An important aspect related to compatibility between the collected elementary flow of the life cycle inventory analysis and the ensuing LCIA is the degree of spatial differentiation of the LCA study. Spatial differentiation essentially means taking into account where an elementary flow occurs. This information is relevant for many impact categories, because the sensitivity of the environment towards 1 unit of elementary flow differs from place to place (see more details in Chap. 10). Many popular LCIA methods are (still) spatially generic. Yet, spatially differentiated methods have over the years increased in numbers and quality and their use may therefore increase in the future. If it is chosen to use spatially differentiated methods it is important to collect spatial information for the elementary flows in the life cycle inventory analysis (e.g. name of nation, watershed ID or grid cell defined by GIS coordinates) that is compatible with these methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 418, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "name of nation, watershed ID or grid cell defined by GIS coordinates) that is compatible with these methods. Normalisation and weighting are optional LCIA steps under ISO 14044:2006, and as part of the scope definition the LCA practitioner should decide whether normalisation and weighting is needed. Are the steps relevant for the intended application(s) and target audience of the LCA study (see Goal definition in Chap. 7)? Normalisation is usually beneficial to aid the understanding of results if the target audience are not experts, and weighting is required if an aggregation of impact scores across the environmental impact categories is intended. On top of normalisation, an LCA practitioner may thus choose to include weighting, if the commissioner of a study has specifically asked for single score results. The decision to perform normalisation and weighting can also influence the choice of LCIA method since not all methods support these steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 419, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The decision to perform normalisation and weighting can also influence the choice of LCIA method since not all methods support these steps. A detailed description of normalisation and weighting is given in Chap. 10. 8.9 Special Requirements for System Comparisons Many LCA studies compare systems, e.g. when two or more products fulfil the same function as captured in the functional unit. The ISO 14044 standard poses a number of special requirements for the scope definition of comparative studies to ensure that the systems can actually be compared: \u201cSystems shall be compared using the same functional unit and equivalent methodological considerations, such as performance, system boundary, data quality, allocation procedures, decision Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 420, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "rules on evaluating inputs, and outputs and impact assessment. Any differences between systems regarding these parameters shall be identified and reported\u201d. When a comparative study is intended to conclude on the superiority or equivalence of the compared alternatives in terms of their environmental performance, and to make these conclusions publically available, the standard identifies it as a \u201ccomparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public\u201d. For such applications of LCA, the standard requires that these points shall be evaluated in a critical review performed by a panel of interested parties (see Sect. 8.10 and Chap. 13). These special requirements reflect the consequences that the comparative use of LCA results may have for other companies, institutions and stakeholders that are not directly involved in the study and they are intended to prevent the misuse of LCA in market competition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 421, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To prevent misleading LCA results and the misuse of LCA in comparative assertions, the ILCD guideline furthermore requires that: \u2022 The uncertainties involved must be evaluated and communicated when one product system appears to have a lower environmental impact for one or more impact categories than another, see Chaps. 11 and 12 for details. \u2022 In the case where the goal definition prescribes a comparison based on a single indicator (e.g. carbon footprint) the LCA study must highlight that the comparison is not suitable to identify environmental preferable alternatives, as it only covers the considered impact(s) (e.g. climate change). This applies unless it can be sufficiently demonstrated that the compared alternatives do not differ in other relevant environmental impacts to a degree that would change the conclusions of the comparison if those other impacts would be included in the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 422, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such demonstrations may be in the form of other LCA studies available for sufficiently similar systems. 8.10 Need for Critical Review A critical review is performed by experts not involved in making a study. A critical review is sometimes required (e.g. for studies with the intended publication of results), but even when there is no formal requirement a critical review is useful for improving the quality and credibility of a study. Chapter 13 deals specifically with the critical review stage of an LCA, presents the different types of critical review and explains for what kind of LCA studies (with reference to the goal definition) these are needed. It is, however, useful already during the scope definition to decide whether a critical review is needed or intended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 423, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is, however, useful already during the scope definition to decide whether a critical review is needed or intended. If a review is required or intended, the scope definition should furthermore specify the form of the review in order to allow the documentation and reporting of the study to be tailored to meet the later requirements from the peer reviewers. It should also, in the scope definition, be decided whether the review should be performed on the final draft of the LCA report or whether it should be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 424, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "done in an interactive process throughout the performance of a study. In this case, the reviewers are given the opportunity to comment on the goal and scope definition prior to the onset of the inventory analysis, and possibly on interim results of the impact assessment and interpretation before the final reporting so that their comments can guide the process of the LCA. 8.11 Planning the Reporting of Results Product systems can be very complex, and choices are often made during the LCA that can influence the conclusions. To reduce the risk of erroneous and misleading use of the LCA, it is essential that the reporting is clear and transparent with a clear indication of what has and what has not been included in the study and which conclusions and recommendations the outcome supports. The reporting of an LCA study should target the audience as it is specified in the goal definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 425, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 115, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reporting of an LCA study should target the audience as it is specified in the goal definition. Depending on whether the study is comparative and public, the ILCD guideline identifies three reporting levels: 1. Internal use by the commissioner of study; 2. External use by the third party, i.e. a limited, well-defined list of recipients with at least one organisation that has not participated in the study. 3. Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public. Due to the sensitive nature of comparative assertions based on LCA, there are a number of additional reporting requirements to level 3 studies. No formal requirements apply to level 1, but it is recommended to follow the requirements for level 2. Chapter 38 shows all the elements that an LCA report should cover, according to level 2 and 3, and proposes a sequence of these elements, and the reporting of the case study on window frames in Chap. 39 demonstrates the application of the template in a comparative study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 426, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 115, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39 demonstrates the application of the template in a comparative study. This chapter is to a large extent based on the ILCD handbook and the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. Due to the scope of this chapter, some details have been omitted, and some procedures have been rephrased to make the text more relevant to students. For more details, the reader may refer to these texts: EC-JRC.: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed Guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) ISO.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 427, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 115, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Scope Definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 428, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 115, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Additional References Used in the Text Ekvall, T., Azapagic, A., Finnveden, G., et al.: Attributional and consequential LCA in the ILCD handbook. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 293\u2013296 (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-1026-0 Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guin\u00e9e, J., et al.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013 697 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 IDF.: A common carbon footprint approach for dairy. The IDF guide to standard life cycle assessment methodology for the dairy sector. http://www.idf-lca-guide.org/Public/en/LCA +Guide/LCA+Guidelines+overview (2010). Accessed 2 Aug 2016 Treyer, K., Bauer, C.: Life cycle inventories of electricity generation and power supply in version 3 of the ecoinvent database-part I: electricity generation. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 3, 1\u201319 (2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 429, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 3, 1\u201319 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0665-2 Weidema, B.P., Bauer, C., Hischier, R., et al.: The ecoinvent database: overview and methodology. Data quality guideline for the ecoinvent database version 3. www.ecoinvent. org (2013) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 430, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990\u2019s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. Andrea Corona materials engineer with a focus on sustainability assessment of biobased products and composite materials. Working with LCA from 2012. Main interests include life cycle engineering, product development and eco-design. Michael Z. Hauschild involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 431, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Working with LCA from 2012. Main interests include life cycle engineering, product development and eco-design. Michael Z. Hauschild involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 432, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "8 Scope Definition", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Andreas Moltesen, Alexis Laurent, Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Andrea Corona, Morten Birkved and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract The inventory analysis is the third and often most time-consuming part of an LCA. The analysis is guided by the goal and scope definition, and its core activity is the collection and compilation of data on elementary flows from all processes in the studied product system(s) drawing on a combination of different sources. The output is a compiled inventory of elementary flows that is used as basis of the subsequent life cycle impact assessment phase. This chapter teaches how to carry out this task through six steps: (1) identifying processes for the LCI model of the product system; (2) planning and collecting data; (3) constructing and quality checking unit processes; (4) constructing LCI model and calculating LCI results; (5) preparing the basis for uncertainty management and sensitivity analysis; and (6) reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 433, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 117, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter the reader should be able to: \u2022 Collect and critically evaluate the data quality of an LCI. \u2022 Construct a unit process from first-hand gathered data. \u2022 Build an LCI model using either attributional or consequential approach and explain the differences between the two approaches. \u2022 Explain what data is required for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses and how to collect these data. \u2022 Document an LCI model, including unit processes and LCI results. A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 A. Moltesen \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 M. Owsianiak \u0001 A. Corona \u0001 M. Birkved \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 434, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 117, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.1 During the life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis phase of an LCA the collection of data and the modelling of the flows to, from and within the product system(s) is done. This must be in line with the goal definition (see Chap. 7) and (to the extent possible) meet the requirements derived in the scope definition (see Chap. 8). The LCI result is a list of quantified elementary flows crossing the system boundary of the studied life cycle and it is used as input to the subsequent LCIA phase (see Chap. 10). Insights that the LCA practitioner gains when conducting the LCI analysis are also commonly used to adjust the requirements of the scope definition, e.g. when unforeseen data limitations lead to the need for a modification of the completeness requirements (see Sect. 8.6.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 435, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "when unforeseen data limitations lead to the need for a modification of the completeness requirements (see Sect. 8.6.3). Typically, the LCI analysis is the phase that requires the most efforts and resources from the LCA practitioner, and it is rarely practically possible to collect the highest quality of data for all processes of the LCI due to the unreasonable high cost that would be involved. Fortunately, it is also rarely needed in order to meet the goal and support the intended applications of the LCA. Therefore, the inventory analysis requires a structured approach to ensure that time is being spent on collection of data for those parts of the product\u2019s life cycle that are most important for the overall impacts from the product system. Several iterations between the LCI and LCIA phase are normally needed to meet the goal of the study, with each iteration providing insight into which inventory data are the most important for the LCA results (see Chap. 6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 436, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6). In this chapter, we provide practical guidance on how to perform an LCI analysis using an iterative approach to LCA. We will focus on providing detailed guidance for the four decision contexts (A, B, C1 and C2) in line with the ILCD guideline. The chapter is structured around six steps of an LCI analysis: 1. Identifying processes for the LCI model 2. Planning and collecting data 3. Constructing and quality checking unit processes 4. Constructing LCI model and calculating LCI results 5. Preparing the basis for uncertainty management and sensitivity analysis 6. Reporting. Before digging into the details, we note that this chapter teaches how to construct an LCI using knowledge about the industrial processes taking part in a life cycle and the physical flows connecting them. This is called a process-based (or bottom-up) approach to inventory modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 437, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is called a process-based (or bottom-up) approach to inventory modelling. A complementary approach to constructing an LCI is to model the life cycle inventory for the product from a macroscale perspective by drawing on a combination of (1) information on elementary flows associated with one unit of economic activity in different sectors and (2) national statistics on the trade of products and services between sectors. This is called environmentally extended input\u2013output analysis (EEIO) and in contrast to the process-based approach it can be seen as a top-down approach to inventory modelling. The strength of EEIO is that a completeness of 100%, in theory, can be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 438, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "achieved in the sense that no processes need to be cut-off due to missing data or budget constraints. The two main weaknesses of the EEIO approach are (1) that the coverage of elementary flows is rather limited, compared to the process-based approach and that (2) the resolution of many products and services is quite low due to the heterogeneous nature of many sectors, as defined by national trade statistics. Chapter 14 deals with IO-LCA and in particular how to use EEIO to complement and guide process-based LCA. This chapter will make references to EEIO, when the approach can complement the process-based approach. 9.2 Identifying Processes for the LCI Model This first step of the LCI details the coarse initial system diagram made under the scope item System boundaries (see Sect. 8.6) and draws upon the related completeness requirements. The outcome of the step is a detailed depiction of the foreground system, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 439, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 119, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.6) and draws upon the related completeness requirements. The outcome of the step is a detailed depiction of the foreground system, i.e. all the processes it is composed of and their links, and the processes of the background system \u2018neighbouring\u2019 the foreground system, i.e. where links to LCI database processes will be established. 9.2.1 Detailing the Physical Value Chain For all decision contexts (A, B, C1 and C2\u2014see Sect. 7.4) the approach to identifying processes is to start with the reference flow and construct the entire foreground system process by process: 0. The unit process having the reference flow, as product output, should first be identified (or unit processes, in the case of more than one reference flow). This is termed a \u2018level 0\u2019 process. In a study where a window is the reference flow, the level 0 process is the assembly of the window. 1. The processes required to deliver flows that will be physically embodied in the reference flow should then be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 440, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 119, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1. The processes required to deliver flows that will be physically embodied in the reference flow should then be identified. These are termed \u201clevel 1\u201d processes. In the window example, examples of level 1 processes are the production of glass and the window frame. 2. The processes required to deliver flows that perform a supporting function to the level 0 process (i.e. not becoming physically embodied in its output) should then be identified. These are termed \u2018level 2\u2019 processes. In the window example, examples of level 2 processes are the supply of electricity used in the assembly of the window or the transportation needed to deliver the flows of the level 1 processes to the level 0 process. 3. The processes required to deliver services to the level 0 processes should then be identified. These are termed \u2018level 3\u2019 processes. In the window example, examples of level 3 processes are administration and marketing. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 441, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 119, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4. The processes required to produce and maintain the infrastructure that enables the level 0 process should then be identified. These are termed \u2018level 4\u2019 processes. In the window example, examples of level 4 processes are production and maintenance (oiling, replacing and repairing parts) of the assembly machines. After having identified level 1, 2, 3 and 4 processes belonging to the level 0 process (the reference flow), Step 1\u20134 is then repeated for each these processes. This procedure is illustrated in Fig. 9.1 for the window example. 0) Window assembly 1) Window glass 1) Window frame 2) Electricity supply 3) Admin., R&D 3) Marketing 4) Assembly machine 1) Sand 1) Limestone 2) Natural gas 3) Admin. 3) Business travel 4) Furnace Downstream Use 2) Transp. 2) Heat 2) Cleaning 2) Transp. Waste management 4) Furnace for glass recycling 2) Transp. 2) Electricity supply 4) Incin. plant for frame 3) Admin. Upstream * Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 442, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 120, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2) Heat 2) Cleaning 2) Transp. Waste management 4) Furnace for glass recycling 2) Transp. 2) Electricity supply 4) Incin. plant for frame 3) Admin. Upstream * Fig. 9.1 Procedure for identifying processes of the foreground system, exemplified in the study of the life cycle of a window. The starting point is the process that delivers the reference flow, \u20180) Window assembly\u2019. The foreground system is then populated process by process by proceeding upstream and downstream from the reference flow. Unlinked arrows present on some processes indicate the existence of other processes that were not included in the figure. Use and Waste management are in italic, because they represent life cycle stages, rather than actual processes. The star at \u2018Waste management\u2019 indicates the existence of multifunctional processes, i.e. glass recycling and incineration of window frame. Abbreviations in the figure: Incin incineration, Transp transportation, Admin administration, R&D research and development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 443, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 120, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "glass recycling and incineration of window frame. Abbreviations in the figure: Incin incineration, Transp transportation, Admin administration, R&D research and development. Numbering and colour code, identify the process level for the different foreground processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 444, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 120, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Processes downstream, i.e. in the use and waste management stages, should be identified in a similar fashion. The procedure is, in principle, repeated until the foreground system is completed and can be linked to LCI database processes of the background system, as described later in this chapter. When carrying out this procedure, the LCA practitioner should identify all multifunctional processes, because they have to be handled next. Note that the step of identifying processes for the LCI model and the step of planning and collection of data are somewhat interrelated. For example, data collected for a given process may lead to the realisation that one or more upstream processes are different than the ones previously (assumed) identified. During data collection the LCA practitioner may, for example, realise that a plastic component is actually produced from biomaterials rather than petrochemicals, as was initially assumed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 445, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "During data collection the LCA practitioner may, for example, realise that a plastic component is actually produced from biomaterials rather than petrochemicals, as was initially assumed. The identified processes in this first inventory step should therefore be considered preliminary. In practice, many processes belonging to level 3 and 4 will end up being entirely omitted from an LCI model, because their individual contribution to the indicator score is expected to be insignificant and because data can be hard to find, at least when using the \u2018bottom-up\u2019 (=process-based) approach to constructing inventories. In such cases, the environmental impacts of product systems are systematically underestimated by various degrees. It is an important task of the inventory analysis and consecutive impact assessment to ensure that this underestimation does not violate the completeness requirements for the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 446, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is an important task of the inventory analysis and consecutive impact assessment to ensure that this underestimation does not violate the completeness requirements for the study. Chapter 14 shows how IO-LCA can complement process-based LCA to better cover the impacts from level 3 and 4 processes. 9.2.2 Handling of Multifunctional Processes Section 8.5.2 presented the ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality, i.e. processes in the product system that deliver several outputs or services of which not all are used by the reference flow of the study. According to this hierarchy, the preferred solution is subdivision of the concerned process, and if this is not possible, system expansion and, as a last resort, allocation. Below, examples are given for how to carry out each solution in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 447, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Below, examples are given for how to carry out each solution in practice. This guidance is primarily relevant for the foreground system because multifunctionality has typically already been handled for the processes in the LCI databases that are used to construct the background system. Some LCI databases exist in different versions, according to how multifunctionality has been solved (see Sect. 9.3 below). For the background system this reduces the job of the LCA practitioner to just source processes from the appropriate version of the LCI databases. Yet, even in the background system, the LCA practitioner may sometimes have to solve multifunctionality manually when no appropriate solutions exist in the used LCI databases. We note that many waste treatment processes are multifunctional because they both offer the function of managing (often heterogeneous) waste streams and the function of providing Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 448, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product flows, such as recycled materials or electricity. We refer to Chap. 35 on application of LCA to solid waste management systems for more details on how these special cases of multifunctionality are solved in LCA practice. Subdivision When possible, subdivision should always be the solution to multifunctionality. Unit processes can be defined at many levels of detail and for the use in LCA there is no point in detailing them beyond what is needed for the modelling purpose in the LCA. This may mean that by increasing the detail applied in the modelling, the multifunctionality may be revealed as artificial. For example, a process that encompasses an entire factory producing two different products may have been identified from the procedure detailed in Sect. 9.2.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 449, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 122, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, a process that encompasses an entire factory producing two different products may have been identified from the procedure detailed in Sect. 9.2.1. If this factory is in fact using different and independent machines and work stations for manufacturing the two products, the initial process can, by introducing additional detail in the modelling of the process, be subdivided into two or more processes that each contribute to the production of only one of the products, see Fig. 9.2. Note that it is often not possible to fully physically divide a process according to the co-products. In the factory example room lighting, room heating and administration (all level 3 processes, according to Sect. 9.2.1) may not be possible to divide between the co-products. In such cases, subdivision needs to be supplemented with or replaced by another solution to multifunctionality. Note also, that in practice data availability often determines whether subdivision is possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 450, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 122, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note also, that in practice data availability often determines whether subdivision is possible. In the factory example, it may be that data only exist for the electricity consumption of the entire factory, i.e. the consumption of each machine is unknown and in this case, subdivision would be practically impossible. In addition, there are many situations where the creation of the co-products is integrated into the process in a way that impedes the multifunctionality to be addressed by subdivision. This is the case for many biological and chemical processes. Materials Emissions to air, water and soil Product 1 Product 2 Materials Emissions to air, water and soil Product 1 Product 2 Unit process Fig. 9.2 Solving the multifunctionality problem by increasing the modelling resolution and sub-dividing the process into minor units which can unambiguously be assigned to either of the functional outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 451, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 122, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "System Expansion System expansion is second in the ISO hierarchy. As explained in Sect. 8.5.2, system expansion is mathematically identical to crediting the studied product system with the avoided production of the secondary function(s) that would alternatively have been produced and delivered somewhere else in the technosphere. When modelling a life cycle inventory, the technique used to perform crediting varies between LCA software (see Sect. 9.5). The identification of avoided processes depends on the decision context. For Situation A and C1 a market mix is used, which corresponds to the average process used to supply the entire market (see Sect. 8.5.4). To calculate a market mix, one needs to know the amount of product or service that is produced and delivered to the relevant market by each process at the time when the secondary function is delivered by the studied product system (see Fig. 8.13)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 452, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.13). So, for example, if recycled steel is a co-product of a studied life cycle and the two processes for producing steel, electric arc furnace (EAF) and a basic oxygen furnace (BOF), delivered 60 and 140 million tonnes, respectively, in the relevant market and reference year, then the market mix would be 30% EAF and 70% BOF (World Steel 2015). The LCI model should thus be credited with a constructed process composed of 30% of the flow quantities associated with the production of 1 unit of EAF steel and 70% of the flow quantities associated with the production of 1 unit of BOF steel. It is important to identify the correct market for each system expansion. The correct market must reflect the geographical and temporal scope (see Sect. 8.7). Note that some goods and services are sold in global markets due to the low cost of transportation relative to their value (e.g. gold), while other goods and services are sold on local or regional markets due to high transportation cost (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 453, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "gold), while other goods and services are sold on local or regional markets due to high transportation cost (e.g. some biomaterials and water) or regulation. Information on volumes produced and delivered to markets can often be obtained from reports or databases of industry organisations (e.g. the World Steel Association in the example of recycled steel). In consequential modelling (parts of Situation B, see Sect. 8.5.4), the avoided process is not a market mix, but the marginal process (or a mix of marginal processes) and its identification is explained in Sect. 9.2.3. Allocation Allocation is the third and last option in the ISO hierarchy. As mentioned in Sect. 8.5.2 allocation should, when possible, be based on (1) causal physical relationship, followed by (2) a common representative physical parameter and, as a last resort, (3) economic value. The causal physical relationship approach is possible when the ratio between quantities of co-products can be changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 454, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The causal physical relationship approach is possible when the ratio between quantities of co-products can be changed. Consider again the above example of a factory producing two products (x and y), where only the total electricity consumption is known. Here it would be possible to derive the electricity consumption of x and y by collecting data on production volumes and total electricity consumption at two points in time, where the relationship between the produced quantities are different. This could lead to the following simple system of equations: Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 455, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Time 1 : 10 tonnes \u0003 X \u00fe 20 tonnes \u0003 Y 1\u20444 10:000 kWh \u00f09:1\u00de Time 2 : 10 tonnes \u0003 X \u00fe 40 tonnes \u0003 Y 1\u20444 12:000 kWh \u00f09:2\u00de Here, X and Y represent the electricity consumption of product x and y (kWh/tonne) and by solving the equation system, one finds that X is 800 kWh/tonne and Y is 100 kWh/tonne. If time 1 is representative for the unit process to be applied in the LCI model, then 80% (10 tonnes * 800 kWh/tonne divided by 10.000 kWh) of the factory\u2019s electricity consumption should be allocated to product x. Note that this 80% allocation factor should not blindly be applied to allocate the remaining flows (e.g. consumption of heat and emissions of NOx) between product x and y, for which the causal physical relationships may be different. Note also that allocation according to a causal physical relationship is in many cases not possible, because the ratio between co-products or co-services for many processes cannot be changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 456, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note also that allocation according to a causal physical relationship is in many cases not possible, because the ratio between co-products or co-services for many processes cannot be changed. For example, it is not for practical purposes possible to reduce or increase the production of straw, while keeping the production of wheat constant. The representative physical parameter approach is possible when co-products provide a similar function. For example, in the case of a fractional distillation process of crude oil, a similar function of many of the co-products (e.g. diesel, petrol, kerosene, propane and bunker oil) is to serve as a fuel to drive a process performing mechanical work, and therefore exergy, which can be interpreted as the maximum useful work, is an appropriate representative physical parameter. The parameter values of each co-product can typically be obtained from physical or chemical compendiums (e.g. in the case of exergy values)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 457, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The parameter values of each co-product can typically be obtained from physical or chemical compendiums (e.g. in the case of exergy values). Once the values have been obtained, calculating the allocation factor is straightforward. For example, if co-products x, y and z are produced in quantities 1, 3 and 6 kg and if their representative physical parameter values are 10, 1, and 0.5 per kg, then the total parameter value would be 16 i.e. (1 * 10 + 3 * 1 + 6 * 0.5) and the allocation factor for product x would be 62.5% (1 * 10 divided by 16) and so on. Note that in the distillation process case, the functions of the co-products are not entirely identical. Airplanes cannot fly on bunker oil, and bitumen, one of the co-products, cannot be used as a fuel. Allocating according to a representative physical parameter is therefore not ideal, but may be the best solution, compared to other allocation approaches", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 458, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Allocating according to a representative physical parameter is therefore not ideal, but may be the best solution, compared to other allocation approaches. This example illustrates that there is often not a single correct allocation approach and the choice of approach therefore depends on the judgement of the LCA practitioner. The sensitivity of the LCA results to this judgement may be investigated in a sensitivity analysis applying different possible allocation factors, as explained in Sect. 9.6. Note that it is very important to choose a representative parameter that is actually representative for the function of all co-products. For example, mass is not a representative parameter for the co-production of milk and meat from dairy cows because the functions of milk and meat are not their mass. In this case, some measure of nutritional value would be a more representative parameter.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 459, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The economic value approach is recommended as a last resort and is generally easy to carry out due to the abundance of price data on goods and services. Prices may be obtained by contacting the company running the multifunctional process in question or from the stock exchange in case of global markets, e.g. for some metals. For some co-products there may not be a market because they need to go through additional processing before they are sold. In that case, the LCA practitioner should calculate a shadow price. For example, straw, a co-product of wheat production, needs to be baled before it is sold, and the economic value of baled straw must therefore be subtracted the cost to the farmer of baling the straw to calculate the shadow price of the unbaled straw leaving the multifunctional process of wheat production. Note that the prices of most goods and services are volatile to varying degrees", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 460, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that the prices of most goods and services are volatile to varying degrees. It is therefore recommended to calculate average values for the time period that is relevant to the temporal scope of the study (see Sect. 8.7.2). Once the economic values have been determined, allocation factors are calculated in the same way as the above generic example for the representative physical parameter approach. It should be noted that although allocation by economic value is the last resort according to ISO, it is widely used in practice. This is because the other solutions to the handling of multifunctional processes are often not possible due to the nature of the multifunctional process or due to lack of the required information and data to identify the relevant process for a system expansion or to determine a causal physical relationship, or a common representative physical parameter. By contrast, the price data needed to carry out economic allocation is generally available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 461, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By contrast, the price data needed to carry out economic allocation is generally available. For this reason, economic allocation is done by some LCA researchers recommended as a default solution to multifunctionality, e.g. by the Dutch CML Guideline (Guin\u00e9e et al. 2002), and the LCI database ecoinvent comes in a version where allocation by economic value is systematically applied to all multifunctional processes (see Sect. 9.3.2 below). 9.2.3 Consequential Modelling In most cases, a consequential LCI will include other processes than an attributional LCI for the same product system. The attributional LCI includes the processes which the assessed product \u2018sees\u2019 from its journey from the cradle to the grave. If, for example, the assessed product is a plastic cup, the start of the journey will be some extracted crude oil, which through a sequence of production processes will be processed into plastic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 462, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If, for example, the assessed product is a plastic cup, the start of the journey will be some extracted crude oil, which through a sequence of production processes will be processed into plastic. This will then be transported to the shop, be bought by a user, who will use it once and then discard it, after which it will be transported to, say, an incinerator and burned. In the attributional LCI, each of these processes: the production of crude oil, the conversion into plastic, the transport and incineration will be included. The consequential LCI is different; the goal of the assessment is to identify the environmental impacts caused by a decision, for example the decision to buy a Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 463, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "plastic cup. The processes that change due to a decision may not be the same that a product \u2018sees\u2019 throughout its product life (see Fig. 9.1). The following example may make this easier to understand. Assume now for the sake of the example that we have reached the peak in oil production: we simply cannot economically extract more oil than we are already doing. This implies that the decision to, say, use this plastic cup will not result in an increase in the production of oil, as this is already at its maximum. What happens instead may be that the price of oil will go up due to the increase in demand (which in this example is going to be extremely small due to the small amount of oil needed to produce the cup. However, here it is the principle that is of interest). The increase in price may cause other users of oil to reduce their use, or find a substitute for their use of oil", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 464, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, here it is the principle that is of interest). The increase in price may cause other users of oil to reduce their use, or find a substitute for their use of oil. In this example we will assume that some oil users will find natural gas a suitable substitute and these users will therefore increase their demand for natural gas to compensate for the decreased availability of oil. This implies that, given these assumptions, an increase in the demand for oil created from the increase in demand for plastic cups will not result in an increase in the production of oil, but rather in the production of natural gas. The consequential LCI will therefore not include an extraction of oil, but rather an increased extraction of natural gas. This line of thinking obviously does not only relate to the oil used in the production of the plastic, but to all the inputs used when the plastic cup is produced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 465, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This line of thinking obviously does not only relate to the oil used in the production of the plastic, but to all the inputs used when the plastic cup is produced. Another very important difference between the attributional and consequential LCI is that in an attributional LCI the normal procedure is to assume that the electricity consumed in the production of the plastic cup is produced by all the suppliers on the market, depending on their market share. In a consequential LCI, this is different: If we increase the demand for electricity in the market, it is most likely that not all the suppliers are going to increase their production to meet the increase in demand. The reason is that the most cost-efficient producers will already produce at full capacity. This is for example going to be the case for nuclear power plants. This means that if we increase the demand for electricity, we will not influence the extent of the production from the nuclear power plants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 466, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that if we increase the demand for electricity, we will not influence the extent of the production from the nuclear power plants. Rather, we will influence other types of power plants, for example natural gas power plants, which are more expensive to operate (per kWh), and which will therefore only produce during peak load situations (when electricity prices are higher). The same thinking is applied when studying the effect of increasing or decreasing demands for other products than electricity. Rather than including an average of the producers in the market in the LCI, as is done in the attributional LCI, it is the \u2018marginal\u2019 producers, which are included in the consequential LCI. A marginal producer is a producer who will change its supply due to small changes in demand. A final important difference between the attributional and consequential LCI lies in the handling of multifunctional processes (see Sect. 8.5.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 467, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A final important difference between the attributional and consequential LCI lies in the handling of multifunctional processes (see Sect. 8.5.2). In a consequential LCI, the multi-output processes are always handled by system expansion (if subdivision is not possible). Based on the outline above, there are generally three different tasks in a consequential LCI:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 468, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1. To identify whether an increase or decrease in demand for a product will actually lead to corresponding increases or decreases in supply for that product. As illustrated with the oil and gas example above, this is not necessarily the case. 2. To identify which production technology will be affected by the change in supply of products. This is most likely not going to be an average of the production technologies on the market, but rather one or a few operating on the margin. 3. To identify which product substitutes which. This is relevant when changing demands for a product whose production is constrained, such as oil in the example above. It is also relevant for the handling of multi-output processes, where it involves identifying the product that will be affected (substitute or be substituted) by a co-product from a multi-output process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 469, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From the discussion above, it can be seen that if we want to perform an attributional LCI, we can do so simply on the basis of knowledge about the product and the parts that it includes: we need to know about how plastic cups are made, used and discarded. However, if we want to perform a consequential LCI, besides the technical knowledge about how the plastic cup is produced, used and discarded, we also need knowledge about how the market reacts to an increase (or decrease) in demand and supply. As can be imagined, answering how the market reacts is easier said than done. What will actually happen if I increase the demand for this or that? Modelling the reactions of the market is a very complex task\u2014just ask any stockbroker! Outlining what will happen is therefore necessarily somewhat uncertain, especially if the assessment addresses decisions in the more distant future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 470, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, to ease the answering of these questions we will in this chapter outline a range of \u2018rules of thumb\u2019 developed for identifying the processes that are likely to change due to a decision. As outlined above, the goal of the consequential LCA is to answer questions of the type: \u201cWhat are the environmental consequences if ...?\u201d. As the environmental consequences that are considered arise from changes in production of products, this overall question answered in the consequential LCA can basically be translated to \u201cWhat changes in the production of goods if we demand/supply more/less of X(, Y, Z, ...)?\u201d. We continue asking this question until we have covered all induced changes. For example, in the case where we want to assess what happens if we use a plastic cup, we basically want to increase the demand for plastic cups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 471, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, in the case where we want to assess what happens if we use a plastic cup, we basically want to increase the demand for plastic cups. We therefore start by asking: \u201cWhat will happen if I increase the demand for plastic cups?\u201d If what happens most likely turns out to be that additional cups will be produced, then the follow-up question will be: \u201cWhat will happen if we produce additional plastic cups?\u201d The overall approach of identifying processes to include in a consequential modelling of the product system is to repeatedly ask this question for each step upstream and downstream from the reference flow (see Sect. 9.2.1) until all changes have been covered. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 472, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We recommend solving this task by following a 4-step procedure shown in Fig. 9.3. Depending on the concrete case, one or more steps can be skipped (as will be explained below). Step 1: Change in demand or supply? When performing a consequential LCI, full elasticity of supply is generally assumed. This implies that a change in demand for some function will lead to a change in supply of products that can fulfil this demand, but that change in supply, will not lead to a change in demand. There will therefore be a difference between the market effects of changing demand and changing supply, as will be visible in the steps below. First step in the procedure is therefore to consider whether the question at hand addresses a change in demand or supply; e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 473, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 128, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First step in the procedure is therefore to consider whether the question at hand addresses a change in demand or supply; e.g. are we assessing the question: \u201cWhat happens if I demand more/less of X?\u201d or the question \u201cWhat happens if I supply more/less of Y?\u201d Note that handling a co-product from a multi-output process in the studied life cycle relates to changes in supply of this co-product, and therefore is related to the latter type of question. If the assessed decision relates to changes in demand, go to Step 2. If it relates to changes in supply, go to Step 3. 1. Change in demand or supply? 2. Identify constraints in the market 4. Identify production technology affected by change in demand 3. Product substitution Supply Demand Not constrained Constrained Substitute identified Fig. 9.3 4-Step approach for identifying affected process in a full consequential LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 474, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 128, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Step 2: Identify constraints in the market If we increase (or decrease) our demand for X, the market will, according to standard economic theory, respond by increasing (or decreasing) the supply of X. In many cases, at least on a short term, there will not be a one-to-one relationship between increases in demand and supply. The reason is that an increase in demand will often result in an increase in price, implying that some users may stop using the product and potentially find a cheaper substitute product. Hereby, the supply and demand will reach a new steady state, which will often not entirely correspond to the initial demand plus the increase. Despite that these thoughts about price elasticity have been introduced in LCA literature, for simplicity, the default assumption here will be that the increase (or decrease) in demand will spur an equally large increase (or decrease) in supply, which is also the most common assumption in consequential LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 475, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, in many cases markets face various constraints and other market imperfections. An increase (or decrease) in demand will therefore not always lead to an increase (or decrease) in supply. Market limitations may be of a legal, economical, technical or physical nature. For example, straw used for co-firing in power plants is, due to the transport cost to value ratio, not transported far from the production site. Moreover, as there is limited production capacity of straw in a given area, an increase in demand within this area will in many cases not result in an increase in supply. Another example may be the demand for recycled metals, which are often constrained by the amount of waste input to recycling processes, in which case an increase in demand will not result in an increase in supply of recycled metals. Other constraints may be due to legally set boundaries for how much of a certain good may be produced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 476, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other constraints may be due to legally set boundaries for how much of a certain good may be produced. If the production already fills the boundaries, a small increase or decrease in demand will also not have any effect on supply. There are thus a number of situations where the default assumption\u2014that an increase or decrease in demand results in an increase or decrease in supply\u2014may not hold true. In these situations, the market is constrained, and a central task will be to identify how existing or potential users will handle the increase or decrease in demand. In the example above with an increased demand for recycled metal, a reasonable assumption may be that existing users of the recycled metal will use virgin metal instead. In other words, an increase in the demand for a product already produced at maximum will not lead to an increase in supply, but more likely make existing users find a substitute", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 477, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, an increase in the demand for a product already produced at maximum will not lead to an increase in supply, but more likely make existing users find a substitute. A guideline for identification of which products can substitute which is provided under Step 3. The assessed decision may also lead to a decrease in the demand for a product, which is only produced to a certain amount. If this product is already fully utilised, a reasonable assumption may be that a decrease in demand for the product in question will not lead to a decrease in the supply of this product, as other users will use up the freed supply. In the metal example above, this could imply that the freed supply of recycled metal will be used up by a user of virgin metal, in total lowering the demand of virgin metal, while keeping the utilisation of recycled metal at the same level. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 478, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It may also happen that the freed supply resulting from a decreased demand does not lead other users to utilise the product. If this is the case, it can be assumed that less will be produced of the product, or if the product is a co-product of another and more valuable product, and its production therefore bound, it may end up as waste, implying that a decrease in the demand for the product will simply imply more waste. It may seem an enormous task to try to identify whether all the commodities included in the life cycle are constrained in their production. However, in practice the assumption will often be that a product is constrained if: \u2022 It is a co-product from a process that has another more valuable product, as it will never be the less valuable product that will control the overall output of the production (e.g. waste from a slaughterhouse that may be utilised for biodiesel production is constrained by the amount of meat produced). \u2022 Its production is limited by regulation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 479, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "waste from a slaughterhouse that may be utilised for biodiesel production is constrained by the amount of meat produced). \u2022 Its production is limited by regulation (e.g. regulation may set a limit for the overall annual catch of commercial fish species). \u2022 Its production is limited physically (for example the production of wood on an island is restricted by e.g. forest area and a high cost of transportation may mean that import is not an economic option). Identifying whether a commodity is produced as a less valuable by-product will often be quite easy, but the identification of both regulatory and physical constraints may be more difficult. It will in many cases require knowledge about the specific market in which the change in demand is made, which will often require advice from experts. Furthermore, one must know whether the production capacity for the product, for which demand is changed, is already filly utilised", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 480, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, one must know whether the production capacity for the product, for which demand is changed, is already filly utilised. Figure 9.4 presents a decision tree for dealing with potential market constraints. In case of unconstrained markets, go directly to Step 4. Constrained markets must in some cases (see Fig. 9.4) be studied in Step 3 first to identify what other users prefer as a substitute (in the case of increased demand) or which substitute other users stop using (in the case of decreased demand). Step 3: Product substitution As noted in Step 1 it is commonly assumed in consequential LCA that supply follows demand. This implies that if we change supply, we will not change the demand but rather affect the competition between suppliers to cover the demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 481, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This implies that if we change supply, we will not change the demand but rather affect the competition between suppliers to cover the demand. For example, if we reduce the supply of crude oil on the market, it is assumed that the crude oil users will attempt to find a substitute for the crude oil, creating a demand for other products satisfying the same service as offered by the crude oil. The demand for the service that the crude oil is providing is thereby assumed to be constant, but there is a change in the way the demand is met. Following this assumption about demand driven consumption, changes in how the demand is met may arise if the supply of a product is changed, or if we change demand for a product whose production is constrained (as explained in Step 2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 482, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In each of these cases, we need to identify the substitutions that occur in the market, like in the above example where gas substitutes oil. The question that we will address in this step of the consequential LCI is: \u201cHow do we identify which product substitutes which?\u201d In order to identify which products can substitute which, there are two aspects that we have to consider: \u2022 The products must deliver the same service(s) for the product user. \u2022 The product working as a substitute has to be available. Below we will address each of these two issues. Identifying a satisfying substitute for the product user A product may provide different services for different users, implying that one product may be a fully satisfying substitute for one user, but completely useless for another", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 483, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 131, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, to identify which product can substitute which, we first need to identify the product user who is likely to find a substitute due to an increase in Is the production of the product constrained? \u2022Is it produced as a low-value by-product? \u2022Is its production constrained by regulation? \u2022Is its production physically constrained? \u2022... Yes No Will the demand increase or decrease as result of decision? Increase Decrease Is the product already used to the extent the constraint allows? Is the product already used to the extent the constraint allows? Yes No Other user finds substitute Other user uses product instead of alternative Study market to identify what the product substitutes/is substituted with \u2013 handled in Step 3 Go to Step 4 Is the product a low value by-product? Yes No Waste is reduced. Include the reduced waste handing in LCA. Production is increased. Go to Step 4 (product modelled as if unconstrained). Yes No Is the product a low value by-product? Yes Waste is increased", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 484, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 131, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Include the reduced waste handing in LCA. Production is increased. Go to Step 4 (product modelled as if unconstrained). Yes No Is the product a low value by-product? Yes Waste is increased. Include the increased waste handing in LCA. Production is decreased. Go to Step 4 (product modelled as if unconstrained). No Fig. 9.4 How to identify constrained production and how to handle it Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 485, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 131, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "demand or decrease in supply or who decides to use the product instead of a substitute due to a decrease in demand or increase in supply, i.e. the marginal user. However, in reality, identifying the marginal user may be very difficult. Therefore, if a market analysis shows that the product is used in significant amounts for several different purposes, it is advised to make different scenarios for each of these potential substitutions. This can feed into sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of an LCA (see Sect. 9.6 and Chap. 11). In this case, this step should be followed for each of the scenarios. Having identified the marginal product users and what they use the product for, the next step is to identify what can be used as a substitute for the product by the different marginal users", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 486, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Having identified the marginal product users and what they use the product for, the next step is to identify what can be used as a substitute for the product by the different marginal users. Identifying what will be a satisfying substitute for a specific user will in most cases require a large amount of background information about the market where the substitution will take place, and hence involve some elements of uncertainty. However, for a product to work as a substitute, it needs to fulfil the same functions for the user. As outlined in Weidema (2003), these may relate to: \u2022 Functionality, related to the main function of the product \u2022 Technical quality, such as stability, durability, ease of maintenance \u2022 Costs related to purchase, use and disposal \u2022 Additional services rendered during use and disposal \u2022 Aesthetics, such as appearance and design \u2022 Image (of the product or the producer) \u2022 Specific health and environmental properties, for example non-toxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 487, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Apart from the basic functionality of the product, which can be seen as an obligatory property of the product (see Chap. 8), the importance of these properties will to a large extent depend on the product user. If the product user is a company using the product in its production, the functionality and technical quality will normally be the most important, for some companies accompanied by health and environmental issues. For consumers, on the other hand, issues like aesthetics and image may have a high priority. It should be noted that there may be not one but several products that work as a substitute for a product. If it is possible to identify the distribution between the alternative product substitutes, the consequential LCI should be based on this. If this is not possible, it may be necessary to develop several scenarios for each of the likely substitutes. Product availability Ensuring that the substitute has the necessary functionality, however, is not enough", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 488, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Product availability Ensuring that the substitute has the necessary functionality, however, is not enough. The substitute also has to be available. A substitute is unavailable if constrained and already used to the extent that the constraint allows. To identify whether the substitute is available, we need to perform parts of Step 2 (included in the decision tree below), which also had as a goal to identify the availability of a product. As the discussion of how to perform this identification is going to be the same as under Step 2, the reader is referred to this section for further explanation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 489, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 9.5 presents a decision tree for identifying product substitutes. As an additional consideration, it should be noted that in some cases one product will not substitute another directly. For example, the production of biodiesel leads to the co-production of glycerol which contains salts and other impurities. Before it Does the product have the necessary properties to be considered a substitute by the user? Consider where relevant functionality, technical quality, costs, additional services, aesthetics, image, and health - and environmental properties. Is the production of the potential substitute constrained? \u2022 Is it produced as a low-value by-product? \u2022 Is its availability constrained by regulation? \u2022 Is its availability physically constrained? \u2022 ... Will the demand for the potential substitute increase or decrease as result of decision? The product is not a substitute. Identify alternative product Find the most significant users of the product through market analyses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 490, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 133, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Identify alternative product Find the most significant users of the product through market analyses. Go through the following procedure for each of the users. The product is a substitute. Remember to consider whether there may be other alternatives. Then, go to Step 4 to find the production technology affected. Yes No Yes No Increase Decrease Is the potential substitute already used to the extent the constraint allows? Yes No The product is not a substitute. Identify alternative product Fig. 9.5 Procedure for identifying possible substitutions of products as consequence of changes in supply or demand Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 491, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 133, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "can be sold on the glycerol market, it therefore needs to be distilled. In this case, and in others where additional treatment is needed for the product to be considered as a substitute, these additional treatments need to be included in the LCI. Also, it should be noted that in some cases a product substitution may create a cascading substitution effect (not captured by Fig. 9.5 for simplicity). E.g. if a decrease in demand for product A leads to other users using product A instead of B (substitutes), which is a waste product that is fully used (nothing goes directly to waste management), this can lead to other users using product B instead of C (substitutes), and so on and so forth. Step 4: Identify production technology affected by change in demand If the product for which the demand is changed is not limited in supply, it will normally be assumed in a consequential LCI that supply follows demand in a one-to-one relationship", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 492, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The question is, however, which production technology will be affected by the change in demand. Identifying this technology is the purpose of this step. In many cases, similar products can be produced with very different environmental impacts. Just think of electricity that may be produced from wind turbines or coal fired power plants. It is therefore in many cases important to identify not only that the production of a certain product will change as a result of the assessed decision, but also to identify as accurately as possible which supplier, and hereby which production technology will be affected by the change in demand. For doing so, three issues need consideration: The size of the change in demand created by the decision, the trend in the market and whether the assessed decision leads to an increase or a decrease in demand. These issues will be discussed below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 493, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These issues will be discussed below. Size of change When identifying which technology will be affected by the change in demand, it is important to distinguish two different perspectives: The immediate production perspective and the perspective relating to changes in production technologies in the market. Consider the following example of electricity generation: Some technologies cost more to run than others. The production of electricity from gas turbines is, for example, often more expensive than electricity produced from coal. This implies that only coal power will be used, when the capacity of the installed coal power plants is sufficient to cover the demand. However, when the demand increases above what can be supplied by the coal power plants, gas power plants will start to produce", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 494, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, when the demand increases above what can be supplied by the coal power plants, gas power plants will start to produce. From an immediate production perspective, the concrete technology that will supply the demand will depend on the cost efficiency of the production technologies with available production capacity\u2014the least cost efficient will be only be used to supply peak load. However, this is only the immediate consequence of the decision. If the electricity consumption in the given market in general is increasing or stable, a decision leading to an increase in demand will push for an increase in the installed power production capacity. In other words, the decision will have an effect on installed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 495, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "capacity. Assume now that the planned implementations of power plants in the market are wind turbines. The long-term effects of increasing the demand will then be a corresponding increased implementation of wind turbines. The difference between the immediately affected production technology, known as the \u2018short-term marginal\u2019 and the effect on the installed production technology, known as the \u2018long-term marginal\u2019 may be very large\u2014in the example above, the difference was between coal and gas power and wind. It can therefore be a very important decision for the results of the LCA whether the short or long-term marginal is used in the LCI. The general rule has been to use the long-term marginal when the assessed decision is creating large changes in demand, and use short-term marginal when the assessed decision creates small changes in demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 496, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A change in demand is in this context considered small, if it is smaller than the average percentage of annual replacement of capacity (often around 5%, see below). The argument is that these small changes will be part of the general trend in the market and therefore be handled by the trend in the market. The signal they send is therefore considered too small to overcome the threshold for a structural change in production capacity. The difference in the size of changes assumed in the LCA is in fact what makes Situation A and B studies different in the ILCD classification (see Sect. 7.4). Trend in the market The electricity example above relates to the situation where the market trend points towards a stable or increasing demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 497, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7.4). Trend in the market The electricity example above relates to the situation where the market trend points towards a stable or increasing demand. However, if the market trend is rapidly decreasing, the long-term marginal response to a decision that leads to an increase in demand will not be an increase in the implementation of more wind turbines but rather the continued use of coal or gas power plants that would otherwise have been taken out of operation. In this market, the demand caused by the assessed decision will thereby make the existing least competitive technology stay longer on the market. The distinction between whether the trend in a decreasing market is slowly decreasing or rapidly decreasing depends on whether the decrease happens below or above the average replacement rate for the production technology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 498, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, a market trend would be characterised as rapidly decreasing if it decreases by 10% per year, while the average replacement rate for the production technology is 5%. Note that a replacement rate of 5% means that production plants are designed to operate for 20 years, which is quite common, depending on the technologies involved. The reason for making this distinction in market trends is that for increasing, stable or slowly decreasing market trends there is a need for implementation of new production technology, and changes in demand will therefore affect this implementation rate. For rapidly decreasing market trends, however, the decrease is faster than the decommissioning rate for the technology, implying that production plants would be taken out of use before their design life time. In such cases (small) changes in demand will not lead to changes in implementation of new Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 499, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technology (e.g. wind turbines), but merely to the changes in the speed of decommissioning (e.g. coal or gas power plants). Increase or decrease in demand The electricity generation example above relates to the situation where the assessed decision leads to an increase in demand, and the general trend in the market is either on the increase or decrease. However, the assessed decision may also lead to a decrease in demand. If the assessed decision leads to a large decrease in demand in a market with an increasing market trend, the implementation of new technologies will be postponed, implying that existing least cost effective technologies will continue to be used for a longer time. As showed in the discussions above, there are three aspects that need to be considered, and since each of them has two possible outcomes, there is a total of eight possible combinations. Not all combinations were discussed above, but they follow the same logic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 500, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Not all combinations were discussed above, but they follow the same logic. Table 9.1 summarises the discussions above and gives an outline of how to perform the identification of which technology is affected by a change in demand for all eight combinations. Table 9.1 Identification of the technology which will be affected by a change in demand (i.e. the marginal technology) Long-term marginal Short-term marginal Decision leads to increase in demand Increasing market trend: Implementation of new production technology is promoted\u2014increase in demand is supplied by the production technology to be implemented in the context Increasing market trend: Less cost-efficient technology will be used to supply increase in demand\u2014 increase in demand is supplied by least cost effective technology available on the market Decision leads to increase in demand Decreasing market trend: Decommissioning of least competitive technology is delayed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 501, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Increase in demand is supplied by least cost effective technology available on the market Decreasing market trend: Less cost-efficient technology will be used to supply increase in demand. Increase in demand is supplied by least cost effective technology available on the market Decision leads to decrease in demand Increasing market trend: Implementation of new production technology is delayed. Decrease in demand saves the supply from production technology to be implemented in the context Increasing market trend: The least cost-efficient technology is no longer needed because of reduced demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 502, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Decrease in demand saves the supply from least cost effective technology available on the market Decision leads to decrease in demand Decreasing market trend: Decommissioning of least competitive technology is promoted \u2014decrease in demand saves the supply from least cost effective technology available on the market Decreasing market trend: The least cost-efficient technology is no longer needed because of reduced demand\u2014decrease in demand saves the supply from least cost effective technology available on the market After identifying the production technology affected by the change in demand, go to Step 1 again to address other changes created by the assessed decision, if all changes are not already handled.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 503, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The table shows that, depending on the combination of the three aspects, the marginal technology can either be the least cost effective technology available on the existing market (6 of the combinations) or the future production technology to be implemented (2 of the combinations). In practice, the marginal technology, especially long term, can be difficult to identify, and this is a potential source of considerable uncertainty in the inventory analysis. The importance of this uncertainty may be investigated by sensitivity scenarios for the different potential marginal technologies. Furthermore, it is possible to create a mix of potential marginal processes, which means that the inventory data becomes a mix of data from the different potential marginal processes, as demonstrated in Sect. 9.5. This approach is used in the ecoinvent database in its version 3 (and higher). Note that in the discussions above, we have mentioned \u2018the market\u2019 as one entity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 504, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.5. This approach is used in the ecoinvent database in its version 3 (and higher). Note that in the discussions above, we have mentioned \u2018the market\u2019 as one entity. However, in reality, there may be many markets for one product, e.g. when the product has high transportation costs compared to the value of the product. In cases where there are many small markets for the same product, the market trend has to be identified in the affected local market. For other products where the transportation costs are lower, there may be only one global market. The spatial nature of a market has to be established as a first task when identifying changes in supply. Secondary consequences and concluding remarks In the presented 4-step guidance we have only addressed the rather \u2018direct consequences\u2019 of increased or decreased demands and supplies. However, several derived effects or secondary consequences of these direct consequences may be found", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 505, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, several derived effects or secondary consequences of these direct consequences may be found. Depending on the size of these consequences and the scope of the assessment, these may be relevant to consider. Common for each of them is that they are difficult to foresee and even more difficult to quantify. We therefore cannot establish a general procedure for identifying and quantifying these, more than stating that in-depth knowledge on the topic of concern in most cases will be necessary. A few examples of the types of secondary consequences are given below. Additional or reduced production of a product may affect market prices for the product hereby affecting the broader demand for the product. For example, if the assessed decision will lead to the increase in the cost of, say, wheat, the behaviour of other consumers may be to consume less wheat due to this increase. It may also be that due to the increase in price, some consumers will begin to use, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 506, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It may also be that due to the increase in price, some consumers will begin to use, e.g. corn instead of wheat, hereby increasing the demand for corn. Changes in market prices may not only affect the consumers but also the producers. In the example above, increases in wheat prices may cause producers to increase the intensity of their production, typically done through increasing the fertiliser use, or through increasing the agricultural area (for more discussions about secondary consequences specifically related to biomaterial production, see Chap. 30). However, it may also be imagined that the increase in price of wheat may cause producers to Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 507, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "intensify research related to yield increase, potentially leading to, say, a decrease in area/fertiliser/pesticide use per produced unit of wheat. Other types of \u2018secondary consequences\u2019 related not to prices of products but to the time consumption of products can also be imagined for some products. For example, a washing machine may lead to significant time savings for the user. The question is then what this time will be used for. In some cases, what is gained in terms of time savings by various household appliances is to some extent used on other \u2018time-consuming\u2019 household appliances, such as TV or videogames. When assessing a washing machine, it may therefore in some cases make sense to include an increase in power consumption from the TV set, or something similar. As may be obvious from the example above, identifying the secondary consequences will in many cases be very difficult and associated with considerable uncertainties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 508, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As may be obvious from the example above, identifying the secondary consequences will in many cases be very difficult and associated with considerable uncertainties. Furthermore, these effects are typically far from linear and when certain thresholds are passed a complete shift of parts of the market can be the consequence (e.g. the point where the production cost of wind power makes it fully competitive in certain market segments). Whenever these effects are considered in an LCA, it will often be advisable to make several different scenarios where various realistic possibilities are addressed in order to assess the potential variability of the results (see Sect. 9.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 509, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.6). However, despite the problems of identifying these secondary consequences, it is evident that if the goal of the assessment is to get as complete an overview of the consequences of a decision, none of these should be omitted a priori, but should be included if at all considered to be practically possible and important for the outcome of the study. This concludes the introduction and guide to consequential LCA. Readers are invited to consult the Appendix for an example of how to use the 4-step guideline in a case study of the consequences of increasing the supply of biodiesel from poultry fat. As we hope to have demonstrated, consequential LCA is conceptually appealing because it aims to address the consequences of a potential decision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 510, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As we hope to have demonstrated, consequential LCA is conceptually appealing because it aims to address the consequences of a potential decision. After all, why bother making an LCA study (or paying for one) if its outcomes are not expected to have a consequence on the physical world? We also hope to have demonstrated that the answers to the many questions that need to be addressed throughout the 4-step guide are often associated with large uncertainties. Even advanced economic models generally do a poor job at predicting concrete consequences in markets following some sort of perturbation (consider how global financial crises tend to take also financial analysts by surprise) and simplifying assumptions have to be applied. These uncertainties are one reason why many LCA practitioners prefer an attributional approach. Its use of average process data and frequent use of allocation is theoretically difficult to defend when the goal of an LCA study is to support decisions (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 511, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Its use of average process data and frequent use of allocation is theoretically difficult to defend when the goal of an LCA study is to support decisions (i.e. study the consequence of decisions), which is the case for Situation A and B studies in the terminology of ILCD (see Sect. 7.4). Yet, attributional LCA does not suffer from uncertainties related to economic modelling and is preferred by some LCA practitioners for this reason and considered to be \u2018on average more correct than consequential LCA\u2019. This is also part of the reason why ILCD recommends an attributional approach even for goal situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 512, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A where the LCA supports a decision but the scale is small and market elasticities make identification of the marginal product or technology uncertain in many cases. 9.3 Planning and Collection of Data Based on the scope definition and the processes identified to belong within the system boundaries, the collection of data for these processes has to be planned and carried out. The planning has the purpose of balancing the effort of data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information. This is essential in order to avoid wasting time on collecting high-quality data that have a low relevance for the LCA results and/or spend too little time on collecting high-quality data where it is highly relevant for the results. Planning and collection of data are iterative processes, which is why they are addressed together in this section. These processes are an integrated part of the iterative approach to LCA that also involves the calculation of LCIA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 513, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 139, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These processes are an integrated part of the iterative approach to LCA that also involves the calculation of LCIA results. For example, the first iteration of LCIA results may guide the practitioner about which data are particularly relevant to focus on in a second iteration. As starting point for data collection, we encourage practitioners to create a table that outlines a plan for the data collection for each process or single data point, see template in Table 9.2 (elements of the table are explained below). Note that the data eventually collected by the practitioner will often diverge from the initial plan due to unforeseen limitations and results of early iterations of LCIA phase that may lead to changes in the data specificity that the practitioner aims at for each individual process or single data point. The table can therefore be adapted accordingly at each iteration and be used in its final version (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 514, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 139, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The table can therefore be adapted accordingly at each iteration and be used in its final version (i.e. final iteration of the study) to document the metadata behind the LCI data (see Sect. 9.7). The initial planning should be based on the requirements to data representativeness from the scope definition, as well as on the efforts that are expected in order Table 9.2 Template for planning and collection of data Process or single data point Specificity Type Source Access Very high High Medium Low Very low X X Concentration Process engineer Questionnaire Y X Kg/year Academic paper Online search Z X Unit process ecoinvent Database search The structure of the table can follow life cycle stages of the product. Based on Wenzel et al. (1997) Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 515, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 139, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to obtain data of a given quality. Data quality is here classified into one of five categories of data specificity shown in Table 9.3. The efforts required to obtain data of a given quality can be estimated for each data point (e.g. a flow quantity) by considering three additional dimensions of the data in Table 9.2: data type, data source and data access. Examples are given for each of these in Table 9.4. The following sub-sections are structured according to the collection of data for each of the five data specificity levels and address challenges that the LCA practitioner commonly faces for each of the three dimensions of Table 9.4. Table 9.3 Classification of data specificity (inspired by Wenzel et al. 1997) Data specificity Explanation Very high Measured directly at specific process site or scaled from measurement High Derived from measurements at specific process site via modelling Medium LCI database process or data from literature specific to actual process, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 516, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 140, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "according to best available technology standard or country average. Specificity may be improved by modifying a process with site-specific data Low Generic LCI database process or data from literature, e.g. covering a mix of technologies in a country or region Very low Judgement by expert or LCA practitioner Table 9.4 Three dimensions influencing the effort required to obtain data Examples and notes Data type Complete unit process Includes all flows scaled to 1 unit of reference flow for process Individual flow to/from process per unit of time X kg/year, covers elementary flows and other flow types Technical or geographic parameters Process pressure, temperature, soil pH, precipitation Concentrations X g/m3 flue gas or waste water to treatment Quantities of products bought per year X kg steel of specified grade (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 517, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 140, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "material flow to process) Use characteristics Temperature of clothes washing, driving pattern of car Sector statistics Sector-average data Economy-wide statistics Infrastructure data, trade data Data source Experts internal to commissioner Process engineers Flow data on internal processes Purchasing department Supplier data Research and development or design Data on product concepts, not yet marketed Experts external to commissioner Researchers Expert in relevant technological domain (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 518, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 140, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.3.1 Very High and High Data Specificity The data type to be prioritised is always complete unit processes, because these form the basis of the LCI results. However, for very high and high data specificity, complete site-specific unit processes often do not exist and therefore must be constructed by the practitioner from single data points. For very high specificity, these data points are directly measured input and output flows, i.e. elementary flows from/to the ecosphere and other flows from/to other processes in the technosphere. Ideally, elementary flow data should be gathered in the physical unit matching the characterisation factors to be applied in LCIA (usually \u2018kg\u2019) per specific reference flow of the unit process (usually the primary product output). For a CO2 emission (i.e. elementary flow) from an electricity generation process, this would mean an amount of kg CO2 per kWh electricity produced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 519, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For a CO2 emission (i.e. elementary flow) from an electricity generation process, this would mean an amount of kg CO2 per kWh electricity produced. Often, a directly measured flow will not be available in this form, but rather as a quantity per unit of time (e.g. kg per year). In this case, the flow needs to be scaled to one unit of reference flow. Figure 9.6 shows an example of how to do this in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 520, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "kg per year). In this case, the flow needs to be scaled to one unit of reference flow. Figure 9.6 shows an example of how to do this in practice. Table 9.4 (continued) Examples and notes Consultants Person having long experience with conducting similar studies Industry representatives Person with broad overview of relevant industry Public Other LCA studies Academic literature, reports commissioned by companies LCI databases ecoinvent, LCAfood LCI models PestLCI Company CSR reports Mentioning of key environmental figures Industry association reports and databases Volumes produced, average elementary flows Legal documents Details on best available technologies, regulatory thresholds National or supranational statistical agencies Mixes of waste treatment, transport, energy, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 521, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consumer organisations Average life time of products Data access Online search Google, databases, websites Questionnaire Employees at commissioning company or suppliers Direct dialogue Physical visits to site, email or telephone contact First-hand gathering by LCA practitioner Measurements at site with own equipment The points listed under each dimension are illustrative and not exhaustive Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 522, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Often, a company will not possess all the relevant data required for a unit process, due to the cost of systematically measuring all inputs and outputs. When direct site measurements of flows are not available, the flows can be modelled from other site-specific data, in which case the data quality is high, as opposed to very high. Such other site-specific data can be the concentration of pollutants in effluents (typically wastewater or flue gas). Figure 9.7 shows an example of how to calculate copper emissions to untreated wastewater from the concentration of copper in the wastewater. Another approach is to calculate output flows from site-specific measurements of input flows using a mass balance. Since unit processes, in general, do not gain or loose mass (or energy) over time, the mass of inputs should equal the mass of outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 523, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 142, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Since unit processes, in general, do not gain or loose mass (or energy) over time, the mass of inputs should equal the mass of outputs. So, if a company consumes 10 m3 of natural gas per year, the CO2 emissions can be estimated from the mass of natural gas (calculated using its density) and the stoichiometry of the combustion reaction (natural gas is mainly composed of methane, CH4). A mass balance approach can also be applied to modelling at the level of elements. If for example, a company consumes 950 g copper per unit of reference flow, but one unit of reference flow only contains 928 g copper, then the remaining 22 g per unit of reference flow must leave the process as Material X: 1500kg/year Product Y: 1000kg/year Process Emission of NOx: 500kg/year Divide the flows by the annual produc\u019fon rate (1000 kg/year) Material X: 1.5kg Product Y: 1kg Emission of NOx: 0.5kg Process Fig. 9.6 Example of the scaling of three annual flows to one unit (kg) of reference flow (product Y)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 524, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 142, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Convert the concentration unit to \u201dkg/m3\u201d and multiply it with the wastewater flow: 0.0001kg/m3*1000m3/year = 0.1kg/year. Product Y: 2000kg/year Wastewater: 1000m3/year Emission of copper: 0.1mg/L Process Divide all flows by the annual production rate (2000 kg/year) Product Y: 2000kg/year Emission of copper: 0.1kg/year Process Product Y: 1kg Emission of copper: 5*10-5 kg Process Fig. 9.7 Example of the calculation of an emission per reference flow (1 kg of product Y) from a wastewater concentration. Dotted arrows indicate input flows not considered in the example Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 525, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 143, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a waste flow to treatment or as an emission. In many cases, a simple back-of-the-envelope mass balance calculation will not suffice, because the relationship between input and output flows is complicated and dependent on many parameters, and it is more appropriate to apply dedicated LCI models. For example, the LCI model PestLCI (Birkved and Hauschild 2006) calculates emissions of pesticides from field applications via different routes (e.g. evaporation, air drift, emissions through drainage pipes and groundwater leaching) based on the application of a specific pesticide to the field, its physical and chemical properties, and a large number of context-specific parameters, such as crop type, time of application, soil pH and slope. Note that the data specificity obtained from LCI models can only be characterised as high if all inputs and parameters are in fact site-specific (and when relevant, time-specific). If this is not the case, the data specificity is lower", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 526, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If this is not the case, the data specificity is lower. High and very high specificity data (e.g. on elementary flows such as CO2 emissions and freshwater use) are sometimes available in reports, e.g. \u2018green accounts\u2019 or CSR reports, published by the company operating the process of interest, but often the source of such data is employees working with or operating the process. These may be process engineers monitoring flow data as part of their daily routine, or they may work in the purchasing department and thereby have knowledge about the amounts of input flows (materials and energy) purchased and the identify of suppliers. The latter may be used to contact suppliers for data specific to processes at their sites and the procedure can, in principle, be repeated several times to obtain company internal data further upstream in the foreground system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 527, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Company internal data may be accessed by asking the employees to fill out questionnaires combined with a physical visit to the site, email or telephone contact. This way of obtaining data can be straightforward or require lots of effort depending on the willingness of the employees possessing the data to share them in a relevant format. From our experience, this willingness is generally higher when the commissioner of a study is part of the same company and department as the employee holding the data or if the LCA study has been given attention by the management level in a company. It should be noted that company internal data are sometimes confidential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 528, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should be noted that company internal data are sometimes confidential. In some cases, they are not possible to obtain, but in other cases the confidentiality issues may be handled by the LCA practitioner signing a non-disclosure agreement and reporting any confidential data of importance to the study in a special appendix to the report that is only accessible to a selected group of people (typically including members of a peer review panel if the study is peer reviewed). 9.3.2 Medium and Low Specificity Data For reasons given above it is in practice rarely feasible (nor necessary) to obtain all foreground system data from site measurements, i.e. with high or very high", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 529, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "specificity. A large part of the data collection therefore usually takes place online by searching, identifying and accessing publicly available sources, such as other LCA studies, industry association reports and national statistics. It is also possible to identify, via online searching, data for a process that is very similar to the actual process to be modelled, either because the reference flow of the processes is the same (e.g. the incineration of polypropylene) or similar (e.g. the incineration of polypropylene versus polyethylene). The strategy of extrapolation from data for similar processes is especially useful to \u2018fill out gaps\u2019 in a preliminary unit process, but the LCA practitioner must carefully check the representativeness of the process used for extrapolation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 530, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, if the initial data collection effort has led to a handful of high or very high specificity emission data, but no resource inputs for a process, the remaining flows may be quantified by extrapolation from a similar process. Such similar process can be sourced from scientific papers or other sources, which can document sufficient representativeness (technology, geography, time) and disclose sufficient data to check the agreement with the existing handful of high specificity emission data for the original unit process. A special case of extrapolation is for novel technologies that may not yet operate at industrial scale anywhere at the point in time where the study is to be conducted. Here, an obvious source of extrapolation is laboratory scale processes. It is, however, important to consider how the relationships between the flows of a process changes from laboratory to industrial scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 531, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is, however, important to consider how the relationships between the flows of a process changes from laboratory to industrial scale. Often the technology of the process will change, not just in size, at the upscaling from lab scale to commercial scale, and this typically leads to increased efficiency (e.g. less input per reference flow output) and changes in the quality of flows. The effort required to access data via online searching depends on the expertise of the practitioner (e.g. familiarity with the terminology of the concerned technical domain) and on how well-studied the phenomena behind the data is. For example, there is generally more publically available data on greenhouse gas emissions than on emissions of synthetic chemicals used for very specific industrial purposes and produced in low volumes. The effort also depends on the number of data points that can be accessed from each source", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 532, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The effort also depends on the number of data points that can be accessed from each source. A unit process is often composed of more than 100 flows (the majority often being elementary flows). Some sources, such as LCI databases, contain data for all flows making up a unit process, while other sources, e.g. statistical agencies, may only cover a few elementary flows. LCI databases are used to source data for the background system and for the parts of the foreground system where more specific data can or will not be obtained. Table 9.5 presents a non-exhaustive list of LCI databases. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 533, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 9.5 List of process-based LCI databases (not exhaustive) Name Description ecoinvent Swiss database that contains approximately 12,500 processes (version 3) organised under different themes like transport, energy, material production, agriculture, etc. All processes are available as unit- and system-processes and all processes are documented in detail. Updated regularly ecoinvent; www.ecoinvent.org ELCD Database of the JRC of the European Commission, contains more than 300 datasets on energy, material production, disposal and transport Joint Research Centre of the European Commission; eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ ELCD3/index.xhtml Agri-footprint A comprehensive LCI database of feed, food and biomass, containing around 3500 products and processes Blonk Consultants; www.agri-footprint", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 534, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "com LCA Food Danish database containing more than 600 data sets on basic food products and related processes from agriculture, aquaculture, fishery, industry, wholesale and supermarket, including waste treatment processes 2.-0 LCA Consultants and Aarhus University; www.lcafood.dk Swedish National LCA database Contains more than 500 well-documented LCI data sets in SPINE format for a wide range of industrial processes and household goods and services Competence Centre for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material Systems of Chalmers University of Technology; cpmdatabase.cpm. chalmers.se GaBi databases Separate databases mainly based on primary data collection. Cover sectors from agriculture to electronics and automotive industries, textiles and retail, through to services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 535, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cover sectors from agriculture to electronics and automotive industries, textiles and retail, through to services. Contains more than 10,000 Life Cycle Inventory profiles GaBi; www.gabi-software.com/ international/databases/gabi-databases/ LC-inventories Over 1000 process data sets, which are corrections, updates or extensions of ecoinvent v2.2 database, created by ESU-Services and other authors The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment and ESU-services; www. lc-inventories.ch NEEDS Database designed for long-term environmental assessment. Contains around 800 processes of future energy supply systems, future material supply, and future transport services Members of a European research project; www.needs-project.org/ needswebdb/index.php NREL US-American database with around 300 datasets related to the production of materials, components, or assembly in the U.S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 536, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "National Renewable Energy Laboratory; www.nrel.gov/lci ProBas Comprises more than 8000 datasets on energy, material production, transport and disposal, different data sources and German Federal Environmental Agency; www.probas.umweltbundesamt.de/php/ index.php (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 537, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While a number of LCI databases are available and some of them contain high-quality data for specific technologies or industries as shown in Table 9.5, the most comprehensive, and probably most widely used, database is ecoinvent and in the following section we there focus on this database and encourage the reader to look for similar information about other databases using the references given in Table 9.5 as relevant. ecoinvent version 3 contains approximately 12,500 unit processes and each process exists in an \u2018allocation, default\u2019 (or APOS: allocation at the point of substitution), an \u2018allocation, recycled content\u2019 (or \u2018cut-off\u2019) and a \u2018consequential\u2019 version", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 538, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The \u2018allocation, default\u2019 version uses price as allocation key as a rule, except for a few processes, where representative physical parameters are used (such as for processes involving co-production of electricity and heat) where markets are judged distorted by, e.g., regulation, and also corrects for fluctuating prices by applying three-year, historical average prices for some processes (Weidema et al. 2013). The cut-off version is identical to the default allocation version, except for the handling of recyclable materials that are cut-off before being sent to recycling. This means that recyclable materials do not bring any benefits to the primary user of the materials and are considered available \u2018burden-free\u2019 to recycling processes, and that the impacts attributed to secondary recycled materials are only those of the recycling processes and the associated transportation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 539, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By contrast, in the default allocation version secondary recycled materials are also allocated a share of the material\u2019s previous life cycle impacts (based on economic allocation). The existence of the two allocation approaches for recyclable materials in ecoinvent (\u2018default\u2019 and \u2018cut-off\u2019) reflects the fact that there is little consensus on how to perform such allocation in the most reasonable way. The cut-off allocation is the recommended approach in the European Product Environmental Footprint guideline (EC-JRC 2012). The consequential version of ecoinvent uses the long-term marginal technology, which is identified by considering whether a market is increasing (or stable, or slowly decreasing) or rapidly decreasing, in line with Table 9.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 540, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ecoinvent centre advocates the use of the consequential version of the database not only for large-scale decisions (studied in Situation B studies, according to ILCD), but also for small-scale decisions, which are by definition too small to cause structural changes outside the foreground system, i.e. too small to lead to new equipment Table 9.5 (continued) Name Description data quality. Focuses on processes within Germany LCA Commons More than 18,000 datasets for U.S. agriculture production and agriculturally derived products USDA; www.lcacommons.gov \u00d6kobaudat German database with around 950 environmental product declaration datasets for building materials, building processes and transport processes Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety; http://www.oekobaudat. de/en.html Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 541, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "being installed (increase in production capacity) or existing equipment being prematurely taken out of use (decrease in production capacity). Yet the ecoinvent centre argues that the consequential version of the database (which is based on the long-term marginal technology) is \u201capplicable to study the effect of small, short-term decisions, since each individual short-term decision contributes to the accumulated trend in the market volume, which is the basis for decisions on capital investment\u201d (Weidema et al. 2013). In relation to the ILCD-defined decision context situations, the ecoinvent 3 database can, strictly speaking, only be used to model consistently the parts of Situation B studies involving structural changes (using the consequential database) and Situation C2 studies (using the allocation default or cut-off database). However, as noted in Sect. 9.2.2, economic allocation is often the only practical solution to multifunctionality, irrespective of decision context", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 542, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, as noted in Sect. 9.2.2, economic allocation is often the only practical solution to multifunctionality, irrespective of decision context. We therefore advise that one of the two allocation versions of ecoinvent is used for Situation A, B (only non-structural changes), C1 and C2. However, the LCA practitioner should check for any multifunctional processes that have high contributions to early iteration LCA results and, where appropriate and technically feasible, manually change the multifunctionality solution in accordance with the scope definition of the study to test its influence on LCA results. Whenever data is sourced by online searches or LCI databases it is important to pay attention to the available metadata describing the characteristics and conditions of the process to evaluate how representative the data is for the actual data needed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 543, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Metadata usually specifies the exact technology (or mix of technologies, in the case of average or generic data) involved in a process, the location (e.g. country) of the unit process, the time during which the data applies and relevant operating conditions (e.g. climate). The metadata allows distinguishing between medium and low data specificity (see Table 9.4). Relevant metadata for foreground processes should be reported by the LCA practitioner (see Sect. 9.7) and furthermore considered in the later sensitivity analysis and uncertainty management (see Sect. 9.6). When using a unit process from an LCI database in the foreground system it is preferable to adapt it to make it more representative of the actual process to be modelled to the extent that this is possible (see Sect. 8.7)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 544, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.7). One improvement of the representativeness that is usually possible is to manually change the electricity grid mix that fuels the process to a mix that matches the geographical and temporal scope of the study. Note that such adaptation is not possible if a unit process is \u2018aggregated\u2019, meaning that the elementary flows of all processes upstream and downstream have been aggregated, so the reference flow is the only output of the aggregated process (or input, in the case of waste treatment processes) apart from the elementary flows. Aggregated unit processes are often preferred for constructing the background system because the LCA practitioner only needs to include the aggregated processes that link to the foreground processes of an LCI model.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 545, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.3.3 Very Low Specificity Data If efforts to obtain data have been fruitless, one may rely on expert judgement. People may qualify as experts if they are knowledgeable in the technical domain relevant for the data (e.g. plastic moulding) or if they have conducted similar LCA studies themselves in the past. If no expert is available, a last resort is to use a \u2018reasonable worst case\u2019 for the calculation of the first iteration of LCA results. A reasonable worst case value may be derived from knowledge of similar or related processes or from correlation or calculation from other flows of the process or other processes. The results will then show if the data is potentially important or negligible (judging against the cut-off criteria identified in the scope definition). In the first case, the practitioner may try again to obtain data of better quality or address the issue in the interpretation of results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 546, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the first case, the practitioner may try again to obtain data of better quality or address the issue in the interpretation of results. In the latter case, the reasonable worst case data may either be kept in the model or removed. Whatever option is chosen it should be reported (see Sect. 9.7) for the sake of other LCA practitioners wanting to use (parts of) the inventory model in future LCA studies. 9.4 Constructing and Quality Checking Unit Processes The data that is collected should represent full operation cycle of the process, including preparatory activities like heating, calibration (with potential loss of materials and products as scrap), operation, idling, cleaning and maintenance. It should also take into account typical scrap rates during operation. This means that the data collection should be based on a longer period of operation, ideally covering several production cycles, perhaps one year\u2019s production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 547, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that the data collection should be based on a longer period of operation, ideally covering several production cycles, perhaps one year\u2019s production. Sometimes also the impacts from the manufacturing and end-of-life stage of the production equipment are important and then they should also be included in the data collection. When the data has been collected, it is time to construct unit processes. As mentioned, the type of data collected can vary (see Table 9.3) and it is important to ensure that all the data has the right format for a unit process. To reiterate, all data must be in the form of flows. Elementary flows must be in a unit that matches that of the characterisation factors to be applied (\u2018kg\u2019 in many cases), and all flows should be scaled to 1 unit of the reference flow of a unit process (see Figs. 9.6 and 9.7). Note that unit processes obtained from LCI databases already have the right format and are therefore ready to incorporate in an LCI model (see Sect. 9.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 548, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.6 and 9.7). Note that unit processes obtained from LCI databases already have the right format and are therefore ready to incorporate in an LCI model (see Sect. 9.5). 9.4.1 Quality Check of a Unit Process When constructing unit processes there is a risk that they are incomplete and that there are errors in the flow quantities. Incompleteness may be caused by the fact that Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 549, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "some flows are not monitored or reported. Errors in flow quantities may be caused by errors in reported measurements (e.g. a technician writing \u2018g\u2019 instead of \u2018mg\u2019) or errors in the calculation of flows and conversions of units (e.g. if one had forgotten to convert the concentration unit in the example of Fig. 9.7). To avoid (critical) incompleteness and quantitative errors, constructed unit processes should be checked before they are used in an LCI model. Such a quality check can be supported by calculation and interpretation of first iteration LCIA results, e.g. through the identification of the most contributing process and substances. Completeness of flows There are three complementary approaches for validating the completeness of flows. 1. Knowledge of similar processes can help identifying potentially missing flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 550, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Completeness of flows There are three complementary approaches for validating the completeness of flows. 1. Knowledge of similar processes can help identifying potentially missing flows. For example, the LCA practitioner may suspect one or more missing flows, if a unit process for a specific paper production process contains no chlorine containing compounds in the wastewater to treatment and the practitioner knowns from previous experience that chlorine compounds are typically present in the effluent of paper production processes. 2. Knowledge of the nature of a physical transformation in a process can hint what emissions or waste flows to treatment may be missing. For example, NOx gases are known to be formed whenever a combustion process occurs in the presence of nitrogen, the major constituent of atmospheric air. Filters can capture large fractions of generated NOx before it becomes an emission, but usually not every single molecule. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 551, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Filters can capture large fractions of generated NOx before it becomes an emission, but usually not every single molecule. 3. A qualitative comparison of input and output flows can show if there is disagreement between the elements entering a process and the elements leaving a process. For example, a process cannot emit large quantities of CO2, without inputs of carbon sources in the form of fossil fuels (e.g. coal, natural gas or oil). While using this validation technique it should be kept in mind that some flows entering and leaving a process are elementarily heterogeneous. For example, mercury is a common emission from the combustion of coal due to the mercury content (typically in the order of 0.00001%) of the coal entering the process as a heterogeneous material flow. In this case, the mercury input is \u2018hidden\u2019 in the coal input and it would therefore be wrong to assume that a homogenous input of mercury is missing on account of the emission of mercury", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 552, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this case, the mercury input is \u2018hidden\u2019 in the coal input and it would therefore be wrong to assume that a homogenous input of mercury is missing on account of the emission of mercury. Flow quantities A unit process should obviously not only contain the right flows, but also the right quantities of these flows. A number of validation approaches exist for checking flow quantities. A mass balance is a universal approach because the sum of flows entering a process should amount to the same number as the sum of flows leaving a process since no accumulation occurs inside the process. A mass balance is therefore an efficient way of spotting errors, for example if the mass of outputs is on the order of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 553, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1000 times the mass of inputs. Note, however, that flow quantities may be correct, even if the law of conservation of mass seems to be violated. This is because most of the constituents of atmospheric air, e.g. oxygen and nitrogen, are generally not counted as resource inputs in unit processes, in which case the mass of outputs appear larger than the mass of inputs (e.g. due to combustion products such as CO2, H2O and NOx). A mass balance can also be applied at the level of individual elements, but one should be aware of \u2018hidden\u2019 elements in heterogeneous flows, as described above. Energy balances can in principle also be used as a validation approach, but this would require calculations of the chemical energy stored in inputs and outputs and quantification of heat lost to the environment, which is often not reported as an emission in a unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 554, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Following validation based on mass balance a complementary validation based on stoichiometry can be carried out if the process to be validated involves one or more chemical reactions. This serves to check if the ratio between inputs and outputs involved in a chemical reaction is correct. For example, stoichiometry gives us the correct ratio between inputs and outputs in the electrolysis of water in the presence of sodium chloride: 2NaCl + 2H2O ! 2NaOH + H2 + Cl2. The mass (g) of each molecule can then be calculated by multiplying its stoichiometric coefficient (mole) and its molar mass (g/mole). Other validation approaches rely on comparisons to external information. This could be information for similar processes that are expected to contain flows of similar magnitudes as the process to be validated. The external information could also be legal limits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 555, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This could be information for similar processes that are expected to contain flows of similar magnitudes as the process to be validated. The external information could also be legal limits. For example, if an emission of nitrogen dioxide corresponds to 100 times a regulatory emission limit, it is a strong indication that there is an error in the emission quantity (note however that many regulatory limits are given as concentrations rather than mass flows, in which case a conversion is needed). Yet another validation approach relies on the first iteration of LCIA results. These are useful for identifying erroneously high flow quantities. For example, if the contribution from a single elementary flow of a single unit process contributes with 99.9% of the impact for an impact category, this is a strong indication that the flow quantity is too high (e.g. due to a factor 1000 unit conversion mistake in a calculation or data entry in the LCA software)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 556, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "due to a factor 1000 unit conversion mistake in a calculation or data entry in the LCA software). This validation approach can also be used to check for mistakes in the ID of an elementary flow, such as mistakenly using the name \u2018dioxin\u2019 for an emission of \u2018carbon dioxide\u2019 (dioxin is a group of extremely toxic chemicals). 9.4.2 Using Flow Names Compatible with LCA Software To prepare a unit processes for use in an LCI model it is important that the LCA software used \u2018understands\u2019 the identity of the flows of the unit process. If this is not the case, a flow cannot be linked correctly to other processes or characterisation factors (in the case of elementary flows). There have been attempts at harmonising flow names across LCI databases and LCA software, but the LCA practitioner Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 557, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "should always check the flow nomenclature of the software used (e.g. SimaPro, GaBi or OpenLCA) and follow this when naming the flows of constructed unit processes. Unit processes of LCI databases (see Table 9.5) are commonly integrated into LCA software, which ensures that their flow names are correct. LCA practitioners may face a situation where an LCA software has no name for a given elementary flow or the CAS-number (Chemical Abstract System number\u2014 a unique identifier for a chemical) of an emitted chemical does not exist in the list of flow names in a software. In this case, the LCA practitioner should check if there is a characterisation factor (CF) for the chemical in the LCIA method to be applied in the ensuing LCIA step. If this is the case, the LCA practitioner should create a new flow in the LCA software with a name identical to the name of the CF, so the software can create the link", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 558, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If this is the case, the LCA practitioner should create a new flow in the LCA software with a name identical to the name of the CF, so the software can create the link. If there is no CF, the LCA practitioner can either calculate the CF on his/her own when guidelines to do so exist (e.g. for the USEtox model; see Chap. 40) or discuss the potential of that substance to contribute to the total environmental impact and to the resulting interpretation of the results. In the case of missing flows that are not elementary flows, these should also be created in the LCA software and used to link processes together. For example, in the case of a waste to treatment flow that is specific to the studied system (part of the foreground system), and therefore not existing in the LCA software, this flow should be created in the software and used to link the process having it as an output to the most appropriate waste treatment process that is available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 559, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.5 Constructing the LCI Model and Calculating LCI Results When all unit processes have been constructed or collected from LCI databases the LCA practitioner can construct the LCI model. Each unit process can be seen as a \u2018building block\u2019 in the LCI model, the \u2018size\u2019 of which is ultimately decided by the study\u2019s reference flow derived from the functional unit in the scope definition (see Chap. 8). This is because the reference flow decides the quantity required of each unit process-specific reference flow. In other words, each unit process must be scaled to fit the LCI model. Figure 9.8 shows an example of how this is done manually for a simplified system composed of just three unit processes each having just 4 flows. In Fig. 9.8, Process 1 is first scaled to match the reference flow of the study (100 kg of Product X). After the scaling of Process 1, 200 kg of Product Y is required, which Process 2 is scaled according to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 560, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.8, Process 1 is first scaled to match the reference flow of the study (100 kg of Product X). After the scaling of Process 1, 200 kg of Product Y is required, which Process 2 is scaled according to. This means that 240 kg of Product Z is required, which Process 3 is scaled according to, etc. In practice, LCA software can carry out the scaling automatically for the practitioner, when told what the reference flow of a study is. In practice, inventory modelling is normally performed using a dedicated software which supports both the building of the product system model, connecting the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 561, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "relevant unit processes; the linking to available unit process databases and storing of own processes, and the linking of elementary flows in the inventory results to the relevant characterisation factors for the life cycle impact assessment. Table 9.6 shows some of the widely used software for LCA 9.5.1 Database and Software Specific Aspects As mentioned in Sect. 9.3.2 processes from LCI databases exist in disaggregated and aggregated versions, the difference being that the latter scales all processes upstream and downstream according to the reference flow of the process and aggregates their elementary flows, so that the only output of the aggregated process (or input, in the case of waste treatment processes) that is not an elementary flow is its reference flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 562, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, some LCI databases only provide aggregated Process 3 Process 1 Emission A 432kg Resource A 2.5kg Process 3 Emission A 1.8kg Process 1 Resource B 1kg Emission B 2kg Emission B 200kg Resource A 600kg Resource B 100kg Prod. W 0.3kg Prod. Y 2kg Prod. Z 1kg Process 2 Emission B 1.5kg Resource A 1.3kg Prod. Z 1.2kg Prod. Y 1kg Prod. X 1kg Prod. W 72kg Prod. X 100kg Process 2 Emission B 300kg Resource A 260kg Prod. Z 240kg Prod. Y 200kg (a) (b) Fig. 9.8 Three simplified unit processes unconnected (a) and connected (b) based on a study reference flow of 100 kg of product X (the reference flow of process 1) Table 9.6 Software for performing LCA (non-exhaustive list) Name Information SimaPro Pr\u00e9 Consultants; www.pre-sustainability.com/simapro GaBi Thinkstep; www.gabi-software.com/international/index/ OpenLCA GreenDelta (open access); www.openlca.org/ Umberto Ifu Hamburg; www.ifu.com/en/umberto/ Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 563, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "processes, which means that it is not possible to modify them to increase their representativeness for the study. When aggregating processes, the LCI database providers have made choices on how to handle multifunctional processes and how to cut-off the life cycle of the process\u2019 reference flow because including all processes is not practically achievable in process-based LCI modelling (see Sect. 9.1). These choices also relate to solving the issue of closed loops between processes, which occurs if two processes need each other\u2019s outputs as inputs. This issue is commonly solved by matrix inversion (Heijungs and Suh 2002). The way system expansion is performed in the construction of the inventory model depends on the LCA software used, but it is usually simple to implement for the LCA practitioner. For example, in GaBi it is performed by connecting the avoided process as input but with a scaling factor of \u22121 so that it is computed negatively as a crediting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 564, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, in GaBi it is performed by connecting the avoided process as input but with a scaling factor of \u22121 so that it is computed negatively as a crediting. In SimaPro, system expansion is performed by making a direct link to the avoided process in the flow category \u2018Avoided products\u2019, and the software automatically accounts for it negatively when processing the assessment. In OpenLCA, which is a free LCA software, system expansion is modelled as an avoided output of a unit process, in practice marking an output flow as \u2018avoided product\u2019 by checking a mark in the process. 9.5.2 Calculation of LCI Results The LCI results are the compilation of elementary flows over all the processes that are part of the LCI model (scaled to the reference flow of the functional unit). For the simplified product system in Fig. 9.8 the results would simply be the sum of each of the resources and emissions across all the processes, see Fig. 9.9 describing final LCI results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 565, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the simplified product system in Fig. 9.8 the results would simply be the sum of each of the resources and emissions across all the processes, see Fig. 9.9 describing final LCI results. Product system Product X 100kg Emission A 432kg Emission B 528kg Resource A 960kg Resource B 100kg Fig. 9.9 LCI results for the product system in Fig. 9.8. The aggregated elementary flows of product W (72 kg), that are not shown in Fig. 9.8, are 100 kg of resource A and 28 kg of emission B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 566, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, the number of flows and processes is normally huge, but no manual work is typically required from the LCA practitioner as the LCA software can calculate LCI results for a product system with one click of a mouse button. Such LCI results are the basis for the subsequent life cycle impact assessment phase (unless the goal of a study is to simply calculate the LCI results). 9.6 Data Needs for Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis is important for the interpretation of LCIA results because they can inform the LCA practitioner on how robust the conclusions of the study are and where future studies should focus to make results even more robust. Chapter 11 is dedicated to these matters and details the theoretical background and the practical use of uncertainty and sensitivity analyses. The following describes the data that needs to be collected during the inventory analysis as inputs for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 567, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following describes the data that needs to be collected during the inventory analysis as inputs for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses. Uncertainty analysis allows for the quantification of uncertainties of the final result, as a consequence of the uncertainty of each parameter in the LCI model. To enable an uncertainty analysis, the practitioner must, for quantitative parameters in the foreground system, collect information on their statistical distribution (e.g. normal, log-normal or uniform) and corresponding statistical parameter values (e.g. mean and standard deviation for normally distributed parameters). Sensitivity analysis allows for systematic identification of the parameters that have the highest influence on the LCIA results. The influence of parameters on results is calculated by changing them, one by one, and observing the changes in results. These changes in parameters should reflect uncertainties about the actual product system modelled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 568, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These changes in parameters should reflect uncertainties about the actual product system modelled. For quantitative parameters in the foreground system, the practitioner should aim to collect minimum and maximum values, or a low and a high percentile (e.g. 2.5th and 97.5th) when a parameter\u2019s statistical distribution is known (see above), in addition to the default value that is used in the LCI model. For example, a specific farmer may on average apply 2 kg of a specific pesticide to produce 1 tonne of potatoes, but this number may vary from 0.5 to 3 kg, depending on weather conditions. For discrete parameters or assumptions in the foreground system the practitioner should develop a number of sensitivity scenarios. For example, a part of the product system may be located in a different country than assumed in the LCI model and a sensitivity scenario would thus involve differences in energy mix, waste treatment technologies, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 569, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that the data requirements for sensitivity and uncertainty analysis overlap and data collection can therefore be performed in parallel by the practitioner. It often takes more time to collect sensitivity and uncertainty data for some parameters in the foreground system than for others and it may not be necessary to collect data for all processes, depending on the outcome of the first iteration of the analysis. For example, if a process is found to contribute to less than 0.1% of total Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 570, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impacts, then its sensitivity and uncertainty data should generally not be a high priority as illustrated by Fig. 12.3. For the background system, many LCI databases include uncertainty information on processes, which can feed into uncertainty and sensitivity analysis in LCA software. The practitioner therefore needs not to bother about such data in the inventory analysis. 9.7 Reporting The reporting of the inventory analysis should contain six elements: 1. Documentation of LCI model at system level. 2. Documentation of each unit process. 3. Documentation of metadata. 4. Documentation of LCI results. 5. Assumptions for each life cycle stage. 6. Documentation of data collected for uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. Elements 1, 2 and 3 should allow the reader to recreate the LCI results, which are documented in Element 4 (i.e. exigence of reproducibility of the study). Element 5 should allow the reader to judge the reasonability of all assumptions performed (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 571, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "exigence of reproducibility of the study). Element 5 should allow the reader to judge the reasonability of all assumptions performed (i.e. exigence of transparency) and Element 6 should allow the reader to recreate the uncertainty and sensitivity analysis (exigence of reproducibility and consistency). Below we elaborate on each element and we further refer to the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39 for an example of how the inventory analysis may be reported. 9.7.1 Documentation of LCI Model at System Level We propose to use a flowchart that contains all the linked processes in the foreground system for each studied product system and shows their links to processes in the background system. Each process should be named and, depending on the size of the foreground system, flow names and quantities may also be given (this information is, however, not essential, as it will also be given in second reporting element)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 572, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 9.10 illustrates how to document a flow chart for a simple, hypothetical LCI model (flow names and quantities not shown). Flow chart should be reported in the main part of an LCA report. Note that only the unit processes of the background system that are linked to (\u2018neighbouring\u2019) the foreground system needs to be included in the flow chart. These are processes UP1 to UP8 in Fig. 9.10. From this information, the reader", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 573, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "may reconstruct the remaining background system on his/her own by using aggregated versions of the reported \u2018neighbouring\u2019 background processes from the relevant LCI database(s). 9.7.2 Documentation of Each Unit Process We recommend the creation of a table for each unit process in the foreground system that contains its name (identical to the one used in the flow chart of the first reporting element) and the names and quantities of all flows (materials, energy, resources, products, waste to treatment and emissions\u2014same units as used in LCA software), see scheme in Table 9.7. We also advocate providing the source of a process or flow (e.g. name of the database where process is from), a reference to the UPa UPb UPc UPd UPe UPf UP6 UP7 UP8 UP1 UP2 UP3 UP4 UP5 Foreground system Background system System boundaries Fig. 9.10 Documentation of LCI model in flow chart. Arrows between unit processes (UPs) indicate material, energy, product or waste flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 574, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.10 Documentation of LCI model in flow chart. Arrows between unit processes (UPs) indicate material, energy, product or waste flows. Unit processes belonging to the foreground and background system are identified with a letter or with a number respectively. Only the background unit processes neighbouring the foreground system should be included and dotted arrows to and from these processes indicate the existence of additional background processes. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 575, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "section of a report where details of a calculations (e.g. emissions) are provided; and finally, reference to other unit process tables that are input or output to the process of interest. Because the number of processes to be documented is often large, tables like Table 9.7 are usually best reported in an appendix to the LCA report. Table 9.7 Scheme for documenting foreground processes Outputs Quantity Unit Source/note Reference flow (main product or function) Reference flow kg E.g.: input and output flows are not scaled to the functional unit of the product system Other outputs (avoided product or function; waste to treatment) Avoided product 1 \u2013 kg E.g. please see Table A1 for the corresponding unit process Waste 1 \u2013 kg E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Waste 2 \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Waste n \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Emissions (to air; water; soil) Emission 1 \u2013 kg E.g. please see \u201cAppendix\u201d for details on calculation of emissions Emission 2 \u2013 kg E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 576, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Waste n \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Emissions (to air; water; soil) Emission 1 \u2013 kg E.g. please see \u201cAppendix\u201d for details on calculation of emissions Emission 2 \u2013 kg E.g. please see \u201cAppendix\u201d for details on calculation of emissions Emission n \u2013 m3 E.g. please see \u201cAppendix\u201d for details on calculation of emissions Inputs Quantity Unit Source/note Materials Material \u2013 kg E.g. please see Table A2 for the corresponding unit process Material \u2013 kg E.g. please see Table A3 for the corresponding unit process Material n \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Energy Energy 1 \u2013 MJ E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0; see Table 1 in the main report for the source of values Energy 2 \u2013 MJ E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0; see Table 1 in the main report for the source of values Energy n \u2013 MJ E.g. please see Table A4 for the corresponding unit process Resources Resource \u2013 kg E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Resource \u2013 kg E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Resource n \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 E.g. ecoinvent ver", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 577, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Resource \u2013 kg E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Resource n \u2013 m3 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 E.g. ecoinvent ver. 3.0 Units are illustrative. Note that for waste treatment processes the reference flow is usually a material input. Note that the column \u2018source/note\u2019 is based on fictive examples and references included therein are not a part of this textbook chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 578, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The flow quantities of process tables should either be scaled to 1 unit of the reference flow of the process (as shown in Table 9.7) or scaled to the quantity of process reference flow required to meet the reference flow of the study (derived from the functional unit). For neighbouring background processes (UP1 to UP8 in Fig. 9.10), the name of the process and the name and version of the database it was sourced from is sufficient, because the reader may use this information to recreate the remainder of the background system. Note that inventory data in the foreground system are sometimes confidential, for example when a manufacturer wants to prevent the details of the production processes to be disclosed to the public or competitors. In terms of documenting LCI results, confidentiality issues can be handled by placing the process tables containing confidential data in an appendix that is only made available to groups of people that are cleared by the supplier of the data (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 579, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "employees of the organisation commissioning a study and an external critical reviewer). 9.7.3 Documentation of Metadata We recommend reporting metadata according to specificity, type, source and access using the structure of Table 9.2 (introduced for data planning and collection). For easy overview, the rows of the table should be grouped into life cycle stages. The data specificity classification (from very low to very high) for each data point should be transparent, i.e. by writing in the relevant cell why a data point was classified to a given specificity, rather than simply making a cross. The documentation of these metadata should be consistent with the documentation of unit processes described in Table 9.7, and cross-references between the two should be made (e.g. notes and data sources reported in tables documenting unit processes may readily refer to the table with metadata) We advocate reporting metadata in the main part of the LCA report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 580, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "notes and data sources reported in tables documenting unit processes may readily refer to the table with metadata) We advocate reporting metadata in the main part of the LCA report. 9.7.4 Documentation of LCI Results The LCI results should simply be documented as a list of quantified elementary flows, divided into resources and emissions, i.e. as in Table 9.7. This typically consists of an extensive table, which can be documented as an appendix for readability of the LCA report. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 581, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.7.5 Assumptions for Each Life Cycle Stage Due to lack of information and budget constraints, it is common to make several assumptions when constructing an LCI model. For example, data originally planned to be collected in medium or high specificity may end up being collected in low specificity. Thereby assumptions need to be made on what low-quality data can best represent the actual data. For example, should a wastewater treatment process in Vietnam, for which data could not be obtained, be approximated by a process in Thailand, possibly correcting for the Vietnamese electricity mix, or should it rather be approximated by an average process for the entire South East Asian region? All assumptions made during the construction of the LCI model should be transparently documented. We recommend that major assumptions are indicated, when describing the data collection and modelling of each individual life cycle stage, to facilitate cross-comparison with the documentation of metadata", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 582, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Major assumptions may also be included directly in the table containing metadata. References to the sensitivity analysis should be given for assumptions whose influence on LCIA results are tested by the creation and analysis of sensitivity scenarios (see next subsection). We also recommend that a list of all assumptions, minor and major, be placed in an \u2018Appendix\u2019. 9.7.6 Documentation of Data Collected for Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis For sensitivity analyses, the LCA report must state which parameters are analysed and whether this is done by calculating normalised sensitivity coefficients (for parameters of a continuous nature) or by the construction of sensitivity scenarios (for parameters of a discrete nature). In the former case, the perturbed values for each parameter must be documented and the basis of these explained (e.g. reported min/max-values, 2.5/97.5 percentiles, or an arbitrary value, such as \u00b110%)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 583, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "reported min/max-values, 2.5/97.5 percentiles, or an arbitrary value, such as \u00b110%). In the latter case, the sensitivity scenarios should be documented and references to the assumptions they are based on made (see previous subsection). For uncertainty analyses, the best practice is to use statistical distributions of parameter values as input to Monte Carlo analysis (see Sect. 9.6), in which case the distributions (e.g. uniform, normal or log-normal) and statistical parameters (e.g. standard deviation) must be documented for each parameter value covered in the uncertainty analysis. If, due to lack of such data, the Pedigree approach is taken, the underlying uncertainty factors and calculated geometric standard deviation for process must be documented. An example was given earlier in Table 9.6.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 584, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Appendix: Example of Consequential LCA on Biodiesel Made from Poultry Fat To help you get an overview of the 4-step procedure for performing a consequential LCI (presented in Sect. 9.2.3), an example is here presented, which shows some parts of a consequential LCI looking at the decision to supply additionally 200 tonnes of biodiesel based on poultry fat. It should be noted that this is a constructed example and that the factual claims made may not be completely accurate. To start the procedure, we go to Step 1. Here we are asked to consider whether the assessed decision leads to changes in demand or supply. Clearly, this decision leads to changes in supply. This implies that we move directly to Step 3. Step 3 is based on the assumption that demand is constant, and given that we increase supply of poultry fat biodiesel we therefore have to consider what other products it substitutes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 585, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Step 3 is based on the assumption that demand is constant, and given that we increase supply of poultry fat biodiesel we therefore have to consider what other products it substitutes. According to the procedure given in Step 3, we need to identify a user and a satisfying substitute for the user which fulfils the same functions terms of functionality, technical quality, costs, etc. Biodiesel is only used by drivers of diesel vehicles and can be blended with petrochemical diesel or used as a full substitute for petrochemical diesel in ordinary diesel engines. As it is often sold under favourable tax conditions, it seems reasonable to assume that it will substitute ordinary diesel. However, another scenario which may also in some cases be realistic to consider is that it will substitute other types of biodiesel (e.g. based on other substrates)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 586, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, another scenario which may also in some cases be realistic to consider is that it will substitute other types of biodiesel (e.g. based on other substrates). Ordinary diesel and other types of biodiesel can both be produced without constraints (the answer to the second question of the decision tree in Fig. 9.5 is \u2018no\u2019) and can therefore both be considered reasonable alternatives. In this example, however, we will only consider the former. Having found petrochemical diesel as a substitute, we go to Step 4 to identify which technology will produce the diesel, which is substituted. Here, we need to consider the trend in the market, the scope of the decision, and whether the decision leads to an increase or decrease in demand. Having addressed these issues, we find that the substituted diesel is produced by the least cost-efficient technology supplying the market at the time of our decision, which we find to be crude oil produced from tar sand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 587, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Biodiesel does not contain the same amount of energy per weight unit as ordinary diesel, implying that we will need more biodiesel than diesel to drive a certain distance. The ratio is around 37:42, implying that for each kg of poultry fat biodiesel we produce and use extra, we will reduce the production and use of diesel made from tar sand by 37/42 kg. The production of biodiesel inevitably leads to the co-production of glycerol. When we decide to increase the production of biodiesel by 200 tonnes, we will also increase the production of glycerol by approximately 20 tonne. As this is a result of our decision to produce more biodiesel, it needs to be included in the assessment. We therefore start again in Step 1 by asking the question: \u201cWhat happens if we Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 588, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "increase the supply of glycerol by 20 tonnes?\u201d Being a supply oriented question, we go directly to Step 3, where we are asked to identify products for which glycerol can serve as a substitute, based on relevant functionality, technical quality, costs, etc. Through analysing the biodiesel market, for example through biodiesel journals and experts in the field, we find that glycerol from biodiesel can be used by producers of chemicals, especially for the production of propylene glycol. Hereby glycerol can, after distillation and processing, substitute other feedstock in the production of propylene glycol. Having identified a substitute, we go to Step 4, to identify the propylene glycol production technology affected by the change in feedstock to glycerol. This procedure (not detailed here) allows us to include the avoided production of propylene glycol in our LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 589, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This procedure (not detailed here) allows us to include the avoided production of propylene glycol in our LCI. When doing so, it is important to identify the processes needed to convert the crude glycerol to propylene glycol and remember to take into consideration the conversion rate. Having considered both the substitution of diesel with biodiesel and conventional propylene glycol with propylene glycol made from glycerol, we have now considered all the downstream parts of the life cycle. However, our decision to supply more poultry fat biodiesel will also create changes in the upstream part of the life cycle: If we want to supply more poultry fat biodiesel, we need more of the constituents included for producing the biodiesel. The demand for these constituents thereby increases. In the concrete case, biodiesel is made from poultry fat and methanol, which are brought to react using a strong base, often sodium hydroxide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 590, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The demand for these constituents thereby increases. In the concrete case, biodiesel is made from poultry fat and methanol, which are brought to react using a strong base, often sodium hydroxide. For the sake of simplicity, we will here only consider the increased demand for poultry fat and methanol. Thus, we return to Step 1 and ask: \u201cWhat happens if I increase the demand for poultry fat?\u201d As this is clearly a question that relates to demand, we go to Step 2. The first part of the decision tree in Step 2 (Fig. 9.4) asks us to consider whether the production of the product is constrained. In this case, this is actually the case, since poultry fat is a low value by-product from the production of other poultry products, mainly meat. The production of poultry fat therefore follows the demand for poultry meat, and additional demand for poultry fat will not result in an additional supply of poultry fat", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 591, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The production of poultry fat therefore follows the demand for poultry meat, and additional demand for poultry fat will not result in an additional supply of poultry fat. As the assessed decision will lead to an increase in the demand for poultry fat, and as market analysis shows us that poultry fat is already used to the extent the constraint of being a co-product allows (in other words, no poultry fat is wasted), we go to Step 3, to find out which product can substitute our use of poultry fat. Poultry fat is mainly used in the feed industry and through contacts to feed producers we find that they are able to use palm and soybean oil in a certain relationship instead of poultry fat. This implies that if we decide to produce more biodiesel from poultry fat and thereby demand more poultry fat, we will not increase the supply of poultry fat but rather increase the demand for palm and soybean oil", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 592, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To identify the consequences of the increased demand for these oils, we go through the relevant Steps 2\u20133 for each of these, but to keep this example relatively simple, we will not go further into documenting these steps. Assuming that we have now fully outlined the processes that change as a result of our increase in demand for palm and soybean oil, we turn to the other main constituent of biodiesel, namely methanol. As noted above, we also increase the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 593, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "demand for methanol. We therefore again start in Step 1 by asking the question: \u201cWhat happens when I increase the demand for methanol?\u201d As this is a demand oriented question, we go to Step 2. Here we are first asked whether methanol can be produced without constraints. As this is the case, we go to Step 4. Here we are asked to consider the overall trend in the market, the scope of the decision in comparison to the overall market for methanol, and whether the decision leads to an increase or decrease in demand. Through market studies we find that the trend in the market, which can be considered global, is an increasing production. Secondly, the size of the decision, which in this case is to produce a few hundred extra tonnes of poultry fat biodiesel will amount to very little compared to the overall market volume for methanol. We should therefore identify the short-term marginal producer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 594, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We should therefore identify the short-term marginal producer. Given that our decision leads to an increase in demand, we are told by Table 9.1, that the methanol will be produced by the least competitive producer on the market. As there are more or less only producers making methanol from synthetic gas, we assume that the methanol will be produced using this technology. Other inputs and outputs to and from the biodiesel process are handled in a similar way, but to keep the example relatively short, these will not be discussed here. As the example shows, creating a consequential LCI is in many cases a rather laborious task as detailed knowledge is needed about the markets affected by the decision, as for example establishing knowledge about potential substitutes for poultry fat in the feed industry in the example above. Much of the time spent making the LCA will therefore often be used in preparing the consequential LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 595, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Much of the time spent making the LCA will therefore often be used in preparing the consequential LCI. This chapter is to a large extent based on the ILCD handbook and the ISO standard 14040 and 14044. Due to the scope of this chapter, some details have been omitted, and some procedures have been rephrased to to make the text more relevant to students. For more details, the reader may refer to these texts: EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance, 1st edn. March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union (2010) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 596, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Additional References Used in the Text Birkved, M., Hauschild, M.Z.: PestLCI\u2014a model for estimating field emissions of pesticides in agricultural LCA. Ecol. Model. 198, 433\u2013451 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.05.035 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 597, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ciroth, A.: Refining the pedigree matrix approach in ecoinvent: towards empirical uncertainty factors. Presentation at the LCA Discussion Forum Z\u00fcrich, 13, September 2013 (2013) EC-JRC: Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) Guide. Deliverable 2 and 4A of the Administrative Arrangement between DG Environment and the Joint Research Centre No N 070307/2009/552517, including Amendment No 1 from December 2010. Ispra, Italy (2012) Goedkoop M, Oele M, Leijting J, et al.: Introduction to LCA with SimaPro. Report version 5.2, January 2016 (c) 2002\u20132016 Pr\u00e9. (2016). www.pre-sustainability.com Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., de Bruijn, H., van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2002). ISBN 1-4020-0228-9 Heijungs, R., Suh, S.: The computational structure of life cycle assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 598, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2002). ISBN 1-4020-0228-9 Heijungs, R., Suh, S.: The computational structure of life cycle assessment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dortrecht (2002) Weidema, B.P.: Market Information in Life Cycle Assessment. Environment Project No. 863, vol. 863, p. 147 (2003) Weidema, B.P., Bauer, C., Hischier, R., et al.: The ecoinvent database: overview and methodology. Data Quality Guideline for the Ecoinvent Database Version 3 (2013). www. ecoinvent.org Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental assessment of products. In: Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development, vol. 1, 544 pp. Chapman & Hall, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA (ISBN:0 412 80800 5) (1997) World Coal Association: Coal and steel statistics 2012 (2012) World Steel: World steel in figures 2015 (2015) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part of the LCA community since the early 2010s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 599, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Andreas Moltesen Has been working with LCA since 2006 with a particular focus on social life cycle assessment. He has later worked on life cycle assessments of biofuels and is currently particularly involved with life cycle assessments of transport systems. Alexis Laurent Working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 600, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Andrea Corona Materials engineer with a focus on sustainability assessment of biobased products and composite materials. Working with LCA from 2012. Main interests include life cycle engineering, product development and eco-design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 601, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Morten Birkved With a background in environmental chemistry and LCA, Morten\u2019s primary research activities are focused on the development of quantification methods for ecosphere-technosphere exchanges, general LCI, scope modelling, assessment of buildings and built environments, system modelling and fused assessment forms. Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 602, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "9 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Michael Z. Hauschild, Anne-Marie Boulay, Peter Fantke, Alexis Laurent, Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez and Marisa Vieira Abstract This chapter is dedicated to the third phase of an LCA study, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) where the life cycle inventory\u2019s information on elementary flows is translated into environmental impact scores. In contrast to the three other LCA phases, LCIA is in practice largely automated by LCA software, but the underlying principles, models and factors should still be well understood by practitioners to ensure the insight that isneeded for a qualifiedinterpretationof the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 603, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 167, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter teaches the fundamentals of LCIA and opens the black box of LCIA with its characterisation models and factors to inform the reader about: (1) the main purpose and characteristics of LCIA, (2) the mandatory and optional steps of LCIA according to the ISO standard, and (3) the science and methods underlying the assessment for each environmental impact category. For each impact category, the reader is taken through (a) the underlying environmental problem, (b) the underlying environmental mechanism and its fundamental modelling principles, (c) the main anthropogenic sources causing the problem and (d) the main methods available in LCIA. An annex to this book offers a comprehensive qualitative comparison of the main elements and properties of the most widely used and also the latest LCIA methods for each impact category, to further assist the advanced practitioner to make an informed choice between LCIA methods. R.K. Rosenbaum (&) \u0001 M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 604, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 167, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "R.K. Rosenbaum (&) \u0001 M. N\u00fa\u00f1ez IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, 361 rue Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Breton, BP 5095, 34196 Montpellier, France e-mail: ralph.rosenbaum@irstea.fr M.Z. Hauschild \u0001 P. Fantke \u0001 A. Laurent Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark A.-M. Boulay LIRIDE, Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada M. Vieira PR\u00e9 Consultants bv, Amersfoort, The Netherlands A.-M. Boulay CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 605, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 167, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain and discuss the process and main purposes of the LCIA phase of an LCA study. \u2022 Distinguish and explain the mandatory and optional steps according to international standards for LCA. \u2022 Differentiate and describe each of the impact categories applied in LCIA regarding: \u2013 the underlying environmental problem, \u2013 the environmental mechanism and its fundamental modelling principles, \u2013 the main anthropogenic sources causing the problem, \u2013 the main methods used in LCIA. 10.1 In practice, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase is largely automated and essentially requires the practitioner to choose an LCIA method and a few other settings for it via menus and buttons in LCA software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 606, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, as straightforward as that may seem, without understanding a few basic, underlying principles and the meaning of the indicators, neither an informed choice of LCIA method nor a meaningful and robust interpretation of LCA results are possible. However, the important extent of science and its inherent multidisciplinarity frequently result in a perceived opacity of this phase. This chapter intends to open the black box of LCIA with its characterisation models and factors, and to accessibly explain (1) its main purpose and characteristics, (2) the mandatory and optional steps according to ISO and (3) the meaning and handling of each impact category. While this chapter is a pedagogical and focused introduction into the complex and broad aspects of LCIA, a more profound and in-depth description, targeting experienced LCA practitioners and scientists, can be found in Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 607, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Once the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) is established containing all elementary flows relevant for the product system under assessment, the next question to answer will be something like: How to compare 1 g of lead emitted into water to 1 g of CO2 emitted into the air? In other words, how to compare apples with pears? Life Cycle Impact Assessment is a phase of LCA aiming to assess the magnitude of contribution of each elementary flow (i.e. emissions or resource use of a product system) to an impact on the environment. Its objective is to examine the product system from an environmental perspective using impact categories and category indicators in conjunction with the results of the inventory analysis. This will provide information useful in the interpretation phase. As the focal point of this phase of an LCA (and also of this chapter), it is a relevant question to ask what is an environmental impact? It could be defined as a R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 608, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "set of environmental changes, positive or negative, due to an anthropogenic intervention. Such impacts are studied and assessed using a wide range of quantitative and qualitative tools, all with specific aims and goals to inform or enable more sustainable decisions. In LCA this is an important phase, as it transforms an elementary flow from the inventory into its potential impacts on the environment. This is necessary since elementary flows are just quantities emitted or used but not directly comparable to each other in terms of the importance of their impact. For example, 1 kg of methane emitted into air does not have the same impact on climate change as 1 kg of CO2, even though their emitted quantities are the same (1 kg) since methane is a much stronger greenhouse gas (GHG)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 609, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCIA characterisation methods essentially model the environmental mechanism that underlies each of the impact categories as a cause\u2013effect chain starting from the environmental intervention (emission or physical interaction) all the way to its impact. However, the results of the LCIA should neither be interpreted as predicted actual environmental effects nor as predicted exceedance of thresholds or safety margins nor as risks to the environment or human health. The results of this LCA phase are scores that represent potential impacts, a concept that is explained further on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 610, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The results of this LCA phase are scores that represent potential impacts, a concept that is explained further on. The ISO 14040/14044 standards (ISO 2006a, b) distinguish mandatory and optional steps for the LCIA phase, which will all be explained further in this chapter: Mandatory steps: \u2022 Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models (in practice typically done by choosing an already existing LCIA method) !Which impacts do I need to assess? \u2022 Classification (assigning LCI results to impact categories according to their known potential effects, i.e. in practice typically done automatically by LCI databases and LCA software) !Which impact(s) does each LCI result contribute to? \u2022 Characterisation (calculating category indicator results quantifying contributions from the inventory flows to the different impact categories, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 611, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "typically done automatically by LCA software) !How much does each LCI result contribute? Optional steps: \u2022 Normalisation (expressing LCIA results relative to those of a reference system) !Is that much? \u2022 Weighting (prioritising or assigning weights to the each impact category) !Is it important? \u2022 Grouping (aggregating several impact indicator results into a group) As already mentioned, it is important to keep in mind that the impacts that are assessed in the LCIA phase should be interpreted as impact potentials, not as actual impacts, nor as exceeding of thresholds or safety margins, or risk, because they are: Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 612, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Relative expressions of potential impacts associated with the life cycle of a reference flow needed to support a unit of function (=functional unit) \u2022 Based on inventory data that are integrated over space and time, and thus often occurring at different locations and over different time horizons \u2022 Based on impact assessment data which lack information about the specific conditions of the exposed environment (e.g. the concomitant exposure to substances from other product systems) Terminology and definitions are given in Table 10.1. Table 10.1 Essential terminology and definitions Term Definition Source Area of protection A cluster of category endpoints of recognisable value to society. Examples are human health, natural resources and natural environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 613, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Examples are human health, natural resources and natural environment. Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015) Category indicator Quantifiable representation of an impact category ISO (2006b) Category endpoint Attribute or aspect of natural environment, human health or resources, identifying an environmental issue giving cause for concern ISO (2006b) Characterisation model Reflect the environmental mechanism by describing the relationship between the LCI results, category indicators and, in some cases, category endpoint(s). The characterisation model is used to derive the characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 614, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The characterisation model is used to derive the characterisation factors. ISO (2006b) Characterisation factor Factor derived from a characterisation model which is applied to convert an assigned life cycle inventory analysis result to the common unit of the category indicator ISO (2006b) Ecosphere The biosphere of the earth, especially when the interaction between the living and non-living components is emphasised Oxford Dictionary of English Elementary flow Material or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the environment without previous human transformation, or material or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the environment without subsequent human transformation ISO (2006b) Environmental impact Potential impact on the natural environment, human health or the depletion of natural resources, caused by the interventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere as covered by LCA (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 615, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "emissions, resource extraction, land use) EC-JRC (2010a) Environmental mechanism System of physical, chemical and biological processes for a given impact category, linking the life cycle inventory analysis results to category indicators and to category endpoints ISO (2006b) (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 616, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2 Mandatory Steps According to ISO 14040/14044 10.2.1 Selection of Impact Categories, Category Indicators and Characterisation Models The contents of this section have been modified from Rosenbaum, R.K.: Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models in goal and scope definition, appearing as Chapter 2 of Curran M. A. (ed.) LCA Compendium \u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Goal and scope definition in Life Cycle Assessment pp 63\u2013122, Springer, Dordrecht (2017). The objective of selecting impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models is to find the most useful and needed ones for a given goal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 617, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The objective of selecting impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models is to find the most useful and needed ones for a given goal. To help guide the collection of information on the relevant elementary flows in the inventory analysis, the selection of impact categories must be in accordance with the goal of the study and is done in the scope definition phase prior to the collection of inventory data to ensure that the latter is targeted towards what is to be assessed in the end (see Chaps. 7 and 8 on Goal and Scope definition). A frequent difficulty is the determination of the criteria that define what is useful and needed in the context of the study. Some criteria are given by ISO 14044 (2006b), either as requirements or as recommendations. The requirements are obligatory for compliance with the ISO standard, and will therefore be among the focus points of a Critical Review (see Chap. 13 on Critical Review)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 618, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The requirements are obligatory for compliance with the ISO standard, and will therefore be among the focus points of a Critical Review (see Chap. 13 on Critical Review). Some of these requirements and recommendations concern LCA practitioners and LCIA method developers alike, while others are most relevant for developers of LCIA methods and of LCA software. The focus is here on the former, i.e. requirements concerning LCA practitioners. Table 10.1 (continued) Term Definition Source Environmental relevance Degree of linkage between category indicator result and category endpoints ISO (2006b) Impact category Class representing environmental issues of concern to which life cycle inventory analysis results may be assigned ISO (2006b) Impact pathway Cause\u2013effect chain of an environmental mechanism LCIA method Collection of individual characterisation models (each addressing their separate impact category) Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 619, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013) Midpoint indicator Impact category indicator located somewhere along the impact pathway between emission and category endpoint Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015) Potential impact Relative performance indicators which can be the basis of comparisons and optimisation of the system or product Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015) Technosphere The sphere or realm of human technological activity; the technologically modified environment Oxford Dictionary of English Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 620, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO 14044 (2006b) states that the choice of impact categories needs to assure that they \u2022 Are not redundant and do not lead to double counting \u2022 Do not disguise significant impacts \u2022 Are complete \u2022 Allow traceability Furthermore, this list is complemented with a number of obligatory criteria, requiring that the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models shall be: \u2022 Consistent with the goal and scope of the study (when, for example, environmental sustainability assessment is the goal of a study, the practitioner cannot choose a limited set of indicators, or a single indicator footprint approach, as this would be inconsistent with the sustainability objective of avoiding burden-shifting among impact categories) \u2022 Justified in the study report \u2022 Comprehensive regarding environmental issues related to the product system under study (essentially meaning that all environmental issues\u2014represented by the various impact categories\u2014which a product system may", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 621, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "regarding environmental issues related to the product system under study (essentially meaning that all environmental issues\u2014represented by the various impact categories\u2014which a product system may affect need to be included, again in order to reveal any problem-shifting from one impact category to another) \u2022 Well documented with all information and sources being referenced (in practice it is normally sufficient to provide name and version number of the LCIA method used together with at least one main reference, which should provide all primary references used to build the method) ISO 14044 (2006b) recommendations for the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models by a practitioner include: \u2022 International acceptance of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 622, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body \u2022 Minimisation of value-choices and assumptions made during the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models \u2022 Scientific and technical validity of the characterisation model for each category indicator (e.g. not based on unpublished or outdated material) \u2022 Being based upon a distinct, identifiable environmental mechanism and reproducible empirical observation \u2022 Environmental relevance of category indicators Numerous further criteria but also practical constraints beyond ISO 14044 exist and are applied, consciously or unconsciously, often based on experience or recommendations from colleagues. In practice the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models usually boils down to selecting an R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 623, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCIA method (or several) available in the version of the LCA software that the practitioner has access to. External factors for this choice will be among other: \u2022 Requirements following from the defined goal (see Chap. 7) and specified in the scope definition of the LCA (see Chap. 8) \u2022 Requirements by the commissioner of an LCA \u2022 Fixed requirements, e.g. for Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) or Product Environmental Footprints (PEFs) from underlying sector-based Product Category Rules (PCRs) or from labelling schemes (see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 624, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24) Practical constraints may, for example, consist of: \u2022 Availability, completeness and quality of LCI results required for a specific impact category \u2022 Availability, completeness and quality of characterisation models and factors for a specific impact category, including the need to consider specific rare or new impact categories, such as noise, which may only be supported by one or two LCIA methods if at all \u2022 If normalisation is required, availability, completeness and quality of normalisation factors for a specific impact category or LCIA method If practical constraints prevent the practitioner from including what has been identified as relevant impact categories, this needs to be made clear in the discussion and interpretation of the LCA results and comments need to be made on whether it may change the conclusions. In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 625, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39, the method recommended for characterisation by the International Life Cycle Data system (ILCD) is chosen as life cycle impact assessment method (EC-JRC 2011), and all impact categories covered by the method are included in the study. In common LCA practice, a number of category indicators, based on specific characterisation models is combined into predefined sets or methods, often referred to as life cycle impact assessment methods or simply LCIA methods (EC-JRC 2011; Hauschild et al. 2013), available in LCA software under names such as ReCiPe, CML, TRACI, EDIP, LIME, IMPACT 2002+, etc. However, with an increasing number of LCIA methods and indicators available, the task of choosing one requires a tangible effort from the practitioner to understand the main characteristics of these methods and to keep up-to-date with the developments in the field of LCIA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 626, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A qualitative and comparative overview of the main characteristics of current LCIA methods can be found in Chap. 40 of the Annex of this book. 10.2.1.1 How to Choose an LCIA Method? A number of LCIA methods have been published since the first one appeared in 1984. Figure 10.1 shows the most common methodologies published since 2000 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 627, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "that all meet the requirements of ISO 14044. A more detailed overview of these methods can be found in Chap. 40. When selecting an LCIA method, the requirements, recommendations, external and internal factors and constraints discussed above all need to be considered. This leads to a number of questions and criteria that should be answered in order to systematically identify the most suitable one. Here is a non-exhaustive list of relevant questions to address: \u2022 Which impact categories (or environmental problems) do I need to cover and can I justify those that I am excluding? \u2022 In which region does my life cycle (or its most contributing processes) take place? \u2022 Do I need midpoint or endpoint assessment, or both? \u2022 Which elementary flows do I need to characterise? \u2022 Are there any recommendations from relevant organisations that can help me choose? \u2022 How easily can the units of the impact categories be interpreted (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 628, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 174, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "absolute units, equivalents, monetary terms, etc.)? \u2022 How well is the method documented? \u2022 How easily can the results (units, aggregation into specific indicator groups, etc.) be communicated? \u2022 Do I need to apply normalisation and if yes for which reference system (in most cases it is not recommendable to mix characterisation and normalisation factors LCIMPACT (EU) ILCD (EU) LIME 3.0 (Japan) EcoScarcity2013 (Switzerland) EcoScarcity2006 (Switzerland) EDIP2003 (Denmark) TRACI (USA) LUCAS (Canada) CML 2001 (IA) (Netherlands) Jepix (Japan) LIME (Japan) ReCiPe (Netherlands) LIME 2.0 (Japan) TRACI 2.0 (USA) EPS2000 (Sweden) 2002 2003 2004 2009 2010 2011 2012 Eco-Indicator 99 (Netherlands) IMPACT World+ (Canada, USA, Denmark, France, Switzerland) IMPACT 2002+ (Switzerland) Fig. 10.1 LCIA methods published since 2000 with country/region of origin in brackets. Dotted arrows represent methodology updates (Rosenbaum 2017) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 629, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 174, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from different LCIA methods due to the difference in characterisation modelling, units, numerical values, etc..)? \u2022 When was the method published and have there been important scientific advances in the meantime? \u2022 Do I have the resources/data availability to apply a regionalised methodology (providing more precise results)? \u2022 Do I need to quantify the uncertainty of both LCI and LCIA and does the LCIA method support that? ISO 14040/14044 by principle do not provide any recommendations about which LCIA method should be used, but some organisations do recommend the use of a specific LCIA method or parts of it. The European Commission has established specific recommendations for midpoint and endpoint impact categories by systematically comparing and evaluating all relevant existing approaches per category, leading to the recommendation of the best available approach (EC-JRC 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 630, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 175, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This effort resulted in a set of characterisation factors, which is directly available in all major LCA software as the ILCD method. Some methods with a stronger national focus are recommended by national governmental bodies for use in their respective country, such as LIME in Japan, or TRACI in the US. Given the amount of LCIA methods available and the amount of time required to stay informed about them, it may be tempting to essentially stick to the method(s) that the LCA practitioner knows best or has used for a long time, or that was recommended by a colleague, or simply choosing a method requested by the client to allow comparison with results from previous studies. It is however beneficial to apply a more systematic approach to LCIA method selection that in combination with the LCIA method comparison in Chap. 40 allows to determine the relevant selection questions and criteria, thus optimising the interpretability and robustness of the results of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 631, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 175, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "40 allows to determine the relevant selection questions and criteria, thus optimising the interpretability and robustness of the results of the study. The following properties are compared in Chap. 40 per impact category and for both midpoint and endpoint LCIA methods: \u2022 Aspects/diseases/ecosystems (which kinds of impacts) that are considered \u2022 Characterisation model used \u2022 Selected central details about fate, exposure, effect and damage modelling \u2022 Reliance on marginal or average indicator \u2022 Emission compartments considered \u2022 Time horizon considered \u2022 Geographical region modelled \u2022 Level of spatial differentiation considered \u2022 Number of elementary flows covered \u2022 Unit of the indicator Not all of these properties may be of equal relevance for choosing an LCIA method for each practitioner or study, but they are identified here as relevant and fact-based properties. Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 632, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 175, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Further details on the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models can be found in Rosenbaum (2017) and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.2.2 Classification In this step, the elementary flows of the LCI are assigned to the impact categories to which they contribute; for example an emission of CO2 into air is assigned to climate change or the consumption of water to the water use impact category, respectively. This is not without difficulty because some of the emitted substances can have multiple impacts in two modes: \u2022 In parallel: a substance has several simultaneous impacts, such as SO2 which causes acidification and is toxic to humans when inhaled. \u2022 In series: a substance has an adverse effect which itself becomes the cause of something else, such as SO2 which causes acidification, which then may mobilise heavy metals in soil which are toxic to humans and ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 633, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 176, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This step requires considerable understanding and expert knowledge of environmental impacts and is therefore typically being handled automatically by LCA software (using expert-based, pre-programmed classification tables) and not a task that the LCA practitioner needs to undertake. 10.2.3 Characterisation In this step, all elementary flows in the LCI are assessed according to the degree to which they contribute to an impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 634, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 176, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3 Characterisation In this step, all elementary flows in the LCI are assessed according to the degree to which they contribute to an impact. To this end, all elementary flows E, classified within a specific impact category c (representing an environmental issue of concern), are multiplied by their respective characterisation factor CF and summed over all relevant interventions i (emissions or resource extractions) resulting in an impact score IS for the environmental impact category (expressed in a specific unit equal for all elementary flows within the same impact category): ISc 1\u20444 X i CFi \u0001 Ei \u00f0 \u00de \u00f010:1\u00de For each impact category, the indicator results are summed to determine the overall results for the category. In the following sections, the general principles of how CFs are calculated and interpreted will be discussed. In order to provide a better understanding of what CFs in each impact category represent and how they are derived, Sects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 635, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 176, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to provide a better understanding of what CFs in each impact category represent and how they are derived, Sects. 10.6\u201310.16 will, for each impact category, explain the R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 636, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 176, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "corresponding (1) problem observed, (2) principal environmental mechanism, (3) main causes and (4) most widely used characterisation models. 10.2.3.1 What Is a Characterisation Factor? A characterisation factor (CF) represents the contribution per quantity of an elementary flow to a specific environmental impact (category). It is calculated using (scientifically valid and quantitative) models of the environmental mechanism representing as realistically as possible the cause\u2013effect chain of events leading to effects (impacts) on the environment for all elementary flows which contribute to this impact. The unit of a CF is the same for all elementary flows within an impact category. It is defined by the characterisation model developers and may express the impacts directly in absolute terms (e.g. number of disease cases/unit toxic emission) or indirectly through relating them to the impact of a reference elementary flow (e.g. CO2-equivalents/unit emission of greenhouse gases)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 637, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 177, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "number of disease cases/unit toxic emission) or indirectly through relating them to the impact of a reference elementary flow (e.g. CO2-equivalents/unit emission of greenhouse gases). 10.2.3.2 How Is It Calculated? The modelling of a characterisation factor involves the use of different models and parameters and is typically conducted by experts for a particular impact category and its underlying impact pathway or environmental mechanism. Various assumptions and methodological choices are involved and this may affect the output as reflected in the differences in results that may be observed for the same impact category when applying different LCIA methods. This must be considered when interpreting the result of the LCIA phase. The first step when establishing an impact category is the observation of an adverse effect of concern in the environment, leading to the conclusion that we need to consider such effects in the context of decisions towards more sustainable developments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 638, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 177, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Once accepted as an effect of concern, the focus will be on how to characterise (quantify) the observed effect in the framework of LCA. The basis and starting point of any characterisation model is always the establishment of a model for the environmental mechanism represented by a cause\u2013effect chain. Its starting point is always the environmental intervention (represented by elementary flows), essentially distinguishing two types based on the direction of the relevant elementary flows between technosphere and ecosphere: \u2022 An emission into the environment (=elementary flow from the technosphere to the ecosphere), or \u2022 A resource extraction from the environment (=elementary flow from the ecosphere to the technosphere). Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 639, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 177, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3.3 Emission-Related Impacts For the first type, an emission into the environment, the principal cause\u2013effect chain may be divided into the following main steps: \u2022 Emission: into air, water or soil (for some product systems also other compartments may be relevant such as groundwater, indoor air, etc.) \u2022 Fate: environmental processes causing transport, distribution and transformation of the emitted substance in the environment. Depending on the physical and chemical properties of the substance and the local conditions at the site of emission, a substance may be transferred between different environmental compartments, be transported over long distances by wind or flowing water, and be undergoing degradation and transformation into other molecules and chemical species. \u2022 Exposure: contact of the substance from the environment to a sensitive target like animals and plants, entire ecosystems (freshwater, marine, terrestrial or aerial) or humans", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 640, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 178, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Exposure: contact of the substance from the environment to a sensitive target like animals and plants, entire ecosystems (freshwater, marine, terrestrial or aerial) or humans. Exposure may involve processes like inhalation of air, ingestion of food and water or dermal contact via skin and other surfaces. \u2022 Effects: observed adverse effects in the sensitive target after exposure to the substance, e.g. increase in the number of disease cases (ranging from reversible temporary problems to irreversible permanent problems and death) per unit intake in a human population or number of species affected (e.g. by disease, behaviour, immobility, reproduction, death, etc.) after exposure of an ecosystem \u2022 Damage: distinguishing the severity of observed effects by quantifying the fraction of species potentially disappearing from an ecosystem, or for human health by giving more weight to death and irreversible permanent problems (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 641, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 178, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "reduced mobility or dysfunctional organs) than to reversible temporary problems (e.g. a skin rash or headache) These steps together constitute the environmental mechanism of the impact category and their specific features will vary depending on the impact category we are looking at. 10.2.3.4 Extraction-Related Impacts For the second type of elementary flow, a resource extraction from the environment, the principal cause\u2013effect chain may comprise some or all of the following main steps (with significant simplifications possible for some resources where not all steps may be relevant, e.g. minerals): \u2022 Extraction or use: of minerals, crude oil, water or soil, etc. \u2022 Fate: (physical) changes to local conditions in the environment, e.g. soil organic carbon content, soil permeability, groundwater level, soil albedo, release of stored carbon, etc. R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 642, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 178, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Exposure: change in available quantity, quality or functionality of a resource and potential competition among several users (human or ecosystems, with different degrees of ability to adapt and/or compensate), e.g. habitat loss, dehydration stress, soil biotic productivity, etc. \u2022 Effects: adverse effects on directly affected users that are unable to adapt or compensate (e.g. diseases due to lower water quality, migration or death of species due to lack of water or habitat, malnutrition, etc.) and contributions to other impact pathways (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 643, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 179, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "global warming due to change in soil albedo or released soil carbon) \u2022 Damage: distinguishing the severity of observed effects by quantifying the reduction of biodiversity, or human health of a population affected (although not yet common practice, this may even go as far as including social effects such as war on water access) This mechanism will have specific features and may vary significantly between impact categories, but the principle remains valid for all extraction-related impact categories, currently being: \u2022 Land Use (affecting biotic productivity, aquifer recharge, carbon sequestration, albedo, erosion, mechanical and chemical filtration capacity, biodiversity, etc.) \u2022 Water use (affecting human health, aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems) \u2022 Abiotic resource use (fossil and mineral) affecting the future availability of the non-renewable abiotic resources \u2022 Biotic resource use (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 644, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 179, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "fishing or wood logging) affecting the future availability of the renewable biotic resources and the ecosystems from which they are harvested. 10.2.3.5 The Impact Indicator The starting point of the environmental mechanism is set by an environmental intervention in the form of an elementary flow in the LCI, and the contribution from the LCI flow is measured by the ability to affect an indicator for the impact category which is selected along the cause\u2013effect chain of the impact category. Apart from the feasibility of modelling the indicator, this selection should be guided by the environmental relevance of the indicator. For example, there is limited relevance in choosing human exposure to the substance as an indicator for its human health impacts, because even if a substance is taken in by a population (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 645, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 179, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, there is limited relevance in choosing human exposure to the substance as an indicator for its human health impacts, because even if a substance is taken in by a population (i.e. exposure can be observed and quantified), it might not cause any health effect due to a low toxicity of the substance, and this would be ignored if a purely exposure-based indicator was chosen. In general, the further down the cause\u2013effect chain an indicator is chosen, the more environmental relevance (and meaning) it will have. However, at the same time the level of model and parameter uncertainty may increase further down the cause\u2013effect chain, while measurability decreases (and hence the possibility to evaluate and check the result against observations that can be Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 646, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 179, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "directly linked to the original cause). Contrary to a frequent misconception, that does not mean that the total uncertainty (i.e. including all its sources, not just parameter and model uncertainty) of an indicator increases when going further down the cause\u2013effect chain, because the increase in parameter and model uncertainty is compensated by an increase in environmental relevance. If the latter is low (as is the case for indicators placed early in the cause\u2013effect chain) the relationship of an indicator to an environmental issue is assumed but not modelled and thus hypothetical and therefore uncertain. A detailed discussion on these issues can be found in Chap. 11. To select the impact indicator, developers must therefore strike a compromise between choosing an indicator of impact: 1. Early in the environmental mechanism, giving a more measurable (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 647, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11. To select the impact indicator, developers must therefore strike a compromise between choosing an indicator of impact: 1. Early in the environmental mechanism, giving a more measurable (e.g. in the lab) result but with less environmental relevance and more remote from the concerns directly observable in the environment Versus 2. 2. Downstream in the environmental mechanism, giving more relevant but hardly verifiable information (e.g. degraded ecosystems, affected human lifetime) This has led to the establishment of two different types of impact categories, applying indicators on two different levels of the environmental mechanism: midpoint impact indicators (representing option 1 from above) and endpoint impact indicators (representing option 2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 648, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3.6 Midpoint Impact Indicators When the impact assessment is based on midpoint impact indicators, the classification gathers the inventory results into groups of substance flows that have the ability to contribute to the same environmental effect in preparation for a more detailed assessment of potential impacts of the environmental interventions, applying the characterisation factors that have been developed for the concerned impact category. For example, all elementary flows of substances that may have a carcinogenic effect on humans will be classified in the same midpoint category called \u201ctoxic carcinogen\u201d and the characterisation will calculate their contribution to this impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 649, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Typical (and emerging) midpoint categories (including respective sub-categories/impact pathways) are: \u2022 Climate change \u2022 Stratospheric ozone depletion \u2022 Acidification (terrestrial, freshwater) \u2022 Eutrophication (terrestrial, freshwater, marine) \u2022 Photochemical ozone formation \u2022 Ecotoxicity (terrestrial, freshwater, marine) \u2022 Human toxicity (cancer, non-cancer) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 650, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Particulate matter formation \u2022 Ionising radiation (human health, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems) \u2022 Land Use (biotic productivity, aquifer recharge, carbon sequestration, albedo, erosion, mechanical and chemical filtration capacity, biodiversity) \u2022 Water use (human health, aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems, ecosystem services) \u2022 Abiotic resource use (fossil and mineral) \u2022 Biotic resource use (e.g. fishing or wood logging) \u2022 Noise \u2022 Pathogens The characterisation at midpoint level of the elementary flows in the life cycle inventory results in a collection of midpoint impact indicator scores, jointly referred to as the characterised impact profile of the product system at midpoint level. This profile may be reported as the result of the life cycle impact assessment, and it may also serve as preparation for the characterisation of impacts at endpoint level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 651, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This profile may be reported as the result of the life cycle impact assessment, and it may also serve as preparation for the characterisation of impacts at endpoint level. 10.2.3.7 Endpoint Impact Indicators Additional modelling elements are used to expand or link midpoint indicators to one or more endpoint indicator (sometimes also referred to as damage or severity). These endpoint indicators are representative of different topics or \u201cAreas of Protection\u201d (AoP) that \u201cdefend\u201d our interests as a society with regards to human health, ecosystems or planetary life support functions including ecosystem services and resources, for example. As discussed, endpoint indicators are chosen further down the cause\u2013effect chain of the environmental mechanism closer to or at the very endpoint of the chains\u2014the Areas of Protection. The numerous different midpoint indicators therefore all contribute to a relatively small set of endpoint indicators as can be observed in Fig. 10.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 652, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The numerous different midpoint indicators therefore all contribute to a relatively small set of endpoint indicators as can be observed in Fig. 10.2. Although, different distinctions are possible and exist, typical endpoint indicators are: \u2022 Human health \u2022 Ecosystem quality or natural environment \u2022 Natural resources and ecosystem services Therefore, the same list of impact categories as for midpoint indicators (see above) applies to endpoint indicators but with a further distinction regarding which of the three AoPs are affected (e.g. climate change usually has one midpoint indicator, but two endpoint indicators, one for human health and one for ecosystem quality\u2014see Fig. 10.2). All endpoint indicators for the same AoP have a common unit and can be summed up to an aggregated impact score per AoP (assuming equal or different weighting of each endpoint indicator)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 653, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2). All endpoint indicators for the same AoP have a common unit and can be summed up to an aggregated impact score per AoP (assuming equal or different weighting of each endpoint indicator). Before aggregation, however, an environmental profile on endpoint level is as detailed as on midpoint level and allows for a contribution analysis of impact categories per AoP (e.g. which impact category contributes the most to human health impacts). On midpoint level, Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 654, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "aggregation and contribution analysis of multiple impact categories are only possible after applying normalisation and weighting. There are three frequent misconceptions related to that: 1. Misconception: Applying normalisation, weighting and aggregation to midpoint indicator results is the same as calculating endpoint indicator results. Or in other words, midpoint indicator results that are normalised, weighted and aggregated into one impact score per AoP have the same unit as endpoint indicator results aggregated into one impact score per AoP. Therefore, both results are identical. Fact: Even though the unit of both aggregated indicators is the same, their numerical value and their physical meaning are completely different. They are not identical and cannot be interpreted in the same way. 2. Misconception: Changing from midpoint to endpoint characterisation implies a loss of information due to aggregation from about 15 midpoints into only three endpoint indicators", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 655, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. Misconception: Changing from midpoint to endpoint characterisation implies a loss of information due to aggregation from about 15 midpoints into only three endpoint indicators. Fact: Before aggregation is applied, endpoint indicators are constituted for the same amount of impact categories as on midpoint level, but not every impact category contributes to each AoP (e.g. mineral resource depletion does not contribute to human health impacts). Therefore, the same analysis of contribution Elementary flows Climate change Human health Inventory results Midpoint Endpoint Area of protection Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity (cancer or noncancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (humans and ecosystems) Photochemical ozone formation Acidification (terrestrial, freshwater) Eutrophication (terrestrial, freshwater, marine) Ecotoxicity (terrestrial, freshwater, marine) Land use Water use Natural Environment Natural resources Resource use (mineral, fossil, biotic) Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 656, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2 Framework of the ILCD characterisation linking elementary flows from the inventory results to indicator results at midpoint level and endpoint level for 15 midpoint impact categories and 3 areas of protection [adapted from EC-JRC (2010b)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 657, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "per impact category is possible as for normalised and weighted midpoint indicators while avoiding the need for normalisation and weighting and the associated increased uncertainty and change in meaning. 3. Misconception: Endpoint characterisation is more uncertain than midpoint characterisation. Fact: This may be the case when looking at a limited set of sources of uncertainty and how they contribute to the uncertainty of the value of the indicator. However, when considering all relevant sources of uncertainty and the relevance of the indicator for the decision at hand, the choice of indicator has no influence on the uncertainty of the consequences of the decision. This is discussed in detail in Chap. 11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 658, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is discussed in detail in Chap. 11. To go from midpoint to endpoint indicator scores, additional midpoint-toendpoint characterisation factors (sometimes also referred to as severity or damage characterisation factors) are needed, expressing the ability of a change in the midpoint indicator to affect the endpoint indicator. In contrast to the midpoint characterisation factors which reflect the properties of the elementary flow and hence are elementary flow-specific, the midpoint-to-endpoint characterisation factors reflect the properties of the midpoint indicator and there is hence only one per midpoint impact category. Some LCIA methods only support endpoint characterisation and here the midpoint and midpoint-to-endpoint characterisation is combined in one characterisation factor. 10.2.3.8 Midpoint or Endpoint Assessment? Next to the relationship between environmental relevance and various sources of uncertainty discussed above (and in more detail in Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 659, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3.8 Midpoint or Endpoint Assessment? Next to the relationship between environmental relevance and various sources of uncertainty discussed above (and in more detail in Chap. 11), the possibility to aggregate information from midpoint to endpoint level while avoiding normalisation has the advantage of providing more condensed information (fewer indicator results) to consider for a decision, while still being transparent as to which impact pathway(s) are the main causes of these damages. Instead of perceiving midpoint and endpoint characterisation as two alternatives to choose from, it is recommended to conduct an LCIA on both midpoint and endpoint level (using an LCIA method that provides both) to support the interpretation of the results obtained and which complement each other respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 660, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3.9 Time Horizons and Temporal Variability? Environmental impacts caused by an intervention will require different amounts of time to occur, depending on the environmental mechanism and the speed at which its processes take place. This means that next to the fact that the numerous elementary flows of an LCI may occur at different moments in time during the life cycle of the product or service assessed (which may be long for certain products Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 661, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "like buildings for example), there is also a difference in the lag until their impacts occur. However, the way LCA is currently conducted, potential impacts are assessed as if interventions and potential impacts were happening instantly, aggregating them over time and over the entire life cycle. This means that these potential impacts need to be interpreted as a \u201cbackpack\u201d of potential impacts attributable to the product or service assessed. Next to such temporal variability, another potential source of time-related inconsistency in LCA is the problem of applying different time horizons for different impact categories. These time horizons are sometimes explicit (e.g. the 20 and 100 years\u2019 time horizons for global warming potentials), but in most cases implicit in the way the environmental mechanism has been modelled (e.g. over what time horizon the impact has been integrated)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 662, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 184, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "over what time horizon the impact has been integrated). This may result in a mixing of different time horizons for different impacts in the same LCIA, which may have implications for the interpretation of LCA results. For example, methane has a lifetime much shorter than CO2. Therefore, depending on the time horizon chosen, the characterisation of methane will change. This is directly connected to the question of how to consider potential impacts affecting current and immediate future generations versus those affecting generations in a more distant future. Another issue concerns the temporal course of the emission and its resulting impacts. While some impacts may be immediately (i.e. within a few years) tangible and directly affecting a larger number of individuals (human or not), some impacts may be very small at any given moment in time, but permanently occurring for tens to hundreds of thousands of years (e.g. impacts from heavy metal emissions from landfills or mine tailings)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 663, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 184, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impacts from heavy metal emissions from landfills or mine tailings). Between these two illustrative extremes, lies any possible combination of duration versus severity. 10.2.3.10 Spatial Variability and Regionalisation? Some impacts are described as global because their environmental mechanism is the same regardless where in the world the emission occurs. Global warming and stratospheric ozone depletion are two examples. Other impacts, such as acidification, eutrophication or toxicity may be classified as regional, affecting a (sub-)continent or a smaller region surrounding the point of emission only. Impacts affecting a small area are designated as local impacts, water or direct land-use impacts on biodiversity for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 664, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 184, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Impacts affecting a small area are designated as local impacts, water or direct land-use impacts on biodiversity for example. Whereas for global impact categories the site where the intervention takes place has no considerable influence on the type and magnitude of its related potential impact(s), for regional or local impacts this may influence the magnitude of the potential impact(s) up to several orders of magnitude (e.g. a toxic emission taking place in a very large and densely populated city or habitat versus somewhere remote in a large desert). This spatial variability can be dealt with in two ways: \u2022 Identification and modelling of archetypal emission/extraction situations and their potential impacts (e.g. toxic emission into urban air, rural air or remote air) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 665, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 184, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "or spatialized archetypes (e.g. city-specific emissions, formation and background concentrations of particulate matter and related mortality rates) Or \u2022 Modelling impacts with a certain degree of spatial resolution (e.g. sub-continental, country-level, sub-water-shed level or GPS grid-based), allowing for a characterisation which can be specific to any given place of emission or extraction Both solutions require that the place of emission/extraction is known for each flow in the inventory\u2014either explicitly (e.g. by country or geographical coordinates such as latitude and longitude) or regarding the most representative archetype. In order to support a spatially differentiated impact assessment, the life cycle inventory must thus not be aggregated to present one total intervention per elementary flow since this will lose the information about location of the interventions which is needed to select the right CF", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 666, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Otherwise, generic global average CFs need to be used, leading to a higher uncertainty due to the spatial variability not considered in the characterisation. In contrast to the site-generic LCIA method, which provides one CF per combination of elementary flow and intervention/emission compartment, the spatially differentiated characterisation method provides one CF per combination of elementary flow, intervention/emission compartment and spatial unit. For grid-based methods, this may amount to thousands of CFs for each contributing elementary flow. It depends on the impact category and emission situation to evaluate whether a spatial or archetypal setup will give the more accurate solution (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 667, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It depends on the impact category and emission situation to evaluate whether a spatial or archetypal setup will give the more accurate solution (e.g. urban/rural differences in particulate matter-related health effects might not be captured by spatial models with typical resolutions lower than 10 \u0003 10 km2 at the global scale, whereas an archetypal model distinguishing between urban and rural emission situations would capture such differences). It should be noted that country-based characterisation is not meaningful from a scientific point of view, as most impacts are not influenced by political borders, although from a practical data-availability point of view this currently not unusual practice is understandable and normally an improvement to not considering the spatial variation at all. It should furthermore be noted that most currently available LCA software fails to support spatially differentiated characterisation, and therefore most LCAs are performed using the site-generic CFs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 668, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should furthermore be noted that most currently available LCA software fails to support spatially differentiated characterisation, and therefore most LCAs are performed using the site-generic CFs. 10.2.3.11 The Units? The unit of CFs for midpoint impact categories is specific for each category and LCIA method chosen, and therefore discussed in detail in the corresponding section dedicated in detail to each LCIA method in Chap. 40. However, two different approaches can be identified\u2014expression in absolute form as the modelled indicator result (e.g. area of ecosystem exposed above its carrying capacity per kg of substance emitted for acidification) or expression in a relative form as that emission Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 669, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of a reference substance for the impact category which would lead to the same level of impact (e.g. kg CO2-equivalents/kg of substance emitted for climate change). In contrast, endpoint CFs are typically expressed in absolute units and the units are relatively common between those LCIA methods that cover endpoint modelling: Human health: [years] expressed as DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Years). This unit is based on a concept proposed by Murray and Lopez (1996) and used by the World Health Organisation. It considers different severity contributions defined as \u201cYears of Life Lost per affected Person\u201d YLLp [year/disease case] and \u201cYears of Life lived with a Disability per affected Person\u201d YLDp [years/disease case]. These statistical values are calculated on the basis of number and age of deaths (YLL) and disabilities (YLD) for a given disease", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 670, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These statistical values are calculated on the basis of number and age of deaths (YLL) and disabilities (YLD) for a given disease. This information can be combined into a single indicator using disability weights for each type of disability to yield the \u201cDisability Adjusted Life Years per affected Person\u201d DALYp [year/person]. Ecosystem quality or Natural environment: [m2 year] or [m3 year] expressed as Potentially Disappeared Fraction (PDF). It can be interpreted as the time and area (or volume) integrated increase in the disappeared fraction of species in an ecosystem [dimensionless] per unit of midpoint impact indicator increase. It essentially quantifies the fraction of all species present in an ecosystem that potentially disappears (regardless whether due to death, reduced reproduction or immigration) over a certain area or volume and during a certain length of time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 671, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Different ecosystems have different numbers of species that can be affected by the impact and it is necessary to correct for such differences when aggregating the potentially disappeared fractions of species across the different impact categories at endpoint (i.e. a PAF of 0.5 for 10 species represents 5 species potentially lost, whereas the same PAF for 1000 species represents 500 species potentially lost). Resource depletion and ecosystem services: Different approaches exist and since there is still no common perception of what the area of protection for resources is (Hauschild et al. 2013), there is also no consensus forming on how to model damage in the form of resource depletion. Some proposals focus on the future costs for extraction of the resource as a consequence of current depletion, and these divide into costs in the form of energy or exergy use for future extraction (measured in MJ) or monetary costs (measured in current currency like USD, Yen or Euro)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 672, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2.3.12 Uncertainties? Uncertainties can be important in LCIA and contribute substantially to overall uncertainty of an LCA result. For some impact categories, this contribution may be much larger than that of the LCI. At the same time, it is also crucial to be aware that large uncertainty is by no means a valid reason to exclude an impact category from the assessment. One of the more uncertain impact categories is human toxicity and it has to be capable of dealing with hundreds to thousands of different elementary flows, which may differ by more than 20 orders of magnitude in their impact R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 673, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "potential, due to the sheer number of substances (i.e. elementary flows) that may be assigned to this category and the variation in their environmental persistence and potential toxicity. It is much more certain to consistently characterise an impact category to which only a handful of elementary flows are assigned showing impact potentials that range only three or four orders of magnitude from the least to the most impacting elementary flow (e.g. eutrophication, acidification or global warming). With the exception of photochemical ozone formation, there is no other impact category that covers even 100 different elementary flows. In this respect, there is hence a factor of >1000 between other impact categories and the toxicity categories (human health and ecotoxicity)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 674, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this respect, there is hence a factor of >1000 between other impact categories and the toxicity categories (human health and ecotoxicity). This means that due to the large variety of substances with a toxicity potential, there will always be a very large uncertainty inherent in these categories, although developers will eventually be able to lower some of the model and parameter uncertainties currently observed. Excluding them from the assessment because of their uncertainty would therefore mean that toxicity would never be considered in LCA, which clearly risks violating the goal of LCA to avoid problem-shifting from one impact category to another. Besides, the uncertainty of assigning a zero-impact to a potentially toxic elementary flow by neglecting the toxicity impact categories is certainly higher than the inherent uncertainty of the related characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 675, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The solution rather lies in the way we interpret such inherently uncertain impact potentials, whereas a more certain impact indicator may allow for identifying the exact contribution of each elementary flow to the total impact in this category, toxicity indicators allow for identifying the (usually 5\u201320) largest contributing elementary flows, which will constitute >95% of the total impact. A further distinction between these will not be possible due to their uncertainty. Assuming that an average and complete LCI may contain several hundreds of potentially toxic elementary flows, one can then disregard all the remaining (several hundred) flows due to their low contribution to total toxicity. A further discussion and recommendations can be found in Rosenbaum et al. (2008). Overall uncertainty in LCA is comprised of many different types of uncertainty as further discussed in Chap. 11. Variability (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 676, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2008). Overall uncertainty in LCA is comprised of many different types of uncertainty as further discussed in Chap. 11. Variability (e.g. spatial or temporal/seasonal) may also be an important contributor, which should by principle be considered separately, as its contribution can be reduced to a large extent by accounting for it in the characterisation as discussed above for spatial variability and regionalised LCI and LCIA. Uncertainty in LCIA can only be reduced by improved data or model quality, essentially coming from updated LCIA methods, which is a good reason for a practitioner to keep up with the latest developments in LCIA, which may well lead to less uncertain results than the method one has been using for ten years. Most existing LCIA methods do not present information about the uncertainty of the characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 677, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most existing LCIA methods do not present information about the uncertainty of the characterisation factors. 10.2.3.13 What Are the Main Assumptions? In current LCIA methods, some assumptions are considered as a basic requirement in the context of LCA: Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 678, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Steady-state: Although exceptions exist, LCIA models are usually not dynamic (i.e. representing the variation of an environmental system\u2019s state over time and for specific time steps), but represent the environment as a system in steady state, i.e. all parameters which define its behaviour are not changing over time. \u2022 Linearity: As life cycle inventory (LCI) data are typically not spatially and/or temporally differentiated, integration of the impact over time and space is required. In LCIA, this leads to the use of characterisation models assuming steady-state conditions, which implies a linear relationship between the increase in an elementary flow and the consequent increase in its potential environmental impact. In other words, e.g. doubling the amount of an elementary flow doubles its potential impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 679, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, e.g. doubling the amount of an elementary flow doubles its potential impact. \u2022 Marginal versus average modelling: These terms are used in different ways and meanings in the LCA context; here they describe two different impact modelling principles or choices: a marginal impact modelling approach represents the additional impact per additional unit emission/resource extraction caused by the product system on top of the existing background impact (which is not caused by the modelled product system). This allows, e.g. considering nonlinearity of impacts depending on local conditions like high or low background concentrations to which the product systems adds an additional emission). An average impact modelling approach is strictly linear and represents an average impact independent from existing background impacts, which is similar to dividing the overall impact by the overall emissions. This is further discussed by Huijbregts et al. (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 680, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is further discussed by Huijbregts et al. (2011). Note that marginal and average modelling are both suitable for small-scale interventions such as those related to a product or service. However, when medium-scale or large-scale interventions (or consequences) are to be assessed, the characterisation factors should represent non-marginal potential impacts and may also have to consider nonlinearity. \u2022 Potential impacts: LCIA results are not actual or predicted impacts, nor exceedance of thresholds or safety margins, or risk. They are relative expressions of impacts associated with the life cycle of a reference unit of function (=functional unit), based on inventory data which are integrated over space and time, representing different locations and time horizons and based on impact assessment data which lack information about the specific conditions of the exposed environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 681, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Conservation of mass/energy and mass/energy balance: Mass/energy cannot be created or disappear, it can only be transferred. Following this principle, processes of transport or transformation of mass or energy are (or at least should be) modelled assuming that the mass/energy balance is conserved at all times. \u2022 Parsimony: This refers to the basic modelling principle of \u201cas simple as possible and as complex as necessary\u201d, an ideal balance that applies to LCIA characterisation models as well as to the entire LCA approach. \u2022 Relativity: LCA results are relative expressions of impacts that relate to a functional unit and can be compared between different alternatives providing the same function (e.g. option A is more environmentally friendly than option B). R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 682, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An absolute interpretation of LCA results (e.g. option A is sustainable, option B is not) is not advisable as it requires a lot of additional assumptions. \u2022 Best estimates: A fundamental value choice in LCA is not to be conservative, precautionary or protective, but to focus on avoiding any bias between compared scenarios by assuming average conditions, also referred to as best estimates. Products or services assessed in LCA are typically not representing one specific example (e.g. with a serial number or from a specific date), but an average, often disregarding whether a specific life cycle process took place in summer or winter, during the day or night, etc. As discussed by Pennington et al. (2004), LCA is a comparative assessment methodology. Direct adoption of conservative regulatory methodology and data is often not appropriate, and should be avoided in LCIA in order not to bias comparison between impact categories where different levels of precaution may be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 683, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.3 Optional Steps According to ISO 14040/14044 10.3.1 Normalisation The indicator scores for the different midpoint indicators are expressed in units that vary between impact categories and this makes it unfeasible to relate them to each other and to decide which of them are large and which small. To support such comparisons, it is necessary to put them into perspective, and this is the purpose of the normalisation step, where the product system\u2019s potential impacts are compared to those of a reference system like a country, the world or an industrial sector. By relating the different impact potentials to a common scale they can be expressed in common units, which provide an impression of which of the environmental impact potentials are large and which are small, relative to the reference system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 684, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation can be useful for: \u2022 Providing an impression of the relative magnitudes of the environmental impact potentials \u2022 Presenting the results in a form suitable for a subsequent weighting \u2022 Controlling consistency and reliability \u2022 Communicating results Typical references are total impacts per impact category per: \u2022 Geographical zone which can be global, continental, national, regional or local \u2022 Inhabitant of a geographical zone (e.g. expressing the \u201cenvironmental space\u201d occupied per average person) \u2022 Industrial sector of a geographical zone (e.g. expressing the \u201cenvironmental space\u201d occupied by this product system relative to similar industrial activities) Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 685, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Baseline reference scenario, such as another product system (e.g. expressing the \u201cenvironmental space\u201d occupied by this product system relative to a similar reference system using best available technology) Using one of the first three reference systems listed above is also referred to as external normalisation. Using the last reference system in the list is also called internal normalisation when the reference scenario is one of the compared alternatives, such as the best or worse of all compared options or the baseline scenario representing, e.g. a current situation that is intended to be improved or a virtual or ideal scenario representing a goal to be reached. Normalised impact scores, when using internal normalisation, are often communicated as percentages relative to the reference system. In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 686, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalised impact scores, when using internal normalisation, are often communicated as percentages relative to the reference system. In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39 an internal normalisation is applied using the wooden frame window as reference (indexing it to 100%) to reveal how the studied alternatives compare to this baseline choice. The study also applies external normalisation in order to compare the size of the different midpoint impact scores with the European person equivalent impact scores that is provided as default normalisation references for the LCIA method applied in the study (the ILCD method). In practice, an LCIA method generally provides normalisation factors for use with its characterisation factors. The normalisation factors should be calculated using the same characterisation factors for the reference inventory as used for the inventory of the product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 687, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The normalisation factors should be calculated using the same characterisation factors for the reference inventory as used for the inventory of the product system. Normalisation factors from different LCIA methods thus cannot be mixed or combined with characterisation factors from another LCIA method. This means that as an LCA practitioner you are usually limited to the reference system chosen by the LCIA method developers. Normalisation is applied using normalisation factors (NF). These are essentially calculated per impact category by conducting an LCI and LCIA on the reference system, i.e. quantifying all environmental interventions E for all elementary flows i for the reference system and applying the characterisation factors CF per elementary flow i, respectively, for each impact category c", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 688, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although not obligatory, the normalisation reference is typically divided by the population P of the reference region r, in order to express the NF per average inhabitant of the reference region (per capita impacts or \u201cperson equivalents\u201d). This way, a total impact of the reference system per impact category is calculated, resulting in one NF per impact category c: NFc 1\u20444 P i CFi \u0001 Ei \u00f0 \u00de Pr \u0002 \u0003\u00041 \u00f010:2\u00de Ensuring consistency, the LCI data used to calculate a NF need to represent a common reference year and duration of activity (typically one year, being the reference year) for all impact categories. This results in NF having a unit expressing an impact per person and year, also referred to as person equivalent. A normalised impact score NS for a product system is calculated by multiplying the calculated impact score IS for the product system by the relevant NF per impact category c: R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 689, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "NSc 1\u20444 ISc \u0001 NFc \u00f010:3\u00de Two different approaches exist for collection of inventory data for the calculation of NFs (with the exception for global NFs, where both approaches give equal results): \u2022 Production-based (or top-down), representing the interventions taking place in the reference region as result of the total activities in the region \u2022 Consumption-based (or bottom-up), representing the interventions that are caused somewhere in the world as consequence of the consumption taking place in the reference region (and thus representing the demand for industrial and other activities within and outside the reference region) Other ways to derive NF (although somewhat bordering to weighting already) are to base them on a conceptual \u201cavailable environmental space\u201d. This can be determined using, e.g. political targets for limits of environmental interventions or impacts for a given duration and reference year (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 690, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can be determined using, e.g. political targets for limits of environmental interventions or impacts for a given duration and reference year (i.e. \u201cpolitically determined environmental space\u201d being the average environmental impact per inhabitant if the political reduction targets are to be met), or a region\u2019s or the planet\u2019s carrying capacity (i.e. \u201cenvironmental space\u201d being the amount of environmental interventions or impacts that the region or planet can buffer without suffering changes to its environmental equilibrium within each impact category). The latter would require knowing the amount of impact that a region or the planet can take before suffering permanent damage, which is a concept associated with much ambiguity and hence very uncertain to quantify", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 691, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There is increasing focus on science-based targets in the environmental regulation with the 2 \u00b0C ceiling for climate change as the most prominent example, and this may lead to future consensus building on science-based targets also for some of the other impacts that are modelled in LCIA. Political targets are often determined at different times and apply to different periods of time. In order to ensure a consistent treatment of each impact category, it is necessary to harmonise the target values available so that all targets for any given intervention are converted to apply to the same period and reference year. The targets can be harmonised by interpolating or extrapolating to a reduction target for a common target year, computed relative to interventions in the reference year. More details can be found in Hauschild and Wenzel (1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 692, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "More details can be found in Hauschild and Wenzel (1998). Caution is required when interpreting normalised LCA results! Applying normalisation harmonises the metrics for the different impact potentials and brings them on a common scale, but it also changes the results of the LCA and consequently may change the conclusions drawn from these. Since there is no one objectively correct choice of reference systems for normalisation, the interpretation of normalised LCA results must therefore always be done with due consideration of this choice of normalisation reference. A few main issues that need to be considered when interpreting normalised LCA results are: \u2022 Depending on the size of and activities reflected in the reference system, different biases may be introduced in the comparison of the impact scores of a Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 693, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product system. As a general principle, the larger the reference system, the lesser the risk of such bias when normalising against the background activities of society. \u2022 While supporting comparison of results across impact categories, normalised LCA results cannot be interpreted as reflecting a weight or importance of one impact category relative to others. Normalisation helps to identify the impacts from the product system that are large compared to the chosen reference system, but large is not necessary the same as important. It is therefore not suitable as the only basis for identification of key issues/impacts in a product system, unless explicitly required by the goal and scope definition (e.g. evaluating the environmental impact contribution of a product system to a reference system which it is part of)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 694, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "evaluating the environmental impact contribution of a product system to a reference system which it is part of). \u2022 Unless (a) the reference system is global or (b) all environmental interventions of the product system assessed take place in the same region as those of the reference system, the direct interpretation of normalised impacts as contributions to or fractions of the reference system is misleading because parts of the life cycle of the product or service take place in different regions of the world, including outside the reference system. By expressing the different impact scores on a common scale, normalisation can also help checking for potential errors in the modelling of the product system. If the results are expressed in person equivalents, it is possible to spot modelling errors leading to extremely high or low impacts in some of the impact categories\u2014like frequent unit errors when emissions are expressed in kg instead of g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 695, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Looking across the impact category results in a normalised impact profile, it is also possible for the more experienced LCA practitioner to check whether they follow the pattern that would be expected for this type of product or service. Although characterisation and aggregation at endpoint level leads to fewer impact scores (typically three), normalisation may still be useful with the same purposes as normalisation at midpoint level. The calculation and application of the endpoint normalisation references follows the same procedure as for midpoint normalisation, just applying combined midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors in Eq. 10.2. 10.3.2 Weighting (and Aggregation) Weighting can be used to determine which impacts are most important and how important they are. This step can only be applied after the normalisation step and allows the prioritisation of impact categories by applying different or equal weights to each category indicator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 696, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This step can only be applied after the normalisation step and allows the prioritisation of impact categories by applying different or equal weights to each category indicator. It is important to note that there is no scientific or objective basis for this step. This means that, no matter which weighting method or scheme is applied, it will always be based on the subjective choices of one person or a group of individuals. Weighting can be useful for: R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 697, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Aggregating impact scores into several or one single indicator (note that according to ISO 14040/14044 there is no scientific basis on which to reduce the results of an LCA to a single result or score because of the underlying ethical value-choices) \u2022 Comparing across impact categories \u2022 Communicating results applying an underlying prioritisation of ethical values Note that in all of these cases weighting is applied, either implicitly or explicitly! Even when applying no explicit weighting factors in the aggregation by simply summing up impact scores, there is always an implicit equal weighting (all weighting factors = 1) inherently applied when doing any of the above. According to ISO 14044, weighting is not permitted in a comparative assertion disclosed to the public and weighted results should always be reported together with the non-weighted ones in order to maintain transparency. The weighting scheme used in an LCA needs to be in accordance with the goal and scope definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 698, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The weighting scheme used in an LCA needs to be in accordance with the goal and scope definition. This implies that the target group including their preferences and the decisions intended to be supported by the study need to be considered, making shared values crucial for the acceptance of the results of the LCA. This can pose important problems due to the variety of possible values among stakeholders, including: \u2022 Shareholders \u2022 Customers \u2022 Employees \u2022 Retailers \u2022 Authorities \u2022 Neighbours \u2022 Insurance companies \u2022 NGOs (opinion leaders) \u2022 ... It may not be possible to arrive at weighting factors that will reflect the values of all stakeholders so focus will typically have to be on the most important stakeholders, but is it possible to develop one set of weighting factors that they will all agree on? If this is not the case, several sets of weighting factors may have to be applied, representing the preferences of the most important stakeholder groups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 699, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sometimes the use of the different sets will lead to the same final recommendations which may then satisfy all the main stakeholders. When this is not the case, a further prioritisation of the stakeholders is needed, or the analysed product system (s) must be altered in a way that allows an unambiguous recommendation across the applied weighting sets. The weighting of midpoint indicators should not be purely value-based. More, to some extent, science-based criteria for importance of environmental impacts may be: \u2022 Probability of the modelled consequences, how certain are we on the modelled cause\u2013effect relations? \u2022 What is the resilience of the affected systems? Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 700, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Existence of impact thresholds\u2014in the characterisation modelling we typically assume linear cause\u2013effect relationships for the small interventions in the product system, but in the full environmental scale, there may be impact levels that represent tipping points beyond which much more problematic effects occur. \u2022 If so, then how far are we from such critical impact levels\u2014is this an important concern in the near future? \u2022 Severity of effect and gravity of consequences\u2014disability, death, local extinction, global extinction \u2022 Geographical scale \u2022 Population density is essential for the impacts on human health", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 701, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Possibility to compensate/adapt to impact \u2022 Temporal aspects of consequences\u2014when will we feel the consequences, and for how long? \u2022 Is the mechanism reversible, can we return to current conditions if we stop the impacts? Indeed, many of these science-based criteria are attempted to be included in the environmental modelling linking midpoint indicators to endpoint indicators, and midpoint-to-endpoint characterisation factors may thus be seen as science-based weighting factors for the midpoint impact categories. Different principles applied to derive weighting factors are: \u2022 Social assessment of the damages (expressed in financial terms like willingness to pay), e.g. impact on human health based on the cost that society is prepared to pay for healthcare (e.g. used in EPS and LIME LCIA methods) \u2022 Prevention costs (to prevent or remedy the impact through technical means), e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 702, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "used in EPS and LIME LCIA methods) \u2022 Prevention costs (to prevent or remedy the impact through technical means), e.g. the higher the costs, the higher the weighting of the impact \u2022 Energy consumption (to prevent or remedy the impact through technical means), e.g. the higher the energy consumption, the higher the weighting of the impact \u2022 Expert panel or stakeholder assessment, e.g. weight attributed based on the relative significance, from a scientific perspective (subjective to each expert), of the different impact categories \u2022 Distance-to-target (politically or scientifically defined): degree at which the targeted impact level is reached (distance from the target value), the greater the distance, the more weight is assigned to the impact (e.g. used in EDIP, Ecopoints and Swiss Ecoscarcity LCIA methods)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 703, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "used in EDIP, Ecopoints and Swiss Ecoscarcity LCIA methods). \u2022 Social science-based perspectives, not representing the choices of a specific individual, but regrouping typical combinations of ethical values and preferences present in society into a few, internally consistent profiles (e.g. used in ReCiPe and Ecoindicator99 LCIA methods). The latter approach is relatively widely used and applies three cultural perspectives, the Hierarchist, the Individualist and the Egalitarian (a forth perspective, the Fatalist is not developed for use in LCA since the fatalist is expected not to be represented among decision-makers, targeted by an LCA). For each cultural perspective coherent choices are described in Table 10.2 for some of the central R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 704, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "assumptions made in the characterisation modelling and in the development of a set of consistent weighting factors for each archetype. The different archetypal views on nature and the related risk perceptions are illustrated in Fig. 10.3. The dot represents the state of nature as a rolling ball, shifted by human activities along the curve representing nature\u2019s reaction to a shift. Its position in the figures indicates the state of harmony between humans and nature according to the four archetypal views", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 705, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Its position in the figures indicates the state of harmony between humans and nature according to the four archetypal views. 10.3.3 Grouping This step consists in placing the impact categories in one or several groups or clusters (as defined in goal and scope) and can involve sorting or ranking, applying one of two possible methods: Table 10.2 Cultural perspectives represented by preference with coherent choices (Hofstetter 1998) Time perspective Manageability Required level of evidence H (Hierarchist) Balance between short and long term Proper policy can avoid many problems Inclusion based on consensus I (Individualist) Short term Technology can avoid many problems Only proven effects E (Egalitarian) Very long term Problems can lead to catastrophe All possible effects Nature capricious (Fatalist\u2019s View) Nature Perverse/Tolerant (Hierarchist\u2019s View) Nature Benign (Individualist\u2019s View) Nature Ephemeral (Egalitarian\u2019s View) Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 706, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.3 Different archetypal perceptions of nature [adapted from Thompson (1990)] Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 707, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Sorting and clustering midpoint impact categories on a nominal basis (e.g.: by characteristics such as emission-related and resource-related, or global, regional or local spatial scales) \u2022 Ranking the impact categories according to a set (subjective\u2014based on ethical value-choices) hierarchy (e.g.: high, medium or low priority) 10.4 Footprints Versus LCA \u201cI was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man\u2019s naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen in the sand.\u201d (Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, 1719). The meaning of the term \u201cfootprint\u201d has largely evolved since Daniel Defoe\u2019s famous novel and is currently used in several contexts (Safire 2008). Its appearance in the environmental field can be tracked back to 1992 when William Rees published the first academic article on the thus-termed \u201cecological footprint\u201d (Rees 1992), which was further developed by him and Mathis Wackernagel in the following years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 708, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Its aim is to quantify the mark left by human activities on natural environment. Since then, the mental images created by the word have contributed to its use as an effective way of communicating on different environmental issues and raising environmental awareness within the scientific community as well as among policy communities and the general public. Since the early 2000s, several footprints have thus emerged within the environmental field with different definitions and meanings, ranging from improved ecological footprint methodologies to the representation of specific impacts of human activities on ecosystems or human health to a measure of a specific resource use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 709, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Prominent examples are: \u2022 Ecological footprint focusing on land use (http://www.footprintnetwork.org) \u2022 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) focusing on non-renewable energy \u2022 Material Input Per unit of Service (MIPS) focusing on material use \u2022 Water footprint focusing on water use volumetric accounting (http:// waterfootprint.org) \u2022 Water footprint focusing on water use impacts including pollution (ISO 14046) \u2022 Carbon footprint focusing on climate change (ISO 14064, ISO/TS 14067, WRI/WBCSD GHG protocol, PAS 2050) Later developments focused on the introduction of new environmental concerns or enlarging the scope of footprints. Examples for such emerging footprints are: \u2022 Chemical footprint focusing on toxicity impacts \u2022 Phosphorus depletion footprint As illustrated in Fig. 10.4, all footprints are fundamentally based on the life cycle perspective and most of them focus on one environmental issue or area of concern. R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 710, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They can be applied to a large variety of assessment targets like products, services, organisations, persons and populations, sites and regions, even countries or the entire world. Their success in the last decades lies in their particular strengths: \u2022 Easily accessible and intuitive concept \u2022 Easy to communicate about specific environmental issues or achievements with non-environmental experts (policy and decision-making communities, general public) \u2022 Availability of data \u2022 Easy to perform \u2022 Wide range of assessment targets can easily be assessed These strengths, however, also come with a number of important limitations: \u2022 Their focus on one environmental issue does not inform about a potential burden-shifting from one environmental issue (e.g. climate change) to another (e.g. water availability)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 711, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "climate change) to another (e.g. water availability). Therefore, while they allow for identification of the best option for one environmental problem, they are not suitable to support decisions regarding environmental sustainability, which need to consider all potential environmental problems. \u2022 Some footprints only assess the quantity of a resource used (e.g. ecological footprint, CED, MIPS and volumetric water footprint), which is comparable to the accounting of quantities used or emitted in the life cycle inventory (see Chap. 9). Such footprints therefore do not inform about the associated environmental consequences of the resources used or emissions accounted, and they do not quantify potential impacts on a given area of protection. Among other, this limitation compromises the comparability of footprints for different options to choose from. \u2022 Impact-based footprints (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 712, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Among other, this limitation compromises the comparability of footprints for different options to choose from. \u2022 Impact-based footprints (e.g. carbon footprint), at least historically, assess impacts on midpoint level and hence do not reflect damages, which has implications on their environmental relevance. However, with an increasing Fig. 10.4 The fundamental difference in scope and completeness between LCA and footprints while both apply the life cycle perspective Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 713, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "range of endpoint impact indicators available, this may be solved with science advancing further. \u2022 Different footprints can usually not be combined to enlarge their environmental scope because their system boundaries (see Chaps. 8 and 9) are not aligned and double counting of impacts becomes likely, which increases the risk of bias to the comparison, the same way the omission of impacts does. As mentioned above, the focus on single environmental problems has important implications regarding the risks of using footprints in decision-making processes. A study by Huijbregts et al. (2008) calculated 2630 product-specific ecological footprints of products and services (e.g. energy, materials, transport, waste treatment, etc.). They concluded that \u201cEcological footprints may [...] serve as a screening indicator for environmental performance..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 714, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 198, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "energy, materials, transport, waste treatment, etc.). They concluded that \u201cEcological footprints may [...] serve as a screening indicator for environmental performance... [and provide] a more complete picture of environmental pressure compared to non-renewable CED [Cumulative Energy Demand]\u201d, while also observing that \u201cThere are cases that may [...] not be assessed in an adequate way in terms of environmental impact. For example, a farmer switching from organic to intensive farming would benefit by a smaller footprint for using less land, while the environmental burdens from applying more chemicals [i.e. pesticides and fertilisers] would be neglected\u201d. Thus, the usefulness of the ecological footprint as a stand-alone indicator may often be limited (Huijbregts et al. 2008). The limitations of carbon footprints (i.e. the climate change impact indicator in LCA) as environmental sustainability indicators was investigated by a study from Laurent et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 715, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 198, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008). The limitations of carbon footprints (i.e. the climate change impact indicator in LCA) as environmental sustainability indicators was investigated by a study from Laurent et al. (2012), who assessed the carbon footprint and 13 other impact scores from 4000 different products, technologies and services (e.g. energy generation, transportation, material production, infrastructure, waste management). They found \u201cthat some environmental impacts, notably those related to emissions of toxic substances, often do not covary with climate change impacts. In such situations, carbon footprint is a poor representative of the environmental burden of products, and environmental management focused exclusively on [carbon footprint] runs the risk of inadvertently shifting the problem to other environmental impacts when products are optimised to become more \u201cgreen\u201d. These findings call for the use of more broadly encompassing tools to assess and manage environmental sustainability\u201d (Laurent et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 716, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 198, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These findings call for the use of more broadly encompassing tools to assess and manage environmental sustainability\u201d (Laurent et al. 2012). This problem is demonstrated in Fig. 10.5, which shows the carbon footprint, ecological footprint, volumetric water footprint and the LCA results for an illustrative comparison of two products A and B. If one had to choose between option A and B, the decision would be different and thus depending on, which footprint was considered, whereas LCA results provide the full range of potential impacts to consider in the decision. The large variety in footprints and their definitions and methodological basis in combination with their wide use in environmental communication and marketing claims, has resulted in confusing and often contradictory messages to buyers. This ultimately limited the development and functioning of a market for green products (Ridoutt et al. 2015, 2016). In response, a group of experts established under the R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 717, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 198, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "auspices of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative defined footprint as \u201cMetric used to report life cycle assessment results addressing an area of concern [the latter specified as an] Environmental topic defined by the interest of society\u201d (Ridoutt et al. 2016). This definition underpins a footprint\u2019s focus on environmental issues particularly perceived by society (e.g. climate change or water scarcity) and allows for a clear distinction to LCA, which is primarily oriented \u201ctoward stakeholders interested in comprehensive evaluation of overall environmental performance and trade-offs among impact categories\u201d (Ridoutt et al. 2016) and related areas of protection. This definition also recognises the inherent complexity of an environmental performance profile resulting from an LCA study, which requires a certain expertise to be correctly interpreted. In conclusion, footprints are life cycle-based, narrow-scoped, environmental metrics focusing on an area of concern", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 718, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In conclusion, footprints are life cycle-based, narrow-scoped, environmental metrics focusing on an area of concern. They are widely and easily applicable, as well as easily understood by non-environmental experts and therefore straightforward to communicate. They are particularly useful for communication of environmental problems or achieved improvements, as long as their use is restrained to their coverage of environmental concerns and care is taken when interpreting them (burden-shifting), particularly when results are disclosed to non-expert audiences (e.g. public opinion). A footprint\u2019s life cycle perspective can be an inspiring first contact with the concept of life cycle thinking for the general public, and for policy and decision-makers it often serves as an entry-door into the concept and Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 719, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.5 Comparing two products, which alternative would you choose? Examples of footprints are indicated in green shading; impact categories commonly assessed in LCA are indicated in blue shading Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 720, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "methodology of LCA. Footprints have the ability to raise environmental awareness and therefore are springboards towards the use of more-encompassing assessment tools such as LCA. They can constitute a first step for organisations or companies, who can already implement procedures as a preparation for full environmental assessments. However, due to a footprint\u2019s narrow scope and limited representativeness for a comprehensive set of environmental indicators, they are not suitable for decision-support of any kind including product labels, ecodesign, policy-support and the like. 10.5 Detailed Description of Impact Categories Currently Assessed in LCA The following sections document how the most commonly considered environmental problems (i.e. impact categories) are handled in life cycle impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 721, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impact categories) are handled in life cycle impact assessment. Ionising radiation is also a commonly addressed impact category in LCA, but was not included in the detailed overview here due to its specificity to a limited number of processes in the LCI. The impact categories are dealt with in sequence going from global over regional towards local and addressing first the emission-related and then the extraction-related categories. The common structure of the sections is: \u2022 What is the problem? \u2022 What is the underlying environmental mechanism and how is it modelled in LCIA? \u2022 What are the human activities and elementary flows contributing most to the problem? (emission-based categories only) \u2022 What are the most widely used, existing LCIA characterisation models? Beyond the classic list of impact categories discussed hereafter, there is a number of emerging categories currently in the stage of research and development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 722, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Though potentially relevant they have not yet reached sufficient methodological maturity to be operational for the majority of practitioners and no or only few LCIA methods have included them in their indicator set. Some examples are: \u2022 Biotic resources such as fish or wood \u2022 Noise \u2022 Pathogens \u2022 Salinization \u2022 Accidents \u2022 Impacts of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) A profound comparison of existing LCIA methods was performed by Hauschild et al. (2013) for the establishment of recommended LCIA models for the European context. Taking Hauschild et al.\u2019s work as a starting point, the tables in Chap. 40 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 723, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "provide a complete and updated qualitative comparison of widely used LCIA methods available in current LCA software. 10.6 Climate Change 10.6.1 Problem The greenhouse effect of our atmosphere, discovered and explored from the early 19th century, is vital to life on our planet and has always existed since the dawn of life on Earth. Without it the global average temperature of our atmosphere near the ground would be \u221218 \u00b0C instead of currently 15 \u00b0C. Hence, there are natural drivers and sources keeping it in balance (with periodical imbalances leading to natural events such as ice ages). In addition to those, anthropogenic activities also contribute to this effect increasing its intensity and creating global warming, which refers to the phenomenon of rising surface temperature across the planet averaged over longer periods of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014a) (IPCC) defines climate change as \u201ca change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 724, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014a) (IPCC) defines climate change as \u201ca change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer\u201d. IPCC observed an acceleration of the rise in planetary surface temperature in the last five to six decades, with the highest rates at the very northern latitudes of the Arctic. Ocean temperatures are also on the rise down to a depth of at least 3000 m and have so far absorbed most of the heat trapped in the atmosphere. Tropospheric temperatures are following similar trends as the surface. Although, still debated by few sceptics, most scientists agree on the presence of this effect with anthropogenic activities as the main cause. These are also the focal point of LCIA methodology and hence of this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 725, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These are also the focal point of LCIA methodology and hence of this chapter. Effects observed by IPCC with varying degrees of confidence based on statistical measures (IPCC 2014a): \u2022 Rise of atmospheric temperature with the last three decades from 1983 to 2012 being very likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 800 years in the Northern Hemisphere and likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years \u2022 Rise of ocean temperature in the upper 75 m by a global average of 0.11 \u00b0C per decade from 1971 to 2010 \u2022 Melting of glaciers, snow and ice caps, polar sea ice and ice packs and sheets (61\u20444polar sea ice) and permafrost soils \u2022 Rise in global mean sea levels by 0.19 m over the period 1901\u20132010 (due to thermal expansion and additional water from melting ice) \u2022 Increase in frequency and intensity of weather-based natural disasters, essentially due to increased atmospheric humidity and consequent changes in Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 726, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "atmospheric thermodynamics (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 727, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "energy absorption via evaporation and condensation) and cloud formation \u2022 Intense tropical cyclone activity increased in the North Atlantic since 1970 \u2022 Heavy precipitation and consequent flooding (North America and Europe) \u2022 Droughts \u2022 Wildfires \u2022 Heat waves (Europe, Asia and Australia) \u2022 Alteration of hydrological systems affecting quantity and quality of water resources \u2022 Negative impacts of climate change on agricultural crop yields more common than positive impacts \u2022 Shifting of geographic ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, abundances and species interactions (including in biodiversity) by many terrestrial, freshwater and marine species \u2022 Changes in infectious disease vectors The continuation and intensification of already observed effects as well as those not yet observed (but predicted by models as potential consequences offurther global warming) depend on the future increase in surface temperature which is predicted using atmospheric climate models and a variety", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 728, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(but predicted by models as potential consequences offurther global warming) depend on the future increase in surface temperature which is predicted using atmospheric climate models and a variety of forecasted emission scenarios ranging from conservative to optimistic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 729, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Given the inertia of atmospheric and oceanic processes and the global climate, it is expected that global warming will continue over the next century. Even if emissions of GHGs would stop immediately, global warming would continue and only slow down over many decades. The following effects are not yet observed and highly debated in the scientific community; hence consensus or general agreement regarding their likelihood is not established. Nevertheless, they are possible impacts and should be seen as part of the possible effects of global warming, especially when considering longer time horizons. \u2022 Slowing down of the thermohaline circulation of cold and salt water to the ocean floor at high latitudes of the northern hemisphere (e.g. Gulf stream), among other things responsible for global heat distribution, oceanic nutrient transport, the renewal of deep ocean water, and the relative mildness of the European climate. This circulation as shown in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 730, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This circulation as shown in Fig. 10.6 is driven by differences in the density of water due to varying salinity and differences in water temperature, and might be affected by freshwater inflow from melting ice, decreasing sea water salinity and consequently reducing its density and the density gradient between different oceanic zones. \u2022 Increasing frequency and intensity of \u201cEl Ni\u00f1o\u201d events while decreasing that of its counterpart \u201cLa Ni\u00f1a\u201d might be possible, although it is unclear to what extent this is influenced by global warming. One possibility is that this effect only occurs in the initial phase of global warming, while weakening again later when the deeper layers of the ocean get warmer as well. Dramatic changes cannot be fully excluded based on current evidence; therefore, this effect is considered a potential tipping element in our climate. R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 731, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Mobilisation and release of oceanic methane hydrate (water ice containing large amounts of methane in its crystal structure) present in deep ocean sediments and permafrost, could lead to further global warming and significantly affect the atmospheric oxygen content. There is large uncertainty regarding the amounts and size of reserves found under sediments on the ocean floors, but a relatively sudden release of large amounts of methane hydrate deposits is believed to be a main factor in the global warming of 6 \u00b0C during the end-Permian extinction event (Benton and Twitchet 2003) when 96% of all marine species became extinct 251 million years ago. \u2022 Effects on Earth\u2019s primary \u201clung\u201d: phytoplankton which produces 80% of terrestrial oxygen and absorbs a significant share of CO2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 732, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Effects on Earth\u2019s primary \u201clung\u201d: phytoplankton which produces 80% of terrestrial oxygen and absorbs a significant share of CO2. \u2022 In addition to the environmental effects discussed above, the human population is likely to be affected by further severe consequences should other adaptation strategies prove inefficient: disease, malnutrition and starvation, dehydration, environmental refugees, wars and ultimately death. \u2022 Nonlinearity of cause\u2013effect chains, feedback and irreversible tipping points: Although, in LCIA models, linearity of cause\u2013effect chains is assumed, the above discussed effects present several examples of mechanisms that are unlikely to depend linearly on the temperature increase, i.e. they will not change proportionally in frequency and/or intensity per degree of change in global temperature. Furthermore, they are likely to directly or indirectly influence each other, causing feedback reactions adding further nonlinearity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 733, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, they are likely to directly or indirectly influence each other, causing feedback reactions adding further nonlinearity. Additionally, some of these effects will be irreversible, changing the climate from one stable state to another. This phenomenon is referred to as tipping points, and the above-mentioned release of methane from methane hydrates and the alteration of the Gulf stream are examples. Lenton et al. (2008) discuss a number of additional potential tipping points. Fig. 10.6 \u201cThe big loop\u201d takes 1500 years to circumnavigate the globe (NASA/JPL 2010, public domain, http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2010-101) Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 734, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Forest dieback (Boreal forest, Amazon rainforest). \u2022 Area encompassed by monsoon systems will increase with intensified precipitation. 10.6.2 Environmental Mechanism In principle, the energy reaching the Earth\u2019s atmosphere from solar radiation and leaving it again (e.g. via reflection and infrared radiation) is in balance, creating a stable temperature regime in our atmosphere. As shown in Fig. 10.7, from the sunlight reaching the Earth\u2019s atmosphere, one fraction (*28%) is directly reflected back into space by air molecules, clouds and the surface of the earth (particularly oceans and icy regions such as the Arctic and Antarctic): this effect is called albedo. The remainder is absorbed in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases (GHG) (21%) and the Earth\u2019s surface (50%). The latter heats up the planetary surface and is released back into the atmosphere as infrared radiation (black body radiation) with a longer wave length than the absorbed radiation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 735, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The latter heats up the planetary surface and is released back into the atmosphere as infrared radiation (black body radiation) with a longer wave length than the absorbed radiation. This infrared radiation is partially absorbed by GHGs and therefore kept in the atmosphere instead of being released into space, explaining why the temperature of the atmosphere increases with its content of GHGs. Fig. 10.7 The greenhouse effect (\u00a9User: ZooFari/Wikimedia Commons/CC-BY-SA-3.0) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 736, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A cause\u2013effect chain for climate change is shown in Fig. 10.8 and can be summarised as follows: 1. GHG emissions 2. Transport, transformation and distribution of GHG in the atmosphere 3. Disturbance of the radiation balance\u2014radiative forcing (primary effect, midpoint) 4. Increase in global temperatures of atmosphere and surface 5. Increase in sea level due to heat expansion and the melting of land-based ice 6. Increased water vapour content of the atmosphere causing more extreme weather 7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 737, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Increase in sea level due to heat expansion and the melting of land-based ice 6. Increased water vapour content of the atmosphere causing more extreme weather 7. Negative effects on the ecosystems and human health (endpoint) Until now the unanimously used climate change indicator on midpoint level in LCA has been the Global Warming Potential, an emission metric first introduced in the IPCC First Assessment Report (IPCC 1990) and continuously updated by IPCC GHG emissions (CO2, CH4, N20, CFCs...) Increased atmospheric concentrations Increased radiative forcing Increased atmospheric temperature Extreme weather events Damage to ecosystems Damage to human health Melting of land ice Flooding Droughts Sea level rise Change in Earth\u2019s cover Increased albedo Soot and aerosol emissions Fig. 10.8 Impact pathway for climate change Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 738, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "since then with the latest version in the Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC 2013). Global warming potentials are calculated for each GHG according to: GWPi 1\u20444 R T 0 ai \u0001 Ci\u00f0t\u00dedt R T 0 aCO2 \u0001 CCO2\u00f0t\u00dedt \u00f010:4\u00de where \u2022 ai: thermal radiation absorption (instant radiative forcing) following an increase of one unit in the concentration of gas i \u2022 Ci(t): Concentration of gas i remaining at time t after emission \u2022 T: number of years for which the integration is carried out (e.g. 20 or 100 years) GWP100-year is directly used in LCIA as the characterisation factor. As shown above, it is the ratio of the cumulated radiative forcing over 100 years of a given GHG and that of CO2, with the unit of kg CO2-eq/kg GHG. Therefore, GWP for CO2 is always 1 and a GWP100 for methane of 28 kg CO2-eq/kg methane (see Table 10.3) means that methane has 28 times the cumulated radiative forcing of CO2 when integrating over 100 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 739, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The difference in GWP20 and GWP100 for methane shown in Table 10.3 is due to the fact that methane has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime of 12 years compared to CO2\u2019s lifetime which is at least one order of magnitude higher, which means that methane\u2019s GWP gets lower the longer the time horizon over which it is integrated (i.e. sort of a \u2018dilution\u2019 of its effect over a longer time). On the other hand a more persistent GHG such as nitrous oxide with 120 years lifetime has a similar value when integrating over 20 and 100 years and the \u2018time-dilution\u2019 effect would only become visible when integrating over time periods significantly longer than 120 years. 10.6.3 Emissions and Main Sources Many greenhouse gases are naturally present in the atmosphere and contribute to the natural greenhouse effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 740, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.6.3 Emissions and Main Sources Many greenhouse gases are naturally present in the atmosphere and contribute to the natural greenhouse effect. Estimated main contributors to the natural greenhouse effect are: Table 10.3 Excerpt from the list of GWP (IPCC 2014a) Substance Molecule Atmospheric lifetime (years) Radiative efficiency (W/ (m2 ppb)) GWP (kg CO2-eq/kg GHG) 20 years 100 years Carbon dioxide CO2 1.37E\u221205 Methane CH4 3.63E\u221204 Nitrous oxide N2O 3.00E\u221203 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 741, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Water vapour: *55% \u2022 Carbon dioxide (CO2): 39% \u2022 Ozone (O3): 2% \u2022 Methane (CH4): 2% \u2022 Nitrous oxide (N2O): 2% Anthropogenic water vapour emissions do not contribute to climate change as the presence of water vapour is a function of atmospheric temperature and evaporation surfaces. For the other constituents however, anthropogenic sources for CO2, CH4 and N2O do contribute to increasing the greenhouse effect beyond its natural state. Further relevant GHG emissions also include industrial volatile and persistent halocarbons (chlorinated fluorocarbons including CFCs (\u201cfreons\u201d), HCFCs and perfluoromethane) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). GHG emissions are attributable to almost any human activity. The most important contributing activities are: burning of fossil fuels and deforestation (including releasing carbon from soil and change in albedo). Figure 10.9 shows the global contributions to GWP from five major economic sectors for the year 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 742, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 10.9 shows the global contributions to GWP from five major economic sectors for the year 2010. Industry, agriculture, housing and transport are the dominating contributors to GHG emissions. In addition to the greenhouse gases which all exert their radiative forcing in the atmosphere over timespans of years to centuries, there are also more short-lived radiative forcing agents that are important for the atmospheric temperature in a more short-term perspective. These include: \u2022 Sulphate aerosols (particulate air pollution caused by the emission of sulphur oxides from combustion processes) that reduce the incoming radiation from the sun and thus have a negative contribution to climate change \u2022 Nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 (jointly called NOx) and VOC from combustion processes, that contribute to photochemical formation of ozone (see Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 743, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.10) which is a strong but short-lived radiative forcing gas The radiative forcing impact of short-lived agents like these is very uncertain to model on a global scale, and their contribution to climate change is therefore not currently included in LCIA. 10.6.4 Existing Characterisation Models All existing LCIA methods use the GWP (Eq. 10.4) for midpoint characterisation. In terms of time horizon most use 100 years, which has been recommended by IPCC as the best basis for comparison of GHGs, while some methods use a 500 year time horizon to better incorporate the full contribution from the GHGs. As mentioned, the longer time perspective puts a higher weight on long-lived GHGs like nitrous oxide, CFCs and SF6 and a lower weight on short-lived GHGs like methane. Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 744, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "So far radiative forcing agents with shorter atmospheric lifetime than methane are not considered in LCIA even though they also contribute to changing temperatures. However, a UNEP-SETAC expert workshop in 2016 recommended that climate change assessment at midpoint should be split into two sub-categories, respectively, focusing on the long-term climate change contributions and on the rate by which temperature changes occur. The two would be expressed in different metrics and not aggregated at midpoint level. It is expected that the distinction into two midpoint categories will cater better for the damage modelling since both rate of change and magnitude of the long-term temperature increase are important. Endpoint characterisation of climate change is a challenge due to the complexity of the underlying environmental mechanisms with multiple feedback loops of which many are probably unknown, the global scale and the very long time perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 745, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In particular damages to human health are also strongly affected by local and regional differences in vulnerability and ability of societies to adapt to changing Fig. 10.9 Direct GHG emission shares (% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) of five major economic sectors in the world in 2010. The pull-out shows how indirect CO2 emission shares (in % of total anthropogenic GHG emissions) from electricity and heat production are attributed to sectors of final energy use. \u2018Other Energy\u2019 refers to all GHG emission sources in the energy sector other than electricity and heat production. \u2018AFOLU\u2019 stands for Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use [taken from IPCC (2014b)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 746, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "climate conditions. Some endpoint methods have proposed endpoint characterisation factors (e.g. Ecoindicator99, ReCiPe, LIME, IMPACT World+ and LC-IMPACT), but due to the state of current climate damage models, they inevitably miss many damage pathways and are accompanied by very large uncertainties, where even the size of these uncertainties is difficult to assess. This is why other endpoint methods (e.g. IMPACT 2002+) refrain from endpoint modelling for this impact category and present the midpoint results for climate change together with the endpoint results for the rest of the impact categories. In any case, endpoint results for climate change must be taken with the greatest caution in the interpretation of results. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 747, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In any case, endpoint results for climate change must be taken with the greatest caution in the interpretation of results. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.7 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 10.7.1 Problem Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive and unstable molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms and forms a bluish gas at normal ambient temperature with a distinct somewhat sharp odour. This molecule is present in lower atmospheric layers (tropospheric ozone as a consequence of photochemical ozone formation) and in larger concentrations (about 8 ppmv) also in higher altitudes between 15 and 40 km above ground (stratospheric ozone). Tropospheric, ground-level ozone is considered a pollutant due to its many harmful effects there on humans, animals, plants and materials (see Sect. 10.10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 748, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Tropospheric, ground-level ozone is considered a pollutant due to its many harmful effects there on humans, animals, plants and materials (see Sect. 10.10). However, as a component of stratospheric atmospheric layers, it is vital to life on planet Earth, due to its capacity to absorb energy-rich UV radiation, thus preventing destructive amounts of it from reaching life on the planet\u2019s surface. Stratospheric ozone depletion refers to the declining concentrations of stratospheric ozone observed since the late 1970s, which are observed in various ways: (1) As the \u2018ozone depletion area\u2019 or \u2018ozone hole\u2019 (an ambiguous term often used in public media referring to an area of critically low stratospheric ozone concentration), a recurring annual cycle of relatively extreme drops in O3 concentrations over the poles which start to manifest annually in the late winter/early spring of each hemisphere (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 749, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from around September/October over the South pole and March/April over the North pole) before concentrations recover again with increasing stratospheric temperatures towards the summer. \u2018Ozone holes\u2019 have been observed over Antarctic since the early 1980s as shown in Fig. 10.10. (2) A general decline of several percent per decade in O3 concentrations in the entire stratosphere. Ozone concentration is considered as critically low when the value of the integrated ozone column falls below 220 Dobson units (a normal value being about 300 Dobson units). Dobson Units express the whole of ozone in a column from the ground passing through the atmosphere. Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 750, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Data for Europe for example show a decline of 5.4% of stratospheric O3 concentration per decade since the 1980s when measured in winter and spring, with an improving trend over the period 1995\u20132000. However, in later years low concentration records were broken on an almost annual basis. To date, the largest \u2018ozone hole\u2019 in human history was observed in 2006 with 29.5 million km2 over Antarctica, but even in 2015 its largest spread still reached 28.2 million km2. The largest Arctic \u2018ozone hole\u2019 ever was observed in 2011. Impacts of stratospheric ozone depletion are essentially linked to reduced absorption of solar radiation in the stratosphere leading to increased UV radiation intensities at the planet surface, of which three broad (wavelength) classes are distinguished: UV-C, UV-B and UV-A. The impact of UV radiation on living organisms depends on its wavelength, the shorter the more dangerous", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 751, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The impact of UV radiation on living organisms depends on its wavelength, the shorter the more dangerous. UV-C is the most dangerous wavelength range, but almost completely filtered by the ozone layer. UV-B (wavelengths 280\u2013315 nm) is of the most concern due to ozone layer depletion, while UV-A is not absorbed by ozone. Depending on duration and intensity of exposure to UV-B, impacts on human health are suspected to include skin cancer, cataracts, sun burn, increased skin cell ageing, immune system diseases, headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages. Ecosystem effects are linked to epidermal damage to animals (observed e.g. in whales), and radiation damage to the photosynthetic organs of plants causing reduced photosynthesis, leading to lower yields and crop quality in agricultural produce and loss of phytoplankton, the primary producers of aquatic food chains, particularly in the polar oceans", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 752, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Additionally, UV-B accelerates the generation of photochemical smog, thereby stimulating the production of tropospheric ozone, which is a harmful pollutant (see Sect. 10.10). Fig. 10.10 Evolution of the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica in September from 1980 to 2015 (Source NASA Ozone Watch 2016, public domain, http://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/ monthly/climatology_09_SH.html) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 753, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.7.2 Environmental Mechanism Stratospheric ozone concentrations result from a balance between O3 formation and destruction under the influence of solar (UV) radiation, temperature and the presence of other chemicals. The annual cycle of ozone destruction over the poles develops under the presence of several influencing factors with its intensity directly depending on their combined intensity: (1) meteorological factors (i.e. strong stratospheric winds and low temperature) and (2) the presence of ozone depleting chemicals. Meteorological factors involve the formation of the \u201cpolar vortex\u201d, a circumpolar stratospheric wind phenomenon, in the polar night during the polar winter, when almost no sunlight reaches the pole. This vortex isolates the air in polar latitudes from the rest of Earth\u2019s atmosphere, preventing ozone and other molecules from entering. As the darkness continues, the air inside the polar vortex gets very cold, with temperatures dropping below \u221280 \u00b0C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 754, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As the darkness continues, the air inside the polar vortex gets very cold, with temperatures dropping below \u221280 \u00b0C. At such temperatures a special type of clouds, called Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC), begins to form. Unlike tropospheric clouds, these are not primarily constituted of water droplets, but of tri-hydrated nitric acid particles, which can form larger ice particles containing dissolved nitric acid in their core as temperature continues to drop. The presence of PSC is crucial for the accelerated ozone depletion over the polar regions because they provide a solid phase in the otherwise extremely clean stratospheric air on which the ozone-degrading processes occur much more efficiently. Chemical factors involve the presence of chlorine and bromine compounds in the atmosphere as important contributors to the destruction of ozone. The majority of the chlorine compounds and half of the bromine compounds that reach the stratosphere stem from human activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 755, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The majority of the chlorine compounds and half of the bromine compounds that reach the stratosphere stem from human activities. Due to their extreme stability, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are not degraded in the troposphere but slowly (over years) transported into the stratosphere. Here, they are broken down into reactive chlorine radicals under the influence of the very energy-rich UV radiation at the upper layers of the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can destroy very high numbers of ozone molecules, before it is eventually inactivated through reaction with nitrogen oxides or methane present in the stratosphere. The degradation and inactivation scheme is illustrated in a simplified form for a CFC molecule in Fig. 10.11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 756, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The degradation and inactivation scheme is illustrated in a simplified form for a CFC molecule in Fig. 10.11. When they are isolated in the polar vortex and in the presence of PSC, these stable chlorine and bromine forms come into contact with heterogeneous phases (gas/liquid or gas/solid) on the surface of the particles forming the PSC, which breaks them down and release the activated free chlorine and bromine, known as \u201cactive\u201d ozone depleting substances (ODS). These reactions are very fast and, as explained, strongly enhanced by the presence of PSC, a phenomenon which was neglected before the discovery of the \u2018ozone hole\u2019. While this describes the fate mechanism leading to stratospheric ozone reduction, Fig. 10.12 shows the impact pathway leading to ozone depletion in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 757, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cl\u2022 O ClO\u2022 Strong UV light O3 O2+O NO2 ClONO2 CFC Fig. 10.11 Degradation of ozone catalysed by chlorine in the stratosphere (simplified) Halocarbon emissions (CFCs, HCFCs, Halons) Depletion of stratospheric ozone by catalysed cleavage Increased UVB radiation intensity at Earth\u2019s surface Damage to ecosystems (terrestrial vegetation, phytoplankton, production of wood, crop and fish) Damage to human health (skin cancer, cataract, immune system depression) N2O emissions Decreased abundance of stratospheric ozone Fig. 10.12 Impact pathway for stratospheric ozone depletion R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 758, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "stratosphere from man-made emissions of long-lived halocarbons and nitrous oxide as used by most LCIA methods. The midpoint indicator used without exception in all LCIA methods to calculate characterisation factors is the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). In a similar manner as the Global Warming Potential (GWP), it evaluates the potential of a chemical to destroy the ozone layer based on a model from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 759, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In a similar manner as the Global Warming Potential (GWP), it evaluates the potential of a chemical to destroy the ozone layer based on a model from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO 2014). The ODP essentially expresses the global reduction in stratospheric O3 concentration CO3 due to an ozone depleting substance i relative to the global reduction of stratospheric O3 concentration CO3 due to 1 kg of CFC-11 (CFCl3), and is hence expressed in CFC-11 equivalents: ODPi 1\u20444 DCO3\u00f0i\u00de DCO3\u00f0CFC \u0004 11\u00de \u00f010:5\u00de 10.7.3 Emissions and Main Sources The halogen compounds in the stratosphere are mostly originating from very stable industrial halocarbon gases used as solvents or refrigerants (the chlorinated CFCs or freons), or fire extinguishers (the brominated halons)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 760, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Groups of anthropogenic ODS are: bromochloromethanes (BCM), CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), tetrachloromethane, 1,1,1-trichloromethane, methyl bromide, methyl chloride and halons. The main uses of ODS during the last century were: fire extinguishing systems (halon), plastic foams, propellant gas in spray cans, fumigate and pesticides (methyl bromide), metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), refrigeration and air-conditioning and solvent degreasing. Natural ozone depleting substances are CH4, N2O, H2O and halogenated substances with sufficient stability and/or release rates to allow them to reach the stratosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 761, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Natural ozone depleting substances are CH4, N2O, H2O and halogenated substances with sufficient stability and/or release rates to allow them to reach the stratosphere. All ozone depleting substances have two common characteristics, being: \u2022 Chemically very stable in the lower atmosphere \u2022 Capable of releasing chloride or bromide under UV radiation (photodissociation) The phasing-out of production and use of the concerned substances has been successfully enforced under the Montreal protocol, which was signed in 1987 and led to phasing-out of consumption and production of ODS by 1996 in developed countries and by 2010 in developing countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 762, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If continuously respected, this effort should lead to the cessation of the annual appearance of the \u2018ozone hole\u2019 around 2070, the delay being due to the facts that (1) we are still emitting decreasing amounts of relevant substances (mostly during the end-of-life treatment of old refrigeration and air-conditioning systems) and (2) they are very persistent and may Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 763, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "take decades to reach the poles and hence continue their adverse effects for a prolonged time. When significant emissions or dominating impacts of ODS are observed in LCIs or LCA results nowadays, it is likely because the data originate from references before the phase-out and hence it is most likely an artefact due to obsolete data, unless the end-of-life treatment of old refrigeration and air-conditioning systems are an important component of the LCA. 10.7.4 Existing Characterisation Models Without any exception, all existing LCIA methods use the ODP as midpoint indicator (although not all of them have the most recent version). For endpoint characterisation, different midpoint-to-endpoint models are applied that relate ozone depletion to increased UV radiation and ultimately to skin cancer and cataract in humans", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 764, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For endpoint characterisation, different midpoint-to-endpoint models are applied that relate ozone depletion to increased UV radiation and ultimately to skin cancer and cataract in humans. All endpoint LCIA methods characterise impacts on human health, but only the Japanese method LIME additionally considers impacts on Net Primary Productivity (NPP) for coniferous forests, agriculture (soybean, rice, green pea, mustard) and phytoplankton at high latitudes. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.8 Acidification 10.8.1 Problem During the 1980s and 90s, the effects of acidification of the environment became clearly visible in the form of a pronounced lack of health especially among conifers in many forests in Europe and the USA, resulting locally in forest decline, leading to accelerated clearing of whole forests", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 765, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Clear acidic lakes without fish go right back to the beginning of the twentieth century, occurring locally for example in Norway and Sweden as a result of human activities, but the extent of the problem increased dramatically in more recent times, and during the 1990s there was serious acidification in more than 10,000 Scandinavian lakes. Metals, surface coatings and mineral building materials exposed to wind and weather are crumbling and disintegrating at a rate which is unparalleled in history, with consequent major socio-economic costs and loss of irreplaceable historic monuments in many parts of the industrialised world. The acidification problems were one of the main environmental concerns in Europe and North America in the 1980s and 90s but through targeted regulation of the main sources in the energy, industry and transportation sectors followed by liming to restore the pH of the natural soils and waters, it is no longer a major concern in these regions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 766, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In China, however, acidification impacts are dramatic in R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 767, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "some areas due to the extensive use of coal-fired power generation using sulphur-rich coal. 10.8.2 Environmental Mechanism Acidification of soil or aquatic ecosystems can be defined as an impact which leads to a fall in the system\u2019s acid neutralising capacity (ANC), i.e. a reduction in the quantity of substances in the system which are able to neutralise hydrogen ions added to the system. ANC can be reduced by: 1. Addition of hydrogen ions, which displace other cations which can then be leached out of the system 2. Uptake of cations in plants or other biomass which is collected and removed from the system Particularly the former is relevant for acidification impacts in LCA. Acidification occurs naturally over time, but it is greatly increased by man-made input of hydrogen ions to soil and vegetation. The main source is air-borne emissions of gases that release hydrogen when they are degraded in the atmosphere or after deposition to soil, vegetation or water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 768, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main source is air-borne emissions of gases that release hydrogen when they are degraded in the atmosphere or after deposition to soil, vegetation or water. Deposition is increased during precipitation events where the gases are dissolved in water and come down with rain, which can be rather acidic with pH values down to 3\u20134 in cases of strong air pollution (\u201cacid rain\u201d). The most important acidifying man-made compounds are: Sulphur oxides, SO2 and SO3 (or jointly SOx), the acidic anhydrides of sulphurous acid H2SO3 and sulphuric acid H2SO4, respectively, meaning that upon absorption of water from the atmosphere they form these very strong acids which both release two hydrogen ions when deposited: SO2 \u00fe H2O ! H2SO3 ! 2H \u00fe \u00fe SO3 2\u0004 SO3 \u00fe H2O ! H2SO4 ! 2H \u00fe \u00fe SO4 2\u0004 Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2 (or jointly NOx) that are also acidic anhydrides as they can be converted to nitric and nitrous acids by oxidation in the troposphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 769, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "NO is oxidised to NO2 primarily by reaction with ozone (see Sect. 10.10): NO \u00fe O3 ! NO2 \u00fe O2 NO2 can be oxidised to nitric acid, HNO3 or HONO2: Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 770, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "NO2 \u00fe OH \u00fe M ! HONO2 \u00fe M where OH is hydroxyl radical present in the atmosphere and M is an inactive body which can remove surplus energy. Ammonia, which is in itself a base (absorbing hydrogen ions via the reaction NH3 \u00fe H \u00fe ! NH4 \u00fe ), but upon complete mineralisation through nitrite, NO2 \u00fe , to nitrate, NO3\u0004 releases one net proton: NH3 \u00fe 2O2 ! H \u00fe \u00fe NO3 \u0004 \u00fe H2O Strong acids like hydrochloric acid, HCl or sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which release their content of hydrogen ions as soon as they are dissolved in water and thus also are strongly acidifying. Because of their high water solubility, the atmospheric residence time of these acidifying substances is limited to a few days, and therefore acidification is a regional effect with its extent limited to the region around the point of emission. When acidifying compounds deposit on plant leaves or needles, they can damage these vital plant organs and through this damage the plants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 771, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When acidifying compounds deposit on plant leaves or needles, they can damage these vital plant organs and through this damage the plants. When the acidifying compounds reach the soil, protons are released in the soil where they may lower the pH of the soil water and cause release of metal ions bound in the soil. Some of these metals are toxic to the plants in the soil, others are essential for plant growth, but after their release, they wash out, and the availability of these metals to plants may then become limiting for plant growth. The result is stress on the plants through root and leaf damage and after prolonged exposure the plants may die as a direct consequence of this or through diseases or parasites that benefit from the weakened constitution of the plant. Lakes are also exposed to the acidification, in particular through the acidified soil water leaching to the lake", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 772, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lakes are also exposed to the acidification, in particular through the acidified soil water leaching to the lake. When the pH of a lake drops, the availability of carbon in the water in its dominating form around neutral pH, which is HCO3\u0004, is converted to dissolved CO2. The solubility of toxic metals is increased, in particular aluminium which may precipitate on the gills of fish at pH 5. The phytoplankton and macrophyte flora gradually change and also the fauna is affected. Humic acids that give the lakewater a brown colour are precipitated, and the acidified lakes appear clear and blue. The sensitivity to acidification is strongly influenced by the geology and nature of the soil", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 773, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The sensitivity to acidification is strongly influenced by the geology and nature of the soil. Calcareous soils with a high content of calcium carbonate are well buffered meaning that they will resist the change in pH by neutralising the input of hydrogen ions with the basic carbonate ions: H \u00fe \u00fe CaCO3 ! Ca2 \u00fe \u00fe HCO3 \u0004 H \u00fe \u00fe HCO3 \u0004 ! H2O \u00fe CO2 As long as there is calcium carbonate in the soil, it will thus not be acidified. R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 774, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Soils that are rich in clay are also resistant to acidification through their ability to adsorb the protons on clay mineral surfaces under release of metal ions, while sandy soils are more sensitive to acidification. The sensitivity of an ecosystem towards acidification can be described by its critical load\u2014\u201cA quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur according to present knowledge\u201d (Nilsson and Grennfelt 1988). Critical loads are high in calcareous regions like the Mediterranean and low in e.g. granite rock regions like most of Scandinavia. Incorporating the environmental mechanism described above, the impact pathway of acidification is illustrated in Fig. 10.13. Oceanic acidification is the process of dissolution of CO2 into seawater leading to a slight lowering of the pH in the open oceans as a consequence of increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 775, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 217, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Dissolution of CO2 in water generates carbonic acid, a rather weak acid (think soda water), which releases protons according to CO2 \u00fe H2O ! H2CO3 ! HCO3 \u0004 \u00fe H \u00fe The slightly lowered pH is deleterious to coral reefs, which should be included in endpoint characterisation. CO2 is the only important contributor to oceanic acidification and inclusion of this impact category on midpoint level therefore offers little additional information to the LCIA that already considers climate change, we will hence not discuss it further here. 10.8.3 Emissions and Main Sources Sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides are the man-made emissions that contribute the most to acidification. Historically metal smelters of the mining industry have been strong sources of local acidification with large localised emissions of sulphur oxides. Today, the main sources of both SOx and NOx are combustion processes in thermal power plants, combustion engines, waste incinerators and decentralised furnaces", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 776, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 217, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Today, the main sources of both SOx and NOx are combustion processes in thermal power plants, combustion engines, waste incinerators and decentralised furnaces. For sulphur oxides, the level of emissions depends on the sulphur content of the fuels. Since nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere and hence in all combustion processes using air, emissions of nitrogen oxides are mainly determined by conditions of the combustion process and possible treatment of the flue gases through catalysers and filters. As response to the serious problems with acidification in Europe and North America in previous times, regulation now ensures that sulphur content is removed from the fuels, that important combustion activities like thermal power plants and waste incinerators have an efficient neutralisation of the flue gases before they are released, and that combustion engines have catalysers lowering the NOx content of the exhaust gases. Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 777, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 217, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ammonia is also an important contributor to acidification in some regions and the main sources are all related to agriculture using NH3 as a fertiliser, and to animal husbandry, in particular pig and chicken farms, with ammonia emissions from stables and dispersion of manure. Mineral acids like HCl and H2SO4 rarely appear as elementary flows in life cycle inventories but they may be emitted from some industrial processes and also from waste incinerators with inefficient flue gas treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 778, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 218, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Airborne emissions of SOx, NOx, NH3 and other acidifying substances Atmospheric fate and transport, wet and dry deposition Deposition on vegetation Deposition on land Damage to leaves and needles Buffering and change in soil pH Leaching of H+ Leaching of metal ions Toxicity to roots Acid stress and toxicity in lakes Effects on forests and vegetation Reduced metal availability Changes in species composition Damage to freshwater ecosystems Damage to terrestrial ecosystems Damage to crops Damage to forestry Fig. 10.13 Impact pathway for acidification R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 779, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 218, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.8.4 Existing Characterisation Models The acidification potential depends both on the potency of the emitted gas and on the sensitivity of the receiving environment in terms of buffering capacity of the soils and sensitivity of the ecosystems to acidification as expressed by their critical load. While the difference between the contributing gases is modest\u2014within a factor 5\u201310 across substances, the difference between sensitivities in different locations can be several orders of magnitudes depending on the geology and soil characteristics. Early characterisation models were site-generic and only incorporated the difference in ability to release protons, but newer models incorporate more and more of the cause\u2013effect chain in Fig. 10.13 and model e.g. the area of ecosystem in the deposition area that becomes exposed above its critical load", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 780, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 219, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.13 and model e.g. the area of ecosystem in the deposition area that becomes exposed above its critical load. This requires a site-dependent LCIA approach where the characterisation factor is determined not just per emitted substance but also per emission location. Characterisation factors may be expressed as absolute values or as an equivalent emission of a reference substance which in that case is usually SO2. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.9 Eutrophication 10.9.1 Problem Nutrients occur naturally in the environment, where they are a fundamental precondition for the existence of life. The species composition and productivity of different ecosystems reflect the availability of nutrients, and natural differences in the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus are thus one of the reasons for the existing multiplicity of species and of different types of ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 781, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 219, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecosystems are dynamic, and if they are affected by a changed availability of nutrients, they simply adapt to a new balance with their surroundings. Originally, eutrophication of aquatic environments, such as rivers or lakes, describes its eutrophic character (from the Greek word \u201ceu\u201d\u2014good or true, and \u201ctrophein\u201d\u2014feed), meaning nutrient-rich. From the 1970s the term was used to describe the slow suffocation of large lakes. It now has a meaning close to dystrophic, i.e. poor conditions and low in oxygen, supporting little life. An aquatic ecosystem in strong imbalance is named hypertrophic, when close to a natural equilibrium it is called mesotrophic, and when healthy it is called oligotrophic. The perhaps most prominent effect of eutrophication in lakes, rivers and the coastal sea are lower water quality including low visibility or for stronger situations massive amounts of algae in the surface layers of those waters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 782, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 219, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Eutrophication essentially describes the enrichment of the aquatic environment with nutrient salts leading to an increased biomass production of planktonic algae, gelatinous zooplankton and higher aquatic plants, which results in the degradation of (organoleptic) water quality (e.g. appearance, colour, smell, taste) and an altered Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 783, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 219, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "species composition of the ecosystem. It may also lead to the development of toxic phytoplankton, dynophysis, cyanobacteria or blue-green algae. When the algae die, they sink to the bottom where they are degraded under oxygen consumption. As a consequence, the concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases (hypoxia), which results in biodiversity loss (flora and fauna). Ultimately, if the process is not stopped, this will turn a lake into a swamp, that will gradually become grassland and forest. This process occurs naturally but over a much longer time horizon. For terrestrial systems, the most significant environmental problem in relation to nitrogen compound loading is changes in the function and species composition of nitrogen-poor (and nitrogen limited) ecosystems in heathlands, dune vegetation, commons and raised bogs as a result of the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen compounds. Forestry and agriculture may also be affected by reduced yields via damage to forests and crops", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 784, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 220, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Forestry and agriculture may also be affected by reduced yields via damage to forests and crops. This section however focuses on aquatic eutrophication. 10.9.2 Environmental Mechanism The food chain in aquatic ecosystems can be distinguished into three trophic levels: primary producers (algae and plants producing biomass via photosynthesis), primary consumers (species consuming algae and plants, the vegetarians) and secondary consumers (species consuming primary consumers, the carnivores). In addition to sunlight, growth of primary producers (algae and higher plants) requires all of the elements which enter into their anabolism (i.e. their synthesis of the molecules which constitute the organisms\u2019 cells). A molecular formula for the average composition of an aquatic organism is C106H263O110N16P (Stumm and Morgan 1981). Apart from the elements represented in this formula, minor quantities of a large number of other elements are required, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 785, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 220, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Apart from the elements represented in this formula, minor quantities of a large number of other elements are required, e.g. potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, manganese, copper, silicon and boron (Salisbury and Ross 1978). In principle, the availability of any of these elements can determine the potential extent of the growth of the primary producers in a given system. The elements entering in greatest quantities into the primary producers (as in all other living organisms) are carbon, C, hydrogen, H and oxygen, O. The availability of water can limit growth in terrestrial plants, but the availability of one of the three basic elements is rarely a limiting factor in the growth of primary producers. The other elements which enter into the construction of the primary producers are nutrients, as the availability of these elements in sufficient quantities is necessary to ensure growth", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 786, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 220, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The other elements which enter into the construction of the primary producers are nutrients, as the availability of these elements in sufficient quantities is necessary to ensure growth. The nutrients are classified as macronutrients (>1000 lg/g dry matter in plants) and micronutrients (<100 lg/g dry matter in plants) (Salisbury and Ross 1978). In rare cases, growth is limited by the availability of one of the micronutrients, but very small quantities of these elements are required by the primary producers, and these elements are therefore limiting only on very poor soils. Of the macronutrients, sulphur is added to all ecosystems in fair quantities in most of the industrialised world by the atmospheric deposition of sulphur R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 787, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 220, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "compounds from flue gases resulting from energy conversion based on fossil resources. Calcium, potassium and magnesium occur in lime and clay, respectively, which exist in large quantities in soils. In practice, one of the two last macronutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, is therefore almost always the limiting element for the growth of primary producers, and it is therefore reasonable to regard only the elements nitrogen and phosphorus as contributors to nutrient enrichment. In many lakes, phosphorus deficiency, or a combination of nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies, is typically limiting growth, and their addition promotes algal growth. In coastal waters and seas, nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient. Substances which contain nitrogen or phosphorus in a biologically available form are therefore classified as potential contributors to nutrient enrichment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 788, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 221, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Substances which contain nitrogen or phosphorus in a biologically available form are therefore classified as potential contributors to nutrient enrichment. As is evident from the formula for the average composition of aquatic organisms, the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus is of the order of 16. If the concentration of bioavailable nitrogen is significantly more than 16 times the concentration of bioavailable phosphorus in an ecosystem, it is thus reasonable to assume that phosphorus is the limiting nutrient, and vice versa. Since most of the atmosphere consists of free molecular nitrogen, N2, further addition of N2 will not have any effect, and it is also not directly bioavailable. N2 is therefore not classified as contributing to nutrient enrichment. For aquatic eutrophication, the starting point of the cause\u2013effect chain is the emission of a compound containing either nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 789, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 221, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For aquatic eutrophication, the starting point of the cause\u2013effect chain is the emission of a compound containing either nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P). Increased availability of nutrients will primarily increase the growth of algae and plants, especially in summer with abundant sunlight. This algae growth is visible as rivers, lakes or coastal waters turn turbid in summer. Eventually, the algae will sink to the bottom where they are decomposed by degraders like bacteria under consumption of oxygen in the bottom layer. With the sunlight being increasingly blocked from reaching deeper water layers, the build-up of a temperature gradient causes stratification in deep lakes and some coastal waters in the summer months. In the marine environment, stratification is determined by density differences between salt water flowing in from the sea and brackish water flowing out from river deltas and fjords. Such stratification prevents effective mixing of the water column", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 790, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 221, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such stratification prevents effective mixing of the water column. If fresh oxygen-rich water from the surface does not find its way to the bottom layers, the oxygen concentration near the bottom will gradually be reduced until the bottom-dwelling organisms move away or die. As the oxygen concentration approaches zero, poisonous substances such as hydrogen sulphide, H2S, are formed in the sediments, where they accumulate in gas pockets which, when released again, kill those organisms exposed to them. The main cause\u2013effect chain as shown in Fig. 10.14 can be summarised as: \u2022 Emission of N or P containing substances \u2022 Growth and blooming of algae and higher plants increases \u2022 Sunlight no longer reaches lower water layers, which creates a temperature gradient with increasing depth \u2022 This supports a stable stratification of water layers reducing the transport of fresh oxygen-rich surface water to deeper layers Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 791, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 221, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Oxygen is steadily depleted in bottom layers, which leads to suffocation of bottom-dwelling species and fish \u2022 This is additionally accelerated by the oxygen consuming decomposition of the dead species and sedimented dead algae \u2022 The aquatic medium becomes hypoxic and finally anoxic, favouring the formation of reducing compounds and noxious gases (mercaptans, methane) Deposition on land Deposition on water Atmospheric fate and transport Transport/removal of N and P in water compartments Airborne emissions of N-compounds Waterborne emissions of N and P compounds Waterborne emissions of dissolved organic compounds (DOC, COD, BOD) Terrestrial eutrophication Aquatic eutrophication Transport/removal in water compartments Increased nutrient concentration in aquatic compartments (P in freshwater, N in marine) Increased leaching to groundwater Increased/critical exposure of aquatic ecosystems Increased/critical exposure of terrestrial ecosystems Increased alga growth Damage to terrestrial", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 792, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 222, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "N in marine) Increased leaching to groundwater Increased/critical exposure of aquatic ecosystems Increased/critical exposure of terrestrial ecosystems Increased alga growth Damage to terrestrial ecosystems Damage to freshwater ecosystems Changes in species composition Damage to crops Damage to forestry Chronic effects on vegetation Oxygen depletion in bottom strata of lakes and coastal waters Damage to fishing Damage to marine ecosystems Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 793, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 222, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.14 Impact pathways for terrestrial and aquatic (freshwater and marine) eutrophication [adapted from EC-JRC (2011)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 794, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 222, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In a tripartite division of environmental impact categories into global, regional and local, eutrophication is considered a local to regional impact. As a consequence of the above explanations, impact potentials are highly dependent on local conditions, e.g. whether the recipient of the emission will support the requisite conversion of the emission (e.g. mineralisation of organic nitrogenous compounds), or whether the recipient is limited in nitrogen or phosphorus, while both elements are always considered potential contributors to eutrophication. The calculation of characterisation factors for a nutrient enriching substance consists of an assessment of the number of moles of nitrogen or phosphorus which can be released into the environment from one mole of the substance emitted. This can be expressed in the form of two nutrient enrichment equivalents, as kg N-equivalents and kg P-equivalents", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 795, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 223, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can be expressed in the form of two nutrient enrichment equivalents, as kg N-equivalents and kg P-equivalents. The possible consequences of eutrophication are often irrespective of whether nitrogen or phosphorus is the causing agent. In some situations it can therefore be desirable to reduce the complexity of the results of the environmental assessment by expressing eutrophication as one equivalent, so that the contributions for nitrogen and phosphorus are aggregated. In this case the impact potential may also be expressed as an equivalent emission of a reference substance (e.g. NO3\u0004 as one of the most important nutrient enriching substances). Aggregation of N and P potentials requires an assumption concerning the magnitude of the ratio N/P between these two elements in living organisms. As explained above a molar ratio of 16 can be used for nitrogen:phosphorus in living material", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 796, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 223, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As explained above a molar ratio of 16 can be used for nitrogen:phosphorus in living material. One mole of phosphorus (in an area where the availability of phosphorus limits growth) therefore contributes as much to eutrophication as 16 mol of nitrogen (in an area where the availability of nitrogen limits growth). The aggregate nutrient enrichment potential for nitrogenous substances is then calculated as the emission\u2019s N potential multiplied by the gram/mol molecular weight of the reference substance (e.g. NO3\u0004 of 62 g/mol). The P potential for phosphorous-containing substances is multiplied by 16 times the gram/mol molecular weight of the reference substance. The primary receiving compartment for agricultural emissions is mainly freshwater where some of the nitrogen may be removed on the way to the marine systems by denitrification in rivers and lakes converting the nitrogen into molecular N2 which is released to the atmosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 797, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 223, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Loading of freshwater with nitrogen is thus greater than the quantity conveyed to the marine areas via rivers and streams. Phosphorous compounds do not undergo this kind of conversion but phosphate forms insoluble salts with many metals and this may lead to some removal through accumulation of phosphorus in lake sediments. Phosphorus accumulated in the sediments of rivers and streams during drier periods may later be washed out into the marine environment when the water flow increases, e.g. after a thunderstorm. 10.9.3 Emissions and Main Sources Due to the use of inorganic fertilisers and manure, agriculture is a significant source of phosphorus and nitrogen emissions in the form of phosphates and nitrates, Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 798, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 223, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "respectively, affecting groundwater via percolation and surface water via runoff and leaching processes, and of ammonia emitted to air and deposited on land nearby. Oxides of nitrogen may be emitted from incineration processes. Point sources in the form of wastewater treatment plants for households (e.g. from polyphosphates in detergents) and industry as well as fish farming are important sources of phosphorus and nitrates. Apart from man-made emissions, natural sources include leaching and runoff of nitrogen and phosphates. The natural addition of nutrients to terrestrial areas is believed to consist mainly of atmospheric deposition of oxides of nitrogen and ammonia while some natural plant species also possess the ability to fixate atmospheric nitrogen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 799, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 224, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Emissions of organic materials can lead to oxygen consumption by bacteria degrading this organic matter and thus contributing to oxygen depletion similarly to what is observed as a result of the nutrient enrichment of lakes and coastal waters. However, this is a primary effect and is strictly speaking not part of the nutrient enrichment mechanism. Therefore, emissions of BOD (biological oxygen demand\u2014 substances which consume oxygen on degradation) or COD (chemical oxygen demand) may additionally be characterised by some LCIA methods considering oxygen depletion (hypoxia) in water as a common midpoint for both mechanisms. Most LCIA methods are currently based on the N/P ratio and typically do not classify BOD or COD as contributing to nutrient enrichment and thus eutrophication. In large parts of the industrialised world organic matter emissions are only of local significance in watercourses and for occasional emissions of untreated effluent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 800, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 224, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In large parts of the industrialised world organic matter emissions are only of local significance in watercourses and for occasional emissions of untreated effluent. 10.9.4 Existing Characterisation Models The essential evolutions during the last decade were related to improved fate modelling, distinguishing P-limited (freshwater) and N-limited (marine) ecosystems, introduction of a midpoint effect factor in the more recent methods, and characterisation models becoming global and spatially more detailed. Midpoint LCIA methods usually propose units in P- and N-equivalents such as kg P-eq or kg PO43\u0004-eq and kg N-eq or kg NO3\u0004-eq. For endpoint characterisation most models use Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species (PDF) in [m2 years], except LIME which uses Net Primary Productivity (NPP) loss. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 801, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 224, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.10 Photochemical Ozone Formation This impact category appears under a number of different names in the various LCIA methods: (tropospheric) ozone formation, photochemical ozone formation or creation, photo oxidant formation, photosmog or summer smog. There are minor R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 802, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 224, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "differences, but in essence they all address the impacts from ozone and other reactive oxygen compounds formed as secondary contaminants in the troposphere by the oxidation of the primary contaminants volatile organic compounds (VOC), or carbon monoxide in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx) under the influence of light. VOCs are here defined as organic compounds with a boiling point below 250 \u00b0C (WHO 1989). NOx is a joint name for the nitrogen monoxide NO and nitrogen dioxide NO2. 10.10.1 Problem The negative impacts from the photochemically generated pollutants are due to their reactive nature which enables them to oxidise organic molecules in exposed surfaces. Impacts on humans arise when the ozone and other reactive oxygen compounds, which are formed in the process, are inhaled and come into contact with the surface of the respiratory tract, where they damage tissue and cause respiratory diseases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 803, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 225, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Impacts on vegetation arise when the reactive compounds attack the surfaces of plants or enter plant leaves and cause oxidative damage on their photosynthetic organs. Impacts on man-made materials are caused by oxidation and damage many types of organic materials which are exposed to ambient air. It is thus not the VOCs per se which cause the environmental problems associated with photochemical ozone formation, but the products of their transformation in the troposphere which is the lower stratum of the atmosphere, from the surface of the earth to the tropopause 8\u201317 km above us. Direct toxic effects on humans from VOCs are treated separately in the impact category human toxicity (see Sect. 10.12). Apart from a general increase in the tropospheric ozone concentration, photochemical ozone formation may cause smog episodes on a more local scale in and around cities with a combination of large emissions and the right meteorological conditions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 804, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 225, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "During smog episodes, the concentrations of ozone and other photooxidants reach extreme levels causing immediate damage to human health. 10.10.2 Environmental Mechanism The photochemical formation of ozone and other reactive oxygen compounds in the troposphere from emissions of VOCs and NOx follows rather complex reaction schemes that depend on the nature of the specific organic compound emitted. A simplified presentation of the fundamental elements of the schemes is given in Fig. 10.15 and can be summarised as: 1. VOCs (written as RH) or CO react with hydroxyl radical OH\u2022 in the troposphere and form peroxy radicals, ROO\u2022 2. The peroxy radicals oxidise NO to NO2 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 805, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 225, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3. NO2 is split by sunlight with formation of NO and release of free oxygen atoms 4. Free oxygen atoms react with molecular oxygen O2 to form ozone Both VOCs and nitrogen oxides are thus needed for the photochemical ozone formation and both contribute to the formation of ozone and other oxidants. VOC and NOx sources are very heterogeneously distributed across Europe. VOC emissions involve hundreds of different organic compounds, depending on the nature of the source and activity causing the emission. This means that at the regional level, photochemical formation of ozone is highly non-linear and dynamic with the influence of meteorological conditions and on top of this the interaction between the different VOCs from both anthropogenic and natural sources like forests, and a large number of different reaction products. A further complication arises because NO may react with the formed ozone, abstracting an oxygen atom to give oxygen and NO2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 806, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 226, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A further complication arises because NO may react with the formed ozone, abstracting an oxygen atom to give oxygen and NO2. This means that depending on the conditions, NO may locally have a negative ozone formation potential and hence a negative characterisation factor for this impact category. Rather than a permanent removal of ozone this reaction of NO leads to a geographic displacement of the ozone formation since the NO2 thus formed can later cause ozone formation again following the scheme in Fig. 10.15, just in a different location. The ozone formation requires the reaction between a hydroxyl radical and a bond between carbon and hydrogen or another carbon atom in a VOC molecule. The relative strength of a volatile organic compound in terms of ozone formation potential per unit weight thus depends on how many such bonds it contains. The strength grows with the number of double or triple bonds and declines with the content of elements other than carbon and hydrogen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 807, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 226, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The strength grows with the number of double or triple bonds and declines with the content of elements other than carbon and hydrogen. The following general ranking can be given from high to low ozone formation potential: RH, CO RO light OH\u2022 ROO\u2022 NO2 NO OH\u2022 O2 O3 Fig. 10.15 Simplified presentation of the photochemical formation of ozone R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 808, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 226, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1. Alkenes (decreasing with chain length) and aromatics (increasing with the degree of alkyl substitution, decreasing with the length of the chain in the substituted alkyl group) 2. Aldehydes (the strongest is formaldehyde; benzaldehyde has no or even a negative ozone formation potential) 3. Ketones 4. Alkanes (almost constant from a chain length of three carbon atoms and upwards), alcohols and esters (the more oxygen in the molecule, the weaker) 5. Halocarbons (decreasing with the degree of halogen substitution and the weight of the halogen element) Animals and humans are mainly exposed to the photochemical oxidants through inhalation of the surrounding air, and the effects therefore appear in their respiratory organs. Ozone is detectable by its odour at a concentration of ca", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 809, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 227, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ozone is detectable by its odour at a concentration of ca. 20 ppb in pure air, but only at somewhat higher concentrations we start to see acute symptoms like increased resistance of the respiratory passages and irritation of the eyes, followed at even higher concentrations by more serious effects like oedema of the lungs, which can lead to long-term incapacity. Smog episodes with extreme concentrations of photochemical oxidants in urban areas are known to cause increased mortality. Chronic respiratory illness may result from long-term exposure to the photochemical oxidants. Plants rely on continuous exchange of air between their photosynthetic organs (leaves or needles) and the atmosphere to absorb the carbon dioxide which is needed for photosynthesis. Ozone and other photooxidants enter together with the air and through their oxidative properties damage the photosynthetic organelles, leading to discolouration of the leaves followed by withering of the plant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 810, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 227, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The sensitivity of the plant varies with the season and also between plant species, but considerable growth reductions are observed in areas with high ozone concentrations during the growth season. Agriculture yield losses of 10\u201315% have been estimated for common crop plants. Figure 10.16 summarises the impact pathway for photochemical ozone formation linking emissions of VOCs, CO and NOx to the resulting damage to the areas of protection. 10.10.3 Emissions and Main Sources In some cases the emissions of individual substances are known, but in the case of oil products the emissions will often be composed of many different substances and will be specified under collective designations like VOCs or nmVOCs (non-methane VOCs, i.e. VOCs apart from methane which is typically reported separately due to its nature as a strong greenhouse gas) and sometimes also HCs (hydrocarbons), or nmHCs (non-methane hydrocarbons, i.e. hydrocarbons excluding methane). Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 811, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 227, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The most important man-made emissions of VOCs derive from road traffic and the use of organic solvents, which during 2000\u20132010 in Europe amounted to around 40% of the total man-made nmVOC emissions. A further 7% derives from industrial processes and 10% are fugitive emissions (Laurent and Hauschild 2014). VOCs are also emitted in large quantities from vegetation, in particular forests, but unless a man-made manipulation of the natural system affects its emissions of VOCs, these will not be reported in an LCI and hence not dealt with in the impact assessment. Carbon monoxide is emitted from combustion processes with insufficient oxygen supply. These include road traffic and various forms of incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or biomass in stationary systems. Nitrogen oxides are also emitted from combustion processes in transport, energy- and waste incineration systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 812, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 228, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nitrogen oxides are also emitted from combustion processes in transport, energy- and waste incineration systems. Photochemical oxidation of VOCs Increase in tropospheric ozone concentration Sun light Airborne emissions of VOCs and CO Airborne emissions of NOx Increased/critical exposure of vegetation Increased/critical exposure of humans Chronic effects on vegetation Acute effects on vegetation Chronic effects on humans Damage to ecosystems Damage to crops Damage to forestry Damage to human health Acute effects on humans Fig. 10.16 Impact pathway for photochemical ozone formation [adapted from EC-JRC (2011)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 813, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 228, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.10.4 Existing Characterisation Models The complexity of the underlying reaction schemes and the high number of individual contributing substances for which photochemical ozone formation characterisation factors must be calculated calls for simplification in the characterisation modelling. Existing characterisation models apply one of two approaches: The first alternative is to simplify the non-linear and dynamic behaviour of the photochemical oxidation schemes by modelling one or a few typical situations in terms of meteorology, atmospheric chemistry and concomitant emissions of other air pollutants. For each individual VOC, characterisation factors may then be presented for each situation or in the form of a weighted average across the situations. The second alternative is to ignore the variation between individual VOCs and concentrate on getting the spatial and temporal specificities well represented in the characterisation model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 814, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 229, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The second alternative is to ignore the variation between individual VOCs and concentrate on getting the spatial and temporal specificities well represented in the characterisation model. This approach leads to spatially (and possibly temporally) differentiated characterisation factors for VOCs (as a group, ignoring variation in strength between individual substances), CO and NOx. Often methane is treated separately from the rest of the VOCs (which are then termed non-methane VOCs or nmVOCs) due to its very low characterisation factor which really distinguishes it from the majority of the other VOCs. The first approach is adopted in characterisation models based on the POCP (Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential) or MIR (Maximum Incremental Reactivity) concepts. The second approach is adopted in regionally differentiated models which attempt to capture the non-linear nature of the ozone formation with its spatially and temporally determined differences. For further details see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 815, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 229, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.11 Ecotoxicity The contents of this section have been modified from Rosenbaum, R.K.: Ecotoxicity, appearing as Chapter 8 of Hauschild M. Z. and Huijbregts M. A. J. (eds.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Life Cycle Impact Assessment, pp 139\u2013162. Springer, Dordrecht (2015). 10.11.1 Problem About 500 years ago Paracelsus stated that \u2018All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy\u2019. Today\u2019s toxicology science still agrees and adheres to this principle and in consequence any substance emitted may lead to toxic impacts depending on a number of driving factors: (1) emitted quantity (determined in the LCI), (2) mobility, Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 816, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 229, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(3) persistence, (4) exposure patterns and bioavailability and (5) toxicity, with the latter four considered by the characterisation factor. This shows that toxicity is not the only parameter that determines the potential ecotoxic impact of a chemical in the environment as it first has to reach and enter a potential target organism. For example, a substance may be very toxic, but never reach any organism due to its short lifetime in the environment (e.g. rapid degradation) or because it is not sufficiently mobile to be transported to a target organism and ends up bound to soil or buried in sediment, in which case it contributes little to ecotoxic impacts. On the other hand, another substance may not be very toxic, but if it is emitted in large quantities and over prolonged periods of time or has a strong environmental persistence, it may still cause an ecotoxic impact. Chemical emissions into the environment will affect terrestrial, freshwater, marine and aerial (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 817, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 230, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chemical emissions into the environment will affect terrestrial, freshwater, marine and aerial (i.e. flying and gliding animals) ecosystems depending on the environmental conditions of the place and time of emission and the characteristics of the substance emitted. They can affect natural organisms in many different ways, causing increased mortality, reduced mobility, reduced growth or reproduction rate, mutations, behavioural changes, changes in biomass or photosynthesis, activity etc. 10.11.2 Environmental Mechanism As shown in Fig. 10.17, the environmental mechanism of ecotoxic impacts of chemicals in LCA can be divided into four consecutive steps. 1. Fate modelling estimates the increase in concentration in a given environmental medium due to an emission quantified in the life cycle inventory 2. The exposure model quantifies the chemical\u2019s bioavailability in the different media by determining the bioavailable fraction out of the total concentration 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 818, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 230, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The exposure model quantifies the chemical\u2019s bioavailability in the different media by determining the bioavailable fraction out of the total concentration 3. The effect model relates the amount available to an effect on the ecosystem. This is typically considered a midpoint indicator in LCA, as no distinction between the severity of observed effects is made (e.g. a temporary/reversible decrease in mobility and death are given the same importance) 4. Finally, the severity (or damage) model translates the effects on the ecosystem into an ecosystem population (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 819, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 230, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finally, the severity (or damage) model translates the effects on the ecosystem into an ecosystem population (i.e. biodiversity) change integrated over time and space All four parts of this environmental mechanism are accounted for in the definition of the substance-specific and emission compartment-specific ecotoxicity characterisation factor CFeco: CFeco 1\u20444 FF \u0003 XFeco \u0003 EFeco \u0003 SFeco \u00f010:6\u00de where FF is the fate factor, XFeco the ecosystem exposure factor, EFeco the ecotoxicity effect factor (midpoint effects), and SFeco the ecosystem severity factor (endpoint effects). Each of these four elements of the environmental mechanism of R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 820, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 230, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ecotoxicity, and thus its characterisation factor, is described in the following sections. Some LCIA methods also directly combine EFeco and SFeco into a single damage factor, directly calculating an endpoint characterisation factor. For midpoint characterisation, SFeco is simply omitted and CFeco is then the midpoint ecotoxicity characterisation factor. A method for toxic impact assessment of chemicals in the framework of LCA must be able to cover the very large number of potentially toxic substances in the inventory in terms of available characterisation factors. It must also be based on integration of the impact over time and space as LCI data are typically not spatially and/or temporally differentiated, and the characterisation factor must relate to a mass flow and not require any information about concentrations of the substance as this information is not available in the LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 821, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 231, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To be compatible with the effect model, the fate model must translate chemical emissions calculated in the life cycle inventory into an increase in concentration in the relevant medium. In the Individual species 1,2,...n Multiple species & ecosystem Algae Crustacean Fish Individual species Trophic level, e.g. Ecosystem level Damage to marine ecosystems Damage to freshwater ecosystems Damage to terrestrial ecosystems Environmental fate (transformation and distribution between environmental compartments) Ecotoxic effects Emissions to air, water and soil Fig. 10.17 General scheme of the Impact pathway for ecotoxicity [adapted from EC-JRC (2011)] Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 822, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 231, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "characterisation modelling this leads to the use of fate models assuming steady-state conditions. The fate model predicts the chemical behaviour/distribution in the environment accounting for multimedia (i.e. between environmental media and compartments) and spatial (i.e. between different zones but within the same compartment or medium) transport between environmental compartments (e.g. air, water, soil). This is accomplished via modelling of (thermodynamic) exchange processes such as partitioning, diffusion, sorption, advection, convection\u2014represented as arrows in Fig. 10.18\u2014as well as biotic and abiotic degradation (e.g. biodegradation, hydrolysis or photolysis), or burial in sediments. Degradation is an important loss process for most organic substances, but may also lead to toxic breakdown compounds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 823, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 232, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "biodegradation, hydrolysis or photolysis), or burial in sediments. Degradation is an important loss process for most organic substances, but may also lead to toxic breakdown compounds. The rate by which the degradation occurs can be derived from the half-life of the substance in the medium and it depends both on the properties of the substance and on environmental conditions such as temperature, insolation or presence of reaction partners (e.g. OH radicals for atmospheric degradation). The basic principle underlying a fate model is a mass balance for each compartment leading to a system of differential equations which are solved simultaneously, which can be done for steady-state or dynamic conditions. A life cycle inventory typically reports emissions as masses emitted into an environmental compartment for a given functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 824, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 232, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A life cycle inventory typically reports emissions as masses emitted into an environmental compartment for a given functional unit. The mathematical relationship between the steady-state solution for a continuous emission and the time-integrated solution for a mass of chemical released into the environment has been demonstrated (Heijungs 1995; Mackay and Seth 1999). Figure 10.18 shows the overall nested structure of the USEtox model which is a widely used global scientific consensus model for characterisation modelling of human and ecotoxic impacts in LCA. Further details on fate modelling principles in the USEtox model can be found in Henderson et al. (2011) and Rosenbaum et al. (2008). Exposure is the contact between a target organism and a pollutant over an exposure boundary for a specific duration and frequency. The exposure model accounts for the fact that not necessarily the total (\u2018bulk\u2019) chemical concentration present in the environment is available for exposure of organisms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 825, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 232, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The exposure model accounts for the fact that not necessarily the total (\u2018bulk\u2019) chemical concentration present in the environment is available for exposure of organisms. Several factors and processes such as sorption, dissolution, dissociation and speciation may influence (i.e. reduce) the amount of chemical available for ecosystem exposure. Such phenomena can be defined as bioavailability (\u201cfreely available to cross an organism\u2019s cellular membrane from the medium the organism inhabits at a given time\u201d), and bioaccessibility (\u201cwhat is actually bioavailable now plus what is potentially bioavailable\u201d). The effect model characterises the fraction of species within an ecosystem that will be affected by a certain chemical exposure. Effects are described quantitatively by lab-test derived concentration-response curves relating the concentration of a chemical to the fraction of a test group that is affected (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 826, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 232, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Effects are described quantitatively by lab-test derived concentration-response curves relating the concentration of a chemical to the fraction of a test group that is affected (e.g. when using the EC50\u2014 the Effect Concentration affecting 50% of a group of individuals of the same test species compared to a control situation). Affected can mean various things, such as increased mortality, reduced mobility, reduced growth or reproduction rate, R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 827, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 232, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mutations, behavioural changes, or changes in biomass or photosynthesis. These are the effects that may be observed during standardised laboratory-based ecotoxicity tests, and the results are specific for each combination of substance and species. Toxic effects are further distinguished into acute, sub-chronic and chronic toxicity (including further sub-groups like sub-acute, etc.). Acute toxicity describes an adverse effect after a short period of exposure, relative to the lifetime of the animal (e.g. <7 days for vertebrates, invertebrates or plants and <4 days for algae). Chronic toxicity is based on exposure over a prolonged period of time covering at least one life cycle or one sensitive period (e.g. \u0005 32 days for vertebrates, \u0005 21 days for invertebrates, \u0005 7 days for plants and \u0005 4 days for algae). When relating to freshwater ecosystems, the question arises what exactly we mean by that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 828, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 233, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u0005 32 days for vertebrates, \u0005 21 days for invertebrates, \u0005 7 days for plants and \u0005 4 days for algae). When relating to freshwater ecosystems, the question arises what exactly we mean by that. In LCIA, a freshwater ecosystem is typically seen as consisting of at least three trophic levels: 1. Primary producers, converting sunlight into biomass via photosynthesis (i.e. phytoplankton, algae) 2. Primary consumers, living off primary producers (i.e. zooplankton, invertebrates, planktivorous fish) 3. Secondary consumers at the upper end of the aquatic food chain (i.e. piscivorous fish) air air agricultural soil natural soil freshwater ocean Global scale agricultural soil urban air natural soil freshwater Coastal marine water Continental scale Fig. 10.18 The USEtox fate model [taken from Rosenbaum et al. (2008)] Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 829, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 233, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should be noted that only impacts on cold-blooded species in freshwater ecosystems are currently considered. There is no minimum requirement established, which trophic levels should be covered by a characterisation factor for terrestrial or marine ecosystems and available methods usually extrapolate from freshwater data or use the relatively few data available directly for these ecosystems. There is often a large variation of sensitivity to a given substance between different species in the freshwater ecosystem. This is described by a species-sensitivity distribution (SSD) curve, which hence represents the sensitivity of the entire ecosystem to a substance\u2014see Fig. 10.19. The SSD is constructed using the respective geometric mean of all available and representative toxicity values for each species. This curve represents the range of sensitivities to exposure to a given substance among the different species in an ecosystem from the most sensitive to the most robust species", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 830, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 234, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This curve represents the range of sensitivities to exposure to a given substance among the different species in an ecosystem from the most sensitive to the most robust species. The ecotoxicity effect factor is then calculated using the HC50\u2014Hazardous Concentration at which 50% of the species (in an aquatic ecosystem) are exposed to a concentration above their EC50, according to the SSD curve (see Fig. 10.19). The dimension of the effect factor is PAF\u2014Potentially Affected Fraction of species, while the unit is typically m3/kg. The ecotoxicological effect factor of a chemical is calculated as: EFeco 1\u20444 0:5 HC50 \u00f010:7\u00de 1.0 0.2 0.5 0.8 Environmental concentration (mg/l) Cumulative EC50 distribution Potentially affected fraction of species (PAF) HC50 0.1 0.01 Fig. 10.19 Species-sensitivity distribution (SSD) curve representing the sensitivity of the ecosystem to a chemical substance R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 831, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 234, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The HC50 value can be determined from the SSD curve but is often, more conveniently, calculated as the geometric mean of the EC50 values per species s, respectively: log HC50 1\u20444 1 ns \u0001 X s log EC50s \u00f010:8\u00de where ns is the number of species. A damage model, incorporating the severity of the effect, goes even further along the cause\u2013effect chain and quantifies how many species are disappearing (instead of \u2018just\u2019 affected) from a given ecosystem. Disappearance may be caused by mortality, reduced proliferation or migration, for example. 10.11.3 Emissions and Main Sources Chemicals are a main pillar of our industrialised economy, they are used in virtually any product around the globe and therefore numerous, used in large quantities and emitted from nearly all processes that an LCI may contain. Ecotoxity is very different from any other (non-toxicity) impact category when it comes to the number of potentially relevant elementary flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 832, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 235, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecotoxity is very different from any other (non-toxicity) impact category when it comes to the number of potentially relevant elementary flows. Whereas no other (non-toxicity) impact category\u2014with the exception of photochemical ozone formation\u2014exceeds 100 contributing elementary flows (and related characterisation factors), the toxicity categories are facing the challenge of having to characterise several tens of thousands of chemicals with huge differences in their abilities to cause toxic impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 833, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 235, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The CAS registry currently (end of 2016) contains more than 124 million unique organic and inorganic structures (www.cas.org/about-cas/cas-fact-sheets) of which roughly 200,000 may play an industrial role as reflected by the ever increasing number of more than 123,000 substances registered in the European Classification and Labelling Inventory Database which contains REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemical substances) registrations and CLP (Classification, Labelling and Packaging of substances and mixtures) notifications so far received by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA: http://echa. europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/cl-inventory-database). Current LCIA models cover around 3000 substances for aquatic ecotoxicity. 10.11.4 Existing Characterisation Models Characterisation methods like EDIP account for fate and exposure relying on key properties of the chemical applied to empirical models", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 834, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 235, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.11.4 Existing Characterisation Models Characterisation methods like EDIP account for fate and exposure relying on key properties of the chemical applied to empirical models. Mechanistic models and methodologies have been published accounting for fate, exposure and effects Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 835, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 235, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "providing cardinal impact measures. Among these methods are IMPACT 2002 (used in IMPACT 2002+) and USES-LCA (used in CML and ReCiPe). All these methods adopt environmental multimedia, multipathway models employing mechanistic cause\u2013effect chains to account for the environmental fate, exposure and effects processes. However, they do not necessarily agree on how these processes are to be modelled, leading to variations in results of LCA studies related to the choice of LCIA method. Based on an extensive comparison of these models followed by a consensus-building process, the scientific consensus model USEtox (UNEP/SETAC toxicity consensus model) was developed with the intention to solve this situation by representing a scientifically agreed consensus approach to the characterisation of human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity (Hauschild et al. 2008; Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 836, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 236, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008; Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011). It has been recommended and used by central international organisations like the United Nations Environment Program UNEP, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry SETAC, the European Commission and US-EPA to characterise human and ecotoxicity in LCIA. Among the existing characterisation models on midpoint level, three main groups can be distinguished: (1) mechanistic, multimedia fate, exposure and effect models, (2) key property-based partial fate models and (3) non-fate models (EC-JRC 2011). According to ISO 14044 (2006b) \u201cCharacterisation models reflect the environmental mechanism by describing the relationship between the LCI results, category indicators and, in some cases, category endpoints", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 837, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 236, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[...] The environmental mechanism is the total of environmental processes related to the characterisation of the impacts.\u201d Therefore, ecotoxicity characterisation models falling into categories (2) and (3) do not completely fulfil this criterion. Caution is advised regarding their use and most importantly the interpretation of their results, which should not be employed without prior in-depth study of their respective documentation. Having said that, depending on the goal and scope of the LCA, they may still be an adequate choice in some applications, and indeed may agree quite well with the more sophisticated multimedia-based models. Ecotoxicity endpoint modelling is still in an early state and much research needs to be performed before maturity is reached", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 838, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 236, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecotoxicity endpoint modelling is still in an early state and much research needs to be performed before maturity is reached. The authors of the ILCD LCIA handbook concluded that \u201cFor all the three evaluated endpoint methods (EPS2000, ReCiPe, IMPACT 2002+), there is little or no compliance with the scientific and stakeholder acceptance criteria, as the overall concept of the endpoint effect factors is hardly validated and the endpoint part of the methods is not endorsed by an authoritative body. [...] No method is recommended for the endpoint assessment of ecotoxicity, as no method is mature enough.\u201d (EC-JRC 2011). When interpreting the results of existing methods, it is important to keep in mind that many aspects are not or only very insufficiently covered. This includes elements like terrestrial and marine ecotoxicity as well as toxicity of pesticides in pollinators. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 839, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 236, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.12 Human Toxicity As explained in Sect. 10.11, both toxicity impact categories have a number of things in common, like main emissions and sources, modelling principles, model structure and even some of the models used in the characterisation are identical between the human toxicity and ecotoxicity impact categories. Notably the fate model used is the same in LCIA methods using mechanistic characterisation modelling, which is the majority of existing methods. Therefore, only those parts that are specific for human toxicity and different from ecotoxicity will be discussed here. It is recommended to first read Sect. 10.11 in order to understand the main underlying principles not repeated hereafter. 10.12.1 Problem Human toxicity in LCA is based on essentially the same driving factors as ecotoxicity: (1) emitted quantity (determined in the LCI), (2) mobility, (3) persistence, (4) exposure patterns and (5) human toxicity, with the latter four considered by the characterisation factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 840, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 237, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The respective mechanisms and parameters are certainly different and specific for human toxicity, notably for the exposure modelling, where many factors capturing human behaviour, such as dietary habits, influence human exposure pattern. Chemical exposure of humans can result from emissions into the environment which will affect the whole population, but also from the many chemical ingredients in products released during their production, use, or end-of-life treatment and thus affecting workers or consumers. Chemical emissions are responsible for, or contribute to, many health impacts such as a wide range of non-cancer diseases as well as increased cancer risks for those chemicals that are carcinogenic. 10.12.2 Environmental Mechanism Modelling the toxicological effects on human health of a chemical emitted into the environment, whether released on purpose (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 841, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 237, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.12.2 Environmental Mechanism Modelling the toxicological effects on human health of a chemical emitted into the environment, whether released on purpose (e.g. pesticides applied in agriculture), as a by-product from industrial processes, or by accident, implies a cause\u2013effect chain, linking emissions and impacts through four consecutive steps as depicted in Fig. 10.20. The cause\u2013effect chain links the emission to the resulting mass in the environmental compartments (fate model) and on to the intake of the substance by the overall population via food and inhalation exposure pathways (human exposure model), and to the resulting number of cases of various human health risks by comparison of exposure with the known dose-response relationship for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 842, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 237, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "chemical (toxic effect model) and finally their damage to the health of the overall population. In the characterisation modelling, the links of this cause\u2013effect chain are expressed, similarly to Eq. 10.6, as factors corresponding to the successive steps of fate, exposure, effects and severity: CFhh 1\u20444 FF \u0003 XFhh \u0003 EFhh \u0003 SFhh \u00f010:9\u00de where CFhh is the human health characterisation factor, FF the fate factor, XFhh the human exposure factor, EFhh the human toxicity effect factor (midpoint effects) and SFhh the human health severity factor (endpoint effects). Some LCIA methods also directly combine EFhh and SFhh into a single damage factor, directly calculating an Indoor air home or workplace Fish Agricultural produce Meat Cancer diseases Non cancer diseases Damage to human health Environmental fate (transformation and distribution between environmental compartments) Outdoor emissions to air, water and soil Emissions to indoor air Toxic effects Human exposure Drinking water Milk Air Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 843, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 238, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.20 General scheme of the impact pathway for human toxicity [adapted from EC-JRC (2011)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 844, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 238, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "endpoint characterisation factor. For midpoint characterisation, SFhh is simply omitted and CFhh is then the midpoint human toxicity (i.e. not human health) characterisation factor. The midpoint human toxicity characterisation factor [number of cases/kgemitted] expresses the toxic impact on the global human population per mass unit emitted into the environment and can be interpreted as the increase in population risk of disease cases due to an emission into a specific environmental compartment. The endpoint human health characterisation factor [DALY/kgemitted] quantifies the impact on human health in the global population in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY) per mass unit emitted into the environment. DALY is a statistical measure of population life years lost or affected by disease (or other influences) and is used among other by the World Health Organisation. The fate model is, without exception, the same as for ecotoxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 845, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 239, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The fate model is, without exception, the same as for ecotoxicity. Logically, the environment in which a chemical is transported, distributed and transformed is the same, no matter who will be affected. Therefore, for the sake of consistency, all LCIA methods that cover human toxicity are using the same fate model as for ecotoxicity, but of course different exposure and effect models, as this will be specific for the targeted organism (human or ecosystem species). The fate model is therefore the same as described in Sect. 10.11. The exposure model relates the amount of chemical in a given environmental compartment to the chemical intake by humans (exposure rates). It can be differentiated into direct intake (e.g. by breathing air and drinking water), indirect intake through bioconcentration processes in animal tissues (e.g. meat, milk and fish) and intake by dermal contact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 846, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 239, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "by breathing air and drinking water), indirect intake through bioconcentration processes in animal tissues (e.g. meat, milk and fish) and intake by dermal contact. An exposure pathway is defined as the course a chemical takes from the environment to the exposed population, for example through air, meat, milk, fish, water or vegetables. Exposure pathways can be further aggregated into exposure routes, such as inhalation of air, ingestion of food including drinking water and other matter such as soil particles and dermal exposure. The human exposure model is designed for assessing human exposure to toxic chemical emissions applying realistic exposure assumptions and being adapted to take spatial variability into account. In LCIA human exposure is always assessed at the population level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 847, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 239, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In LCIA human exposure is always assessed at the population level. The intake fraction iF is calculated as the product of fate and exposure factor (iF = FF * XFhh [kgintake/kgemitted]) and it can be interpreted as the fraction of an emission that is taken in by the overall population through all exposure routes, i.e. as a result of food contamination, inhalation and dermal exposure. A high value, such as iF = 0.001 for dioxins, reflects that humans will take in 1 part out of 1000 of the mass of a chemical released. Dioxins are very efficient in exposing humans as reflected by the high intake fraction. For other chemical emissions, intake fraction values typically lie in the range of 10\u221210 to 10\u22125", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 848, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 239, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Dioxins are very efficient in exposing humans as reflected by the high intake fraction. For other chemical emissions, intake fraction values typically lie in the range of 10\u221210 to 10\u22125. The effect model relates the quantity of a chemical taken in by the population via a given exposure route (inhalation and ingestion, respectively, dermal uptake is not currently modelled in LCIA) to the toxic effects of the chemical once it has entered the human organism and can be interpreted as the increase in the number of cases of a given human health effect (e.g. cancer or non-cancer diseases) in the exposed population per unit mass taken in. The two general effect classes, cancer and Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 849, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 239, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "non-cancer, each cover a multitude of different diseases, so this is a simplification reflecting the fact that it is very difficult to predict the many underlying human toxicity endpoints from the animal dose-response curves from laboratory experiments with test animals which are normally the basis of the effect factor. The severity factor represents adversely affected life years per disease case (DALY/case), distinguishing between differences in the severity of disabilities caused by diseases in terms of affected life years, e.g. discriminating between a lethal cancer and a reversible skin irritation. It is quantified by the statistically determined, population-based years of life lost (YLL) and years of life disabled (YLD) due to a disease. 10.12.3 Emissions and Main Sources The relevant emissions and main sources are identical to those of the ecotoxicity impact category and discussed in Sect. 10.11. 10.12.4 Existing Characterisation Models Again here, Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 850, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 240, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.11. 10.12.4 Existing Characterisation Models Again here, Sect. 10.11 contains a discussion on existing characterisation models, which largely applies also to the human toxicity impact category. In USEtox, the units of the two human toxicity midpoint indicators for non-cancer and cancer are Comparative Toxic Unit for humans CTUh [disease cases]. They can be added up to a single human health indicator, but then the interpretation needs to consider that this intrinsically assumes equal weighting between cancer and non-cancer effects (which includes equal weighting between e.g. a reversible skin rash and non-reversible death). Human health endpoint indicators in USEtox are given in the Comparative Damage Unit for human health CDUh [DALY]. In accordance with the purpose of endpoint modelling, this indicator better represents the distinction of the severity of different effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 851, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 240, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In accordance with the purpose of endpoint modelling, this indicator better represents the distinction of the severity of different effects. When interpreting human toxicity indicators from existing methods, it is important to be aware that these only provide indicators for global population exposure to outdoor and indoor emissions, while human toxicity for occupational exposure of workers or direct exposure related to product use for consumers are not yet covered by USEtox and the other characterisation models, despite their very high relevance. Products of special interest in this context are cosmetics, plant protection products, textiles, pharmaceuticals and many others, that may in particular contain substances having toxic properties and have the potential to cause mutagenic, neurotoxic or endocrine disrupting effects. This is the subject of ongoing research and will be included in LCIA methods once the models are mature and operational. For further details see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 852, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 240, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is the subject of ongoing research and will be included in LCIA methods once the models are mature and operational. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 853, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 240, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.13 Particulate Matter Formation In existing LCIA methods, health impacts from exposure to particulate matter (PM) as impact category is referred to by different terms (e.g. \u2018particulate matter/respiratory inorganics\u2019 in ILCD, \u2018respiratory effects\u2019 in IMPACT 2002+, \u2018human health criteria pollutants\u2019 in TRACI, or \u2018particulate matter formation\u2019 in ReCiPe). Although causing mainly toxicity-related health effects, exposure to PM is considered a separate impact category in most LCIA methods. This is mainly due to a number of important differences between the characterisation of PM formation and that of human toxicity. These differences include the complex atmospheric chemistry involved in the formation of secondary PM from different precursor substances which requires a different fate model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 854, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 241, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These differences include the complex atmospheric chemistry involved in the formation of secondary PM from different precursor substances which requires a different fate model. Furthermore, different emission heights are important to consider, global monitoring data for PM air concentrations are used, and the effect assessment is based on exposure-response functions mostly derived from epidemiological evidence, which is not possible for most toxic chemicals due to missing emission locations and exposure- or dose-response information. 10.13.1 Problem A large number of studies including the global burden of disease (GBD) study series consider particulate matter (PM) to be a leading environmental stressor contributing to global human disease burden (i.e. all diseases around the world) via occupational and household indoor exposure as well as urban and rural outdoor (ambient) exposures", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 855, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 241, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "all diseases around the world) via occupational and household indoor exposure as well as urban and rural outdoor (ambient) exposures. In 2013, outdoor PM pollution accounted for 2.9 million deaths and 70 million DALY, and household PM pollution from solid fuels accounted for 2.9 million deaths and 81 million DALY (Forouzanfar et al. 2015). With that, outdoor and household PM pollution combined contributed in 2013 with 71% to premature deaths attributable to all environmental risk factors and with 19% to premature death attributable to all risk factors (i.e. including behavioural etc.). This means that exposure to PM accounts on average for 1 out of 5 premature deaths worldwide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 856, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 241, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "including behavioural etc.). This means that exposure to PM accounts on average for 1 out of 5 premature deaths worldwide. Thereby, exposure to PM is associated in epidemiological and toxicological studies with various adverse health effects and reduction in life expectancy including chronic and acute respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, chronic and acute mortality, lung cancer, diabetes and adverse birth outcomes (Fantke et al. 2015). PM can be distinguished according to formation type (primary and secondary) and according to aerodynamic diameter (respirable, coarse, fine and ultrafine). Primary PM refers to particles that are directly emitted, e.g. from road transport, power plants or farming activities. Secondary PM refers to organic and inorganic particles formed through reactions of precursor substances including nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), ammonia (NH3), semivolatile and volatile organic compounds (VOC)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 857, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 241, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Secondary particles include sulphate, nitrate and Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 858, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 241, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "organic carbonaceous materials and can make up to 50% of ambient PM concentrations. Respirable particles (PM10) have an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 \u03bcm, coarse particles (PM10\u20132.5) between 2.5 and 10 \u03bcm, fine particles (PM2.5) less than 2.5 \u03bcm, and ultrafine particles (UFP) less than 100 nm (WHO 2006). PM2.5 is often referred to as the indicator that best describes the component of PM responsible for adverse human health effects (Lim et al. 2012; Brauer et al. 2016). 10.13.2 Environmental Mechanism Characterising health impacts from exposure to PM associated with emissions of primary PM or secondary PM precursor substances builds on the general LCIA framework for characterising emissions of air pollutants (see Fig. 10.2). The impact pathway for health impacts from PM emissions is illustrated in Fig. 10.21 and starts from primary PM emissions or secondary PM precursor substances emitted into air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 859, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 242, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.2). The impact pathway for health impacts from PM emissions is illustrated in Fig. 10.21 and starts from primary PM emissions or secondary PM precursor substances emitted into air. As for the toxicity impact categories, combining all factors from emission to health impacts or damages yields the characterisation factor for particulate matter formation (CF) with units [disease cases/kgemitted] at midpoint level (i.e. excluding SF) and [DALY/kgemitted] at endpoint level: Mass emitted to air [kg PM or precursor emitted] Human health impacts [Disability-adjusted life years, DALY] Time-integrated mass in air [kg PM in air day] Mass inhaled [kg PM inhaled] Disease incidences [cases] Impact Pathway Fate factor [day] Exposure factor [1/day] Effect factor [cases/kg PM inhaled] Severity factor [DALY/case] Intake fraction [kg PM inhaled/ kg PM or precursor emitted] [DALY/kg PM inhaled] Characterisation factor [DALY/kg PM or precursor emitted] Intermediate and final LCIA output metrics Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 860, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 242, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.21 Schematic impact pathway and related output metrics for characterising health impacts from particulate matter (PM) exposure in life cycle impact assessment [adapted from Fantke et al. (2015)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 861, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 242, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "CF 1\u20444 FF \u0003 XF \u0003 EF \u0003 SF \u00f010:10\u00de Emissions are expressed as mass of PM or precursor substance released into air. From there, the impact pathway follows different distribution processes within and between air compartments and/or regions (indoor, outdoor, urban, rural, etc.) yielding a time-integrated mass of PM in the different air compartments and/or regions. Relating the time-integrated PM mass in air to the mass of PM or precursor substance emitted yields the fate factor (FF) with unit kg in air integrated over one day per kg emitted. A certain fraction of PM mass in air is subsequently inhaled by an exposed human population. This fraction is expressed by the exposure factor (XF) describing the rate at which PM is inhaled with unit kg PM inhaled per kg PM in air integrated over one day. Multiplying FF and XF yields the cumulative PM mass inhaled by an exposed population per kg PM or precursor emitted expressed as human intake fraction (iF)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 862, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 243, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Multiplying FF and XF yields the cumulative PM mass inhaled by an exposed population per kg PM or precursor emitted expressed as human intake fraction (iF). Inhaling PM mass may then lead to a cumulative population risk referred to as expected disease incidences in the exposed human population and typically assessed based on PM air concentration. Relating PM concentration in air to cumulative population risk yields the exposure-response or effect factor (EF) with unit disease cases (e.g. death for mortality effects) per kg PM inhaled. Finally, disease incidences are translated into human health damages by accounting for the disease severity expressed as disability-adjusted life years (DALY) that include mortality and morbidity effects. Linking health damages to disease incidences yields the severity (or damage) factor (SF) with unit DALY per disease case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 863, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 243, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Linking health damages to disease incidences yields the severity (or damage) factor (SF) with unit DALY per disease case. For characterising health impacts from emissions of PM or precursor substances, several aspects influence emission, fate, intake and health effects. Regardless of the modelling setup (spatial vs. archetypal; including or disregarding indoor sources and/or secondary PM formation, etc.), main influential aspects are spatiotemporally variable population density and activity patterns, background PM concentration in air, background disease rate and background severity, emission location (e.g. indoor vs. outdoor or urban vs. rural) and emission height, as well as potential nonlinearity in the disease-specific exposure-response relationship. The effect of using a non-linear exposure-response curve in the calculation of CFs following the marginal and average approach is illustrated in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 864, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 243, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The effect of using a non-linear exposure-response curve in the calculation of CFs following the marginal and average approach is illustrated in Fig. 10.22 for two distinct background concentration scenarios, where the difference between marginal and average approach is increasing with increasing background concentration for an exposure-response curve of supralinear shape. 10.13.3 Emissions and Main Sources Substances considered in the different LCIA methods to contribute to health impacts from PM are typically one or more PM fractions (PM10, PM10\u20132.5, PM2.5) Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 865, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 243, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and PM precursor substances (mostly NOx, SO2 and NH3) and in some cases also carbon monoxide (e.g. IMPACT 2002+) or non-methane volatile organic compounds (e.g. ReCiPe). Relevant emission sources of PM (and/or precursors) are for example road traffic, stationary emissions from coal/gas-fired power plants or indoor emissions from solid fuels combustion. Several emission sources are ground-level sources (e.g. road traffic and household combustion), while others are considered to occur at higher stack levels (typically stationary emission sources, e.g. power plants). 10.13.4 Existing Characterisation Models In LCIA, archetypal impact assessment scenarios (e.g. urban, rural) are often used instead of spatialized or site-specific scenarios, especially when emission locations are unknown or fate, exposure and/or effect data do not allow for spatial differentiation. Such archetypal approach and related intake fractions were proposed by Humbert et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 866, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 244, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such archetypal approach and related intake fractions were proposed by Humbert et al. (2011) with population density (urban, rural and remote) and emission height (ground-level, low-stack and high-stack emissions) as main determinants of PM and precursor impacts. The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative established a task force to build a framework for consistently quantifying health effects from PM exposure and for recommending PM characterisation factors for application in LCIA with fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as representative indicator. First recommendations from this task force focus on the integration of 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 annual deaths per 105 persons fine par\u019fculate ma\u01a9er air concentra\u019fon [\u03bcg/m3] exposure-response curve marginal slope average slope working point 1 working point 2 Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 867, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 244, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.22 Illustration of using a non-linear exposure-response curve for health effects from fine particulate matter exposure with dashed and dotted lines as approaches for calculating marginal and average (between working point and theoretical minimum-risk concentration) characterisation factors, respectively, at different background concentrations in air as working points. Exposure-response curve based on data from Apte et al. (2015) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 868, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 244, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "indoor and outdoor environments, the archetypal approach capturing best the dominating differences between urban and rural areas and a number of other improvements (Fantke et al. 2015). Most LCIA characterisation methods addressing particulate matter formation follow the framework described in this section. There are some methods, however, that characterise impacts from particles as part of the \u2018human toxicity\u2019 impact category (e.g. CML 2002 and EDIP 2003), while most methods (including all methods developed after 2010) characterise human toxicity impacts from chemicals and impacts from particles as separate impact categories, mainly due to the differences in available data that allow using more refined models and less generic assumptions for the impact assessment of particle emissions. The most recent characterisation models\u2014all damage-oriented\u2014include work by van Zelm et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 869, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 245, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The most recent characterisation models\u2014all damage-oriented\u2014include work by van Zelm et al. (2008) providing characterisation factors for primary and secondary PM10 for Europe based on a source receptor model, work by Gronlund et al. (2015) giving archetypal characterisation factors for primary PM2.5 and secondary PM2.5 precursors based on US data and work by van Zelm et al. (2016) proposing averaged primary and secondary PM2.5 characterisation factors for 56 world regions based on a global atmospheric transport model. However, none of the currently available approaches includes indoor sources, is able to distinguish emission situations at the city level or considers the non-linear nature of available exposure-response curves, which is why further research is needed for this impact category. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.14 Land Use 10.14.1 Problem Land use refers to anthropogenic activities in a given soil area", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 870, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 245, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.14 Land Use 10.14.1 Problem Land use refers to anthropogenic activities in a given soil area. Examples of land use are agricultural and forestry production, urban settlement and mineral extraction. The land use type in a specific area can be identified by the physical coverage of its surface, for example tomato crop grows in open-field orchards or under greenhouses, artificial surfaces with infrastructure are the expression of human settlements and open-pits are a sign of ore extraction. There is thus a direct link between land use and land cover, which is used to analyse land use dynamics and landscape change patterns. Soil is a finite resource, which contributes to the environmental consequences of its use. Soil loss actually occurs quantitatively with the average soil formation rate being extremely low compared to the soil depletion rate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 871, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 245, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Soil loss actually occurs quantitatively with the average soil formation rate being extremely low compared to the soil depletion rate. It also affects qualitative soil attributes, because degrading takes place via unsustainable management practices for the highest quality soils, which are those able to fulfil a greater diversity of purposes. As soil or land surface available at a given time is limited, land-use competition between resource users for occupying the same space often Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 872, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 245, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "arises. This drives continuous changes in land uses. Croplands, pastures, urban areas and other land-use-intensive, human activities have expanded worldwide in the last decades at the expense of natural areas to satisfy our growing society\u2019s needs for food, fibre, living space and transport infrastructure. Such changes transform the planet\u2019s land surface and lead to large and often irreversible impacts on ecosystems and human quality of life (EEA 2010). For example, forest clearing contributes to climate change with the release of carbon from the soil to the atmosphere. The loss, fragmentation and modification of habitats lead to biodiversity decline. Land use change alters the hydrological cycle by river diversion and by modifying the portion of precipitation into runoff, infiltration and evapotranspiration flows (Foley et al. 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 873, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 246, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Land use change alters the hydrological cycle by river diversion and by modifying the portion of precipitation into runoff, infiltration and evapotranspiration flows (Foley et al. 2005). After soil surface conversion, inappropriate management practices on human-dominated lands can also trigger a manifold of environmental effects on soil physical properties. In agricultural lands, mechanised farming can induce soil compaction, which affects aquifer recharge and the natural capacity of the soil to remove pollutants. Erosion is also a spread environmental concern of intensive agricultural practices. In urban and industrial areas, soil has been replaced by concrete surfaces and all its functions annulled. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) provides a comprehensive description of how human land-use activities affect biodiversity and the delivery of ecological functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 874, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 246, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) provides a comprehensive description of how human land-use activities affect biodiversity and the delivery of ecological functions. Some ecological effects of land use are: \u2022 Biodiversity decrease at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels \u2022 Impacts on local and regional climate regulation due to changes in land cover and albedo, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 875, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 246, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "tropical deforestation and desertification may locally reduce precipitation \u2022 Regional decline in food production per capita due to soil erosion and desertification, especially in dry lands \u2022 Rise in flood and drought risks through loss of wetlands, forests and mangroves \u2022 Change in the water cycle by river diversion and by greater appropriation of freshwater from rivers, lakes and aquifers to be used for irrigation of areas converted to agriculture To sum up, land-use activities (including land conversion and land use itself) cause noticeable damages on biodiversity and on the performance of soil to provide ecological functions as illustrated in Fig. 10.23. These ecological functions upon which human well-being depends are also referred to as ecosystem services (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005), and together with biodiversity loss are the focus of the LCIA land-use impact category", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 876, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 246, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.14.2 Environmental Mechanism The LCIA land-use impact category covers a range of consequences of human land use, being a receptacle (or \u2018bulk\u2019) category for many impact indicators. It does not R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 877, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 246, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "assess nutrients, pesticides and any other types of emission to the ecosphere which are characterised by the corresponding emission-based impact category (e.g. eutrophication for emission of nutrients, ecotoxicity for emission of pesticides). Their inclusion in the land-use category would lead to double counting of the same impact. The general land-use environmental mechanism follows the model of Fig. 10.24. It shows the cause\u2013effect chain from the elementary flow (i.e. land transformation or land occupation) to the endpoint damages on human health and ecosystems as well as available soil resources. Land transformation refers to the conversion from one state to another (also known as land use change, LUC) and land occupation to the use of a certain area for a particular purpose (also known as land use, LU)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 878, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 247, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The figure should be read as follows, giving an example of the depicted impact pathways: land occupation leads to physical changes to soil, which leads to an altered soil function and affects habitats and net primary production which eventually leads to damage on ecosystem quality. The picture provides a good display of the complexity involved in land-use modelling. For some of the presented impacts, such as warming effect due to albedo change or landscape impairment, characterisation models have yet to be developed. The same type of human activity may cause different land-use related impacts depending on the region of the world where the activity takes place. This variation is due to the strong influence of climate, soil quality, topography and ecological quality on the magnitude of the impact. For example, deforestation of a forest area LIFE ON EARTH \u2013BIODIVERSITY Provisioning \u2022 Food \u2022 Fresh water \u2022 Wood and fiber \u2022 Fuel \u2022 ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 879, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 247, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, deforestation of a forest area LIFE ON EARTH \u2013BIODIVERSITY Provisioning \u2022 Food \u2022 Fresh water \u2022 Wood and fiber \u2022 Fuel \u2022 ... Regulating \u2022 Climate regulation \u2022 Flood regulation \u2022 Disease regulation \u2022 Water purification \u2022 ... Cultural \u2022 Aesthetic \u2022 Spiritual \u2022 Educational \u2022 Recreational \u2022 ... Supporting \u2022 Nutrient cycling \u2022 Soil formation \u2022 Primary production \u2022 ... ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Fig. 10.23 The land use impact category focuses on damage to biodiversity\u2014 which represents the foundation of ecosystems\u2014as well as on the provision of ecosystem services, due to land conversion and land use [adapted from Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)] Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 880, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 247, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for use in agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon has a greater impact in terms of number of species affected than forest clearing in an ecologically poorer European region. Because land use impacts depend on-site-specific conditions, land use is Land use Land transformation Physical changes to soil surface Terr. eutrophication Use of pesticide Physical changes to soil Physical changes to flora and fauna Chemical changes to flora and fauna Changes in water logged conditions Altered species composition Soil erosion Reduction of habitat size elsewhere Albedo change Altered soil function (SOM) Climate change Removal of unwanted substances Regulation of freshwater/ nutrient conc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 881, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 248, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Change in net primary production Unique landscapes and archaeological sites Topsoil formation / Preservation Affected biodiversity Desertification Irrigation Life cycle inventory (LCI) Possible midpoint LCIA indicators Endpoint LCIA indicators/ Areas of protection AoP human health Ecosystem quality (AoP natural environment) Resource depletion (AoP natural resources) Downstream sediment deposition Changes in CO2, N2O and CH4 release Land occupationa Fig. 10.24 Impact pathway for land use impacts; dashed arrows indicate impacts covered by emission-related impact categories and by water use in the case of irrigation [adapted from EC-JRC (2011)]. aLand occupation will not cause changes but will contribute to prolong the changed conditions R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 882, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 248, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "considered a local impact category in LCA, in opposition to other impact categories of global geographic scope such as climate change, whose environmental effects (in terms of radiative forcing) are independent of the location of the emission. As a consequence of the above explanation, methods that focus on land-use impacts should include geospatial data both in the LCI and the LCIA phases. The inventory must contain information on the geographic location of the human intervention, with a level of detail that may vary from the exact coordinates to coarser scales (e.g. biome, country, continent), depending on the goal and scope of the study and if the inventory refers to the foreground or to the background system (see Chap. 9). In the LCIA, characterisation factors for a given impact indicator must capture the sensitivity of the habitat to the impact modelled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 883, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 249, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9). In the LCIA, characterisation factors for a given impact indicator must capture the sensitivity of the habitat to the impact modelled. For example, characterisation factors for soil erosion may include information on the soil depth in the specific location of the activity under evaluation, as the impact of soil loss will depend on the soil stock size, i.e. thinner soils are more vulnerable than thicker soils (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. 2013). Every geographic unit of regionalised impact assessment methods has its own characterisation factor. Within the boundary of such a unit, it is assumed that an activity triggers the same impacts on land. 10.14.3 Existing Characterisation Models Characterisation of land use in LCA has been extensively discussed over the last decades but is far from being settled, because the first operational methods have only been available since 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 884, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 249, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Until then, land use was only an inventory flowcounted in units of surface occupied and time of occupation (m2 and years) and surface transformed (m2), without any associated impact. The main reason for this \u201clate development\u201d is that land-use related impacts rely on spatial and temporal conditions where the evaluated activity takes place, whereas traditional LCA is site-generic. During the last few years, the release of geographical information system (GIS) software and data sets have brought new opportunities in LCA to model land-use impacts and in general, any other spatially dependent impact category. Today, there are LCIA methods to evaluate impacts on biodiversity and impacts on several ecosystem services. From the long list of services provided by terrestrial ecosystems (24 acknowledged in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment international work programme (2005), LCA focuses on those which are recognised as being more environmentally relevant (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 885, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 249, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "educational and spiritual values are excluded). A non-exhaustive list of methods is provided below. For completeness, see Mil\u00e0 i Canals and de Baan (2015): \u2022 Impacts on biodiversity: Biodiversity should be preserved because of its intrinsic value. The most commonly applied indicator is based on species richness, given the availability of data (Scholz 2007; Koellner and Scholz 2008; de Baan et al. 2013a, b). Damage on biodiversity is commonly expressed in Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 886, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 249, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "quantity of species biodiversity loss, either in relative terms (potentially disappeared fraction of species times surface, PDF.m2) or in absolute species loss. Existing indicators for biodiversity are at the endpoint level (in Fig. 10.24, Ecosystem quality-AoP natural environment box in the lower row). The UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative project on global guidance for LCIA indicators and methods provisionally recommended characterisation factors from Chaudhary et al. (2015) representing global potential species loss from land use to assess impacts on biodiversity due to land use and land-use change as hotspot analysis in LCA only (not for comparative assertions nor eco-labelling). Further testing of the CFs as well as the development of CFs for further land-use types are required to provide full recommendation. \u2022 Impacts on ecosystem services: Includes a range of indicators for life support functions that ecosystems provide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 887, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 250, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Impacts on ecosystem services: Includes a range of indicators for life support functions that ecosystems provide. Ecosystem services are hardly covered in LCIA and proposals are still incipient. All available methods are on the midpoint level (in Fig. 10.24, boxes between the LCI and the endpoint), which means that comparison or aggregation with damages on biodiversity is not possible so far. The recent draft review of land-use characterisation models for use in Product and Organisation Environmental Footprint (PEF/OEF) provisionally (i.e. \u201capply with caution\u201d) recommended characterisation factors from LANCA (Bos et al. 2016) to assess impacts on ecosystem services (EC-JRC 2016). Currently, there are LCA methods for the following ecosystem services: \u2022 Biotic production potential: capacity of ecosystems to produce and sustain biomass on the long term", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 888, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 250, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Currently, there are LCA methods for the following ecosystem services: \u2022 Biotic production potential: capacity of ecosystems to produce and sustain biomass on the long term. Available indicators are based on the soil organic matter (or carbon) content (Brand\u00e3o and Mil\u00e0 i Canals 2013), the biotic production (Bos et al. 2016) and the human appropriation of the biotic production (Alvarenga et al. 2015) \u2022 Carbon sequestration potential: capacity of ecosystems to regulate climate by carbon uptake from the air. The size of the climatic impact is determined by the amountofCO2transfersbetweenvegetation/soilandtheatmosphereinthecourse of terrestrial release and re-storage of carbon (M\u00fcller-Wenk and Brand\u00e3o 2010) \u2022 Freshwater regulation potential: capacity of ecosystems to regulate peak flow and base flow of surface water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 889, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 250, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Available indicators refer to the way a land-use system affects average water availability, flood and drought risks, based on the partition of precipitation between evapotranspiration, groundwater infiltration and surface runoff (Saad et al. 2013; Bos et al. 2016) \u2022 Water purification potential: mechanical, physical and chemical capacity of ecosystems to absorb, bind or remove pollutants from water. Site-specific soil properties such as texture, porosity and cation exchange capacity are used as the basis for the assessment (Saad et al. 2013) \u2022 Erosion regulation potential: capacity of ecosystems to stabilise soils and to prevent sediment accumulation downstream. The soil performance is determined by the amount of soil loss (Saad et al. 2013; Bos et al. 2016) and how this soil loss reduces the on-site soil reserves and the biotic production (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. 2013) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 890, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 250, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Desertification regulation potential: capacity of dry lands to resist irreversible degradation on the human time-frame. A multi-indicator system of four variables, namely climate aridity, soil erosion, aquifer exploitation and fire risk, determines the desertification ecosystem vulnerability (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. 2010) The land-use impact category is likely the LCA category most affected by potential problems of double counting. This is because methods for emissions and methods for land use have been developed under two different, incompatible approaches. Emission models are bottom-up: the starting point is the elementary flowin the LCI and the impact model describes stepwise all the mechanisms that link the cause (the LCI) to the consequence (midpoint or endpoint impact). Land-use models, in contrast, are top-down", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 891, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 251, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Land-use models, in contrast, are top-down. This means that they are based on empirical observations of the state of the environment, but there is no evidence of the connection between the consequence and the (supposed) cause. For example, methods to evaluate biodiversity damage are based on databases of the species present under different land-use types. The reduction in species richness from e.g. a forest to an arable intensive agricultural land is driven by many reasons that partially add to each other: cut down of trees and replacement for crops, use of tractor and other agricultural machinery, emission of pesticides and fertilisers, etc. However, how and how much each of the reasons above contributes to the actual biodiversity loss observed in the agricultural land is not known. The development of mechanistic models such as the ones used to characterise emissions, have the potential to resolve the issue of double counting. For further details see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 892, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 251, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The development of mechanistic models such as the ones used to characterise emissions, have the potential to resolve the issue of double counting. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). 10.15 Water Use 10.15.1 Problem Water is a renewable resource which, thanks to the water cycle, does not disappear. It is a resource different from any other for two main reasons: (1) it is essential for human andecosystem life and (2) its functions are directly linked to its geographic and seasonal availability, since transporting it (and to a lesser extent, storing it) is often impractical and costly. There is sufficient water on our planet to meet current needs of ecosystems and humans. About 119,000 km3 are received every year on land in different forms of precipitation, out of which 62% are sent back directly to the atmosphere via evaporation and plant transpiration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 893, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 251, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "About 119,000 km3 are received every year on land in different forms of precipitation, out of which 62% are sent back directly to the atmosphere via evaporation and plant transpiration. Out of the 38% remaining, humans use only about 3%, out of which 2.1% for agriculture, 0.6% for industrial uses and 0.3% for domestic uses. However, despite these small fractions, there are still important issues associated with water availability. Many important rivers are running dry from overuse (including the Colorado, Yellow and Indus), greatly affecting local aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Humans compete for the use of water in some regions, sometimes leading to the exchange of water rights on the Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 894, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 251, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "market or to the exacerbation of tensions between nations. The World Water Council described the problem well by stating: \u201cThere is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billions of people\u2014and the environment\u2014suffer badly\u201d. In addition to the current mismanagement of the water, which is strongly linked to a competing demand for human uses and ecosystems for a limited renewable resource, the human demand is only increasing, namely due to a growing population and changing diets (with increasing meat consumption). Water availability is also changing due to climate change, aggravating droughts and flooding and hence further increasing the gap between the demand and availability in many highly populated regions around the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 895, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 252, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Since the problems associated with water are dependent on where and when water is available, as well as in which quality, it is these aspects that also need to be considered when we assess potential impacts of human freshwater use on the environment (including human health) in LCA. 10.15.2 Environmental Mechanism Before diving into the assessment of potential impacts associated with water, some concepts are important to establish first. \u2022 Types of water use: Water can be used in many different manners and the term water use represents a generic term encompassing any type of use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 896, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 252, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Types of water use: Water can be used in many different manners and the term water use represents a generic term encompassing any type of use. Consumptive and degradative use are the two main types of use and all other types of use (borrowing, turbinated, cooling, etc.) can generally be defined by one or a combination of the following three terms: \u2013 Water withdrawal: \u201canthropogenic removal of water from any water body or from any drainage basin either permanently or temporarily\u201d (ISO 2014) \u2013 Consumptive use/water consumption: water use where water is evaporated, integrated in a product or released in a different location then the source \u2013 Degradative use/water degradation: Water that is withdrawn and released in the same location, but with a degraded quality. This includes all forms of pollution: organic, inorganic, thermal, etc. (ISO 2014) \u2022 Sources of water: Different sources of water should be distinguished as impacts from using them will often differ", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 897, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 252, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This includes all forms of pollution: organic, inorganic, thermal, etc. (ISO 2014) \u2022 Sources of water: Different sources of water should be distinguished as impacts from using them will often differ. In general, the following main sources are differentiated: surface water, groundwater, rainwater, wastewater and sea water. Some more specific descriptions can include brackish water (saline water with lower salinity than sea water, generally between 1000 and 10,000 mg/l) or fossil water (non-renewable groundwater) \u2022 Water availability: when used as an indicator, this describes the \u201cextent to which humans and ecosystems have sufficient water resources for their needs\u201d, with a note that \u201cWater quality can also influence availability, e.g. if quality is not R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 898, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 252, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sufficient to meet users\u2019 needs. If water availability only considers water quantity, it is called water scarcity\u201d. (ISO 2014). However, this term (water availability) is also used to refer to the renewable water volume that is available in a specific area during a specific time, most typically annually or monthly over a watershed (m3/year or m3/month) \u2022 Water Scarcity: Different definitions exist for water scarcity, but in LCA the following standardised one is retained: \u201cextent to which demand for water compares to the replenishment of water in an area, e.g. a drainage basin, without taking into account the water quality\u201d (ISO 2014) \u2022 Watershed (also called drainage basin): \u201cArea from which direct surface runoff from precipitation drains by gravity into a stream or other water body\u201d (ISO 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 899, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 253, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In general the main watershed is taken as the reference geographical area to define the same location, as countries are often too large to represent local water issues and smaller areas would lack data and relevance As mentioned above, freshwater is received from precipitation and a fraction of it (about 38%) is made available as \u201cblue water\u201d, or flowing water which can be used by humans and ecosystems via lakes, rivers or groundwater. Some freshwater is also present in deep fossil aquifers, which are not renewable (not recharged by precipitation), and can be used by humans if pumped out. Groundwater aquifers can recharge lakes and rivers, and vice versa, depending on the topology, soil porosity, etc. Surface water is used by humans, aquatic ecosystems and terrestrial ecosystems, whereas groundwater can be used by some terrestrial ecosystems and humans. Water use impact assessment at midpoint level typically focuses on water deprivation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 900, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 253, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water use impact assessment at midpoint level typically focuses on water deprivation. Although water is renewed, there is a limited amount available in an area at any point in time, and different users must share, or compete for, the resource. Consuming a certain volume of water will lower its availability for users downstream and may also affect groundwater recharge for example. Users depending on this water may be deprived and suffer consequences. The extent to which they will be deprived will depend on the water scarcity in a region (Fig. 10.25). The higher the demand in comparison to the availability, the more likely a user will be deprived. This user can be (1) humans (present and future Fig. 10.25 The potential deprivation caused by an additional water consumption in a region is assessed by multiplying this water consumption with a local water scarcity factor. The result is also called a water scarcity footprint Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 901, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 253, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "generations) and (2) ecosystems (Bayart et al. 2010). Quantifying \u201cthe potential of a user (humans or ecosystems) to be deprived when water is consumed in a region\u201d (Boulay et al. 2017) is the question normally answered at the midpoint level using for example a scarcity indicator (or user-specific deprivation potential if they exist), whereas assessing the potential damages from this deprivation on human health and ecosystem quality is an endpoint assessment. At the endpoint level, water use impact assessment is focused on the consequences of the water deprivation for humans and ecosystems. The higher the scarcity (and competition between human users), the larger the fraction of an additional water consumption that will deprive another user. Which human user is affected will depend on the share of each water user in a region, as well as their ability to adapt to water deprivation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 902, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 254, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Which human user is affected will depend on the share of each water user in a region, as well as their ability to adapt to water deprivation. If the deprived users have access to sufficient socio-economic resources, they may adapt and turn towards a backup technology like desalinisation of seawater or freshwater import to meet their needs. Impacts from human deprivation are then shifted from being solely on human health to all impact categories that are affected by the use of this backup technology. However, if socio-economic means are not sufficient to adapt to lower water and/or food availability, deprivation may occur. Since the potential impacts associated with water deprivation for humans assessed in LCA are on human health, deprivation of water for domestic use, agriculture and aquaculture/fisheries are relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 903, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 254, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Domestic users which already compete for water and have no means to compensate lower water availability via purchasing or technological means will suffer from freshwater deprivation, which is associated to water-related diseases caused by the use of improper water sources and change of behaviour. Agricultural users that are deprived of water for irrigation may produce less, which in turn will lead to lower food availability, either locally or internationally through trade, which may increase health damages associated with malnutrition. Similarly, lower freshwater availability for aquaculture or fisheries could lower fish supply and also contribute to malnutrition impacts, although this was shown to be negligible in comparison to other users\u2019 deprivation. This impact pathway, leading to damages on human health, is shown in Fig. 10.26. Consuming water can also affect water availability for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 904, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 254, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This impact pathway, leading to damages on human health, is shown in Fig. 10.26. Consuming water can also affect water availability for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. If the flow of the river is altered, or the volume of the lake is reduced, aquatic ecosystems have less habitat space and may either have to adapt or suffer a change in species density. Since water compartments are strongly interconnected, consuming water in a lake can affect the groundwater availability and vice versa, and each change in availability can lead to a loss of species. Consuming water can also alter the quality by reducing the depth of the water body for example, increasing temperature or concentrating contaminants. Aquatic ecosystems are dependent not only on a minimum volume for their habitat, but also on the flow variations which are naturally influenced by seasons. Human interference with this flow variation can also cause potential species loss", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 905, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 254, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Human interference with this flow variation can also cause potential species loss. The groundwater table in some regions directly feeds the roots of the vegetation and lowering the aquifer\u2019s level can mean that shorter roots species no longer reach their source of water. The relevant mechanisms are summarised in Fig. 10.27. These impact pathways appear R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 906, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 254, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to be complementary, however more research is needed to determine how they should be used together and to provide one harmonised methodology. 10.15.3 Existing Characterisation Models A stress/scarcity index (here used interchangeably) is the most commonly used midpoint, even if it does not necessarily represent an actual point on the impact pathway of all endpoint categories. A scarcity index is based on the comparison between water used and renewable water available, and represents the level of competition present between the different users (ideally human users and ecosystems). Early indicators (Frischknecht et al. 2008; Pfister et al. 2009) are based on withdrawal-to-availability (WTA) ratios as these were the data available at the time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 907, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 255, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Early indicators (Frischknecht et al. 2008; Pfister et al. 2009) are based on withdrawal-to-availability (WTA) ratios as these were the data available at the time. Since water that is withdrawn but released into the same watershed (within a reasonable time-frame) does not contribute to scarcity, indicators emerged which were based on consumption-to-availability (CTA) ratios instead of withdrawals, when the needed data became available (Boulay et al. 2011; Hoekstra et al. 2012; m3 unavailable to other users Water consumption scarcity distribution of affected user(s) m3 deprived for fisheries m3 deprived for agriculture m3 deprived for domestic m3 deprived causing health damages Damage to human health socio-economic parameter effect factors for domestic, agricultural and fisheries deprivation Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 908, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 255, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.26 Impact pathway from water consumption to water deprivation for human users leading to potential impacts on human health in Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) [adapted from Boulay et al. (2015)] Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 909, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 255, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Watershed or downstream surface water flow alteration regime Saline intrusion Ground water table change Soil moisture change of exotic species Thermic pollution of water Suspended solids delivered to rivers Groundwater consumption Surface water consumption Water fragmentation Upstream surface water flow regime alteration Biological water quality alteration Surface water temperature Water quality alteration Mortification of average flow rate, volume, area or depth of a water body Alteration of flow variability, and drought or flood intensity or occurence Changes in species interaction Artificial barrier to migration Habitat modifications Constrained water availability Damage to aquatic ecosystems (plants, fishes, etc...) Damage to terrestrial ecosystems (plants, worms, mammals, etc...) Degradative use of water Water infrastructure (dams, reservoir, canals, etc.) Consumptive use of water Fig. 10.27 Impact pathways affecting ecosystem quality [adapted from N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. (2016)] R.K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 910, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 256, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.27 Impact pathways affecting ecosystem quality [adapted from N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. (2016)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 911, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 256, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Berger et al. 2014). Further development led to the inclusion of environmental water requirements as part of the water demand in order to better represent the total water demand from all users, including ecosystems, and resulted in a ratio based on demand-to-availability (DTA) being proposed (Boulay et al. 2014). However, one important information was lost in all these indicators: the absolute availability. A ratio of 0.5 may indicate that half of the available water is currently withdrawn, consumed or demanded, but it does not inform on the magnitude of this water volume (i.e. is it 1 or 1000 m3?). Regions differ largely in terms of absolute water availability (or aridity) and this information should not be discarded by only looking at the fraction of available water that is being used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 912, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 257, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Regions differ largely in terms of absolute water availability (or aridity) and this information should not be discarded by only looking at the fraction of available water that is being used. In 2016, the WULCA group (see below) proposed the area-specific Available Water Remaining indicator (based on availability minus demand), AWARE, inverted and normalised with the world average (Boulay et al. 2017). Ranging between 0.1 and 100, this index assesses the potential to deprive another user (human or ecosystem) of water, based on the relative amount, comparing to the world average, of water remaining per area once the demand has been met. The more water remaining compared to the average, the lower the potential to deprive another user, and vice versa. It should be noted that some midpoints also propose to include quality aspects, allowing the quantification of lower availability being caused by both consumptive and degradative use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 913, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 257, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should be noted that some midpoints also propose to include quality aspects, allowing the quantification of lower availability being caused by both consumptive and degradative use. This is either done through the use of water quality categories and the assessment of their individual scarcity (Boulay et al. 2011), or through a distance-to-target approach, or dilution volume equivalent, in relation to a reference standard (Ridoutt and Pfister 2010; Bayart et al. 2014). As mentioned above, human water deprivation can cause health damage by depriving three users: domestic, agriculture or aquaculture/fisheries. Domestic deprivation has been assessed in two methods (Motoshita et al. 2011; Boulay et al. 2011) which quantify the impact pathways described above, either mechanistically or statistically. Both provide characterisation factors in DALY/m3 consumed and the details of the differences between the methods are described in Boulay et al. (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 914, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 257, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Both provide characterisation factors in DALY/m3 consumed and the details of the differences between the methods are described in Boulay et al. (2015). Agricultural deprivation has been assessed in three methods (Pfister et al. 2009; Boulay et al. 2011; Motoshita et al. 2014). Differences are based on the user competition factor (scarcity) used, the underlying sources of data, the parameter upon which to base the capacity of users to adapt to water deprivation or not, the calculation of the effect factor and, most importantly, the inclusion or not of the trade effect, i.e. the ripple effect of lower food production to lower income and importing countries. Analysis of these methods and modelling choices is provided in Boulay et al. (2015) and at time of writing a consensus was built based on these three models and is described in the Pellston Workshop report from Valencia, 2016", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 915, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 257, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2015) and at time of writing a consensus was built based on these three models and is described in the Pellston Workshop report from Valencia, 2016. For the damage that water use may cause on ecosystems, several methods exist that attempt to quantify a part of the complex impact pathways between water consumption and loss of species, i.e. ecosystem quality impacts. An overview of these methods was prepared by N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. (2016) who analysed in details the existing models, assumptions and consistency. The large majority of them have not yet found their way into LCA practice. None of these endpoint models use water Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 916, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 257, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "scarcity as a modelling parameter, and hence scarcity does not represent a \u201ctrue midpoint\u201d for ecosystem quality. The assessment of impacts on the impact category resources, or ecosystem services and resources, is still subject to debate and development. The main question pending being \u201cwhat exactly are we trying to quantify?\u201d. For the case of water, this can be answered in different ways: future generation deprivation, resource-equivalent approach or monetarisation, but these still require further development. The use of non-renewable sources of water fromfossil aquifers would fall in this category. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). Water is a precious resource for humans and ecosystems and our attempts to protect it come in different forms and from different angles. Numerous initiatives exist and indicators of all kinds are emerging regularly and, for the time being, continuously evolving", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 917, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 258, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Numerous initiatives exist and indicators of all kinds are emerging regularly and, for the time being, continuously evolving. This should not be perceived as a problem or a sign of lesser value for these indicators; it simply reflects the fact that potential issues associated with water are diverse and so are the approaches to quantify and minimise them. The LCA approach aims to quantify potential impacts associated with human activities (a product, a service or an organisation) on specific areas of protection. Water-related indicators developed within the LCA framework are aligned with this goal, and efforts have been made to build consensus on these methodologies. The WULCA (water use in LCA) expert working group of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative has fostered the development and global harmonisation through international consensus of the water-related impact assessment methods in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 918, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 258, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For further information on the existing methods, the reader is encouraged to explore the website: www.wulca-waterlca.org. 10.16 Abiotic Resource Use 10.16.1 Problem Natural resources constitute the material foundation of our societies and economies and, paraphrasing the definition of sustainability by the United Nation\u2019s Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), they are as such fundamental for our abilities to fulfil our needs as well as for future generations\u2019 possibilities to fulfil their own needs. Since we don\u2019t know with any certitude what the needs of future generations for specific resources will be, and in order to respect the principle of sustainability, we have to ensure that the future resource availability is as good as possible compared to the current generation\u2019s situation, i.e. we have to consider the future availability for all resources that we know and dispose of today", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 919, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 258, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "we have to consider the future availability for all resources that we know and dispose of today. The definition of natural resources has an anthropocentric starting point. What humans need from nature in order to sustain their livelihood and activities is a R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 920, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 258, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "resource. For the context of LCA, Udo de Haes et al. (1999) thus define natural resources as: \u201c... those elements that are extracted for human use. They comprise both abiotic resources, such as fossil fuels and mineral ores, and biotic resources, such as wood and fish. They have predominantly a functional value for society.\u201d Although water and land are also resources, their use causes direct impacts on the environment. In this respect they differ from the other resources and they are therefore treated as individual impact categories and described in separate sections. Currently, the resource use impact category covers mostly fossil fuels, minerals and metals so this will also be the focus here. In terms of future availability of a resource the issue is not the current extraction and use of the resource per se but the depletion or dissipation of the resource. Similar to the use of land, the use of resources can be viewed from an occupation perspective and a transformation perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 921, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 259, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Similar to the use of land, the use of resources can be viewed from an occupation perspective and a transformation perspective. While a resource is used for one purpose it is not available for other purposes, and there is thus a competition situation. When resources are used in a way that caters to their easy reuse at the end of the product life, they are still occupied and not immediately available to other use, but they are in principle available to future use for other purposes. This is the case for many uses of metals today. The occupation perspective is normally not addressed in LCIA of resources today [with the exception of Schneider et al. (2011)]. Rather than resource use the focus of the impact assessment is usually on the resource loss that occurs throughout the life cycle. Resource loss occurs through transformation of the resource when the use is either consumptive or dispersive", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 922, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 259, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Resource loss occurs through transformation of the resource when the use is either consumptive or dispersive. Consumptive resource use converts the resource in a way so that it no longer serves as the resource it was. An example is the use of fossil resources as fuels, converting them in the combustion process into CO2 and water. The transformation occurring in dispersive resource use does not lose the resource but uses it in a way that leads to its dispersal in the technosphere or ecosphere in forms that are less accessible to human use than the original resource was. Dispersive use occurs for most of the metals. There is still much debate about what the issue of concern of natural resources is and about how this should be addressed in LCIA (Hauschild et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 923, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 259, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There is still much debate about what the issue of concern of natural resources is and about how this should be addressed in LCIA (Hauschild et al. 2013). This may be explained by the difference in functional values of natural resources on the one hand, and intrinsic or existence values of other impact categories, assessing impacts on human health and ecosystem quality, on the other hand. Steen (2006) summarised different perceptions of the problem with abiotic resources in LCIA as: \u201c..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 924, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 259, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Steen (2006) summarised different perceptions of the problem with abiotic resources in LCIA as: \u201c... (1) assuming that mining cost will be a limiting factor, (2) assuming that collecting metals or other substances from low-grade sources is mainly an issue of energy, (3) assuming that scarcity is a major threat and (4) assuming that environmental impacts from mining and processing of mineral resources are the main problem.\u201d The extraction of resources and their conversion into materials that are used in product systems are accompanied by energy use and direct emissions that make the raw material extraction sector an important contributor to environmental impacts and damages in many parts of the world. These impacts are addressed by the other impact categories which are considered in LCA, and hence not treated under the resource depletion impact category. Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 925, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 259, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.16.2 Environmental Mechanism With a focus on resource availability for current and future generations, the environmental mechanism may look as shown in Fig. 10.28. It is assumed that resources with easy and/or cheap access and with high concentration or quality are extracted first. Consequently, today\u2019s resource extraction will lead future generations to extract lower concentration or lower value resources. This results in additional efforts for the extraction of the same amount of resource which can be translated into higher energy or costs. The endpoint of the impact pathway for resource use is often assessed as the future consequences of resource extraction. Schneider et al. (2014) went further in the pathway with the development of a new model for the assessment of resource provision including economic aspects that influence the security of supply and affect the availability of resources for human use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 926, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 260, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Resource use Decreased availability Regeneration (natural growth) Damage to availability of resources for human wealth Future availability & effort needed Damage to ecosystems (less water, less prev) Damage to human health (less food, less shelter,...) Recovery (urban & mining) Future provision of needs stock size regeneration rates, recovery fractions geological distribution, technology development societal demand, substitution Fig. 10.28 Impact pathway for resource depletion [adapted from EC-JRC (2010b)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 927, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 260, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Several classification schemes exist for resources (Lindeijer et al. 2002), classifying them according to their origin into Abiotic resources (inorganic materials\u2014 e.g. water and metals, or organic materials that are non-living at the moment of their extraction\u2014fossil resources) and Biotic resources (living at least until the time of their extraction or harvest from the environment, and hence originating in the biomass). A further classification may be done according to the ability of the resource to be regenerated and the rate by which it may occur. Here resources are classified into: \u2022 Stock resources exist as a finite and fixed amount (reserve) in the ecosphere and are not regenerated (metals in ores) or regenerated so slowly that for practical purposes the regeneration can be ignored (fossil resources) \u2022 Fund resources regenerate but can still be depleted (like the stock resources) if the rate of extraction exceeds the rate of regeneration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 928, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 261, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depletion can be temporary if the resource is allowed to recover but it can also be permanent for biotic fund resources where the species underlying the resource becomes extinct. Biotic resources are fund resources but there are also examples of abiotic resources like sand and gravel where the regeneration rate is so high that it is meaningful to classify them as fund resources \u2022 Flow resources are provided as a flow (e.g. solar radiation, wind and to some extent freshwater) and can be harvested as they flow by. Flow resources cannot be globally depleted but there may be local or temporal low availability (notably for freshwater\u2014see Sect. 10.15) Stock resources are also referred to as non-renewable resources while fund and flow resources jointly are referred to as renewable resources. Resources may also be classified as exhaustible, i.e. they can be completely used up, and inexhaustible, which are unlimited", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 929, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 261, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Resources may also be classified as exhaustible, i.e. they can be completely used up, and inexhaustible, which are unlimited. 10.16.3 Existing Characterisation Models Impacts resulting from resource use are often divided into three categories following the impact pathway (see Fig. 10.28): 1. Methods aggregating natural resource consumption based on an inherent property 2. Methods relating natural resource consumption to resource stocks or availability 3. Methods relating current natural resource consumption to consequences of future extraction of natural resources (e.g. potential increased energy use or costs). Category 1 methods focus for example on exergy [expressing the maximum amount of useful work the resource can provide in its current form, (Dewulf et al. 2007)], energy (Frischknecht et al. 2015) and solar energy (Rugani et al. 2011). Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 930, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 261, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While being very reproducible and also easy to determine, the relevance of exergy loss to the scarcity and future availability of the resource is not obvious and therefore these methods are not recommended by the European Commission (EC-JRC 2011). However, the cumulative energy demand (CED) method (Frischknecht et al. 2015) is still used frequently as a resource accounting method in LCA studies and is also part of various comprehensive LCIA methods like CML-IA for fossil fuels (Guin\u00e9e et al. 2002), ReCiPe (Goedkoop et al. 2012) and the Ecological Scarcity method (Frischknecht and B\u00fcsser Kn\u00f6pfel 2013). Viewing resource use from a sustainability perspective, the characterisation at midpoint level in the environmental mechanism (Fig. 10.28) should address its impact on the future availability of the resource for human activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 931, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 262, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10.28) should address its impact on the future availability of the resource for human activities. Several category 2 methods do this through incorporating a measure of the scarcity of the resource, expressed by the relationship between what is there and what is extracted, i.e. between the size of the stock or fund and the size of the extraction. However, there are different measures to determine the size of the stock or fund yet to be extracted. Figure 10.29 shows a terminology for classifying a stock resource into classes according to their economic extractability and whether they are known or unknown. Here we will describe those most used in LCIA. The reserves are the part of the resource which are economically feasible to exploit with current technology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 932, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 262, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here we will describe those most used in LCIA. The reserves are the part of the resource which are economically feasible to exploit with current technology. The reserve base is the part of the demonstrated resource that has a reasonable potential to become economically and technically available if the price of the resource increases or if more efficient extraction technology becomes available. Ultimate reserves are the resources that are ultimately available in the earth\u2019s crust, which include nonconventional and low-grade materials and common rocks. This reserve Fig. 10.29 Resource/reserve classification for minerals [taken from U.S. Geological Survey (2015)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 933, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 262, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "estimate refers to the quantity of resources that is ultimately available, estimated by multiplying the average natural concentration of the resources in the earth\u2019s crust by the mass of the crust. Lately, the extractable geologic resource, also called ultimate recoverable resource and ultimately extractable reserves, has also been adopted by a few LCIA methods. This reserve type is the amount of a given metal in ore in the upper earth\u2019s crust that is judged to be extractable over the long term, e.g. 0.01% (UNEP International Panel on Sustainable Resource Management 2011). Each reserve estimate has pros and cons. Reserves are known and economically viable to extract, but this amount can fluctuate considerably with changes in prices and discoveries of new deposits. Reserve base has not been reported by the US Geological Survey since 2009 because its size also increases and decreases based on technological advances, economic fluctuations and new discoveries, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 934, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 263, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consequently, basing the characterisation factoron reserves or reserve base has the problem that it changes with time. Ultimate reserves are calculated on basis of the average concentration of metals in the earth\u2019s crust so they are more stable but this is not a good indicator of the quantity of the resource that can realistically be exploited. Finally, the extractable geologic resource seems to be a quite certain reserve estimate but authors are still debating how to quantify it (Schneider et al. 2015). From the category 2 methods, CML-IA and EDIP are the most widely used. The CML-IA method for characterisation of abiotic stock resources defines an Abiotic Depletion Potential, ADP with a characterisation factor based on the annual extraction rate and the reserve estimates. In Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) only the ultimate reserves are included, but Oers et al. (2002) defined additional characterisation factors on the basis of reserves and reserve base estimates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 935, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 263, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) only the ultimate reserves are included, but Oers et al. (2002) defined additional characterisation factors on the basis of reserves and reserve base estimates. CML-IA using reserve base estimates is the method recommended in the ILCD Handbook for LCIA in the European context (EC-JRC 2011). An alternative approach inspired by the EDIP method (Hauschild and Wenzel 1998) bases the assessment for the abiotic stock resources on the reserve base and defines the characterisation as the inverse person reserve, i.e. the amount of reserve base per person in the world. For renewable resources, the EDIP inspired characterisation is based on the difference between the extraction rate and the regeneration rate. If the regeneration rate exceeds the extraction rate, it is considered that there is no resource availability issue, and the characterisation factor is given the value 0", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 936, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 263, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the regeneration rate exceeds the extraction rate, it is considered that there is no resource availability issue, and the characterisation factor is given the value 0. Further, down the impact pathway, category 3 methods have been developed expressing the future consequences of current resource consumption. Some methods quantify these consequences as additional energy requirements: Eco-Indicator 99, IMPACT 2002+; some methods quantify this effort as additional costs: ReCiPe and Surplus Cost Potential on basis of relationships between extraction and cost increase (Ponsioen et al. 2014; Vieira et al. 2016b), EPS 2000 and the Stepwise method based on willingness to pay; and some methods quantify this effort as additional ore material that has to be dealt with: Ore Requirement Indicator ORI (Swart and Dewulf 2013) and Surplus Ore Potential SOP (Vieira et al. 2016a) used in the LC-IMPACT LCIA method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 937, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 263, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2016a) used in the LC-IMPACT LCIA method. These methods suffer from a strong dependency on rather uncertain assumptions about the future efficiencies and energy needs of Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 938, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 263, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mining and extraction technologies, but they seem to better capture the issue of concern which is assuring a supply of resources to future generations. Schneider et al. (2014) defined a semi-quantitative method expressed as the economic resource scarcity potential (ESP) for evaluating resource use based on life cycle assessment. This method includes elements typically used in the discipline of raw materials criticality, like governance and socio-economic stability, trade barriers, etc., for which each element are scaled to the range 0\u20131. For metal resources, characterisation factors are mostly applied to the metal content in the ore, not the mineral that is extracted. The relevant inventory information is thus the amount of metal used as input, not the amount of mineral. This is also how life cycle inventory (LCI) databases model elementary flows of mineral and metal resources. Schneider et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 939, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 264, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is also how life cycle inventory (LCI) databases model elementary flows of mineral and metal resources. Schneider et al. (2015) considers not only the geological stock not yet extracted, but also the anthropogenic stock in circulation in products and goods. The geographic scale at which it is relevant to judge the availability and depletion of a resource depends on the relationship between the price and the density/transportability of the resource. The scale is global for the valuable and dense stock and fund resources that are easy to transport and hence traded on a world market (metals, oil, coal, tropical hardwood), while it is regional for the less valuable and/or less dense stock and fund resources that are used and extracted regionally (natural gas, sand and gravel, limestone) or even locally. For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 940, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 264, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For further details see Chap. 40 and Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015). Alvarenga, R., Erb, K.-H., Haberl, H., Soares, S., van Zelm, R., Dewulf, J.: Global land use impacts on biomass production\u2014a spatial-differentiated resource-related life cycle impact assessment model. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 440\u2013450 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-0140843-x Apte, J.S., Marshall, J.D., Cohen, A.J., Brauer, M.: Addressing global mortality from ambient PM2.5. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 8057\u20138066 (2015). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01236 Bayart, J.-B., Margni, M., Bulle, C., Desch\u00eanes, L., Pfister, S., Koehler, A., Vince, F.: Framework for assessment of off-stream freshwater use within LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 439\u2013453 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0172-7 Bayart, J.-B., Worbe, S., Grimaud, J., Aoustin, E.: The Water Impact Index: a simplified single-indicator approach for water footprinting. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1336\u20131344 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 941, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 264, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1336\u20131344 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0732-3 Benton, M.J., Twitchet, R.J.: How to kill (almost) all life: the end-Permian extinction event. Trends Ecol. Evol. 18, 358\u2013365 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00093-4 Berger, M., van der Ent, R., Eisner, S., Bach, V., Finkbeiner, M.: Water Accounting and Vulnerability Evaluation (WAVE): considering atmospheric evaporation recycling and the risk of freshwater depletion in water footprinting. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 4521\u20134528 (2014). doi:10.1021/es404994t Bos, U., Horn, R., Beck, T., Lindner, J., Fischer, M.: LANCA\u00ae\u2014Characterization Factors for Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Version 2.0. Fraunhofer Verlag, Stuttgart (2016) Boulay, A.-M., Bulle, C., Bayart, J.-B., Deschenes, L., Margni, M.: Regional characterization of freshwater use in LCA: modeling direct impacts on human health. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 8948\u20138957 (2011). doi:10.1021/es1030883 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 942, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 264, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Air Qual. Atmos. Health 8, 29\u201346 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11869-014-0283-6 Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., de Bruijn, H., van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2002). ISBN 1-4020-0228-9 Hauschild, M.Z., Huijbregts, M.A.J. (eds.): Life Cycle Impact Assessment. In: Kl\u00f6pffer, W., Curran, M. (eds.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment, p. 339. Springer, Dordrecht (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3 Hauschild, M., Wenzel, H.: Environmental Assessment of Products, Volume 2: Scientific Background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 951, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 266, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "339. Springer, Dordrecht (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3 Hauschild, M., Wenzel, H.: Environmental Assessment of Products, Volume 2: Scientific Background. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham (1998) Hauschild, M.Z., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., Van de Meent, D., Rosenbaum, R.K., McKone, T.E.: Building a model based on scientific consensus for life cycle impact assessment of chemicals: the search for harmony and parsimony. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 7032\u20137037 (2008). doi:10.1021/es703145t Hauschild, M., Goedkoop, M., Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., Pant, R.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013 697 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 Heijungs, R.: Harmonization of methods for impact assessment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2, 217\u2013 224 (1995)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 952, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 266, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013 697 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 Heijungs, R.: Harmonization of methods for impact assessment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2, 217\u2013 224 (1995). doi:10.1007/BF02986769 Henderson, A., Hauschild, M.Z., Van de Meent, D., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Larsen, H.F., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Rosenbaum, R.K., Jolliet, O.: USEtox fate and ecotoxicity factors for comparative assessment of toxic emissions in life cycle analysis: sensitivity to key chemical properties. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 701\u2013709 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0294-6 Hoekstra, A.Y., Mekonnen, M.M., Chapagain, A.K., Mathews, R.E., Richter, B.D.: Global monthly water scarcity: blue water footprints versus blue water availability. PLoS ONE (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032688 Hofstetter, P.: Perspectives in Life Cycle Impact Assessment: A Structure Approach to Combine Models of the Technosphere, Ecosphere and Valuesphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 953, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 266, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "PLoS ONE (2012). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032688 Hofstetter, P.: Perspectives in Life Cycle Impact Assessment: A Structure Approach to Combine Models of the Technosphere, Ecosphere and Valuesphere. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1998) Huijbregts, M.A.J., Hellweg, S., Frischknecht, R., Hungerb\u00fchler, K., Hendriks, A.J.: Ecological footprint accounting in the life cycle assessment of products. Ecol. Econ. 64, 798\u2013807 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.04.017 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 954, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 266, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Huijbregts, M.A.J., Hellweg, S., Hertwich, E.: Do we need a paradigm shift in life cycle impact assessment? Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 3833\u20133834 (2011). doi:10.1021/es200918b Humbert, S., Marshall, J.D., Shaked, S., Spadaro, J.V., Nishioka, Y., Preiss, P., McKone, T.E., Horvath, A., Jolliet, O.: Intake fractions for particulate matter: recommendations for life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 4808\u20134816 (2011). doi:10.1021/es103563z IPCC: Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990) IPCC: Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y. (eds.) Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK (2013) IPCC: Climate change 2014: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., Meyer, L.A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 955, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 267, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K., Meyer, L.A. (eds.) Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC, Geneva (2014a) IPCC: Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change. In: Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K., Adler, A. (eds.) Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK (2014b) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Water Footprint\u2014Principles, Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14046)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 956, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 267, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Water Footprint\u2014Principles, Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14046). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2014) Koellner, T., Scholz, R.W.: Assessment of land use impacts on the natural environment. Part 2: Generic characterization factors for local species diversity in Central Europe. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 32\u201348 (2008). doi:10.1065/lca2006.12.292.2 Laurent, A., Hauschild, M.Z.: Impacts of NMVOC emissions on human health in European countries for 2000\u20132010: use of sector-specific substance profiles. Atmos. Environ. 85, 247\u2013 255 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.11.060 Laurent, A., Olsen, S.I., Hauschild, M.Z.: Limitations of carbon footprint as indicator of environmental sustainability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 4100\u20134108 (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 957, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 267, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 4100\u20134108 (2012). doi:10.1021/ es204163f Lenton, T.M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J.W., Lucht, W., Rahmstorf, S., Schellnhuber, H.J.: Tipping elements in the Earth\u2019s climate system. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 105, 1786\u20131793 (2008). doi:10.1073/pnas.0705414105 Lim, S.S., Vos, T., Flaxman, A.D., Danaei, G., Shibuya, K., Adair-Rohani, H., Memish, Z.A., et al.: A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990\u20132010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380, 2224\u20132260 (2012). doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8 Lindeijer, E., M\u00fcller-Wenk, R., Steen, B.: Impact assessment of resources and land use. In: Udo de Haes, H.A., Finnveden, G., Goedkoop, M., et al. (eds.) Life Cycle Impact Assessment\u2014 Striving Towards Best Practice, pp. 11\u201364", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 958, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 267, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Udo de Haes, H.A., Finnveden, G., Goedkoop, M., et al. (eds.) Life Cycle Impact Assessment\u2014 Striving Towards Best Practice, pp. 11\u201364. SETAC, Pensacola, USA (2002) Mackay, D., Seth, R.: The role of mass balance modelling in impact assessment and pollution prevention. In: Sikdar, S.K., Diwekar, U. (eds.) Tools and Methods for Pollution Prevention, pp. 157\u2013179. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1999) Mila i Canals, L., de Baan, L.: Land use. In: Hauschild, M.Z., Huijbregts, M.A.J. (eds.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Life Cycle Impact Assessment, pp 197\u2013222. Springer, Dordrecht (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3 Millenium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being: biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC (2005) Motoshita, M., Itsubo, N., Inaba, A.: Development of impact factors on damage to health by infectious diseases caused by domestic water scarcity. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 65\u201373 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 959, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 267, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Motoshita, M., Ono, Y., Pfister, S., Boulay, A.-M., Berger, M., Nansai, K., Tahara, K., Itsubo, N., Inaba, A.: Consistent characterisation factors at midpoint and endpoint relevant to agricultural water scarcity arising from freshwater consumption. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2014). doi:10. 1007/s11367-014-0811-5 M\u00fcller-Wenk, R., Brand\u00e3o, M.: Climatic impact of land use in LCA\u2014carbon transfers between vegetation/soil and air. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 172\u2013182 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-0090144-y Murray, C.J., Lopez, A.D.: The Global Burden of Disease. Harvard School of Public Health, World Bank, and World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (1996) Nilsson, J., Grennfelt, P.: Critical loads for sulphur and nitrogen. Report from a Workshop held at Skokloster, Sweden, 19\u201324 March 1988", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 961, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Report from a Workshop held at Skokloster, Sweden, 19\u201324 March 1988. Environmental Report 1988:15, Copenhagen, Denmark (1988) N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Civit, B., Mu\u00f1oz, P., Arena, A.P., Rieradevall, J., Ant\u00f3n, A.: Assessing potential desertification environmental impact in life cycle assessment. Part 1: methodological aspects. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 67\u201378 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0126-0 N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Ant\u00f3n, A., Mu\u00f1oz, P., Rieradevall, J.: Inclusion of soil erosion impacts in life cycle assessment on a global scale: application to energy crops in Spain. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 755\u2013767 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0525-5 N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Bouchard, C., Bulle, C., Boulay, A.-M., Margni, M.: Critical analysis of life cycle impact assessment methods addressing consequences of freshwater use on ecosystems and recommendations for future method development. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 1799\u20131815 (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 962, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 1799\u20131815 (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-016-1127-4 Pennington, D.W., Rydberg, T., Potting, J., Finnveden, G., Lindeijer, E., Jolliet, O., Rebitzer, G.: Life cycle assessment Part 2: Current impact assessment practice. Environ. Int. 30, 721\u2013739 (2004). doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.12.009 Pfister, S., Koehler, A., Hellweg, S.: Assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption in LCA. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 4098\u20134104 (2009). doi:10.1021/es802423e Ponsioen, T.C., Vieira, M.D.M., Goedkoop, M.J.: Surplus cost as a life cycle impact indicator for fossil resource scarcity. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 872\u2013881 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367013-0676-z Rees, W.E.: Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out. Environ. Urban 4, 121\u2013130 (1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 963, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "19, 872\u2013881 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367013-0676-z Rees, W.E.: Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out. Environ. Urban 4, 121\u2013130 (1992). doi:10.1177/095624789200400212 Ridoutt, B.G., Pfister, S.: A revised approach to water footprinting to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global freshwater scarcity. Glob. Environ. Change 20, 113\u2013 120 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.08.003 Ridoutt, B.G., Fantke, P., Pfister, S., Bare, J., Boulay, A.-M., Cherubini, F., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Hellweg, S., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Levasseur, A., Margni, M., McKone, T., Michelsen, O., Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L., Page, G., Pant, R., Raugei, M., Sala, S., Saouter, E., Verones, F., Wiedmann, T.: Making sense of the minefield of footprint indicators. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 2601\u20132603 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 964, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 2601\u20132603 (2015). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00163 Ridoutt, B.G., Pfister, S., Manzardo, A., Bare, J., Boulay, A.-M., Cherubini, F., Fantke, P., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Levasseur, A., Margni, M., McKone, T., Michelsen, O., i Canals, L., Page, G., Pant, R., Raugei, M., Sala, S., Verones, F.: Area of concern: a new paradigm in life cycle assessment for the development of footprint metrics. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 276\u2013280 (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-1011-7 Rosenbaum, R.K.: Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models in goal and scope definition. In: Curran, M.A. (ed.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Goal and scope definition in Life Cycle Assessment, pp 63\u2013122. Springer, Dordrecht (2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 965, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Curran, M.A. (ed.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Goal and scope definition in Life Cycle Assessment, pp 63\u2013122. Springer, Dordrecht (2017). doi:10.1007/978-94-024-0855-3 Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M.K., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., Van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z.: USEtox - The UNEP/SETAC-consensus model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in Life R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 966, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 268, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cycle Impact Assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 532\u2013546 (2008). doi:10.1007/s11367008-0038-4 Rugani, B., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Mutel, C., Bastianoni, S., Hellweg, S.: Solar energy demand (SED) of commodity life cycles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 5426\u20135433 (2011). doi:10.1021/ es103537f Saad, R., Koellner, T., Margni, M.: Land use impacts on freshwater regulation, erosion regulation, and water purification: a spatial approach for a global scale level. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1253\u20131264 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0577-1 Safire, W.: Footprint. New York Times Sunday Mag MM20 (2008) Salisbury, F.B., Ross, C.W.: Plant Physiology, 3rd edn. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont (1978) Schneider, L., Berger, M., Finkbeiner, M.: The anthropogenic stock extended abiotic depletion potential (AADP) as a new parameterisation to model the depletion of abiotic resources. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 929\u2013936 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 967, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 269, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 929\u2013936 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0313-7 Schneider, L., Berger, M., Sch\u00fcler-Hainsch, E., Kn\u00f6fel, S., Ruhland, K., Mosig, J., Bach, V., Finkbeiner, M.: The economic resource scarcity potential (ESP) for evaluating resource use based on life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 601\u2013610 (2014). doi:10.1007/ s11367-013-0666-1 Schneider, L., Berger, M., Finkbeiner, M.: Abiotic resource depletion in LCA\u2014background and update of the anthropogenic stock extended abiotic depletion potential (AADP) model. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 709\u2013721 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0864-0 Scholz, R.W.: Assessment of land use impacts on the natural environment. Part 1: An analytical framework for pure land occupation and land use change. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 16\u201323 (2007). doi:10.1065/lca2006.12.292.1 Steen, B.A.: Abiotic resource depletion different perceptions of the problem with mineral deposits. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 49\u201354 (2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 968, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 269, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12, 16\u201323 (2007). doi:10.1065/lca2006.12.292.1 Steen, B.A.: Abiotic resource depletion different perceptions of the problem with mineral deposits. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 49\u201354 (2006). doi:10.1065/lca2006.04.011 Stumm, W., Morgan, J.J.: Aquatic chemistry\u2014introduction emphasizing chemical equilibria in natural waters, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York (1981) Swart, P., Dewulf, J.: Quantifying the impacts of primary metal resource use in life cycle assessment based on recent mining data. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 73, 180\u2013187 (2013). doi:10. 1016/j.resconrec.2013.02.007 Thompson, M., Ellis, R.J., Wildavsky, A.: Cultural Theory. Westview Press, Boulder (1990) Udo de Haes, H.A., Jolliet, O., Finnveden, G., Hauschild, M., Krewitt, W., Mueller-Wenk, R.: Best available practice regarding impact categories and category indicators in life cycle impact assessment. Part 1. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4, 167\u2013174 (1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 969, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 269, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part 1. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4, 167\u2013174 (1999). doi:10.1007/BF02979453 UNEP International Panel on Sustainable Resource Management: Estimating long-run geological stocks of metals (2011) U.S. Geological Survey: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2015: U.S. Geological Survey (2015) Van Oers, L., De Koning, A., Guin\u00e9e, J., Huppes, G.: Abiotic Resource Depletion in LCA\u2014 Improving Characterization Factors for Abiotic Resource Depletion as Recommended in the New Dutch LCA Handbook. Road and Hydraulic Engineering Institute of the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W), Delft, The Netherlands (2002) van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., den Hollander, H.A., van Jaarsveld, H.A., Sauter, F.J., Struijs, J., van Wijnen, H.J., van de Meent, D.: European characterization factors for human health damage of PM10 and ozone in life cycle impact assessment. Atmos. Environ. 42, 441\u2013453 (2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 970, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 269, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Atmos. Environ. 42, 441\u2013453 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.072 van Zelm, R., Preiss, P., van Goethem, T., Van Dingenen, R., Huijbregts, M.: Regionalized life cycle impact assessment of air pollution on the global scale: damage to human health and vegetation. Atmos. Environ. 134, 129\u2013137 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.044 Vieira, M.D.M., Ponsioen, T.C., Goedkoop, M.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Surplus ore potential as a scarcity indicator for resource extraction. J. Ind. Ecol. (2016a). doi:10.1111/jiec.12444 Vieira, M.D.M., Ponsioen, T.C., Goedkoop, M.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Surplus cost potential as a life cycle impact indicator for metal extraction. Resources 5, 2 (2016b). doi:10.3390/ resources5010002 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 971, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 269, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "WHO: Indoor air quality: organic pollutants. Report on a WHO Meeting, Berlin, 23\u201327 August 1987. EURO Reports and Studies 111. Geneva, Switzerland (1989) WHO: Health risks of particulate matter from long-range transboundary air pollution, Bonn, Germany (2006) WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014, World Meteorological Organization, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report No. 55. Geneva, Switzerland (2014) Author Biographies Ralph K. Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology. Interested in LCIA modelling of emissions and water/soil resource use, operationalisation of uncertainty management and spatial differentiation. Michael Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 972, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 270, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Michael Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Anne-Marie Boulay LCA and water footprint expert focusing on water use impacts assessment in LCA since 2008. Chaired UNEP/SETAC and FAO working groups towards harmonisation of water use impact assessment methodologies, and has been involved in ISO standards development on water footprint, providing training on the topic for UNEP and ISO worldwide. Peter Fantke Develops methods for LCIA, health impact assessment and chemical alternatives assessment since 2006. Has contributed to UNEP/SETAC LCIA working groups and is USEtox Manager", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 973, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 270, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Peter Fantke Develops methods for LCIA, health impact assessment and chemical alternatives assessment since 2006. Has contributed to UNEP/SETAC LCIA working groups and is USEtox Manager. Interested in quantifying and characterising chemical emissions, uncertainty analysis, consumer exposure, chemical substitution and model parameterisation. Alexis Laurent Working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez Environmental scientist with interest in LCA, agriculture, and modelling of environmental impacts from resource use in agricultural activities. Involved in development of LCIA methods to assess impacts of land use and water use since 2007", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 974, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 270, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Involved in development of LCIA methods to assess impacts of land use and water use since 2007. Marisa Vieira Both as researcher and consultant developing and applying LCA, LCM and footprints since 2007. Main interests are the application of life cycle thinking in companies, branch associations and policy and capability development through training on LCA, SimaPro and Environmental Footprint. R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 975, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "10 Life Cycle Impact Assessment", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 270, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis Ralph K. Rosenbaum, Stylianos Georgiadis and Peter Fantke Abstract Uncertainty is always there and LCA is no exception to that. The presence of uncertainties of different types and from numerous sources in LCA results is a fact, but managing them allows to quantify and improve the precision of a study and the robustness of its conclusions. LCA practice sometimes suffers from an imbalanced perception of uncertainties, justifying modelling choices and omissions. Identifying prevalent misconceptions around uncertainties in LCA is a central goal of this chapter, aiming to establish a positive approach focusing on the advantages of uncertainty management. The main objectives of this chapter are to learn how to deal with uncertainty in the context of LCA, how to quantify it, interpret and use it, and how to communicate it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 976, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 271, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main objectives of this chapter are to learn how to deal with uncertainty in the context of LCA, how to quantify it, interpret and use it, and how to communicate it. The subject is approached more holistically than just focusing on relevant statistical methods or purely mathematical aspects. This chapter is neither a precise statistical method description, nor a philosophical essay about the concepts of uncertainty, knowledge and truth, although you will find a little bit of both. This chapter contains (1) an introduction of the essential terminology and concepts of relevance for LCA; (2) a discussion of main sources of uncertainty and how to quantify them; (3) a presentation of approaches to calculate uncertainty for the final results (propagation); (4) a discussion of how to use uncertainty information and how to take it into account in the R.K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 977, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 271, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rosenbaum (&) IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT\u2014Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability, 361 rue Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Breton, BP 5095, 34196 Montpellier, France e-mail: ralph.rosenbaum@irstea.fr S. Georgiadis Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark S. Georgiadis Global Decision Support Initiative, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark P. Fantke Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 978, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 271, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "interpretation of the results; and finally (5) a discussion of how to manage, communicate and present uncertainty information together with the LCA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 979, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 272, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the importance and usefulness of addressing uncertainty in LCA \u2022 Distinguish types and sources of uncertainty and variability and explain important misconceptions of uncertainty in the context of LCA \u2022 List the dominating sources of uncertainty in a typical LCA \u2022 Explain the relevant concepts and vocabulary of uncertainty \u2022 Analyse sensitivity, uncertainty and variability and use these insights to reduce overall uncertainty when performing an LCA \u2022 Express and communicate uncertainty in an appropriate way, catering to the purpose of the analysis \u2022 Apply uncertainty information in results interpretation and decision support 11.1 The British mathematician, science historian, author and inventor Jacob Bronowski wrote that \u201cKnowledge is an unending adventure at the edge of uncertainty\u201d. This is a perfect motto and inspiration for this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 980, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 272, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is a perfect motto and inspiration for this chapter. Before learning how to deal with uncertainty in the context of LCA, how to quantify it, interpret and use it, or communicate it, which are the main objectives of this chapter, it is useful to truly understand the concept of uncertainty in a broader sense. It is for that reason that we have chosen to approach the subject much more holistically than just focusing on relevant statistical methods, mathematical aspects and the like. This chapter is neither a precise statistical method description, nor a philosophical essay about the concepts of uncertainty, knowledge and truth, although you will find a little bit of both. First of all, uncertainty is always there, it is the elephant in the room no matter what we are doing or talking about", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 981, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 272, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First of all, uncertainty is always there, it is the elephant in the room no matter what we are doing or talking about. From individuals to the entire humanity, from a child to a stock market broker to the most accomplished Nobel laureate, many of our daily efforts are related to knowing more, doing better, being more precise and more accurate. Acquiring knowledge and information and reducing the uncertainty around them is a driving force behind all human advancement, mobilising incredible amounts of resources worldwide. It is in fact one (if not the) driving force behind most things we do. Uncertainty is also often the elephant in the room when people talk about or apply LCA. It is always there but some may fear it and ignore it deliberately, some may use it to criticise or even discredit LCA. An oversimplified understanding of R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 982, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 272, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "uncertainty is a good part of the problem\u2019s root in both cases. Uncertainty is indeed frequently perceived as potentially discrediting LCA and its results as being too uncertain, unreliable, and insufficiently capable of distinguishing the compared options. The often considerable resources required for quantifying and managing uncertainty in an LCA study is an important barrier for their adequate consideration. Nevertheless, the presence of uncertainties of different types and from numerous sources in LCA results is a fact and ignoring them may be more detrimental than managing them in an integrated manner which allows their meaningful use to quantify and improve the precision of a study and the robustness of its conclusions. LCA practice sometimes suffers from an imbalanced perception of uncertainties and their use in justifying modelling choices and omissions (e.g. excluding impact categories due to their perceived uncertainty)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 983, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 273, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "excluding impact categories due to their perceived uncertainty). Identifying prevalent misconceptions, in some cases \u201cmyths\u201d, around uncertainties is another central goal of this chapter. The ambition is to help balancing the discussions around uncertainty in LCA and establish a positive discourse that focuses on the advantages of uncertainty management. Proper uncertainty management allows for more robust results and conclusions in support of science-based decision-making, grounded on the (accurate) recognition and discussion of inevitable and ubiquitous uncertainties. Consider the following conceptual and simplified example to illustrate how fundamentally useful uncertainty assessment and management are in LCA. Figure 11.1 shows the results of an LCA study, performing a comparison of two alternative options A and B, for a given impact category like water use for example. The point estimate (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 984, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 273, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 11.1 shows the results of an LCA study, performing a comparison of two alternative options A and B, for a given impact category like water use for example. The point estimate (i.e. reproducible, single value output from the LCA model without considering variations in inputs) impact score is 4 for option A and 6 for option B, which may suggest that option A is preferable, i.e. less environmentally impacting, over option B by a factor of 1.5. However, considering the uncertainties (including correlations between both options), the impact scores can be shown as superposed distributions as demonstrated in Fig. 11.1 (even though this may not be the best way to compare scenarios as discussed later in this chapter). Where the distributions are overlapping, option B has certain chances to be preferable over option A, the opposite of the conclusion drawn above from only looking at the point estimates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 985, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 273, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Where the distributions are overlapping, option B has certain chances to be preferable over option A, the opposite of the conclusion drawn above from only looking at the point estimates. The more the distributions overlap, the higher the chances that option A may not be preferable to option B. In the left plot, there is a relatively small overlap of both distributions, and hence a relatively low chance to take the wrong decision when preferring option A over option B. In the centre plot, it is essentially impossible to discern the impact scores of both options and the chances to make the wrong conclusion would be high, no matter which option is chosen. In the right plot, the dispersions of both options are different (which will usually be the case in practice) and need to be evaluated in order to derive more reliable results. How to deal with such cases is discussed further-on in the chapter. That means that if the uncertainty cannot be further reduced (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 986, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 273, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "How to deal with such cases is discussed further-on in the chapter. That means that if the uncertainty cannot be further reduced (e.g. by using more certain data or models), both options are basically equal in terms of their potential environmental impact on water use. The consideration and communication of uncertainties related to results obtained via modelling and/or measurements is vital for their correct interpretation. This is Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 987, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 273, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "often hampered by the difficulty to assign and propagate uncertainty information of the usually numerous parameters of a model as required by uncertainty assessment methods. This problem becomes even more apparent when modelling large systems as usually done in LCA, not to mention that there is more to overall uncertainty of a model result than just what parameters contribute. In current daily LCA practice, this often leads to complete omission of this important and integral aspect of any model result, while it may potentially influence or even change the conclusions of a study. Uncertainty thus refers to everything we do not know and we cannot be certain about, regardless whether we are aware of it or not. In order to create a common basis of understanding when using technical terms and vocabulary around uncertainty, a thorough definition of important terms and concepts will be provided as starting point in the following section", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 988, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 274, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.2 Essential Concepts and Definitions In order to provide an accessible and operational angle on the subject, we have deliberately chosen to use simplified terminology and explanations that do not always capture everything there is to say. The focus of this chapter is on what is relevant for LCA students and practitioners, not on covering all aspects around statistical concepts, terms and definitions. For many concepts there may be multiple terms that are used synonymously in literature and in some cases there may not even be consensus on specific terms and their definition, such as what a sensitivity analysis exactly is for example. The implicit imprecision may be shocking to experts in statistics, but avoiding to capture the full complexity substantially helps getting a first grasp and understanding of the main concepts and how they are used in LCA practice, which is the main purpose of this chapter. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 989, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 274, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fig. 11.1 Illustrative comparison of impact scores from two options A and B with the point estimates of 4 and 6, respectively, in all graphs, but with different uncertainties, low in the left, high in the centre and mixed in the right graph R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 990, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 274, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.2.1 Defining Uncertainty, Variability and Sensitivity The term uncertainty is used with a fairly large variation in its definition, including or excluding (somewhat) adjacent concepts like variability and sensitivity. It is therefore difficult if not impossible to give a universally valid and accepted definition of uncertainty. For the sake of defining a common understanding within the scope of this book, we use the definition of uncertainty as comprising everything we do not know, expressed as the probability or confidence for a certain event to occur. More precisely, the \u201cunknown\u201d includes both random and systematic errors (of estimating, measuring or collecting data), mistakes, and epistemological (or epistemic) uncertainty (i.e. lack of scientific knowledge and consequent misinterpretations). To put it a bit bluntly, uncertainty in principle describes the degree to which we may be off from the truth", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 991, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 275, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "lack of scientific knowledge and consequent misinterpretations). To put it a bit bluntly, uncertainty in principle describes the degree to which we may be off from the truth. In reality it is of course impossible for us to know that, otherwise we would not have to face uncertainty since we would know the truth (and we will avoid attempting to define what \u201ctruth\u201d itself means). Therefore, in practice we define reference points that we assume to represent truth or at least to be close to it. A typical example for such a reference point would be a measurement. If we trust the measuring method and protocol we trust that a measurement represents a sort of truth at a specific point in space and time and the difference between a modelled estimate and a corresponding measured value is then used as an indicator for uncertainty. Ciroth et al. (2004) discuss and nicely illustrate this discrepancy between measured and true value and what uncertainty represents in that respect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 992, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 275, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ciroth et al. (2004) discuss and nicely illustrate this discrepancy between measured and true value and what uncertainty represents in that respect. It is then important to keep in mind that the measured value inevitably comes with its own uncertainty due to possible measurement errors (and mistakes) and due to the uncertainty of how suitable the measurement method and how representative the sampling was regarding the actual \u201ctruth\u201d. Uncertainty can thus be quantified and reduced by knowing more, which usually requires us to invest more resources in order to gain more knowledge (e.g. by performing additional measurements or collecting more data and refining the model). However, no matter how many resources we have available, we can never be certain that we have eliminated (or at least minimised) uncertainty. In order to define variability, let\u2019s take the example of body weight distributions in a human population", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 993, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 275, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to define variability, let\u2019s take the example of body weight distributions in a human population. Many observations we can make will always have more than one value, as soon as we measure more than one sample (i.e. a sub-set of data points from a population of measured data), human body weight being an intuitive example. We are thus faced with a natural variability that simply represents the variety or spread in the data that we will always observe. With enough resources at hand that allow us to take every possible sample, we can perfectly well measure and quantify this variability, but we can never reduce it. In the context of LCA, we are typically faced with three different types of variability: (1) temporal variability (e.g. seasonal changes in temperature), (2) spatial or geographical variability (e.g. population density in different regions), and (3) inter-individual variability of humans, animals, other species (e.g. differences in diets) or technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 994, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 275, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "population density in different regions), and (3) inter-individual variability of humans, animals, other species (e.g. differences in diets) or technologies. Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 995, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 275, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In LCA practice, the terms variability and uncertainty are often not distinguished or overarching one another (i.e. variability is often included as one aspect of uncertainty). However, for their important differences described before, it is recommendable and good practice to quantify and maintain both well separated as this will allow us to put this information to good use when interpreting and improving LCA results. We will come back to that later. The sensitivity of a model describes the extent to which the variation of an input parameter or a choice (e.g. time horizon in the functional unit) leads to variation of the model result", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 996, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 276, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The sensitivity of a model describes the extent to which the variation of an input parameter or a choice (e.g. time horizon in the functional unit) leads to variation of the model result. A model is sensitive toward a parameter if a small change in this parameter will result in a large change in the model result, whereas a model is insensitive toward a parameter if any change in this parameter will have no (or negligible) effect on the model result (which in certain cases might indicate that this parameter may not be needed in the model, or at least that it is not an important input parameter for this particular value of the model result). Sensitivity may be analysed for both continuous and discrete input parameters, and it can also be analysed for choices leading to discrete sets of input values. For example, the choice of LCIA method is always a discrete choice between a certain number of fixed options (i.e. available methods)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 997, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 276, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, the choice of LCIA method is always a discrete choice between a certain number of fixed options (i.e. available methods). It is worth noting that the term sensitivity is used in various and inconsistent ways throughout literature and no agreement on its exact definition exists. Two main uses could be distinguished: (1) For some authors sensitivity includes the effect of uncertainty and thus considers the range of variation of input parameters as a function of their uncertainty (which hence needs to be known), varying them all at the same time. This is also called global sensitivity analysis and is essentially what this chapter refers to as uncertainty analysis. (2) Others define sensitivity solely as the effect of a certain change in input on the output applying a predefined variation without considering the uncertainty. This is analysed by varying one parameter at a time and also called local sensitivity analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 998, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 276, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is analysed by varying one parameter at a time and also called local sensitivity analysis. In the context of this book and many publications in the LCA community, sensitivity only describes the variation of a result due to variation of an input or choice, without considering its uncertainty, i.e. local sensitivity. 11.2.2 Defining Accuracy and Precision in the LCA Context When talking about uncertainty, a number of terms are often used in conjunction or interchangeably which seem to be synonyms but in fact are not. Two such terms are accuracy and precision. The definition of these terms in general English dictionaries varies to some extent, the Oxford English Dictionary for example defines accuracy as technical noun being \u201cThe degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification conforms to the correct value or a standard\u201d and precision as technical noun being \u201cRefinement in a measurement, calculation, or specification...\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 999, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 276, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, both terms are independent and while accuracy refers to the correctness of a value, precision relates to the relationship among multiple measurements or calculation results. It is therefore useful to have a closer look at the R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1000, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 276, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "actual meaning of these terms in a technical or scientific context and what they imply for LCA. Accuracy describes the closeness of a measured or modelled value to its \u201ctrue\u201d value. Precision represents the quality of being reproducible in amount or performance (i.e. any repetition of a calculation, experiment, model run, etc. gives a similar result when precise or a wide spread when imprecise), but a reproducible result does not necessarily have to be very accurate or even \u201ctrue\u201d. In consequence, the accuracy of a model result may be high while its precision can be low as illustrated in Fig. 11.2. This means that the average of such model results will still represent meaningful information even though the results\u2019 spread (i.e. the standard deviation) may be large. In contrast, a very precise measurement or model Fig. 11.2 Illustration of precision and accuracy Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1001, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 277, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "result (i.e. with a small standard deviation) is not necessarily meaningful if it comes with low accuracy regarding the information one is actually looking for. In the LCA context, this can be illustrated using the different time horizons of the global warming potential (GWP). When intending to capture potential impacts from global warming of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the GWP is integrated over 20, 100 and until the 4th IPCC Assessment Report (IPCC 2007) even over 500 years. It is intuitive that precision decreases with an increasing time horizon due to the assumptions necessary to model and predict far into the future, but does accuracy also automatically decrease with longer time horizons? In order to answer that question, we need to consider that most GHGs stay much longer in the atmosphere than 20 years. GWP20 is a very precise and probably accurate indicator for the cumulative radiative forcing (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1002, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 278, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "GWP20 is a very precise and probably accurate indicator for the cumulative radiative forcing (i.e. the capacity to absorb energy, which can be measured in the lab) of a molecule during 20 years, but it neglects that this molecule may still be active long after. It is thus a very inaccurate indicator for the total potential contribution of the molecule to global warming, which is what we are usually interested in for an LCA study (unless the goal and scope definition requires a focus on short-term impacts). Therefore, implicitly assuming that GWP20 quantifies the (total) potential contribution of an emission to global warming bears a risk of interpreting LCA results wrongly in spite of using an indicator that is very precise, as it is inaccurate for the objective at hand (Fig. 11.3). This example may seem somewhat obvious, but there are many other instances of exactly this type of confusion that can be found in current LCA practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1003, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 278, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.3). This example may seem somewhat obvious, but there are many other instances of exactly this type of confusion that can be found in current LCA practice. Another example is the comparison of the uncertainty of indicator results from different impact categories. The GWP is generally perceived as a fairly certain midpoint indicator whereas human toxicity is seen as a very uncertain midpoint indicator, an argument that is sometimes used to justify the omission of toxicity characterisation from an LCA study. It is worth reflecting whether this direct comparison of uncertainties makes sense by looking at the environmental relevance of what both indicators are actually quantifying. We discussed in Chap. 10 that GWP is the time-integrated radiative forcing of a substance per unit mass emitted. The input data required to calculate it are relatively Fig. 11.3 GWP20 more precise but less accurate from an LCA perspective than GWP100 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1004, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 278, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "straightforward to measure and well reproducible in a laboratory, or in other words it is a precise indicator. It indicates the potential absorption of energy in molecules in the atmosphere, but it does not inform us on its impact on the environment or human health, or in other words it is not accurate regarding the goal of quantifying potential environmental impacts. Most toxicity midpoint indicators, however, quantify statistically how many disease cases (or affected species) may potentially occur in a human (or ecosystem) population per mass emitted. Therefore, toxicity indicators are much more representative regarding the consequences of a potential impact than GWP, or in other words a toxicity midpoint indicator has a higher environmental relevance than GWP and may thus actually be more accurate than GWP, while being less precise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1005, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 279, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Only the inherent, and most likely often unconscious, assumption of causal links between radiative forcing\u2013\u2013increased temperature\u2013\u2013melting polar caps\u2013\u2013rising sea levels\u2013\u2013more extreme weather events\u2013\u2013loss of agricultural yield\u2013\u2013increased competition for food\u2013\u2013starvation and possibly even war\u2013\u2013and thus effects on human health makes this indicator useful for LCA, but does it make it actually less uncertain for indicating a potential environmental or human health impact? The argument of too high uncertainty of toxicity indicators thus refers to their precision (reproducibility), but not necessarily to their accuracy (in representing environmental impacts) and may hence be misleading. In addition, the spread between the highest and the lowest values for an indicator may differ widely between impact categories. Given that the toxicity-related impact categories cover several thousand elementary flows (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1006, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 279, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Given that the toxicity-related impact categories cover several thousand elementary flows (i.e. chemical emissions) with different environmental mechanisms, related variability is higher by several orders of magnitude than for impact categories only covering a handful of elementary flows (e.g. climate change including *50 chemicals). An example of the relationship between uncertainty around results for a single chemical and spread of results across chemicals is given in Chap. 31, Fig. 31.7. In LCA, uncertainty should always be referring to what a study aims to quantify. The environmental relevance of indicators varies greatly among impact categories and is also a source of uncertainty towards the conclusions of a study. Just because this uncertainty is not quantified or even somewhat unconscious, that does not mean that it is not present", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1007, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 279, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Just because this uncertainty is not quantified or even somewhat unconscious, that does not mean that it is not present. Hence, a direct comparison of purely precision-related uncertainty among midpoint indicators is not meaningful unless the compared indicators have a similar level of accuracy (i.e. environmental relevance). This brings us to another common misconception about the uncertainty of LCA indicators, namely the choice of using midpoint or endpoint indicators. The typical trade-off between both options is that a midpoint indicator result will be more precise but less environmentally relevant, while it will be the opposite for an endpoint indicator (i.e. less precise but more environmentally relevant). Therefore, endpoint indicators are typically perceived as more uncertain based on their usually lower precision (due to a larger number of choices and hypotheses involved in their modelling compared to midpoint indicators)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1008, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 279, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When considering environmental relevance as a measure of accuracy and a type of uncertainty (as discussed further below), it is important to keep in mind that midpoint indicators have a large portion Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1009, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 279, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of (unquantified or unperceived/unconscious) uncertainty due to their lower environmental relevance compared to endpoint indicators. As depicted in Fig. 11.4, overall uncertainty may increase or decrease from a midpoint to an endpoint indicator of a given impact category, depending on the uncertainty of models and parameters used for endpoint modelling. However, Weidema (2009) pointed out that this \u201cfigure implies that it is possible to make a trade-off between relevance and uncertainty, in which the overall error is minimised ... [and] ... that the consequences of the decision will be less uncertain if the decision is taken at the point where the overall error is minimised\u2014that is, at a midpoint [...] (e.g., at the level of CO2-equivalents)\u201d, which is a common perception among LCA practitioners and clients", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1010, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 280, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Weidema then rightfully argues that \u201cWhen the decision is implemented, however, the consequences occur not only at the level of the midpoint but also at the level of the endpoint (the decision will result in lost species and lost lives). This implies that the apparently low uncertainty of the decision at midpoint does not reduce the uncertainty of the consequences of the decision at endpoint level, which are still as uncertain as indicated at the bottom of [the] figure [...]. If the consequences at endpoint level (e.g., lost species and lost lives) are what we really are interested in (as implied by the maximum relevance), then taking the decision at the midpoint level (e.g., CO2-equivalents) is simply the same as ignoring the true uncertainty of the consequences of the decision.\u201d In other words, if minimal or avoided environmental consequences are the objective of a Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1011, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 280, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.4 Conceptual representation of how overall uncertainty may decrease (middle) or increase (right) from midpoint to endpoint (damage) in an impact pathway (left); uncertainty of interpretation and uncertainty of models and parameters contribute to different extents to overall uncertainty on midpoint (early in the impact pathway) and on endpoint/damage level (end of the impact pathway) while environmental relevance increases [taken from Hauschild and Potting (2005)] R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1012, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 280, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "decision, choosing midpoint indicators because they can be quantified with higher precision will still not avoid the uncertainty of that decision\u2019s environmental consequences since a midpoint indicator is less relevant (representative) for the environmental consequences to be avoided. Weidema (2009) entertainingly compares this flawed logic as being \u201crepresentative of the situation of the drunk who, when asked why he was searching for his keys under the streetlight although he had lost them in the dark alley, responded that it was easier to see under the light\u201d. In consequence, the overall uncertainty of endpoint indicators may not (always) be much different to that of midpoint indicators from a decision-support perspective as indicated in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1013, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 281, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In consequence, the overall uncertainty of endpoint indicators may not (always) be much different to that of midpoint indicators from a decision-support perspective as indicated in Fig. 11.4 where the development in the \u201coverall uncertainty\u201d accompanying the decision may sometimes be lowest at the damage level, when the reduction in interpretation uncertainty, going from midpoint to damage, more than compensates the increase in model and parameter uncertainty of the applied characterisation model. Hopefully, these examples illustrate that when discussing uncertainties between LCA indicators (of different impact categories or between midpoint and endpoint level), all types of uncertainty combined with the related concepts of precision and accuracy need to be considered or else the risk of oversimplifying and comparing apples and oranges is imminent, which may lead to unjustified and wrong conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1014, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 281, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The very purpose of any model is to represent a simplification of reality, but what is the right level of simplification? In order to establish a useful model, a meaningful level of complexity is required. As illustrated in Fig. 11.5 adapted from Ciroth (2004), the overall error (of representing reality) of a model is, among other, a function of the error due to an inaccurate representation of reality (too complex model with, e.g. too many input parameters and algorithms that introduce each their own uncertainty) and the error due to ignoring too much of the complexity of reality (too simplistic model). Accordingly, balancing both will yield the lowest overall model-related error. This is known as the parsimony principle, i.e. as simple as possible and as complex as necessary, and intuitively is a suitable leitmotif for LCA. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1015, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 281, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is known as the parsimony principle, i.e. as simple as possible and as complex as necessary, and intuitively is a suitable leitmotif for LCA. Fig. 11.5 Too complex modelling can have a similar error of representing reality as too simplistic modelling [modified from Ciroth (2004)] Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1016, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 281, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Simplicity is often perceived as a desirable quality of a model making it easy to understand and less data demanding. Complexity on the other hand is frequently perceived as cumbersome, non-transparent and data intensive. However, rejecting complexity as such, without regarding its relevance and influence on the decision at hand, will of course be simpler and also lead to a decision, but it may not be a decision fulfilling the LCA objective of choosing an environmentally preferable option. In other words, it may be a more precise but less accurate and thus a potentially misleading decision. Given the inherent (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1017, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 282, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, it may be a more precise but less accurate and thus a potentially misleading decision. Given the inherent (i.e. unavoidable) complexity of environmental processes and our still limited knowledge of them, the principle of \u201cIt is better to be vaguely right than exactly wrong\u201d (Read 1920) is a much cited and useful angle when discussing uncertainties in LCA, thereby also acknowledging that we should never design our models more complex than necessary to avoid \u201cparalysis by analysis\u201d potentially leading to no operational model at all and, hence, to no decision (support). 11.2.3 Representing Uncertainty The probabilistic nature of uncertainty of the studied process or object is conceptualised by a probability distribution. The probability distribution of a continuous variable is described by a distribution function, usually the probability density function (PDF\u2014not to be confused with the abbreviation PDF for Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species as used in Chap. 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1018, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 282, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). In practice, the PDF of an input parameter x is estimated by the values xi measured over a sample, ranging from a minimum to a maximum value. Hence, the probability is approximated by the relative frequency when enough values are sampled. For example, when measuring the body weight of individuals in a human population of several thousand people, we will always find a range of values with a minimum value given by the lightest and a maximum value given by the heaviest individual(s) among those measured. Drawing the full range of measured values on the x axis and how often each of these values occurs (=their relative frequency) on the y axis results in a distribution function (a PDF) as illustrated in Fig. 11.6. The shape of this function varies substantially depending on the frequency of the values of a variable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1019, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 282, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.6. The shape of this function varies substantially depending on the frequency of the values of a variable. Many shape patterns have been clearly defined and termed, distinguishing continuous distributions such as normal, log-normal, or beta, and discrete ones such as binomial, Poisson, or hypergeometric, the latter being characterised by a probability mass function (PMF). When representing uncertainties, these names are used to describe the type of distribution and are an essential element when addressing the uncertainty of a (measured or estimated) parameter or the model output. Various methods exist to fit a continuous or a discrete distribution over a set of values. Generally, important measures to describe uncertainties of an input parameter x or the model output are the standard deviation for the spread of a distribution, and for the central tendency of a distribution the arithmetic mean (or average), the R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1020, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 282, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "median, and (more rarely) the mode. The arithmetic mean or average of a sample is calculated as the sum of all values divided by the total count of all values. The mode is the most frequent (i.e. most probable) value within the dataset, and the median is the value separating the upper 50% and the lower 50% of all values when ranked in order of their magnitude. In a perfectly normally distributed dataset, the average, median, and mode are identical, whereas in any skewed distribution (e.g. a log-normal distribution) these central tendency measures have different values. However, the mean has the disadvantage to be very susceptible to outliers (unusually small or large values within a dataset) and skewed data. Therefore, the mean does not represent the best central value in skewed distributions (e.g. log-normal), whereas the median is less affected by the skewness of a dataset. The variation of the sample values is most commonly described by the (sample) standard deviation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1021, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 283, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "log-normal), whereas the median is less affected by the skewness of a dataset. The variation of the sample values is most commonly described by the (sample) standard deviation. The PDF or PMF are sufficient to fully characterise the distribution of an input parameter, but it is not always evident to derive these functions. Then the combined knowledge of the average (or median) and the (sample) standard deviation can provide a useful description of the behaviour of a parameter. In-between the minimum and the maximum values of the range, we will find all sampled values and measures of central tendency for a probability distribution, like the average and the median body weight in the previous example. For the quantification of uncertainty, we usually do not use the entire range between these two extrema, but rather a sub-set of (more representative) values. Figure 11.7a represents a normal distribution for an input parameter x with known parameters l (=mean) and r (=standard deviation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1022, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 283, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 11.7a represents a normal distribution for an input parameter x with known parameters l (=mean) and r (=standard deviation). Integrating under the curve of the normal distribution from negative to positive infinity, the area is 1 (i.e. 100%). Consequently, the probability for a value drawn from this distribution to fall in the range \u00011 is 100%. Obviously, this is not useful in terms of describing the uncertainty of a parameter. In the context of environmental modelling (including LCA) the typically used uncertainty range is the 95% interval as given in Fig. 11.7a as shaded area for a Fig. 11.6 Fitting of a distribution to a set of values for a variable Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1023, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 283, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "normally distributed input parameter. This 95% uncertainty interval can be interpreted as the range of values within which (approximately) 95% of all randomly measured values can be found. When the distribution function is known, we can also say that any sampled (or measured) value one may take in the future will fall within this range with 95% chances. Assuming a normal distribution for our example on body weight, this means that 95% of all measured weights from our population will fall within this range and that if picking randomly a person from that population, one will have 95% chances that this person has a body weight within this range of values and only 5% chances to pick a person lighter or heavier than that. The limits of the uncertainty interval are referred to via various names such as upper and lower bounds or 2.5th (lower bound) and 97.5th (upper bound) percentiles. Other used uncertainty intervals for normally distributed variables are the 68 and the 99.7% intervals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1024, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 284, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other used uncertainty intervals for normally distributed variables are the 68 and the 99.7% intervals. The link between measures of central tendency (especially the mean and median) and dispersion (standard deviation) of an input parameter x with the upper and lower uncertainty bounds is detailed in the following. Going back to the normal distribution in Fig. 11.7a with mean value l and standard deviation r, the 95% uncertainty interval (approximately) corresponds to the interval range between l \u0003 2r and l \u00fe 2r. The limits of this interval are the 2.5th percentile (2.5th %ile) as the lower bound at l \u0003 2r and the 97.5th %ile as the upper bound at l \u00fe 2r. Integrating over a range within \u0001r from the mean value l, the resulting value is 0.6826; hence, the probability for a value to fall within the range \u0001r around the mean is approximately 68%. This range is called the 68% (sometimes 65%) uncertainty interval", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1025, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 284, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This range is called the 68% (sometimes 65%) uncertainty interval. You may have guessed it by now, the 99.7% uncertainty interval is then bounded by l \u0003 3r on the lower and l \u00fe 3r on the upper end of the distribution. If an input parameter x is log-normally distributed with population parameters l and r, it means that the natural logarithm of the parameter follows a normal distribution. This distribution is often observed for measurements of environmental input parameters and hence frequently used in environmental modelling. The median value m of the log-normal distribution is identical to the geometric mean el, while the mean of the distribution is el \u00fe r2=2. The mean is larger than the median as Fig. 11.7 a Normal distribution and b log-normal distribution with 95% uncertainty interval ranges shaded in grey R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1026, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 284, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "this distribution is right skewed. For a log-normally distributed input parameter, the corresponding distribution and the 95% uncertainty interval are depicted in Fig. 11.7b. The 95% uncertainty interval (approximately) corresponds to the integration over the range m=e2r to m \u0004 e2r. The exponential term is thereby defined as the squared geometric standard deviation: GSD2 , e2r: \u00f011:1\u00de With that, the GSD2 is used to define the 2.5th and 97.5th %iles, i.e. the 95% uncertainty interval bounds, of a log-normal probability distribution around the median m of x as Probability m GSD2 \\x\\m \u0004 GSD2 \u0001 \u0003 \u0005 0:95: \u00f011:2\u00de The uncertainty intervals as discussed above should be distinguished from the confidence intervals. In practice, a population parameter (mean, median or standard deviation) is often unknown", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1027, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 285, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, a population parameter (mean, median or standard deviation) is often unknown. In statistical data analysis, confidence intervals are usually calculated, that is the estimated range of values that frequently contains the \u201ctrue\u201d value of the unknown population parameter, if the sampling procedure is repeated. We need here to clarify some common misconceptions around the interpretation of confidence intervals. For our example on body weight, suppose a 95% confidence interval for the unknown true mean weight that ranges from a to b (a < b). The statements \u201c95% of the population weighs between a and b kilograms\u201d or \u201cThere is a 95% chance that the mean weight of the population lies between a and b kilograms\u201d are false", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1028, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 285, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The statements \u201c95% of the population weighs between a and b kilograms\u201d or \u201cThere is a 95% chance that the mean weight of the population lies between a and b kilograms\u201d are false. The correct interpretation is \u201cIf we were to repeat the weight measurement over and over, then 95% of the time, on average, the confidence intervals contain the true mean weight.\u201d The latter does not refer directly to a property of the population parameter, but a property of the procedure itself. Two useful further readings on common misconceptions and misinterpretations of confidence intervals and other statistical methods and parameters are the papers from Greenland et al. (2016) and Hoekstra et al. (2014). For a further study of confidence intervals, and all the concepts presented in this section as well, the reader can refer to bibliography in probability and statistics, e.g. Walpole et al. (2012). The type of distribution is an important element to precisely describe the uncertainty of a parameter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1029, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 285, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Walpole et al. (2012). The type of distribution is an important element to precisely describe the uncertainty of a parameter. The simplifying assumption of a certain type of distribution (in LCA typically log-normal), instead of attempting to identify the exact distribution, is very useful when little or no information is available about a parameter or when using simplified, approximate analytical uncertainty propagation methods. However, this is sometimes met with criticism by practitioners who would like to integrate uncertainty information into their LCA studies using the exact distribution type. While from a purely statistical point of view this is the ideal, the very large number of variables and their distributions for individual inventory data and characterisation factors used to quantify the uncertainty of an impact score, will Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1030, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 285, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "often result in a normal distribution of the impact score. This phenomenon is called the \u201ccentral limit theorem\u201d which states that the arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of independent values will be approximately normally distributed, regardless of the underlying input distributions (P\u00f3lya 1920). Although, this theorem requires certain conditions to be fulfilled (e.g. independence of the included parameters, existence of a finite expected value and standard deviation for each parameter), it is reasonable to assume these conditions to be fulfilled by most unit processes in LCI. This practical assumption offers several ways to significantly and parsimoniously simplify uncertainty quantification in the LCA context with a likely acceptable loss of precision when assuming one or only a few distribution types for LCA input parameters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1031, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 286, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.3 Addressing Uncertainty in LCA 11.3.1 Types and Sources of Uncertainty and Variability in LCA There is no shortage of classifications of uncertainty types in literature, ranging from only two or three classes up to ten or more different types. A very useful classification for LCA was published by Huijbregts (1998) and comprises the following classes: 1. Temporal variability (e.g. seasons), 2. Spatial variability (e.g. population density, climate conditions), 3. Variability between objects (e.g. between different individuals), 4. Parameter uncertainty (e.g. inaccuracy, lack or non-representativeness of input data and model parameters), 5. Model (structure) uncertainty (e.g. algorithms in process and characterisation models), 6. Uncertainty due to choices (e.g. definition of functional unit and system boundaries, selection of LCIA method), to which Bj\u00f6rklund (2002) added: 7. Epistemological uncertainty (e.g. lack of relevant knowledge), 8. Mistakes (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1032, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 286, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "definition of functional unit and system boundaries, selection of LCIA method), to which Bj\u00f6rklund (2002) added: 7. Epistemological uncertainty (e.g. lack of relevant knowledge), 8. Mistakes (e.g. choosing the wrong substance or process due to similar names as references, unit conversions or unclear units like tons vs. metric tons/tonnes), and to which we add: 9. Relevance uncertainty (e.g. environmental relevance, accuracy or representativeness of an indicator towards an area of protection). Huijbregts (1998) also provided an illustrative list of examples of sources of uncertainty for each type and per LCA phase, which was slightly modified by R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1033, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 286, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bj\u00f6rklund (2002) and by the authors of the present chapter and which is shown in Table 11.1. A classification of uncertainty types widely used in many fields of application distinguishes only three different types: parameter, model, and scenario uncertainty. Most of the nine uncertainty types listed above are essentially sub-classes of these three types as indicated in Table 11.1. Parameter uncertainty comprises variability and uncertainty in model input parameters. Model uncertainty indicates the uncertainty of the model itself via setup, initial and boundary conditions defined, variables/indicators taken into account, and equations used. Scenario uncertainty can be interpreted as uncertainty in the application and use of the model and its results under predefined conditions and assumptions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1034, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 287, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Scenario uncertainty can be interpreted as uncertainty in the application and use of the model and its results under predefined conditions and assumptions. Whereas parameter and model uncertainty only contribute to the uncertainty of the numerical model results, scenario uncertainty may also contribute to uncertainty in the interpretation of the model results and, hence, that of a consequent decision as illustrated in Fig. 11.9. For a number of reasons, parameter uncertainty and variability is the uncertainty type that is best considered in current LCA practice and it is what most people refer to when discussing uncertainty in LCA. With occasional, rare exceptions, the few published LCA studies that include uncertainty, essentially consider parameter uncertainty and variability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1035, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 287, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With occasional, rare exceptions, the few published LCA studies that include uncertainty, essentially consider parameter uncertainty and variability. This kind of uncertainty is estimated in LCI databases such as ecoinvent and in some LCIA methods such as Impact World+ or LC-Impact, and LCA software allows to include the respective calculations in an LCA study. It is also a source of uncertainty that practitioners can address by improving data quality and representativeness, e.g. using primary data for foreground processes, or via spatialised LCA. This can be illustrated using three axes of data representativeness as discussed by Weidema et al. (2003), which constitute a three-dimensional space as shown in Fig. 11.8. LCI data may thus be too detailed, too un-specific, or too non-representative along one, two, or all three axes. Their distance on each axis to the range of data needed thereby represents their uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1036, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 287, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Their distance on each axis to the range of data needed thereby represents their uncertainty. It is important to keep in mind that most types of uncertainty and variability listed in Table 11.1 will contribute, to varying degrees, to the overall uncertainty of a quantitative LCA result (i.e. impact score). Just because parameter uncertainty is essentially the most accessible one and therefore the most frequently assessed or discussed type of uncertainty, it does not mean that it is always the most important (i.e. most contributing) one. The ninth type in the list above (uncertainty related to environmental relevance, accuracy or representativeness) refers to how completely all relevant processes are included in a model, notably to how completely an environmental mechanism is represented in a given characterisation model for a given category midpoint or endpoint (as illustrated in Fig. 11.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1037, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 287, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.4). Note that completeness and representativeness relate directly to the goal and scope of an LCA, e.g. the GWP model may be perfectly representative and complete if the goal of a study is to calculate a carbon footprint, while it may be incomplete and of low (environmental) relevance if the goal is to quantify the contribution of an activity to climate change-related human health impacts. For this reason, uncertainty related to environmental relevance or representativeness (i.e. termed here as relevance uncertainty in line with Paparella et al. 2013) cannot be part of the model Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1038, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 287, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 11.1 Examples of sources of uncertainty and variability for each type of uncertainty per LCA phase Uncertainty type LCA phase Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Choice of impact categories and classification Characterisation Weighting and normalisation Variability Temporal variability Inherent variations in the studied system Differences in yearly emission factors Inconsistent time horizons between impact categories Time horizon or change in environmental characteristics over time Change of social preference over time Spatial variability Regional differences in emission factors Regional differences in relevance of an impact category Regional differences in environmental, ecological sensitivity or characteristics Regional differences in distance to (political) targets Variability between objects Differences in technology between factories which produce the same product Differences among technologies in relevance of an impact category Differences in environmental,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1039, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 288, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Variability between objects Differences in technology between factories which produce the same product Differences among technologies in relevance of an impact category Differences in environmental, ecological and human characteristics Differences in individual preferences when using a panel method Parameter uncertainty Inaccurate, non-representative or no inventory data Uncertainty in lifetimes of substances Inaccurate normalisation data (continued) R.K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1040, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 288, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1041, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 288, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 11.1 (continued) Uncertainty type LCA phase Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Choice of impact categories and classification Characterisation Weighting and normalisation Model uncertainty Model structure uncertainty Linear instead of nonlinear modelling, assuming continuous emissions Impact categories are not known; Contribution of impact category is not known Linear instead of nonlinear modelling, assuming steady-state conditions Weighting criteria are not operational Uncertainty due to choices Choice of system boundaries Choice of allocation methods Scenario uncertainty Choice of functional unit Choice of technology level Leaving out known impact categories Choice of the characterisation method(s) Choice of normalisation reference system or weighting method Relevance uncertainty Environmental relevance and representativeness required for decision Completeness of (relevant) impact categories covered Representativeness of an indicator regarding a given area of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1042, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 289, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "uncertainty Environmental relevance and representativeness required for decision Completeness of (relevant) impact categories covered Representativeness of an indicator regarding a given area of protection Neglecting the influence of normalisation or weighting factors on results when interpreting them Epistemological uncertainty Ignorance about relevant aspects of studied system Ignorance about modelled processes Ignorance about relevant impact mechanisms Ignorance about relevant environmental processes Ignorance about relevant priorities Mistakes Any Any Any Any Any Extended from Huijbregts (1998) and Bj\u00f6rklund (2002) Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1043, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 289, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "uncertainty, which is an intrinsic property of a model result and does not depend on how it is used or interpreted. Uncertainties and variabilities are typically discussed regarding their importance for the uncertainty of a numerical model output or result, i.e. a number with its standard deviation and eventually a distribution function, which describes the uncertainty of the underlying tool and its result. This does however not consider what this result is being used for, which decision it supports and how it is being interpreted in the context of this decision. In order to also be able to represent and discuss additional sources of uncertainty related to results interpretation and the decision context, the concept of relevance uncertainty may be helpful. The more representative an indicator is for a given environmental (or social or economic) problem or damage, the lower the uncertainty on its interpretation, as discussed before. As shown in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1044, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 290, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The more representative an indicator is for a given environmental (or social or economic) problem or damage, the lower the uncertainty on its interpretation, as discussed before. As shown in Fig. 11.9, this may be called the relevance uncertainty, which essentially contributes to the uncertainty of a conclusion or decision, but not to that of the numerical model result. Weidema (2009) pointed this out by stating that \u201cPerhaps the cause of the logical error in the interpretation of (Fig. 11.4) ... is that it requires that relevance (or uncertainty of interpretation) can be measured in the same unit as uncertainty of measurement, which is, in fact, not possible. Relevance is what we look for; uncertainty addresses the reliability of our measurement. When we are deciding how to measure what we look for, it is irrelevant how precisely we can measure what we do not look for\u201d. Fig. 11.8 Three aspects of data representativeness in LCA based on Weidema et al. (2003) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1045, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 290, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can be illustrated via a simple example on the use of indicators. Before leaving the house in the morning, many people check the outdoor temperature. What will be the uncertainty of this information? We can probably assume it to be low, so it is a very certain indicator value. However, the real question behind may not be what the value of the current temperature is, but what would be the adequate way to dress for the day. This decision requires a number of indicators, among other temperature, but also wind speed (or chill factor), rainfall and the predictions of those parameters for the rest of the day. Now the uncertainty of these indicator values is probably already a bit higher than that of the current temperature, but that\u2019s not all, since the decision at hand is the choice of clothes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1046, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 291, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Now the uncertainty of these indicator values is probably already a bit higher than that of the current temperature, but that\u2019s not all, since the decision at hand is the choice of clothes. This however comes with its own uncertainty on the interpretation of the link between preferable clothes and the available indicator values for temperature, wind speed, precipitation, all with their respective predictions and related uncertainties. The overall uncertainty of the decision is therefore dependent not only on the contributions from the indicator values but also on their interpretation and on how to conclude from them to choosing among a range of options for pants, jumpers, shoes, and jackets. To translate this example into the world of LCA, one could ask \u201cWhat is the GWP100 of 1 litre biodiesel?\u201d and most practitioners will be able to answer this question (using a number of assumptions and choices) with reasonable certainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1047, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 291, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, a typical LCA goal is not the quantification of a given indicator, but the support of a decision like \u201cIs biodiesel environmentally preferable to fossil diesel?\u201d. To answer that question, multiple indicators besides GWP100 such as land use, (pesticide-related) toxicity, eutrophication and others will have to be calculated. The resulting midpoint or endpoint indicator values, respectively, have their uncertainties and comparing them among both diesel types also adds uncertainty. However, the overall uncertainty of the answer to the question of preference is also Fig. 11.9 Types of uncertainty and their contribution to result and decision uncertainty Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1048, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 291, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "affected by how the link between the differences of the indicator values and their representation of environmental consequences is interpreted. Completeness refers to a parsimonious balance between simplicity and complexity (as discussed above in relation to Fig. 11.5), not to the need to include everything. The same parsimony principle also applies to the related balance between parameter and model uncertainty. In essence, a too simple model will be missing important processes and thus have high scenario and relevance uncertainty due to low environmental relevance, but will have low parameter and model uncertainty. A too complex model, in contrast, may need many (uncertain or unknown) parameters and may imprecisely represent some processes (high model uncertainty), but will also be more (environmentally) relevant, i.e. low uncertainty on representativeness. Similar to Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1049, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 292, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "low uncertainty on representativeness. Similar to Fig. 11.5, overall uncertainty will thus, again, be lowest when both extremes are well balanced, the model being as simple as possible and as complex as necessary (i.e. following the parsimony principle), representing well all significantly influential processes (van Zelm and Huijbregts 2013). This is another example why the assumption of low uncertainty for a simple model, just because it needs few parameters, is incorrect and misleading. When discussing uncertainty or error in LCA, it is also important to be aware of the implications of random versus systematic errors. In most fields where uncertainty assessment is addressed, the goal is to be precise on an absolute indicator, like temperature or weight for example, which aims to respectively indicate how hot or cold or how light or heavy something or someone is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1050, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 292, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With some exceptions, the goal in LCA is usually to compare (even a hotspot analysis is essentially a comparison between all processes within a product system) and provide a relative indicator of how much better or worse an option is compared to another, as opposed to indicating how good or how bad something is in absolute terms. In such a comparative context, a systematic error\u2014affecting all compared objects in the same way\u2014may have little importance for the interpretation of results and drawing conclusions. It will just shift all results up or down systematically. It thus affects the result in absolute terms (i.e. the numbers are all higher or lower), but not in relative terms (i.e. the quantitative difference between compared objects remains largely the same)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1051, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 292, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the numbers are all higher or lower), but not in relative terms (i.e. the quantitative difference between compared objects remains largely the same). This is frequently ignored when LCA is being criticised as too uncertain, essentially because people tend to interpret its uncertainty in absolute terms and compare it with the absolute uncertainty of other methods like quantitative risk assessment for example, whereas much of the absolute uncertainty does not contribute to the uncertainty of the difference between compared alternatives, which will be further discussed in Sect. 11.4.2. This is also related to why LCA results represent potential impacts and (usually) not predictions of observable impacts (see discussion and definition in Chap. 10). R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1052, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 292, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.3.2 Uncertainty Quantification and Propagation Methods A quantitative uncertainty management is still a rare sight in LCA practice. If integrated, the most commonly considered types of uncertainty are parameter uncertainty and variability. Parameter uncertainty for example is captured in uncertainty estimates for inventory data such as given in the ecoinvent database. The quantification of uncertainty refers to the task of establishing a quantitative measure of uncertainty for (1) a specific source of uncertainty in an LCA (e.g. a mean value, standard deviation, and distribution type for a variable or an other uncertain aspect), and (2) the overall uncertainty of an LCA as a result of the combination of specific sources of uncertainty. The latter is achieved using uncertainty propagation methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1053, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 293, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The latter is achieved using uncertainty propagation methods. Having discussed the types and sources of uncertainty and variability that are relevant for LCA, the question arises how to quantify them in order to consider and manage them during the assessment process. Some uncertainty types may be more straightforward to quantify statistically than others (e.g. variability of measurable parameters, uncertainty due to some choices), some can be estimated but may be very difficult to quantify (e.g. model uncertainty) and those that relate to the unknown cannot be quantified at all (e.g. mistakes, epistemological uncertainty, and environmental relevance). The latter can (and should) be considered qualitatively during the interpretation of LCA results (see Chap. 12). In consequence, the quantitative overall estimated uncertainty of a model result is both incomplete and uncertain in itself", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1054, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 293, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12). In consequence, the quantitative overall estimated uncertainty of a model result is both incomplete and uncertain in itself. This however does not make this information useless, but it is essential to consider when interpreting results including their uncertainty. Several methods to quantify the (quantifiable) uncertainty elements of an LCA have been proposed and implemented to some extent into LCA. Among these methods are reporting uncertainty intervals, analysing parameter variability and/or different scenarios, translating qualitative data quality \u2018pedigree criteria\u2019 into a numerical pedigree matrix, using fuzzy data sets, applying analytical uncertainty propagation, conducting numerical, probabilistic simulations based on e.g. Monte Carlo analysis, using Bayesian statistics, or a combination of some of these methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1055, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 293, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Monte Carlo analysis, using Bayesian statistics, or a combination of some of these methods. The following sections describe three methods that are already used in LCA: (1) the semi-quantitative pedigree matrix approach used for example by ecoinvent for the quantification of variability and uncertainty of LCI data; (2) Monte Carlo simulation used in LCA software like SimaPro, GaBi, openLCA, and the more explorative/educational LCA tools CMLCA and Brightway 2; and (3) Taylor series expansion used in CMLCA. A broader overview of selected quantitative uncertainty propagation methods in the context of LCA or the comparison of specific methods can be found in Lloyd and Ries (2007), Heijungs and Huijbregts (2004), or Groen et al. (2014). Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1056, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 293, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Pedigree Matrix Approach Information about the uncertainty associated with elementary flows is often not available or difficult to quantify for the hundreds to thousands of flows in a typical LCI. To nevertheless address uncertainty related to LCI results, a simplified semi-quantitative procedure can be used and is implemented into the ecoinvent database and also used by ILCD (EC-JRC 2010). It quantifies (exclusively) parameter uncertainty via combining two different kinds of uncertainty: (1) Basic uncertainty due to variation and stochastic error of the values for elementary flows, from measurement uncertainties, activity specific variations, temporal variations, etc. This is quantified either using statistical methods when sufficient data are available, or via a simplified approach assuming a lognormal distribution, establishing an approximation that reflects the lack of sufficient information to calculate a more precise estimate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1057, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 294, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2) Additional uncertainty based on data quality indicators using a qualitative assessment of \u201creliability\u201d, \u201ccompleteness\u201d and representativeness in terms of \u201ctemporal correlation\u201d, \u201cgeographical correlation\u201d, and \u201cfurther technological correlation\u201d. These quality indicators are assigned different scores expressing for each value different degrees of data quality and uncertainty and are represented by a numerical value (1, 2, 3, etc.) for each data quality and uncertainty degree. The lower a score for any quality indicator, the higher is the data quality and/or the lower the data-related uncertainty. As illustrated in Fig. 11.10, combining data indicators in rows with the scores for each indicator in columns gives the so-called \u201cpedigree matrix\u201d considering additional uncertainty (uncertainty due to using imperfect data)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1058, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 294, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Originally, the semi-quantitative pedigree matrix approach was proposed by Funtowicz and Ravetz (1990) in a framework for managing \u201call sorts of uncertainty\u201d and later adapted to LCI modelling by Weidema and Wesn\u00e6s (1996) as being integrated into ecoinvent. The concept of the pedigree matrix is shown for the data quality indicator \u201creliability\u201d of the data sources in Fig. 11.10. Combining data quality indicators with their respective scores gives a set of uncertainty factors aggregated into (geometric) standard deviations based on assuming log-normally distributed data in ecoinvent 2. These uncertainty factors are based on expert judgment, without (documented) empirical foundation and have been updated with a more empirical approach by Ciroth et al. (2016) based on analysing LCA studies and data with focus on industrial processes separately for each data quality indicator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1059, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 294, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2016) based on analysing LCA studies and data with focus on industrial processes separately for each data quality indicator. Furthermore, in ecoinvent 3 the mathematical framework has been developed to also calculate uncertainty factors for distributions other than log-normal from the coefficient of variation chosen as a universal measure of variability and defined as the ratio between the arithmetic standard deviation and mean for all distributions (Muller et al. 2016). The pedigree matrix based approach was also applied in LCIA for estimating input data uncertainty for toxicity characterisation by Fantke et al. (2012). In this context, the matrix columns represent data-related base uncertainty and the matrix rows represent spatiotemporal data variability. This application and the framework R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1060, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 294, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "laid out by Muller et al. (2016) demonstrate that the semi-quantitative pedigree approach can be flexibly applied to different aspects of an LCA study based on a diversity of different data lacking fully quantifiable uncertainty information. Numerical Uncertainty Propagation The most widely used uncertainty propagation method is a numerical approach called Monte Carlo simulation (sometimes also referred to as Monte Carlo analysis). It is available in all major LCA software (although not in all respective versions). Its basic principle is the repetition of model calculations (i.e. iterations) using values for each input parameter sampled from its defined probability distribution. A Monte Carlo simulation is outlined as follows: Step 1: generate samples of random values for all input variables; Step 2: apply the model on the generated values to calculate the model output in terms of LCA results; Step 3: analyse statistically the model output", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1061, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 295, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The model output can therefore be represented by a probability distribution instead of a single value. An insufficient number of iterations will result in an unreliable empirical distribution of the output variable that may neither consider the Fig. 11.10 Excerpt from the ecoinvent 3 pedigree matrix showing scores for the data quality indicator \u201creliability\u201d of the data source [adapted from Ciroth et al. (2016)] and how the scores are translated into numerical uncertainty factors based on expert judgement (for ecoinvent 2) or based on empirical data (for ecoinvent 3). The full matrices contain scores for five different indicators Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1062, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 295, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "full (or at least sufficiently representative) range of output values possible, nor represent the true shape of the distribution. In consequence, the distribution type will not be stable and the uncertainty will therefore be imprecisely estimated. The accuracy of a Monte Carlo analysis increases as the number of iterations becomes larger. However, there is no generic approach to determine when the number of iterations is \u2018large enough\u2019. Consequently, the number of iterations may vary among practitioners and also among studies performed by the same practitioner. The number of simulations does not dependent on the number of input parameters, but, in practice, the more complex a (LCI) model is, the more time-consuming a Monte Carlo simulation becomes, which may affect the total number of iterations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1063, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 296, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Instead of pre-defining the necessary number of iterations, it may be more efficient to run a few tests using an increasing number of simulations until the uncertainty measures (mean, standard deviation or eventually the distribution shape) does not change above an \u2018acceptable\u2019 difference, when further increasing the number of iterations. With enough experience, the number of required iterations can be identified based on the type or complexity of a study. While the basic, iterative principle is the same for any implementation of Monte Carlo simulation, the sampling method (i.e. how the values from the distribution of an input parameter are sampled) can vary. The simplest sampling method is called \u201csimple random sampling\u201d (SRS), sometimes also \u201cMonte Carlo sampling\u201d, and it randomly samples a value from the entire distribution of a parameter, as many times as the number of iterations set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1064, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 296, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another, more optimised sampling approach is \u201cLatin hypercube sampling\u201d (LHS), which is a stratified sampling method that first divides a distribution into segments of equal probability and randomly samples one value from each segment. Subsequently, for each iteration, one of these pre-sampled values is randomly selected and used as input parameter value. If correctly set up, this allows a better representation of extreme values (close to upper and lower bounds of the distribution) and can significantly reduce the amount of iterations required as it needs less iterations in order to create a sufficiently representative amount of combinations of the different input parameter values. There are several specialised, further optimised variants of this sampling technique, including for example Median Latin Hypercube sampling, which samples the median of each segment instead of a random value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1065, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 296, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For most LCA applications with its many distributions and multiple sources of variance contributing to the result\u2019s overall uncertainty, there will often be no difference or particular advantage in using LHS compared to SRS. Only when a small amount (typically less than five) of input parameters contributes most to the overall output uncertainty, the advantage of LHS may be tangible. For an overview on simulation and sampling approaches, see e.g. Ross (2012). Since all inputs are assumed to vary independently and thus in principle any combination of input values is possible, Monte Carlo simulation as described above implies mutual independence of all input parameters. In LCA however, many input parameters are correlated, i.e. if one parameter has an increased value any correlated parameter will consequently have a value that is higher or lower by a specific factor. This dependency of two or more parameters can be expressed using covariance or a R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1066, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 296, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "correlation coefficient, which can be incorporated into a Monte Carlo simulation so that no impossible combinations of input values are sampled. This will typically lead to a reduction (sometimes an increase) in output uncertainty that can be very large compared to assuming input parameter independence and it is therefore essential to consider. Note that, when correlations exist, appropriate conditional distributions are required. The difficulty in LCA practice is to identify and, even more so, to quantify input parameter correlations, which may be numerous and not typically provided in LCI databases. For a single scenario, Groen and Heijungs (2017) analysed the importance of correlation in uncertainty and sensitivity analysis in LCA. They compared two approaches to include correlation of input parameters and demonstrated that the risk of ignoring correlation can be quantified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1067, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 297, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They compared two approaches to include correlation of input parameters and demonstrated that the risk of ignoring correlation can be quantified. They found that in some cases it may not be necessary to quantify and consider correlation and that the risk of ignoring it can be included in the uncertainty analysis and thus be considered for the quantification of the robustness of the results and the consequent decision. One possible way of identifying and managing input parameter correlation is described in the Supporting Information of Fantke et al. (2012). A note to avoid confusion: LCA (and other) literature sometimes refers to Monte Carlo and Latin Hypercube (with or without further specification whether simulation, analysis or sampling is meant) as if they were two distinct alternative sampling methods. As described above however, both belong to the family of Monte Carlo simulations and the difference is the sampling method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1068, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 297, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As described above however, both belong to the family of Monte Carlo simulations and the difference is the sampling method. Analytical Uncertainty Propagation The most classic, simple and well-established analytical approach to uncertainty analysis, which is widely used in physical sciences and engineering, is the first-order approximation or Gaussian approximation, named after its famous developer Carl Friedrich Gauss. Morgan and Henrion (1990) described how a first-order approximation can be derived from the Taylor series (i.e. the representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms calculated from its derivatives at a given point), a technique based on a Taylor series expansion of the function relating model input parameters to model results (output). They extended this to a number of special cases, essentially allowing a wider application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1069, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 297, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They extended this to a number of special cases, essentially allowing a wider application. This method uses linear first-order equations within a fully multiplicative set of parameters assuming independence of all relevant inputs. In this method, relative (normalised local) sensitivity coefficients S^x are defined for each input variable x, calculated from the change of model output y (@ output) per relative change of input variable x (@ input) and evaluated at the point x 1\u20444 ^x: S^x , @ output=output @ input=input 1\u20444 @y=y @x=x \u0004\u0004\u0004\u0004 x1\u20444^x \u00f011:3\u00de Model output uncertainty, represented by the corresponding squared geometric standard deviation of model output, GSD2 y, can be described by its variance, var ln y \u00f0 \u00de 1\u20442 \u0006, i.e. the variation around its mean value. Output variance depends on the Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1070, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 297, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "variance of all model input variables, var ln xi \u00f0 \u00de 1\u20442 \u0006 (Morgan and Henrion 1990). If we use the fact that the variance of any input variable is related to its GSD2 xi by var1\u20442ln\u00f0xi\u00de\u0006 1\u20444 1\u20442ln\u00f0GSDxi\u00de\u00062, we can express model output uncertainty via its GSD2 y as a function of GSD2 xi of model input: GSD2 y 1\u20444 exp 2 \u0004 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi X i1\u204441 var ln xi \u00f0 \u00de 1\u20442 \u0006 r ! 1\u20444 exp ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi X i1\u204441 ln GSD2 xi \u0006 \u0007 h i2 s ! \u00f011:4\u00de The GSD2 xi for the different input variables need to be known or can be approximated e.g. for log-normally distributed data from the 95% uncertainty interval by GSD2 1\u20444 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 97:5th%ile=2:5th%ile p (see also Fig. 11.7b and Eqs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1071, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 298, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.7b and Eqs. 11.1 and 11.2) to ultimately arrive at an overall model output uncertainty using this analytical uncertainty quantification approach. In the LCA context, this method was first proposed for use in LCI (Heijungs 1996, 2002, 2010; Heijungs et al. 2005). Based on this, application to LCA was demonstrated by Ciroth et al. (2004) for a virtual case and by Hong et al. (2010) for the real case of the carbon footprint of a car part comparing several scenarios and considering the dependency of many LCI and LCIA parameters shared by the considered scenarios, which is essential when comparing them. Imbeault-T\u00e9treault et al. (2013) applied it to a complete LCA comprising 881 unit processes with 689 elementary flows comparing two scenarios and considering their dependencies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1072, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 298, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Imbeault-T\u00e9treault et al. (2013) applied it to a complete LCA comprising 881 unit processes with 689 elementary flows comparing two scenarios and considering their dependencies. Different implementations of this method are possible, dealing in different ways with the limitations of this approach based on different underlying assumptions as compared and critically discussed by Heijungs and Lenzen (2014). Comparisons with the results from Monte Carlo simulation which is considered to be the reference method for uncertainty propagation in LCA, consistently found good accordance between both methods applied to LCA (Ciroth et al. 2004; Hong et al. 2010; Imbeault-Tetreault et al. 2013; Heijungs and Lenzen 2014). The main advantages of the analytical approach are its relative simplicity and calculation speed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1073, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 298, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2004; Hong et al. 2010; Imbeault-Tetreault et al. 2013; Heijungs and Lenzen 2014). The main advantages of the analytical approach are its relative simplicity and calculation speed. The uncertainty is instantly calculated, whereas Monte Carlo simulation may take several minutes for small systems and few iterations to hours or even days of calculation time for complex systems and many iterations. For a typical LCA and a reasonable number of iterations, half an hour up to several hours on a modern computer can be expected. This is a major drawback towards routine uncertainty assessment in LCA and a central motivation for the authors mentioned above to explore analytical approaches for use in LCA. On the other hand, analytical methods are limited to predominantly simple (i.e. linear and continuous) models. An overview of strengths and weaknesses of analytical versus numerical methods in LCA was derived by Heijungs and Lenzen (2014) and is summarised in Table 11.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1074, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 298, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "linear and continuous) models. An overview of strengths and weaknesses of analytical versus numerical methods in LCA was derived by Heijungs and Lenzen (2014) and is summarised in Table 11.2. It is worth mentioning that the analytical approach does not provide information about the distribution type of its result, only the standard deviation, but in LCA, a log-normal distribution is often assumed for the output similarly to the R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1075, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 298, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "input parameters. Heijungs and Lenzen (2014) concluded that both methods should be implemented in LCA software and used complementarily in LCA, in order to profit from their respective advantages. Quantification of Sensitivity Sensitivity can be quantified using perturbation analysis (although often also referred to as sensitivity analysis, a term which is not clearly defined and used in different ways in literature, including or excluding uncertainty). Perturbation analysis can be performed numerically by varying an input parameter (e.g. by a fixed amount, a percentage, a standard deviation, or between a minimum and a maximum) and observing the resulting change in model output relative to the result using the unchanged input parameter (Heijungs 1994). The sensitivity S is then the ratio of the relative change in output divided by the relative change in input as given in Eq. 11.3. There are also analytical approaches available to provide this analysis (Heijungs 1994, 2002, 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1076, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 299, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.3. There are also analytical approaches available to provide this analysis (Heijungs 1994, 2002, 2010). The illustrative case study of an LCA on window frames in Chap. 39) identifies sensitive parameters calculating sensitivity ratios Table 11.2 Comparison of main strengths and weaknesses of analytical and numerical uncertainty propagation methods Analytical: Taylor series expansion Numerical: Monte Carlo simulation Uncertainty information required per parameter Standard deviation Standard deviation, distribution type, parameter(s) describing the distribution Uncertainty information obtained for model result Standard deviation Standard deviation, distribution type, further statistical analysis (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1077, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 299, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "median, interquartile range, etc.) Applicability Linear (almost), continuous functions; small uncertainties; no covariance (unless considered in additional term) Linear and nonlinear, continuous and discrete functions; small and large uncertainties; no covariance (unless considered in additional term) Calculation time Instantly Several minutes to hours Capturing correlation of input parameters Possible Possible Advantages \u2022 Fast calculation time (i.e. seconds) \u2022 Distribution type and parameters of inputs not required \u2022 Useful screening approach \u2022 Distribution type and parameters or outputs determined \u2022 Flexible and widely applicable including to complex models Disadvantages \u2022 Distribution type and parameters or outputs not determined \u2022 Fairly rigid and limited to simple linear models \u2022 Less widely applicable than Monte Carlo \u2022 Long (sometimes very long) calculation time (i.e. hours to days) \u2022 More input information required Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1078, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 299, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using Eq. 11.3 and also runs two sensitivity scenarios to test the influence of central assumptions in the study concerning the choice of geographical location (Danish vs. average European residence) and the decision whether to go for a design with a two-layered or a three-layered window pane. If the input is not a parameter but a discrete choice (e.g. system boundaries, allocation rules, functional unit, LCIA method), a so-called scenario analysis evaluates the change in the result for each alternative considered (or meaningful) for a given choice. In this case Eq. 11.3 cannot be applied and a change in a choice may entail a change in several (correlated or mutually independent) input parameters, such as the case for the choice of LCIA method, which will usually change all characterisation factors. The analysis of the influence of a choice on the result is therefore referred to as scenario analysis, with each choice representing a possible scenario", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1079, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 300, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The analysis of the influence of a choice on the result is therefore referred to as scenario analysis, with each choice representing a possible scenario. Although they are formally two different types of analysis, a scenario analysis can be seen as a sort of sensitivity analysis, but for discrete changes in (often multiple) inputs instead of variation of one continuous parameter value at a time. A scenario analysis is also often used to represent different possibilities, e.g. future developments or best-case/worst-case scenarios, of how a number of parameters may change. 11.4 Interpretation and Use of Uncertainty Information Once the uncertainties of input parameters, models, choices, etc., have been quantified and propagated, so that the results are not calculated deterministically but probabilistically (i.e. accompanied with a standard deviation and eventually a distribution of output values), the obtained information on uncertainty in the result can be used to improve (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1080, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 300, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "accompanied with a standard deviation and eventually a distribution of output values), the obtained information on uncertainty in the result can be used to improve (i.e. reduce) the uncertainty of important inputs and to enhance the interpretation and the robustness of conclusions drawn. This can be done in several, mostly complementary ways discussed in the following sections. We first discuss how to interpret uncertainty, variability, and sensitivity information, respectively, as the results of an uncertainty assessment in the LCA context. Then, we discuss the combined use of them and how to use the information obtained to reduce the uncertainty of an LCA study and the robustness of its conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1081, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 300, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Then, we discuss the combined use of them and how to use the information obtained to reduce the uncertainty of an LCA study and the robustness of its conclusions. 11.4.1 Interpreting Uncertainty, Variability, and Sensitivity As discussed, the sensitivity analysis points out those input parameters that have an important influence on the result, while the uncertainty analysis (including variability) provides information on the spread of the result due to the spread in input data and other sources of uncertainty. An input parameter may be very uncertain, but if the model output is insensitive to this parameter, the uncertainty of the input parameter will not contribute to that of the result (since no change in its value R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1082, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 300, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "changes the model result) and improving the certainty of this parameter with better input data will bring no improvement to the robustness of the result and would thus be wasted effort. On the other hand, the model result may be very sensitive to an input parameter that is very certain, in which case it would depend on their degree of certainty and sensitivity whether or not better data would still improve the result\u2019s robustness. From this illustration it is clear that neither the sensitivity nor the uncertainty of a parameter should be interpreted on their own, whereas the combination of both allows a meaningful judgement of the importance of a parameter regarding the model output. This can be illustrated plotting both aspects as illustrated in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1083, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 301, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can be illustrated plotting both aspects as illustrated in Fig. 11.11, which shows both cases described above plus the two cases of (1) complete insensitivity combined with complete certainty of a parameter, which makes it negligible regarding its importance for the output uncertainty, and (2) high sensitivity combined with high uncertainty of a parameter, which will identify the primary parameters to focus data collection and improvement (i.e. reducing parameter uncertainty) on in order to obtain the largest gains in result certainty. This basic concept is useful to keep in mind when identifying dominant sources of uncertainty for any model result. The concept of identifying and ranking sources of uncertainty, like input parameters, unit processes, or characterisation factors, in terms of their contribution to uncertainty in LCA results is called \u2018identification of significant issues in the Interpretation phase (see Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1084, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 301, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12) but also referred to as key issue analysis, importance analysis or uncertainty contribution analysis, which is not to be confused with the impact contribution analysis or dominance analysis frequently used in LCA that identifies the unit processes most contributing to an impact score. It is useful for identification of important sources of uncertainty, where better information or data would directly improve the certainty of the result and hence the robustness of the conclusion. It can be applied to focus data acquisition and model refinement, ensuring that additional effort in getting better data or improving models actually contributes to more robust results. This also relates back to the discussion above on precision and accuracy, confirming that improving precision Sensitivity Uncertainty Very important parameters Negligible parameters Possibly important parameters Possibly important parameters Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1085, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 301, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.11 Combining uncertainty of and sensitivity toward an input parameter to identify its importance in terms of contribution to overall uncertainty of the model result [based on Heijungs (1996)]; instead of parameters, any source of uncertainty in LCA could be identified, including for example characterisation factors Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1086, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 301, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "by finding more precise data does not automatically result in lower uncertainty if those data are not central to the impact score they are used to model. Combining the information gathered via key issue analysis with that from impact contribution analysis, helps identifying unit processes that contribute significantly to (1) the impact score of a highly local or regional impact category (e.g. eutrophication, toxicity, land use, or water use, see Chap. 10) and (2) the uncertainty of that impact score. This can be used to apply a smart, partial regionalisation of the LCI model and its LCIA characterisation. Instead of using spatially resolved LCI and LCIA data for the entire LCA (which is resource intensive and thus usually prohibitive for both the practitioner and the LCA software used), only the identified unit processes and elementary flows are regionalised using primary input data and regionalised LCIA characterisation factors (or derived, representative archetypes of them)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1087, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 302, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the uncertainty and variability information of the underlying elementary flows and characterisation factors has been kept separate (i.e. not been combined into a single uncertainty distribution), this will result in a (substantially) lower overall uncertainty of the impact score, since the contribution from spatial variability will be eliminated (or at least reduced) by using spatially resolved data and characterisation factors for these processes. This method allows a parsimonious consideration of complexity due to spatial variability and rewards the practitioner\u2019s additional effort directly by a lower overall uncertainty and hence a more robust result and conclusion. The same approach can also be applied to temporal variability, i.e. using temporally explicit data instead of annual averages when it sufficiently influences the result\u2019s uncertainty, e.g. for water consumption", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1088, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 302, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using temporally explicit data instead of annual averages when it sufficiently influences the result\u2019s uncertainty, e.g. for water consumption. 11.4.2 Relevance of Uncertainty When Comparing Scenarios So far we have discussed various aspects related to assessing the uncertainty of a single scenario, i.e. the environmental profile of one option, without comparing two or more alternative options, the latter being one of the most frequent applications of LCA. In the case of a comparative LCA however, there is an additional aspect to consider: the correlation of numerous input parameters between the compared scenarios, where many processes (i.e. electricity, fuel, transport, etc.) and almost all characterisation factors will be the same in several or all compared scenarios. When comparing two scenarios, the focal point is thus not on how large the value of an impact score is but what the difference (or the ratio) between two impact scores (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1089, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 302, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When comparing two scenarios, the focal point is thus not on how large the value of an impact score is but what the difference (or the ratio) between two impact scores (i.e. between two scenarios or compared systems) is. Consequently, instead of the absolute uncertainty of a single impact score, the uncertainty of the difference (or ratio) between two impact scores needs to be assessed, because the uncertainty of correlated parameters will be the same in both scenarios and thus not contribute to the uncertainty of the difference between the scenarios. In other words, comparing two scenarios and their respective uncertainties (e.g. by simply overlaying both R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1090, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 302, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "distributions) without considering correlation, the uncertainty will be (strongly) overestimated, which may be misleading and result in the wrong conclusion. Note that in the illustrative case study presented in Chap. 39, it was not possible to consider the correlations between the compared scenarios, due to software limitations. The technical possibilities for uncertainty analysis vary between available LCA software and may also evolve (i.e. improve) from older to newer versions. Choosing LCA software that supports the requirements of a proposer uncertainty analysis is therefore essential. The uncertainty analysis presented in the illustrative case study is a screening level analysis and considers in its interpretation that uncertainty in the comparison of scenarios is overestimated due to lacking consideration of correlations. There are two frequently used ways to compare the impact scores of two scenarios A and B, calculating the difference A \u2212B, or the ratio A/B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1091, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 303, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There are two frequently used ways to compare the impact scores of two scenarios A and B, calculating the difference A \u2212B, or the ratio A/B. When using the difference, the result can be A \u2013 B < 0 when A has a lower impact score than B (A < B), it can be A \u2013 B = 0 when A = B, or it can be A \u2013 B > 0 when A > B. The second way works similarly, with A/B < 1 when A < B, A/B = 1 when A = B, or A/B > 1 when A > B. In both cases the environmentally preferable option for a given impact category (i.e. compared impact scores) is easily identified. The uncertainty of the difference or ratio can be quantified using covariance or correlation coefficients, which can be assessed with both numerical and analytical uncertainty propagation methods. When using Monte Carlo simulation, it is also straightforward to calculate the above difference or ratio pairing the results from the iterations from each scenario", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1092, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 303, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When using Monte Carlo simulation, it is also straightforward to calculate the above difference or ratio pairing the results from the iterations from each scenario. This will result in a number of iterations where A > B and some where A < B unless one scenario is always better than the alternative over its entire range of uncertainty. This can then be interpreted as the frequencies of each case, i.e. x% of iterations where A > B and y% of iterations where A < B, with x and y representing the respective probability given that enough iterations where calculated. This means that it is possible to calculate the probability of A being environmentally preferable over B and vice versa as illustrated in Fig. 11.12. For example, if A is better than B in 25% of the simulated cases, there will be 75% where B is better than A. The conclusion may thus be that B is better than A with 75% likelihood, or in other words with a 25% probability to be wrong", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1093, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 303, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The conclusion may thus be that B is better than A with 75% likelihood, or in other words with a 25% probability to be wrong. In a decision support context, the probability of one alternative being preferable over another is an essential measure of robustness of a recommendation and eventually an information that only uncertainty assessment can provide. If the decision is to choose one option over all other alternatives, there is a substantial added value for the decision maker if the probability for this to be wrong can be quantified. It helps, among other, to provide perspective on the robustness of an environmental gain of a certain option relative to other measures such as costs for example. If a higher investment is required but the probability that this really is an environmentally preferable option is very high, the investment may be easier to justify. Several authors demonstrated how to apply this in LCA (Hong et al. 2010; Wei et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1094, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 303, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Several authors demonstrated how to apply this in LCA (Hong et al. 2010; Wei et al. 2016) and the following section provides an example where this approach was also used to enhance the interpretation of results and express the robustness of the conclusions. Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1095, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 303, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The example is a real case comparing different, functionally equivalent solutions for hand dryers in public restrooms (Quantis 2009). The study compared the (1) XLERATOR Hand Dryer (high-speed air flow) to (2) conventional hand dryers (low-speed air flow), (3) paper towels with virgin paper, and (4) paper towels with 100% recycled paper. The functional unit was to dry 260,000 pairs of hands. The study was performed by Quantis\u2019 Boston office, commissioned by Excel Dryer Inc., underwent critical review according to ISO 14040/14044 and has been published (available via exceldryer.com). It is in many ways a classical LCA study, but what makes it stand out as an interesting example is that for climate change impacts, an uncertainty assessment was performed in order to determine the confidence in the conclusions regarding the preferable solution. Using the analytical propagation method, output uncertainty was calculated for the climate change results of all four scenarios as shown in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1096, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 304, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Using the analytical propagation method, output uncertainty was calculated for the climate change results of all four scenarios as shown in Fig. 11.13. Even though it may be tempting to compare the distributions directly, the latter do not consider dependency and thus overestimate the uncertainty of the difference between scenarios when comparing them. They do, however, indicate the uncertainty of each scenario individually with the XLERATOR showing the lowest spread, which is due to the fact that many primary data are used that the commissioner has direct access to, whereas the input data for alternative scenarios are estimated or taken from other sources and secondary data, thus increasing their uncertainty. The XLERATOR shows the lowest impact score and very little overlap with the uncertainty range of the alternative scenarios. This allows a first conclusion that it is very certain that this is the preferable alternative among the compared options, Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1097, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 304, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This allows a first conclusion that it is very certain that this is the preferable alternative among the compared options, Fig. 11.12 Uncertainty of the difference between two scenarios A and B R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1098, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 304, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "because the uncertainty range can only be smaller when considering the dependency of parameters between the alternatives. In order to gain deeper insights into the uncertainty when comparing these alternatives, a paired comparison between two scenarios at a time was performed. A selection of the results is shown in Fig. 11.14. As discussed above, the ratio of two study results can be used to compare them and determine whether or not one of the two alternatives is environmentally preferable. It is clearly demonstrated that the XLERATOR consistently has the lowest impact score and that the probability that this is the wrong conclusion is virtually zero. In other words, according to the uncertainty analysis, it is 100% certain that the XLERATOR is the most preferable among all considered options regarding climate change impacts. It is an important question to ask which aspects of uncertainty have been considered and how completely the uncertainty has been captured", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1099, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 305, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is an important question to ask which aspects of uncertainty have been considered and how completely the uncertainty has been captured. If important sources of uncertainty that are independent between scenarios have been omitted, the uncertainty of the ratio between two scenarios may well be larger and the conclusion would be less robust. Assuring a complete consideration of important sources of uncertainty contributing to the difference between two scenarios is essential in order to fully trust the resulting measure of confidence in concluding the preference of one scenario over another. The comparison of other scenarios provides examples of less certain outcomes. The comparison of standard dryer and virgin paper towels shows that a part of the resulting distribution of the ratio between both scenarios is larger than 1. According to the numerical results provided in the report, there is a 24% chance that virgin paper towels have a lower climate change impact than standard dryers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1100, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 305, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "According to the numerical results provided in the report, there is a 24% chance that virgin paper towels have a lower climate change impact than standard dryers. Consequently, there is a 76% chance that standard dryers are less impacting than virgin paper towels. When comparing standard dryer and recycled paper towels, the uncertainty distribution of the ratio between both is almost equally spread around 1, which means that there are about 50% chance for both possible conclusions. In that Fig. 11.13 Probability distributions (probability density functions) for the climate change impact scores of four compared alternatives to dry hands (Quantis 2009) Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1101, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 305, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "case, both scenarios have to be considered essentially equal and no conclusion regarding their (difference in) climate change impact can be drawn. Comparing the two paper towel options, it appears that recycled paper towels are the less impacting alternative, but the distribution of the ratio between both is close to 1. Additionally, the report states that a number of potentially important and independent uncertainties have not been quantified, such as \u201cthe methodological issues relating to allocating for recycled content and that the data used do not include impacts for the processing of the recycled paper\u201d. Hence, the range of the uncertainty distribution of the ratio between both scenarios may be larger and the conclusion of preference for the 100% recycled paper towels may be less robust. In order to derive concrete conclusions if one option is better than (preferable to) another one, the observed differences need to be examined in statistical terms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1102, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 306, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to derive concrete conclusions if one option is better than (preferable to) another one, the observed differences need to be examined in statistical terms. The two most used statistical tools to examine if their difference is statistically significant are confidence intervals and hypothesis testing. Fig. 11.14 Paired comparison of the climate change impact score ratio of alternative scenarios including uncertainty (Quantis 2009) R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1103, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 306, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There is still room for improvement, but this study is an excellent example of how uncertainty analysis strengthens the robustness and the trust in the conclusions of an LCA. Besides showing the added value of uncertainty assessment and interpretation, it also illustrates the feasibility of quantifying and managing uncertainty in LCA. 11.5 Communication of Uncertainty Besides quantifying and improving the robustness of an LCA and its conclusions, the question of how to communicate this beyond the practitioners directly involved in the study is fundamentally important and may often be more complex than anticipated. Like any communication it needs to be adapted to the target audience and will have to look very differently if targeting the general public, high-level decision/policy makers, or fellow practitioners and it will depend on the goal and scope of the LCA itself and, thus, differ if the goal was, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1104, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 307, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to support the eco-design of a product or the overall environmental performance of a company. The following set of questions is useful to address in order to identify a meaningful uncertainty communication strategy: 1. Who is the target audience and how familiar is this audience with LCA and its aspects of uncertainty? 2. What exactly should be communicated in relation to uncertainty? 3. How should uncertainty results be represented? 11.5.1 Who? Identifying the Target Audience Before choosing which uncertainty information should be conveyed, with how much detail and how exactly, it is essential to identify the target audience(s) of this information and adapt the communication strategy accordingly. Each potential target audience will understand and interpret uncertainty information differently in function of how familiar they are with underlying methodology, sources, types and meaning of uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1105, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 307, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There are many ways of classifying target audiences, but several main target groups (not necessarily always applying to all LCA reporting situations) may be: \u2013 LCA experts, e.g. other practitioners, scientists, etc., who are very familiar with the subject. This may well be the easiest case, since little or no selection of uncertainty information, or a particularly adapted presentation will be required in most cases. \u2013 Informed stakeholders with expertise regarding the LCA, the studied subject or the indicators considered (e.g. environmental, social, or economic), such as Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1106, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 307, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "NGOs, competitors, governmental agencies, etc. This target group will be able to access the core issues of an LCA and its uncertainty as long as some guidance and transparency regarding uncertainty are provided and the information is presented in a way that does not require in-depth expertise and routine. \u2013 The general public, like NGOs, consumers, workers, or neighbours of a production site, will usually need as much pre-selection, pre-digestion and simplification of uncertainty information as possible. \u2013 High-level decision makers in a company or national/international policy-context will not be familiar with technical details around the LCA study and uncertainty analysis. They have little time to spend on understanding any details and need to know quickly what the implications of the underlying uncertainties are for their decision(s). They may want to know which uncertainties are considered and how certain they can be regarding the robustness of the LCA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1107, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 308, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They may want to know which uncertainties are considered and how certain they can be regarding the robustness of the LCA results. \u2013 Medium-level decision-makers such as regional or local policy-makers, or industrial production managers may require to be presented with uncertainty information somewhere in-between high-level decision-makers and the general public, depending on the context. \u2013 The commissioner(s) of an LCA may fall into any of these groups and will have a particular interest in the uncertainty of its results. It may well be that an LCA study needs to address several of these target groups and that a meaningful compromise needs to be found. A good way to deal with multiple target groups\u2019 needs is to prepare an adapted presentation for each target group, e.g. via an executive summary (for high-level) and a technical summary (for medium-level and informed stakeholders), or via dedicated reports or at least interpretation and discussion chapters for a given target group", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1108, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 308, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The LCA report on window frames provided as an illustrative case study in Chap. 39 provides both an executive summary and a technical summary addressing different target groups for the report. 11.5.2 What? Selecting Which Information Is Relevant to Communicate There are many aspects related to uncertainty that could be communicated but need to be selected depending on the target group of the information and what they can and need to do with it, but also considering the importance of transparency: 1. Assumptions and hypotheses underlying a study, including simplifications and generalisations; 2. Representativeness of information, models, and data used; 3. General level of scientific knowledge and understanding about important aspects of a study, particularly for new issues or approaches used; R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1109, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 308, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4. Subjective, ethical or moral values and choices implicitly or explicitly included in the study; 5. Aspects that have not been considered (for whatever reason) but that may be important; 6. Types and sources of uncertainty that have been quantified; 7. Types and sources of uncertainty that have not been quantified but that are expected to be important contributors to overall uncertainty of results and/or conclusions; 8. How exactly uncertainties have been quantified and propagated; 9. Types of analyses that have been performed to consider uncertainty (e.g. sensitivity, uncertainty, uncertainty contribution, scenario analysis, etc.); 10. Uncertainty management and reduction strategies applied; 11. Robustness of the numerical results eventually including the quantitative uncertainty of some or all of them and a list of the most sensitive underlying assumptions and data; 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1110, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 309, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Robustness of the numerical results eventually including the quantitative uncertainty of some or all of them and a list of the most sensitive underlying assumptions and data; 12. Robustness of the conclusions and recommendations, eventually including quantitative measures and a list of the most sensitive underlying assumptions, data and choices; 13. Implications and consequences of the uncertainty underlying the results and/or conclusions. It is important to keep in mind that communication of uncertainty does not necessarily imply its quantification using sophisticated methodology and substantial resources. The absolute minimum of a qualitative discussion of some or all aspects listed above can and should always be provided by a practitioner. 11.5.3 How? Representing Uncertainty Effectively This section is largely inspired by a report from Wardekker et al. (2013), which nicely summarises the essential aspects around representing uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1111, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 309, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013), which nicely summarises the essential aspects around representing uncertainty. Although not specifically adapted to LCA, further details and insights beyond the selection in this chapter may be found there. When communicating LCA results, in which ever way, it is important to be aware that it is the responsibility of the author(s) (i.e. the practitioner, sometimes also the commissioner) to consider and adapt to the target audience. It is clearly insufficient to focus on a scientifically correct and complete presentation of results and related uncertainty, leaving the responsibility of their correct interpretation solely to the (target) audience. When choosing a way to express and represent uncertainty, it is thus important to keep in mind that the target audience may interpret it very differently than intended. Only using point estimates or deterministic results and conclusions, without mentioning any uncertainty, already bears the risk of unintentional interpretations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1112, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 309, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Only using point estimates or deterministic results and conclusions, without mentioning any uncertainty, already bears the risk of unintentional interpretations. This will be even more the case when including uncertainty information, where it is well possible that referring to a low probability of an environmental consequence to occur may result in Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1113, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 309, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "unintentional focus and unrest about this unexpected risk. It is also possible that evoking a high probability of adverse effects may not be noticed as an issue of concern, just because it was presented as something of a certain probability and not as the (almost) certain environmental consequence of an act or decision. In other words, the same uncertainty information may result in opposite interpretations by different readers. While this is difficult to fully foresee and avoid, paying attention to such details when preparing a presentation or report can help avoiding unintentional or wrong interpretation when considering the target audience\u2019s context and interpretation capacity. Wording and phrasing are essential elements in this context. For example, a non-technical audience may not be familiar with the meaning and implication of terms like risk, probability or likelihood. The expression of uncertainty in a positive way versus a negative way can make an important difference", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1114, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 310, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The expression of uncertainty in a positive way versus a negative way can make an important difference. To illustrate this, the following two phrases express the same uncertainty information in an LCA comparing two alternatives A and B, but in a very different way: (1) \u201cthere is a 10% risk that choosing option B may be the wrong decision\u201d versus \u201cthere is a chance of 90% that option B is the best option\u201d. Besides paying attention to how an information is phrased (sent), it also plays an important role how the information is received, which Wardekker et al. (2013) describe via three effects of distortion: \u2013 \u201cAvailability: matters that easily come to mind are generally regarded as occurring more frequently or more likely to occur than matters that are more obscure. A strong focus on a specific issue (in the media) may result in people regarding it as more likely to occur. \u2013 Confirmation: once a view has been adopted, new information will be interpreted on the basis of this view", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1115, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 310, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2013 Confirmation: once a view has been adopted, new information will be interpreted on the basis of this view. It is difficult to change people\u2019s views. \u2013 Overconfidence: people are often too certain of their own judgement. This applies to the general public as well as to scientists.\u201d The exact place in a report or presentation where uncertainty information is included is worth some consideration. Numerous options exist, but each solution may bear its particular risk of failure to communicate uncertainty, like a dedicated chapter stating all there is to state, may be easily ignored because it is little inviting to read, or an annex containing all relevant information may never be read, as it is not part of the main body of the report and therefore may not be considered relevant by some readers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1116, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 310, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It may be a good idea to spread uncertainty information meaningfully in different parts of the report, a concept referred to as progressive disclosure of information (PDI) which employs the concept of layers of information, distinguishing \u201couter layers (e.g. press release, summary, [oral presentations]) [that] refer to non-technical information, uncertainties integrated into the message, emphasis on context, implications and consequences\u201d and \u201cinner layers (e.g., appendices, background report, [or specific section like introduction, conclusion, recommendations]) [containing] detailed technical information, uncertainties discussed separately, emphasis on types, sources and the extent of uncertainty)\u201d R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1117, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 310, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Wardekker et al. 2013). Different layers can be used that are adapted to specific target groups and uncertainty information to communicate. In any case, conclusions and recommendations should always directly include relevant and central information regarding uncertainty. There are different, often complementary ways to present uncertainty information: \u2022 Qualitatively (e.g. reporting sources of uncertainty and their potential influence on results); \u2022 Descriptively (e.g. reporting central tendencies like mean and variability around the mean); \u2022 Graphically (e.g. visualising uncertainty information in graphs); \u2022 Numerically (e.g. reporting ranges, probability distributions of results values or statistical results). Presenting uncertainty information in a verbal or descriptive way is useful, as it allows direct integration with the results and conclusions, especially for non-quantitative information and may be retained more easily than numerical information by most readers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1118, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 311, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is particularly well suited for inclusion with outer layers (e.g. report summary). Such a description of uncertainties may be based on a quantified evaluation or even just on a qualitative appreciation of uncertainty. In any case, it is important to keep in mind that many terms typically used to describe uncertainty are quite imprecise and prone to vary in perception and interpretation among individuals, e.g. large, small, important, significant, etc. It is essential to use these terms consistently with the same meaning throughout a report and that they match numerical results, if available. They may even be explicitly defined, e.g. very likely = 90\u201399% probability, likely = 80\u201389% and so on. If quantified, uncertainty information can also be communicated numerically, e.g. in tables, as standard deviations, minimum and maximum bounds, ranges, uncertainty and confidence intervals, probabilities, comparison with other studies or measurements, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1119, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 311, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in tables, as standard deviations, minimum and maximum bounds, ranges, uncertainty and confidence intervals, probabilities, comparison with other studies or measurements, etc. This is useful especially for application in inner layers of information, such as a report appendix. A frequent mistake in this case is the communication of results and quantified uncertainties with a \u201cfalse precision\u201d showing too many digits. This practice suggests a very precise quantification of uncertainty that is most likely not defendable in an LCA context. For example, considering a typical standard deviation of a global warming impact score, a value of 2.49678 is essentially the same as 2.5 and in fact even the same as 3. The opposite may also exist, when a \u201cfalse imprecision\u201d is used to express numerical results so vaguely that they could mean anything, or are immune to criticism, but not very helpful for decision support", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1120, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 311, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Graphical representation of uncertainty can be provided in many different ways, e.g. using error (or uncertainty) bars or bands, box plots, probability distributions, coefficients of variation, confidence intervals, etc. This has the advantage that a lot of information can be aggregated and shown in a concise and structured way, allowing to capture a lot of uncertainty information in a short time and single graph. Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1121, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 311, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is illustrated in Fig. 11.15 which shows an example of a box plot (or whisker plot) of the spread of freshwater ecotoxicity characterisation factors for 2499 organic chemicals and 4 emission compartments from USEtox 2.02 (see Chap. 10 for further information regarding freshwater ecotoxicity characterisation factors). The boxes efficiently illustrate that 90% of the characterisation factors fall within the range of five to six orders of magnitude, whereas the difference between the lowest and highest characterisation factors (grey dots) is in the range of 16\u201319 orders of magnitude. Although the actual shape of the uncertainty distribution cannot the seen, it is visible that the distribution is skewed towards higher values with the median (the value at 50%) being in the upper range of values and not in the centre. However, graphical representation of uncertainty also bears the risk of being suggestive, easily misinterpreted, or too complex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1122, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 312, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, graphical representation of uncertainty also bears the risk of being suggestive, easily misinterpreted, or too complex. One of the most common ways to represent uncertainty is to plot the probability distributions of the output variables, as presented in Fig. 11.13 and discussed in Sect. 11.4.2. Alternatively to PDFs in Fig. 11.13, the Cumulative Distribution Functions (CDFs) of the outputs could be derived in order to characterise uncertainty. Another tool to represent uncertainty are the so-called probability boxes, based on a probability bounds approach (Karanki et al. 2009). The book \u201cEnvironmental Decisions in the Face of Uncertainty\u201d from the Institute of Medicine (IOM 2013) contains a useful overview and more in-depth discussion on graphical and other representations of uncertainty. For example, a frequent mistake when representing uncertainty in LCA is the use of error bars", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1123, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 312, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, a frequent mistake when representing uncertainty in LCA is the use of error bars. Figure 11.16 illustrates this with error bars that we added to the original graph from the Quantis study discussed above, so that the resulting graph below represents uncertainty in an alternative way to Fig. 11.13. This representation of uncertainty can be seen in numerous LCA publications and presentations. The error bars here represent the absolute uncertainty of each compared option, but they do not consider interdependence of uncertainties between scenarios. However, by presenting them next to each other, Fig. 11.16 suggests that the error bars can be Fig. 11.15 Box or whisker plot of freshwater ecotoxicity characterisation factors for 2499 organic chemicals and 4 emission compartments from USEtox 2.02 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1124, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 312, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "directly compared among each other in order to determine if the uncertainty allows to visually distinguish these options. As discussed above, only the uncertainty of the difference (or ratio) for each paired comparison among these options (which will be smaller while only considering the uncertainty of the difference (or ratio) between two options) will truly allow to determine whether both options are distinguishable or essentially equal. The useful way of using error bars in this example would therefore be to present one for each pairing of these compared options, parallel to Fig. 11.14. When using graphs, the scale of an axis should always reflect the underlying uncertainty. This is particularly important in LCA, where many impact scores may have an uncertainty spanning from one to several orders of magnitude, in which case it would be misleading to present them on a linear scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1125, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 313, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In such cases, the results should preferably be shown using a log-scale, which will only emphasise larger differences between impact scores. Contrary to a frequent perception, this has nothing to do with data manipulation, since scores can still be identified by their exact value. It simply avoids over-exaggeration of very small differences that may look very large on a linear scale while (almost) disappear on a log-scale. A similar effect of over-exaggeration is achieved when zooming into a certain range of an axis, e.g. only showing the highest values from 80 to 100%, which will show differences between two points as much larger compared to the full range of the axis. As indicated above, these approaches are complementary and should be used as such. Sometimes a repetition of the same (important) information via two different ways and at two different places in a report may be preferable over a concise, non-repetitive communication. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1126, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 313, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sometimes a repetition of the same (important) information via two different ways and at two different places in a report may be preferable over a concise, non-repetitive communication. Fig. 11.16 Uncertainty bars for the climate change impact scores of four compared alternatives to dry hands (figure adapted from Quantis (2009) by adding error bars for illustrative purposes) Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1127, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 313, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.6 Management of Uncertainty The strategy of how to consider and manage uncertainties in an LCA study depends on a number of factors that will determine what is feasible. The most important limitation is likely the availability of resources (time and/or budget) to collect additional information in order to quantify, represent and reduce uncertainty. Accessibility and level of operationalisation of the technical aspects of uncertainty assessment (e.g. databases providing default uncertainties for background LCI data and LCIA characterisation factors, LCA software providing ways to efficiently propagate uncertainties) is also frequently named as a potential barrier. In any case, there is always a minimum of uncertainty management that will be feasible without requiring important resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1128, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 314, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In any case, there is always a minimum of uncertainty management that will be feasible without requiring important resources. In many scientific fields, uncertainty is managed using a tiered approach with each tier (or level of detail) progressively increasing the requirements and sophistication of uncertainty assessment and management. A particular advantage of such an approach is that it allows an iterative improvement and refinement of uncertainty management from a first qualitative listing of uncertainty sources, to a first quantitative estimation and screening, up to a sophisticated full uncertainty assessment as a study advances. This type of approach caters nicely to the iterative nature of LCA (see Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1129, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 314, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This type of approach caters nicely to the iterative nature of LCA (see Sect. 6.3) and allows the LCA practitioner to adapt the extent of uncertainty management in a study to the available resources, instead of suggesting that uncertainty management always has to be done using the most complex approaches or not at all if resources are too limited to allow for a quantitative approach. An example for such a tiered approach is the Guidance on Characterizing and Communicating Uncertainty in Exposure Assessment from the World Health Organisation (WHO 2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1130, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 314, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An example for such a tiered approach is the Guidance on Characterizing and Communicating Uncertainty in Exposure Assessment from the World Health Organisation (WHO 2008). It proposes four progressive tiers with increasing complexity from tier 0 (the absolute minimum) to tier 3 (the most sophisticated level): Tier 0: Screening uncertainty analysis Tier 1: Qualitative uncertainty analysis Tier 2: Deterministic uncertainty analysis Tier 3: Probabilistic uncertainty analysis While the details of this framework are adapted to chemical exposure assessment, its underlying principle of iteratively increasing sophistication and complexity is a useful inspiration for LCA. Figure 11.17 shows the different levels of detail for each tier, from no uncertainty analysis (point estimate) at the bottom to probabilistic uncertainty analysis at the top", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1131, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 314, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 11.17 shows the different levels of detail for each tier, from no uncertainty analysis (point estimate) at the bottom to probabilistic uncertainty analysis at the top. An expert working group of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative on uncertainty management in LCA drafted a similar framework for LCA during a series of workshops between 2009 and 2012, which is a useful starting point R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1132, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 314, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "towards integration of uncertainty management into LCA practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1133, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 315, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They proposed five tiers: Tier 0: Minimum transparency with a clear definition of what is considered a notable difference between scenarios for each impact category; Tier 1: Screening level focusing on identification of important sources of parameter uncertainty providing information on importance and sensitivity of parameters, choices, assumptions, etc.; Tier 2: Qualitative and semi-quantitative uncertainty assessment of important sources of uncertainty with systematic identification and description of uncertainties for all parameters, choices and assumptions including parameter and scenario uncertainty; Tier 3: Quantitative uncertainty assessment of all sources of uncertainty with systematic quantification of uncertainties and variability for all parameters, choices and assumptions accounting for all quantifiable uncertainties; Tier 4: Fully probabilistic LCA representing all relevant sources of influence by fully characterised uncertainty and variability separately", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1134, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 315, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In essence, different levels of sophistication are possible when establishing a strategy to integrate uncertainty management into a study and it is not always the most sophisticated level that is required. Compared to completely ignoring uncertainty, even a basic (e.g. qualitative) consideration is already better than nothing and a good and essential first step to pinpoint sources of uncertainty in the results of any LCA study. This helps to be conscious about potential pitfalls and misinterpretation when making a decision based on the conclusions of a study. It should also be noted that a tiered uncertainty assessment framework essentially serves as an orientation providing coherence for different levels of sophistication of uncertainty assessment. Fig. 11.17 Levels of detail for tiered uncertainty management strategies [taken from Paparella et al. (2013)] Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1135, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 315, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It groups those elements of an uncertainty assessment that can be combined meaningfully on each level. 11.7 Perspectives Uncertainty and variability are inherent properties of LCA, all its models, data, assumptions, and choices that are required when performing an LCA. Uncertainty is not the enemy, but it is unavoidable and its assessment can be helpful when put to good use for improving and interpreting LCA results. Uncertainty and its reduction is the very reason for the iterative nature of LCA and should hence be used as a guiding principle for the changes applied during each iteration of an LCA. Uncertainty and variability have many sources, some of which are quantifiable, while others are not, but all need to be considered when interpreting and discussing results and the robustness of a conclusion. In order to be successfully applied in LCA, uncertainty assessment requires some knowledge of the underlying principles and methods as well as a set of tools supporting: 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1136, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 316, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to be successfully applied in LCA, uncertainty assessment requires some knowledge of the underlying principles and methods as well as a set of tools supporting: 1. Quantification and storage of uncertainty, variability, and correlation or interdependence of inputs, models, assumptions, etc. 2. Propagation of input uncertainties to model output uncertainty 3. Tools for sensitivity, uncertainty, uncertainty contribution analysis and scenario comparison 4. Skilled interpretation and communication of relevant uncertainty information Even though uncertainty assessment is an additional procedure to handle and provide resources for when conducting an LCA, it has multiple uses that will help ensuring that resources spent on the iterative improvement of the study actually contribute to a tangible improvement in uncertainty of the results and their enhanced interpretation in order to provide robust conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1137, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 316, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Uncertainty assessment can notably be used to: \u2013 Identify sources of uncertainty that dominantly contribute to the uncertainty of results \u2013 Effectively target the iterative improvement of data, models and assumptions towards those elements that dominate the result(s) and their uncertainty \u2013 Identify processes and elementary flows where archetypical or spatially explicit LCI and LCIA data will significantly reduce the uncertainty of the results due to the integration of spatial (or temporal) variability into the LCA \u2013 Enhance the interpretation of results, e.g. which alternatives are truly different and which are not \u2013 Quantify the confidence in the robustness of a conclusion or the probability of being wrong R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1138, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 316, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Not only does the assessment and management of uncertainty in LCA provide a lot of opportunities and advantages, but ignoring it actually bears potentially important risks. For example, resources spent to improve the study may be inefficiently used when improving data and models with limited contribution to result uncertainty (e.g. when results are not sensitive to changes in inputs). Conclusions drawn from deterministic results may not only lack robustness but actually be misleading (e.g. when differences between results are not significant, i.e. falling within the uncertainty ranges of results). From today\u2019s perspective, a lot can be done already to consider uncertainty, with many LCI databases and the first LCIA methods providing uncertainty estimates for their data, and most LCA software providing functionality to propagate those into the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1139, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 317, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When exploring those options, it is important to be aware of the limitations that most if not all LCA software (while writing this book in 2016) does not provide the possibility to consider LCIA uncertainties, which may not always be obvious to the user. Running the uncertainty analysis will thus essentially propagate the uncertainties from the LCI database and result in a very incomplete quantification of uncertainty that may be missing many important sources on the LCIA side. Using this kind of uncertainty information to establish whether or not two alternatives have significantly different impact scores may still provide misleading conclusions and a false impression on their robustness due to its bias towards LCI uncertainty. To overcome this limitation, updates of LCIA methods will (increasingly) provide uncertainty estimates for characterisation factors (Bulle et al., in review)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1140, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 317, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To overcome this limitation, updates of LCIA methods will (increasingly) provide uncertainty estimates for characterisation factors (Bulle et al., in review). With high uncertainties being a frequent, critical argument towards LCA, it is worth asking if LCA results are actually more uncertain than those from other assessment tools. No doubt that the precision of LCA results will be inferior to that of many other environmental assessment tools, especially the local and site-specific ones. This has a lot to do with scale, since LCA typically models entire supply chains that will usually be global, involve many processes about which little information is available, covering a broad range of environmental indicators and impact categories, and often spanning considerable time periods (defined in the duration of the functional unit) to be represented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1141, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 317, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The combination of large spatiotemporal scales and the complexity due to broad inventory flow and impact coverage, which is unique to LCA among environmental assessment tools, is the source of a lot of variability and uncertainty due to e.g. aggregating over larger spatial or temporal space and is thus simply a function of the space considered and data available. However, as discussed in this chapter, contrary to most environmental assessment tools, LCA does not attempt to predict absolute impacts, but rather focuses on the relative difference in potential impacts between alternatives, although exceptions exist, such as Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) which are \u201cstand-alone\u201d environmental profiles. Any systematic error and source of variability or uncertainty will usually have little influence on the uncertainty of the difference between alternatives. Therefore, the focus in LCA is accuracy and not necessarily precision. Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1142, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 317, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While this chapter provides an overview of a range of aspects around uncertainty management in LCA, we recommend the cited literature for those readers looking for more in-depth insights into specific aspects. For further reading beyond literature cited above we recommend the following: Deeper insights on uncertainty representation in the context of LCA were published by Heijungs and Frischknecht (2005). For log-normally distributed parameters, Strom and Stansbury (2000) discuss the determination of distribution information from minimal literature information and provide a comprehensive overview on log-normal distributions. Heijungs and Kleijn (2001) further discuss contribution analysis, perturbation analysis, uncertainty analysis, comparative analysis, and discernibility analysis. De Schryver et al. (2011) explore how value choices in LCIA influence the uncertainty of (human health) characterisation factors. Clavreul et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1143, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 318, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "De Schryver et al. (2011) explore how value choices in LCIA influence the uncertainty of (human health) characterisation factors. Clavreul et al. (2013) combine probability and possibility theories to represent stochastic and epistemic uncertainties in a consistent manner in LCA. Even though it does not discuss life cycle assessments and has a more risk-assessment based focus, a useful read regarding environmental decision making under uncertainty including aspects of communication and management of uncertainty is the book \u201cEnvironmental Decisions in the Face of Uncertainty\u201d from the Institute of Medicine (IOM 2013) which is freely available via The National Academies Press (NAP) website. When discussing LCA indicators and results, we should be at least as critical, if not even more critical when presented with no or small uncertainties as we are when presented with large, but properly quantified uncertainties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1144, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 318, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Or to say it more eloquently with the words of physicist and Nobel laureate Richard P. Feynman: \u201cWhat is not surrounded by uncertainty cannot be the truth\u201d. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from Jon Dettling (Quantis) for allowing us to use their study as an example. Bj\u00f6rklund, A.: Survey of approaches to improve reliability in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 7, 64\u201372 (2002). doi:10.1007/BF02978849 Bulle, C., Margni, M., Kashef-Haghighi, S., Boulay, A.-M., Bourgault, G., De Bruille, V., Cao, V., Fantke, P., Hauschild, M.Z., Henderson, A., Humbert, S., Kounina, A., Laurent, A., Levasseur, A., Liard, G., Patouillard, L., Rosenbaum, R.K., Roy, P.-O., Shaked, S., Jolliet, O.: IMPACT World+: A Globally Regionalized Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method (in review) Ciroth, A.: Uncertainties in life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 9, 141\u2013142 (2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1145, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 318, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 9, 141\u2013142 (2004). doi:10.1007/BF02994186 Ciroth, A., Fleischer, G., Steinbach, J.: Uncertainty calculation in life cycle assessments\u2014A combined model of simulation and approximation. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 9, 216\u2013226 (2004). doi:10.1007/BF02978597 Ciroth, A., Muller, S., Weidema, B., Lesage, P.: Empirically based uncertainty factors for the pedigree matrix in ecoinvent. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 1338\u20131348 (2016). doi:10.1007/ s11367-013-0670-5 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1146, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 318, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Clavreul, J., Guyonnet, D., Tonini, D., Christensen, T.H.: Stochastic and epistemic uncertainty propagation in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1393\u20131403 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367013-0572-6 De Schryver, A.M., van Zelm, R., Humbert, S., Pfister, S., McKone, T.E., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Value choices in life cycle impact assessment of stressors causing human health damage. J. Ind. Ecol. 15, 796\u2013815 (2011). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00371.x EC-JRC: European Commission-Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD): Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) Fantke, P., Wieland, P., Juraske, R., Shaddick, G., Itoiz, E.S., Friedrich, R., Jolliet, O.: Parameterization models for pesticide exposure via crop consumption. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 12864\u201312872 (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1147, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 319, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 12864\u201312872 (2012). doi:10.1021/es301509u Funtowicz, S.O., Ravetz, J.R.: Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1990) Greenland, S., Senn, S.J., Rothman, K.J., Carlin, J.B., Poole, C., Goodman, S.N., Altman, D.G.: Statistical tests, P values, confidence intervals, and power: a guide to misinterpretations. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 31, 337\u2013350 (2016). doi:10.1007/s10654-016-0149-3 Groen, E.A., Heijungs, R.: Ignoring correlation in uncertainty and sensitivity analysis in life cycle assessment: what is the risk? Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 62, 98\u2013109 (2017). doi:10.1016/j. eiar.2016.10.006 Groen, E.A., Heijungs, R., Bokkers, E.A.M., de Boer, I.J.M.: Methods for uncertainty propagation in life cycle assessment. Environ. Model Softw. 62, 316\u2013325 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.envsoft. 2014.10.006 Hauschild, M.Z., Potting, J.: Spatial Differentiation in Life Cycle Impact Assessment: The EDIP2003 Methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1148, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 319, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Model Softw. 62, 316\u2013325 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.envsoft. 2014.10.006 Hauschild, M.Z., Potting, J.: Spatial Differentiation in Life Cycle Impact Assessment: The EDIP2003 Methodology. The Danish Ministry of the Environment, Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen (2005) Heijungs, R.: A generic method for the identification of options for cleaner products. Ecol. Econ. 10, 69\u201381 (1994). doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)90038-8 Heijungs, R.: Identification of key issues for further investigation in improving the reliability of life-cycle assessments. J. Clean. Prod. 4, 159\u2013166 (1996). doi:10.1016/S0959-6526(96)00042X Heijungs, R.: The use of matrix perturbation theory for addressing sensitivity and uncertainty issues in LCA. In: Proc. Fifth Int. Conf. EcoBalance\u2014Pract. tools thoughtful Princ. Sustain., 6\u20138 Nov 2002, Tsukuba, Japan (2002) Heijungs, R.: Sensitivity coefficients for matrix-based LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 511\u2013520 (2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1149, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 319, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EcoBalance\u2014Pract. tools thoughtful Princ. Sustain., 6\u20138 Nov 2002, Tsukuba, Japan (2002) Heijungs, R.: Sensitivity coefficients for matrix-based LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 511\u2013520 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0158-5 Heijungs, R., Frischknecht, R.: Representing statistical distributions for uncertain parameters in LCA: relationships between mathematical forms, their representation in EcoSpold, and their representation in CMLCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10, 248\u2013254 (2005). doi:10.1065/lca2004. 09.177 Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: A review of approaches to treat uncertainty in LCA. Trans. 2nd Bienn. In: Meet. Int. Environ. Model. Softw. Soc. iEMSs, Osnabr\u00fcck, Ger, pp 332\u2013339 (2004) Heijungs, R., Kleijn, R.: Numerical approaches towards life cycle interpretation five examples. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 6, 141\u2013148 (2001). doi:10.1007/BF02978732 Heijungs, R., Lenzen, M.: Error propagation methods for LCA\u2014a comparison. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1445\u20131461 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1150, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 319, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 6, 141\u2013148 (2001). doi:10.1007/BF02978732 Heijungs, R., Lenzen, M.: Error propagation methods for LCA\u2014a comparison. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1445\u20131461 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0751-0 Heijungs, R., Suh, S., Kleijn, R.: Numerical approaches to life cycle interpretation\u2014The case of the Ecoinvent\u201996 database. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10, 103\u2013112 (2005). doi:10.1065/ lca2004.06.161 Hoekstra, R., Morey, R.D., Rouder, J.N., Wagenmakers, E.-J.: Robust misinterpretation of confidence intervals. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 21, 1157\u20131164 (2014). doi:10.3758/s13423-0130572-3 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1151, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 319, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hong, J., Shaked, S., Rosenbaum, R.K., Jolliet, O.: Analytical uncertainty propagation in life cycle inventory and impact assessment: application to an automobile front panel. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 499\u2013510 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0175-4 Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Application of uncertainty and variability in LCA Part I: a general framework for the analysis of uncertainty and variability in life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 3, 273\u2013280 (1998). doi:10.1007/BF02979835 Imbeault-Tetreault, H., Jolliet, O., Desch\u00eanes, L., Rosenbaum, R.K.: Analytical propagation of uncertainty in LCA using matrix formulation. J. Ind. Ecol. 17, 485\u2013492 (2013). doi:10.1111/ jiec.12001 IOM: Environmental Decisions in the Face of Uncertainty. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC (2013) IPCC: Climate change 2007\u2014the physical science basis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1152, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 320, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1111/ jiec.12001 IOM: Environmental Decisions in the Face of Uncertainty. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC (2013) IPCC: Climate change 2007\u2014the physical science basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) Karanki, D.R., Kushwaha, H.S., Verma, A.K., Ajit, S.: Uncertainty analysis based on probability bounds (P-box) approach in probabilistic safety assessment. Risk Anal. 29, 662\u2013675 (2009). doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01221.x Lloyd, S.M., Ries, R.: Characterizing, propagating, and analyzing uncertainty in life-cycle assessment: A survey of quantitative approaches. J. Ind. Ecol. 11, 161\u2013179 (2007). doi:10. 1162/jiec.2007.1136 Morgan, M.G., Henrion, M.: Uncertainty: A Guide Dealing with Uncertainty in Quantitative Risk and Policy Analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1990) Muller, S., Lesage, P., Ciroth, A., Mutel, C., Weidema, B.P., Samson, R.: The application of the pedigree approach to the distributions foreseen in ecoinvent v3. Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1153, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 320, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 1327\u20131337 (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0759-5 Paparella, M., Daneshian, M., Hornek-Gausterer, R., Kinzl, M., Mauritz, I., Muhlegger, S.: Uncertainty of testing methods\u2014what do we (want to) know? ALTEX 30, 131\u2013144 (2013) P\u00f3lya, G.: \u00dcber den zentralen Grenzwertsatz der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung und das Momentenproblem. Math. Z. 8, 171\u2013181 (1920). doi:10.1007/BF01206525 Quantis: Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Hand Drying Systems: The XLERATOR Hand Dryer, Conventional Hand Dryers and Paper Towel Systems. Salem, MA (2009) Read, C.: Logic: Deductive and Inductive, 4th edn. Simkin and Marshall, London (1920) Ross, S.: Simulation, 5th edn. Academic Press, Cambridge (2012) Strom, D.J., Stansbury, P.S.: Determining parameters of logs from minimal information. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 61, 877\u2013880 (2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1154, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 320, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Academic Press, Cambridge (2012) Strom, D.J., Stansbury, P.S.: Determining parameters of logs from minimal information. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 61, 877\u2013880 (2000). doi:10.1080/15298660008984601 van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Quantifying the trade-off between parameter and model structure uncertainty in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 9274\u20139280 (2013). doi:10.1021/es305107s Walpole, R.E., Myers, R.H., Myers, S.L., Ye, K.: Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists, 9th edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs (2012) Wardekker, J.A., Kloprogge, P., Petersen, A.C., Janssen, P.H.M., van der Sluijs, J.P.: Guide for Uncertainty Communication, PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, The Hague, The Netherlands (2013) Wei, W., Larrey-Lassalle, P., Faure, T., Dumoulin, N., Roux, P., Mathias, J.-D.: Using the reliability theory for assessing the decision confidence probability for comparative life cycle assessments. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1155, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 320, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 2272\u20132280 (2016). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b03683 Weidema, B.P.: Avoiding or ignoring uncertainty. J. Ind. Ecol. 13, 354\u2013356 (2009). doi:10.1111/j. 1530-9290.2009.00132.x Weidema, B.P., Wesn\u00e6s, M.S.: Data quality management for life cycle inventories\u2014an example of using data quality indicators. J. Clean. Prod. 4, 167\u2013174 (1996). doi:10.1016/S0959-6526 (96)00043-1 R.K. Rosenbaum et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1156, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 320, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Weidema, B.P., Frees, N., Petersen, E., \u00d8llgaard, H.: Reducing uncertainty in LCI, Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark (2003) WHO (2008) Guidance Document on Characterizing and Communicating Uncertainty in Exposure Assessment. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva Author Biographies Ralph K. Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology. Interested in LCIA modelling of emissions and water/soil resource use, operationalisation of uncertainty management and spatial differentiation. Stylianos Georgiadis Background in Applied Mathematics, focusing on stochastic and statistical modelling with application in urban water systems, food risk assessment, reliability and queueing models", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1157, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 321, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Interested in uncertainty quantification in risk management, life cycle assessment and decision analysis. Peter Fantke Develops methods for LCIA, health impact assessment and chemical alternatives assessment since 2006. Has contributed to UNEP/SETAC LCIA working groups and is USEtox Manager. Interested in quantifying and characterising chemical emissions, uncertainty analysis, consumer exposure, chemical substitution and model parameterisation. Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1158, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "11 Uncertainty Management and Sensitivity Analysis", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 321, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 12 Life Cycle Interpretation Michael Z. Hauschild, Alexandra Bonou and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract The interpretation is the final phase of an LCA where the results of the other phases are considered together and analysed in the light of the uncertainties of the applied data and the assumptions that have been made and documented throughout the study. This chapter teaches how to perform an interpretation. The process of interpretation starts with identification of potentially significant issues in the previous stages of goal and scope definition, inventory analysis and impact assessment, and examples of potential significant issues are given for each phase. The significance is then determined by checking completeness, sensitivity and consistency for each of these identified issues. The outcome is used to inform previous phases on the needs for strengthening the data basis of the study, and where this is not possible to reconsider the goal and scope definition of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1159, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 323, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The outcome is used to inform previous phases on the needs for strengthening the data basis of the study, and where this is not possible to reconsider the goal and scope definition of the study. Finally, guidance is given on how to draw conclusions based on the previous steps of the interpretation, qualify the conclusions in terms of their robustness, and develop recommendations based on the results of the study. Learning objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the purpose of interpretation and its relationships to the other phases of the LCA. \u2022 Explain what is meant by \u201csignificant issues\u201d and give examples of potential significant issues from each of the methodological phases. \u2022 Describe procedures to identify significant issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1160, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 323, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Explain what is meant by \u201csignificant issues\u201d and give examples of potential significant issues from each of the methodological phases. \u2022 Describe procedures to identify significant issues. \u2022 Explain how sensitivity analysis and uncertainty information is used in combination to focus the data collection in previous phases of the LCA and to qualify the conclusions that are drawn from the results of the study. M.Z. Hauschild (&) \u0001 A. Bonou \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: mzha@dtu.dk \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1161, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 323, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.1 Interpretation is the phase of the LCA where the results of the other phases are considered together and analysed in the light of the uncertainties of the applied data and the assumptions that have been made and documented throughout the study. The outcome of the interpretation should be conclusions or recommendations that (1) respect the intentions of the goal definition and the restrictions that this imposes on the study through the scope definition and (2) take into account the appropriateness of the functional unit and system boundaries. The interpretation should present the conclusions of the LCA in an understandable way and help the users of the study appraise their robustness and potential weaknesses in light of any identified studylimitations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1162, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 324, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Central elements of the interpretation phase such as sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis are also applied throughout the LCA process together with impact assessment tools as part of the iterative loops which are used in the drawing of boundaries and the collection of inventory and impact assessment data (see Chaps. 8\u201310). A more detailed presentation of these elements is given in Chap. 11. The interpretation proceeds through three steps as illustrated in Fig. 12.1. 1. The significant issues (key processes and assumptions, most important elementary flows) from the other phases of the LCA are identified (see Sect. 12.2). Direct applications Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Goal definition Conclusions, limitations and recommendations Identification of significant issues Evaluation by completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks Interpretation Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1163, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 324, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.1 The elements of the interpretation phase and their relations to each other and to the other phases of the LCA (revised from ISO 2006a, b) M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1164, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 324, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. These issues are evaluated with regard to their influence on overall results of the LCA and the completeness and consistency with which they have been handled in the study (see Sect. 12.3). 3. The results of the evaluation are used in the formulation of conclusions and recommendations from the study (Sect. 12.4). In cases where the study involves comparison of two or more systems, there are additional considerations to be included in the interpretation (Sect. 12.5). 12.2 Identification of Significant Issues The purpose of the first element of the life cycle interpretation is to analyse the results of earlier phases of the LCA in order to determine the most environmentally important issues, i.e. those issues that have the potential to change the final results of the LCA. The significant issues can be methodological choices and assumptions, inventory data for important life cycle processes, and/or characterisation, normalisation or weighting factors used in the impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1165, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 325, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The practitioner is encouraged to prepare a list of such choices during the practical execution of the LCA, the definition of goal and scope, the modelling of the product system and the impact assessment, to help with their identification (see for example reporting recommendations for life cycle inventory phase in Sect. 9.7). Table 12.1 provides examples of such influential issues. As discussed in Chap. 11, sensitivity analysis can be performed as a contribution analysis where the contribution from each process or stage to the total results for an impact category is quantified and expressed. It can also be done as a dominance analysis, where the processes or stages are ranked according to their relative share in the total impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1166, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 325, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can also be done as a dominance analysis, where the processes or stages are ranked according to their relative share in the total impact. The identification of significant issues draws on the sensitivity analysis activities in the evaluation element of the interpretation phase in combination with information about potential key assumptions and uncertainty ranges for potential key numbers in inventory analysis and impact assessment. At the same time, the evaluation element takes the identified significant issues as an important input. The two elements are thus performed in iteration. In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39, life cycle impacts are dominated by the use stage in all impact categories for all four window frame designs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1167, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 325, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39, life cycle impacts are dominated by the use stage in all impact categories for all four window frame designs. Parameters related to the use stage, such as the modelled heat loss, the assumed mix of heating sources, the LCI processes used to represent each heat conversion technology in the heat mix, and the relevant characterisation factors and normalisation references involved in the impact assessment were thus identified as significant issues. Life Cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1168, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 325, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.3 Evaluation The evaluation element establishes the basis for the conclusions and recommendations that can be formulated in the final element of the interpretation (see Sect. 12.4). It is performed in an iterative interaction with the identification of key issues in order to determine the reliability and stability of the results from the identification element", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1169, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 326, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Like the identification of key issues, the evaluation covers the results from the earlier phases of the LCA, the inventory analysis and the impact assessment, in Table 12.1 Examples of significant issues What to look for How to identify significant issues Goal and Scope definition\u2014methodological choices and assumptions Functional unit Choice of functional unit, system expansion (assumption of alternative/replaced technologies), allocation model and setting of system boundaries are discrete choices that can be checked by running the different possibilities as scenarios and comparing the results to determine their influence on the final outcome and conclusions Handling of multifunctional processes \u2013 System expansion \u2013 Allocation criteria Cut-off decisions and boundary settings Inventory analysis\u2014data for product system processes Data for activities occurring in many parts of the product system, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1170, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 326, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "transportation or energy transformation processes Sensitivity analysis is performed by varying the single issue, or in case of interdependency by joint variation of the concerned issues, and analysing their influence on the outcome of the study The range of variation applied for a given issue should reflect the uncertainty by which it is accompanied Data for key processes: processes that contribute substantially to the environmental impact of the product system in one or more impact categories Data for key elementary flows: processes that contribute substantially to the overall results for an impact category Impact categories that dominate the total impacts from the product system Impact assessment factors Characterisation or normalisation factors used in the impact assessment Sensitivity analysis is performed by varying the single issue, or in case of interdependency by joint variation of the concerned issues, and analysing their influence on the outcome of the study The range of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1171, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 326, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "analysis is performed by varying the single issue, or in case of interdependency by joint variation of the concerned issues, and analysing their influence on the outcome of the study The range of variation applied for a given issue should reflect the uncertainty by which it is accompanied Choice of impact assessment method and selection of impact categories Other impact assessment methods and potentially omitted impact categories may be tested to see if they give different outcomes of the study M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1172, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 326, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1173, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 326, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "accordance with the goal and scope of the study, with focus on the significant issues identified among methodological choices and data. The outcome of the evaluation is crucial to determine the strength of the conclusions and recommendations from the study, and it must therefore be presented in a way that gives the commissioner and user of the study a clear understanding of the outcome. The evaluation involves: \u2022 Completeness check. \u2022 Sensitivity analysis in combination with uncertainty analysis. \u2022 Consistency check. 12.3.1 Completeness Check Completeness checks are performed for the inventory and the impact assessment in order to determine the degree to which the available data is complete for the processes and impacts, which were identified as significant issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1174, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 327, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If relevant information is found to be missing or incomplete for some of the key processes or the most important elementary flows or impact categories, the necessity of such information for satisfying the goal and scope of the LCA must be investigated. If deemed necessary, the inventory and impact assessment phases must be revisited in order to fill the identified gaps. Alternatively, the goal and scope definition may have to be adjusted to accommodate the lack of completeness. If an important data deficiency cannot be remediated, this should be considered when formulating the limitations in the conclusions from the study (see Sect. 12.4). If the missing information is found to be of little importance, this should be documented in the reporting of the completeness check. Taking the completeness check of the illustrative case on window frames (see Chap. 39) as an example, several gaps were identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1175, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 327, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Taking the completeness check of the illustrative case on window frames (see Chap. 39) as an example, several gaps were identified. In relation to LCI, the applied heat mix was thus only representative for district heating (and hence not appropriate for situations with local heating sources), and the LCI unit processes used to model the energy technologies applied in the heat mix were geographically representative for Norway and Switzerland and hence not fully representative for Denmark. With regard to LCIA, the use of site-generic characterisation factors for some impact categories may not be fully representative for the specific impact pathways of environmental flows released in or close to Denmark. Once identified, those gaps therefore underwent the procedure described in Fig. 12.2 to be addressed in the study. Life Cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1176, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 327, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.3.2 Sensitivity Check Sensitivity check has the purpose of identifying the key processes and most important elementary flows as those elements that contribute most to the overall impacts from the product system. Sensitivity analysis can be performed and presented as a contribution analysis (which activities contribute to which environmental impact scores, by how much and through which elementary flows?) or a dominance analysis (which activities contribute most to which impacts or flows?). See Chap. 11 for a more detailed discussion of sensitivity analysis and how it is performed. In the illustrative case on window frames, not all significant issues were covered in the sensitivity analysis due to lack of sufficient data and knowledge to construct sensitivity scenarios in some of the cases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1177, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 328, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A sensitivity scenario reflecting the EU27 heat mix was established and results showed that impacts for a few impact Yes No Fill gaps Yes No Adjust goal and scope Can important data gaps be filled? Can the goal and scope be adjusted? Scope definition Inventory Goal definition Formulate limitations in the conclusions Fig. 12.2 Iterative interaction between completeness check and the earlier phases of the LCA M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1178, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 328, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "categories (mainly related to toxicity) were lower than in the baseline scenario, while most impacts were higher due to a larger share of oil and natural gas in the EU27 heat mix. In support of the iterative approach applied in LCA, sensitivity analysis is also used as a steering activity in the iteration loops that are performed throughout the LCA in support of boundary setting for the product system, inventory data collection and impact assessment. The findings from these earlier sensitivity analyses are brought into the sensitivity check of the interpretation phase. In the interpretation phase, sensitivity analysis is used together with information about the uncertainties of significant issues among inventory data, impact assessment data and methodological assumptions and choices to assess the reliability of the final results and the conclusions and recommendations which are based on them (Sect. 12.3) (Table 12.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1179, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 342, "book_page": 329, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.3) (Table 12.2). Table 12.2 Tools for sensitivity analysis Factors checked for sensitivity Tools for sensitivity analysis Data uncertainty The influence of data uncertainty for key issues can be checked by allowing the data to vary within the limits given by the uncertainty estimates while modelling the product system and checking the results. If the information about the (stochastic) uncertainties of the individual elementary flows and characterisation factors allows it, it is also possible to calculate the uncertainty of the final results in terms of inventory and environmental impacts (e.g. simulating it using Monte Carlo techniques). See Chap. 11 for a more detailed discussion of uncertainty analysis and how it is performed Methodological uncertainty The influence of methodological (systematic) uncertainties can be checked by analysing different possible choices (e.g. of applied allocation principle) as scenarios and reporting the influence on the final results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1180, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 342, "book_page": 329, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of applied allocation principle) as scenarios and reporting the influence on the final results. Methodological choices which may be relevant to include in a sensitivity analysis include: handling of multifunctional processes (system expansion assumptions or allocation rules), cut-off criteria, boundary setting and system definition, and judgements and assumptions concerning data in the inventory; and for the impact assessment: selection of impact categories, assignment of inventory results (classification), calculation of category indicator results (characterisation), and normalisation and weighting of impact scores Life Cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1181, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 342, "book_page": 329, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The combination of sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis helps identify focus points for improved inventory data collection or impact assessment. As illustrated in Fig. 12.3, data with a high uncertainty need not be a focus point for improvement if the sensitivity to this data is very low. In the same way, data which has a strong influence on the final results of the study may also not require further data collection effort if the representativeness of the data is high and its uncertainty negligible. The focus point for improvement of data quality should be data with a strong influence on the overall results and a high uncertainty or questionable. If such data cannot be improved, the result is a low precision which must be reported. If the precision is insufficient to meet the requirements from the intended application of the results, it may be necessary to revise the goal of the study. Figure 12.4 provides a decision tree for handling the sensitivity check", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1182, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 330, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 12.4 provides a decision tree for handling the sensitivity check. Sensitivity Uncertainty Maybe here? Not here! Here! Maybe here? Fig. 12.3 Focusing collection of improved data by combining sensitivity and uncertainty information M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1183, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 330, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.3.3 Consistency Check The consistency check is performed to investigate whether the assumptions, methods, and data, which have been applied in the study, are consistent with the goal and scope. Are differences in the quality of inventory data along a product life cycle and between different product systems consistent with the significance of the processes, which the data represent and with the goal and scope of the study? Inventory data quality concerns both the time-related, the geographical, and the technological Yes Yes Yes Formulate limitations in the conclusions Is the data influential? Is the uncertainty high? Can accuracy or representativeness be improved? Inventory Impact assessment No Collect/refine data further Precision meets the requirements? No Yes No No Revise the goal No extra focus No extra focus Scope definition Goal definition Fig. 12.4 Combination of sensitivity analysis and uncertainty information to focus improvement of the LCA data Life Cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1184, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 331, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "representativeness of the data, the appropriateness of the chosen unit process to represent the process of the product system, and the uncertainty of the data. In case of comparison between different product systems, the consistency check also investigates whether allocation rules and system boundary setting as well as impact assessment have been consistently applied to all compared product systems. When inconsistencies are identified, their influence on the results of the study is evaluated and considered to draw conclusions from the results. Taking the window frame case as example again, the main identified inconsistency is between the goal and scope and the interpretation of the results which does not give due consideration to changes that may occur in particular in the background system within the time frame of the study (at least 20 years)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1185, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 332, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Important changes are the Danish heat mix (for which the share of fossil fuels is expected to decrease) and the technological development in the heat supply technologies (see Chap. 39 for further details). 12.4 Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations Building on the outcome of the other elements of the interpretation, and drawing on the main findings from the earlier phases of the LCA, the final element of the interpretation has to draw conclusions and identify limitations of the study, and develop recommendations to the intended audience in accordance with the goal definition and the intended applications of the results. The conclusions should be drawn in an iterative way: based on the identification of significant issues (Sect. 12.2) and the evaluation of these for completeness, sensitivity and consistency (Sect. 12.3), preliminary conclusions can be drawn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1186, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 332, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12.2) and the evaluation of these for completeness, sensitivity and consistency (Sect. 12.3), preliminary conclusions can be drawn. It is then checked whether these preliminary conclusions are in accordance with the requirements of the scope definition of the study (in particular data quality requirements, predefined assumptions and values, and limitations in methodology and study). If the conclusions are aligned with the requirements, they can be reported as final conclusions, otherwise they must be re-formulated and checked again. Recommendations based on the final conclusions of the study should be logical and reasonable consequences of the conclusions. They should only be based on significant findings and relate to the intended application of the study as defined in the goal definition. In the illustrative case on window frames (Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1187, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 332, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They should only be based on significant findings and relate to the intended application of the study as defined in the goal definition. In the illustrative case on window frames (Chap. 39) it was concluded for example that the wood composite (W/C) window has the lowest impact among the four compared windows in all impact categories, and that impacts occurring in the use stage are generally dominating the total impacts and are caused by the demand for heat to compensate the heat losses that occur through the window. Albeit not visible in the results, due to the disregard of technological changes related to heat supply over the time frame of the study (likely going towards lower impacts), the dominance of the use stage impacts is likely to decrease with time, depending on M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1188, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 332, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "what technological improvements are introduced in the other stages of the window life cycle, but it is still expected to remain significant in a foreseeable future. A follow-up study is recommended to further address these dynamics. 12.5 Interpretation for Comparative Studies In studies that involve a comparison of product systems, the interpretation has to consider a number of additional points to ensure fair and relevant conclusions from the study. \u2022 Significant issues must be determined for each of the systems, and special attention should be given to issues that differ between the systems and which have the potential to change the balance of the comparison. \u2022 The completeness check must have specific focus on differences in the completeness of the treatment of some of the significant issues between the product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1189, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 333, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 The completeness check must have specific focus on differences in the completeness of the treatment of some of the significant issues between the product systems. If there are differences that could influence the comparison results, these should be eliminated if possible and otherwise kept in mind in the formulation of conclusions. \u2022 If an uncertainty analysis is performed to investigate whether the difference between two systems is statistically significant, the analysis should be performed on the difference between the systems (one system minus the other), which should be checked for a statistically significant difference from zero taking into account potential co-variation between processes of the two systems (e.g. processes which are the same). See the discussion of this point in Chap. 11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1190, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 333, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "processes which are the same). See the discussion of this point in Chap. 11. \u2022 When an LCA is intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public, the ISO 14044 standard requires that the evaluation element include interpretative statements based on detailed sensitivity analyses. It is emphasised in the standard, that the inability of a statistical analysis to find significant differences between different studied alternatives does not automatically lead to the conclusion that such differences do not exist, rather that the study is not able to show them in a significant way. \u2022 A consistency check must be performed of the treatment of the key assumptions and methodological choices in the different systems to avoid a bias and ensure a fair comparison", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1191, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 333, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 A consistency check must be performed of the treatment of the key assumptions and methodological choices in the different systems to avoid a bias and ensure a fair comparison. \u2013 Are differences in the quality of inventory data between the compared product systems acceptable, considering the relative importance of the processes in the product systems, and are the differences consistent with the goal and scope of the study? For example, if one study is based on specific and recent data with a high degree of representativeness for all the key processes while the other uses extrapolation from literature data, there is a bias in the inventory data that can make a comparison invalid. \u2013 Have allocation rules and system boundary setting been consistently applied to all product systems? Life Cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1192, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 333, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2013 Has the impact assessment been performed consistently for the systems, have the relevant impact categories been included for all systems, and have the impacts been calculated in the same way and with the same coverage of elementary flows for all the systems? The influence of any identified inconsistencies on the outcome of the comparison should be evaluated, and taken into consideration when conclusions are drawn from the results. This chapter is to a large extent based on the ILCD handbook and the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. Due to the scope of this chapter, some details have been omitted, and some procedures have been rephrased to make the text more relevant to students. For more details, the reader may refer to these texts: EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance, 1st edn. March 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1193, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 334, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "March 2010. EUR 24708 EN, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union (2010) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Author Biographies Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Alexandra Bonou LCA expert and modeller focussing on ecodesign since 2009. Has worked on integrating life cycle thinking and environmental target setting in organisations of the private and public sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1194, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 334, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Has worked on integrating life cycle thinking and environmental target setting in organisations of the private and public sector. Interested in life cycle management, product development, social life cycle assessment. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. M.Z. Hauschild et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1195, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "12 Life Cycle Interpretation", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 334, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 13 Critical Review Ralph K. Rosenbaum and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract Manipulation and mistakes in LCA studies are as old as the tool itself, and so is its critical review. Besides preventing misuse and unsupported claims, critical review may also help identifying mistakes and more justifiable assumptions as well as generally improve the quality of a study. It thus supports the robustness of an LCA and increases trust in its results and conclusions. The focus of this chapter is on understanding what a critical review is, how the international standards define it, what its main elements are, and what reviewer qualifications are required. It is not the objective of this chapter to learn how to conduct a critical review, neither from a reviewer nor from a practitioner perspective. The foundation of this chapter and the basis for any critical review of LCA studies are the International Standards ISO 14040:2006, ISO 14044:2006 and ISO TS 14071:2014", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1196, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 335, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The foundation of this chapter and the basis for any critical review of LCA studies are the International Standards ISO 14040:2006, ISO 14044:2006 and ISO TS 14071:2014. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain when a critical review is needed and what is its purpose. \u2022 Provide perspectives on the difference between critical review, scientific review and validation. \u2022 Explain the principles, procedure, requirements, content, deliverables and options when conducting critical review and which international standards describe it. R.K. Rosenbaum (&) IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT\u2014Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, 361 rue Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Breton, BP 5095, 34196 Montpellier, France e-mail: ralph.rosenbaum@irstea.fr S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet, Building 115, 2800 Kgs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1197, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 335, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet, Building 115, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_13", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1198, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 335, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Discuss the necessary qualifications of a reviewer and how they are selected and by whom. \u2022 Describe the possible roles, obligations, tasks, and deliverables of a reviewer. The focus of this chapter is on understanding what a critical review is and what its main elements are. It is important to note that it is NOT the objective of this chapter to learn how to conduct a critical review, neither from a reviewer nor from a practitioner perspective. 13.1 Numerous LCA studies have been published and many of them based on the highest standards of quality and robustness, but there are also an alarming number of studies that contain either important mistakes or plain manipulations in order to obtain an intended result that would support a specific, pre-defined claim", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1199, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 336, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These mistakes and manipulations may be subtle and difficult to detect but can also be immediately identifiable to the trained eye and a number of studies based on surprisingly blunt and evident manipulations have been published over the years. Especially some earlier studies have become classic and illustrative examples in LCA teaching of how not to do LCA (or comparative environmental claims in general) and they also nicely illustrate the purpose and need for critical review of published LCA studies. Two entertaining examples are: (1) SUV versus hybrid car: A famous example is a study from the automotive marketing company CNW Marketing Research, Inc. from 2007 called \u201cDust to Dust: The Energy Cost of New Vehicles From Concept to Disposal\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1200, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 336, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from 2007 called \u201cDust to Dust: The Energy Cost of New Vehicles From Concept to Disposal\u201d. This study compared the life cycle energy costs of a number of automobiles from 2005 and had no hesitation to conclude (and widely communicate) that many large sport utility vehicles (SUVs) including GM\u2019s massive Hummer models H2 and H3 use less energy per mile driven than many smaller vehicles including the Toyota Prius hybrid car. Gleick (2007) analysed the information and commented \u201cthat the report\u2019s conclusions rely on faulty methods of analysis, untenable assumptions, selective use and presentation of data, and a complete lack of peer review. Even the most cursory look reveals serious biases and flaws: the average Hummer H1 is assumed to travel 379,000 miles and last for 35 years, while the average Prius is assumed to last only 109,000 miles over less than 12 years\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1201, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 336, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2) Fast-food versus classic restaurant: A study from the 1990s comparing a fast-food restaurant with a normal restaurant that surprisingly concludes the environmental superiority of the fast-food option. When the study was redone by independent practitioners, they demonstrated that the system boundaries were chosen in a way that comparability of both options was not supported since important processes from the fast-food restaurant were excluded. Correcting these manipulations then yielded a different picture (Lang et al. 1994). The whole story can be found in Jolliet et al. (2015). R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1202, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 336, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Product systems can be very complex, involving a high number of processes and locations. Their modelling in LCA builds on multiple data sources from measurements to unit process databases and involves influential assumptions, drawing on a diversity of expertise from process engineering to environmental and sometimes also social science. Results are often communicated to stakeholders and decision makers that cannot control the quality of the studies, and manipulation and mistakes in LCA studies are as old as the tool itself. The understanding of a need for an independent critical review of LCA studies thus came very early in the history of the methodology. The SETAC LCA \u201cCode of practice\u201d proposed it first in 1993 (Consoli et al. 1993) with more detailed procedural guidelines published later by Kl\u00f6pffer (1997) and Weidema (1997), which still stand until today as essential references on how to conduct a critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1203, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 337, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1993) with more detailed procedural guidelines published later by Kl\u00f6pffer (1997) and Weidema (1997), which still stand until today as essential references on how to conduct a critical review. As its superseded predecessor from the late 1990s, the revised international standard ISO 14044 (2006a) defines review procedures (although in much less detail than Kl\u00f6pffer and Weidema, respectively) to ensure that an LCA study is conform to ISO requirements. As a further development from there, ISO published the technical standard ISO TS 14071 (2014) that aims to specify detailed ISO requirements for critical reviews. In consequence, this should ensure that all claims of a critically reviewed LCA study are well justified and supported by assumptions, methods and data used. Besides preventing misuse and unsupported claims, critical review may also help identifying mistakes and more justifiable assumptions as well as generally improve the quality of a study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1204, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 337, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Besides preventing misuse and unsupported claims, critical review may also help identifying mistakes and more justifiable assumptions as well as generally improve the quality of a study. It thus supports the robustness of an LCA and increases trust in its results and conclusions. In general, there are different kinds of review processes associated with scientific and technical developments and they all fulfil different objectives and vary in their approach and process. Two different types of review processes are mainly relevant in the context of an LCA study: (1) scientific peer-review and (2) critical review according to ISO 14044 (2006a). While this chapter is focusing on the latter, there is much confusion between both and it is essential to clearly distinguish them and understand their differences. Table 13.1 provides a simplified overview of general tendencies for similarities and differences between both types of review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1205, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 337, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 13.1 provides a simplified overview of general tendencies for similarities and differences between both types of review. Besides several similarities, the essential differences between these two review types are thus linked to their duration, depth, cost, transparency, confidentiality, content and objectives. As discussed by Curran and Young (2014), there is also an important and frequently ignored difference between the terms \u201ccritical review\u201d and \u201cverification\u201d with their essential difference being that critical review relies on expert judgement whereas verification is based on comparison against objective evidence. The focus of this chapter and the basis for any critical review of LCA studies are the International Standards ISO 14040 (2006b), ISO 14044 (2006a) and ISO TS 14071 (2014). However, it is worth noting that other review schemes exist that may be specified in more detail than in ISO 14044 and ISO TS 14071, while still being fundamentally based on them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1206, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 337, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, it is worth noting that other review schemes exist that may be specified in more detail than in ISO 14044 and ISO TS 14071, while still being fundamentally based on them. These review schemes often have a very specific context of application and in most cases also a geographically limited relevance. One example is the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) of the Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1207, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 337, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "European Commission with its series of ILCD handbooks, including one specifically dedicated to review schemes (EC-JRC 2010a) and another to reviewer qualifications for LCI datasets (EC-JRC 2010b) linked to the European reference Life Cycle Database ELCD. While these are valuable sources of information for the interested reader and we recommend them for further study, they will not be discussed in detail in this chapter. Table 13.1 Similarities and differences between scientific peer-review and critical review according to ISO 14044 (note that this table represents a general tendency for each criteria, not an absolute truth as there will likely be cases of review processes that may differ on either side of the table) R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1208, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 351, "book_page": 338, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "13.2 Critical Review Process As presented, critical review is a procedure intrinsically linked to ISO 14044 (2006a) which defines it as a \u201cprocess intended to ensure consistency between a life cycle assessment and the principles and requirements of the International Standards on life cycle assessment\u201d (Clause 3.45). However, critical review may also be performed just in order to improve the quality of the study and thus the trust in it. The following will detail why, how, and when critical reviews are performed. 13.2.1 Purpose Critical review of an LCA study is useful in all cases where quality, robustness, and trust in results are wanted. Whether or not a review is required depends on the goal definition, i.e. the intended application and decision context, the reasons for carrying out the study, and the intended audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1209, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 339, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Whether or not a review is required depends on the goal definition, i.e. the intended application and decision context, the reasons for carrying out the study, and the intended audience. ISO 14044 recommends the use of critical reviews in general and makes it mandatory for \u201cLCA studies where the results are intended to be used to support a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public\u201d (ISO 2006a). These mandatory critical reviews have to (\u201cshall\u201d in ISO terminology, which indicates an obligation) be performed by a panel of interested parties including at least three experts. A comparative assertion is defined by ISO as (ISO 2006a): an \u201cenvironmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product that performs the same function\u201d. However, this definition may not be broad enough. In the European context the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) is an example of an LCA that will typically be subject to such review requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1210, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 339, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, this definition may not be broad enough. In the European context the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) is an example of an LCA that will typically be subject to such review requirements. Even though a comparative assertion is not explicitly stated in the report, Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) and PEF aim to give data and information to be used in comparisons and they could therefore be regarded as a basis for comparative assertions. In fact, critical review by at least one independent and qualified external reviewer (or review team) is mandatory in the PEF methodology (European Commission 2013). 13.2.2 Chronology A critical review can basically be performed in two alternative ways. The first is to review the LCA after the study is completed (a posteriori review). The second approach is an integrated/interactive review where the reviewer(s) follows the study from the definition of goal and scope, through data collection to the conclusion (concurrent review)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1211, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 339, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The second approach is an integrated/interactive review where the reviewer(s) follows the study from the definition of goal and scope, through data collection to the conclusion (concurrent review). In the a posteriori approach at least one iteration of review comments and associated modifications of the study are performed and the critical review report should reflect the entire review process. In the concurrent review Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1212, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 339, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "scheme the reviewer(s) can be involved in several of the different steps throughout the conduction of the study, i.e. (ISO 2014): (a) \u201cthe goal and scope definition; (b) inventory analysis including data collection and modelling; (c) impact assessment; (d) life cycle interpretation; (e) draft LCA report\u201d with the critical review statement being issued for the final version of the LCA report. ISO 14044/ISO TS 14071 do not specify any requirements or preferences to one or the other approach (neither does PEF), and they can hence always be freely chosen. Most literature recommends the concurrent review (Weidema 1997; Kl\u00f6pffer 2005, 2012; Hamilton and Ayer 2013; Schulz and Mersiowsky 2013). An a posteriori critical review involves a risk of delays in the final phase. The reviewer(s) has to comment on the draft final reports usually within a few weeks and there is a risk that serious flaws in methodology or data quality, or new aspects appear", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1213, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 340, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reviewer(s) has to comment on the draft final reports usually within a few weeks and there is a risk that serious flaws in methodology or data quality, or new aspects appear. Doing the necessary corrections may be hindered by budget and timing. Also, the review process requires communication between the practitioner and the reviewer(s) and in some cases the practitioner may not be available after the completion of the study (Kl\u00f6pffer 2005). The concurrent review approach has the benefits that potential problems can be corrected at an early stage of the study. There may be some extra time needed at the beginning of the study to guide it onto the right track, but this will likely be less time consuming than delays caused by new aspects surfacing at the end of the study or by the need to figure out how assumptions and calculations influence the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1214, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 340, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This obviously also influences the timing of the study in itself since the practitioner has to wait for review comments at different milestones throughout the study. Typically, one month additional time should be expected (Schulz and Mersiowsky 2013). A minor concern raised by Curran and Young (2014) is the risk that reviewers may become vested in the study and thus lose their independence. 13.2.3 Requirements According to ISO 14044 (2006a), \u201cthe critical review process shall ensure that: \u2022 the methods used to carry out the LCA are consistent with the international standard; \u2022 the methods used to carry out the LCA are scientifically and technically valid; \u2022 the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study; \u2022 the interpretations reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study; and \u2022 the study report is transparent and consistent\u201d. R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1215, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 340, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The European PEF guide (European Commission 2013) outlines the same requirements although it additionally mentions that the data quality should meet requirements and that the study report shall be accurate. This list gives guidance for the reviewer(s) and may also serve as the structure for review reports (Kl\u00f6pffer 2012). In most instances the reviewer is expected not only to do an \u201cadministrative ISO check\u201d, but to also be a discussion partner accompanying the LCA project (Curran and Young 2014). Thus, as stated by ISO TS 14071 (2014) \u201cThe critical review should cover all aspects of an LCA, including data appropriateness and reasonability, calculation procedures, life cycle inventory, impact assessment methodologies, characterisation factors, calculated LCI and LCIA results, and interpretation\u201d. Regarding two aspects ISO TS 14071 leaves it optional whether or not the critical review includes them: 1. Assessment of the life cycle inventory (LCI) model, 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1216, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 341, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Regarding two aspects ISO TS 14071 leaves it optional whether or not the critical review includes them: 1. Assessment of the life cycle inventory (LCI) model, 2. Assessment of individual data sets. Curran and Young (2014) note that in contrast to the usually comprehensive review of methods and assumptions, there is often a limited examination of data and quantitative results. This may be due to a combination of limitations of time (budget), weak transparency and/or poor accessibility of data sets. In order to perform the critical review it is important that reviewers are granted access to the data and inventory model by the commissioner and practitioner. In LCA it is difficult to establish objective quality criteria, and specific criteria for whether or not a study is correct cannot be defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1217, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 341, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In LCA it is difficult to establish objective quality criteria, and specific criteria for whether or not a study is correct cannot be defined. Therefore, much of the critical review has to rely on professional judgement regarding the consistency between goal and scope, data and models used, interpretations applied and the robustness of the conclusions drawn. The previous chapters in this part of the book specify in detail the requirements for conducting an LCA and thus also the aspects that reviewers should be aware of when performing a critical review. Several authors discuss in further detail the specific considerations and questions to ask during the review process, and the interested reader is referred to those (Consoli et al. 1993; Kl\u00f6pffer 1997; Weidema 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1218, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 341, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1993; Kl\u00f6pffer 1997; Weidema 1997). 13.2.4 Deliverables The deliverables of the critical review are (ISO 2006a, 2014): \u2022 Comments to specific intermediate steps of the LCA (goal and scope definition, LCI, LCIA, interpretation) for a concurrent review, \u2022 Comments to the final draft LCA report, \u2022 Review report, \u2022 Review statement. Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1219, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 341, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The review report documents how the critical review was conducted including all reviewer comments and recommendations given plus a response (to each comment/recommendation) from the practitioner that may indicate consequent changes applied to the study and/or the report or a justification of the respective issue in the study or the report in respect to the comment. Annex A of ISO TS 14071 (2014) contains an informative template for a critical review report. Hamilton and Ayer (2013) suggest that \u201cIn general, you should ensure that the following steps in the process are documented: \u2022 Review panel comments to the study team \u2022 Study team responses to the review panel \u2022 [...] \u2022 Correspondence between the panel and the study team\u201d. The critical review statement is a short text that clearly states whether or not the study is conform to the requirements of ISO 14040 and 14044", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1220, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 342, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The critical review statement is a short text that clearly states whether or not the study is conform to the requirements of ISO 14040 and 14044. It should also discuss \u201cany particular strengths, limitations and remaining improvement potentials of the LCA study or the critical review process\u201d (ISO 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1221, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 342, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO TS 14071 clearly states what has to be included in the critical review statement (ISO 2014): \u2022 \u201cTitle of the study; \u2022 The commissioner of the LCA study; \u2022 The practitioner of the LCA study; \u2022 The exact version of the report to which the critical review statement belongs; \u2022 The reviewer(s) or, in the case of a panel review, the panel members, including the identification of the panel chairperson; \u2022 A description of the review process, including information on: \u2013 Whether the review was performed based on ISO 14044:2006, 6.2 or 6.3; \u2013 Whether the review was performed in parallel or at the end of the study; \u2013 Whether the review included or excluded an assessment of the LCl model; \u2013 Whether the review included an analysis of individual data sets; \u2022 A description of how comments were provided, discussed and implemented; \u2022 A statement of the result of the critical review, i.e. whether the study was found to be in conformance with ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 or not\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1222, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 342, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "whether the study was found to be in conformance with ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 or not\u201d. Hamilton and Ayer (2013) also recommend that \u201cIt is important that the final critical review statement includes: \u2022 The date of issuance [...] of the study \u2022 [...] \u2022 Documentation of any outstanding issues that were not resolved during the review \u2022 A summary of the comments/responses from the review process\u201d. The final LCA report has to mandatorily include the review statement and review report, as well as all comments and recommendations of the reviewer(s) and R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1223, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 342, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "any responses by the practitioner to them. It is a requirement of the ISO 14044 standard that the review statement and review report must be included in the LCA report (typically as an appendix to the report). The critical review statement has to be signed by the chairperson and should also be signed by the other reviewers. This signature is strictly individual and personal and cannot be representing an institution nor be replaced by an institutional stamp or label. This means that the reviewer (s) publically (if the report is published) state the conformance or non-conformance of the study to ISO 14040 and 14044 with their names and signatures, which ensures that especially intentional manipulations (but also larger mistakes) that would affect the LCA\u2019s conformance to ISO should have been identified and corrected. This can be seen as a sort of quality insurance, making the reviewer(s) personally responsible for the review process and content", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1224, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 343, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can be seen as a sort of quality insurance, making the reviewer(s) personally responsible for the review process and content. 13.3 Reviewer Qualifications, Tasks and Selection Since the purpose of a critical review is to perform a critical expert judgement as to whether the ISO 14044 criteria are fulfilled, the expert(s) should of course be independent of the LCA, but not necessarily external to the company. In fact, the foremost requirement for any reviewer, internal or external, in the context of a critical review is complete independence from the study (but not necessarily its commissioner or practitioner), i.e. not involved in the commissioner\u2019s or the practitioner\u2019s project team, nor otherwise implicated in the definition of the scope or the conducting of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1225, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 343, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "not involved in the commissioner\u2019s or the practitioner\u2019s project team, nor otherwise implicated in the definition of the scope or the conducting of the LCA. In the case of an internal expert, this person may, however, be full-time or part-time employee of either the commissioner or the practitioner of the study, or otherwise be related to either or both of them, while still being independent of the study. An external expert has no financial dependency on either the commissioner or the practitioner, nor any political or other interest in the study results. The necessary qualifications for reviewers performing a critical review depend on a number of factors, such as the type of review scheme (a posteriori or concurrent) and the goal and scope of the LCA: 1. Critical review practice is essential for at least one reviewer who has to be well experienced with the process of a critical review according to ISO 14044 (2006a) and ISO TS 14071 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1226, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 343, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Critical review practice is essential for at least one reviewer who has to be well experienced with the process of a critical review according to ISO 14044 (2006a) and ISO TS 14071 (2014). For a panel-based critical review this will usually be the chairperson of the review panel. 2. LCA expertise: As a general rule, there has to be at least one expert on LCA methodology and practice as well as the ISO 14040/14044 requirements. For a panel-based critical review this will usually be the chairperson of the review panel. 3. Technical expertise mostly concerns the LCI phase and is required in order to ensure that the underlying product system model and data are representative and adequately modelled according to goal and scope of the LCA. Technological Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1227, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 343, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "experts do not necessarily have to be familiar with the LCA methodology. This may comprise specific expertise, such as on the \u2022 Product, service or organisation, \u2022 Process(es) and technology, \u2022 Relevant practice(s) including national or regional specificities if needed. 4. Scientific expertise may be required to ensure adequate consideration of environmental and/or social issues and phenomena of relevance for a given goal and scope definition. This applies particularly to the LCIA phase, but may also be relevant for aspects of the other LCA phases, notably the interpretation. 5. Other expertise may in some cases be necessary depending on the goal and scope, e.g. legal issues, stakeholder concerns, NGOs, etc. Proficiency in the language of the study is of course required from all reviewers. The number of reviewers or review panel members is then a function of the expertise required and the expertise each reviewer brings into the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1228, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 344, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The number of reviewers or review panel members is then a function of the expertise required and the expertise each reviewer brings into the process. So far, there is no official accreditation or certification required (or available) and the expertise of reviewers will usually be evaluated via their curriculum vitae including a list of relevant references. ISO TS 14071 (2014) also proposes an example of a self-declaration statement that can be used. To the authors\u2019 knowledge, several organisations intend to establish critical reviewer databases, but until the finalisation of this book no database has reached formal recognition in the global LCA community. The selection of reviewer(s) will typically be done by the practitioner and/or the commissioner of an LCA. In the case of a panel review, they appoint an external independent expert as chairperson, who then selects other independent experts for the review panel. All experts are contracted by the commissioner or practitioner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1229, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 344, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All experts are contracted by the commissioner or practitioner. This contract normally involves adequate remuneration, a commitment to tasks and timing and a non-disclosure agreement to ensure confidentiality of information and data that need to be accessed by the experts in order to complete the critical review. The reviewers\u2019 contract cannot contain conditions that influence the result of the critical review process. ISO TS 14071 also explicitly states that reviewer tasks cannot be subcontracted or delegated and thus have to be performed by the contracted reviewers personally. ISO TS 14071 lists the respective tasks of the two principal roles in a critical review process, the chairperson and the reviewer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1230, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 344, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO TS 14071 lists the respective tasks of the two principal roles in a critical review process, the chairperson and the reviewer. The reviewer\u2019s role essentially involves: \u2022 Commenting on the LCA report (or parts of it during a concurrent critical review); \u2022 Contributing to the critical review report; \u2022 Expressing agreement or disagreement concerning the critical review statement including a justification in case of disagreement. R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1231, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 344, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The chairperson has the same role as a reviewer but with the additional tasks of running the critical review process via: \u2022 Setting up of the review panel; \u2022 Distribution of tasks relative to each panel member\u2019s competencies; \u2022 Coordination of the review process including ensuring a common understanding of the required tasks among all reviewers and their relation to ISO 14040 and 14044; \u2022 Recording and sharing each reviewer\u2019s comments within the panel and with the practitioner/commissioner; \u2022 Resolve potential conflicting positions between reviewers, aiming at a consensual critical review statement or if that is not possible including a minority position in the statement; \u2022 Enable and support a smooth communication among all panel members and with the practitioner and commissioner; \u2022 Ensure the generation and panel approval of review report and statement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1232, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 345, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consequently, the workload and required experience level regarding the critical review process will be higher for the chairperson which should be reflected in the contractual conditions. Furthermore, this also means that besides technical qualifications, the chairperson should be particularly skilled in communication and project management. How to become a critical reviewer is a frequently asked question and there are several ways once an interested candidate has acquired the necessary competencies and experience. The opportunity to participate in such a process may come via different channels, typically via colleagues who may have been asked first and refer to you, via mailing lists, or via a direct contact with an offer. In any case, it is advisable to first participate as expert in a reviewer panel a few times in order to get acquainted with the process and usual practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1233, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 345, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In any case, it is advisable to first participate as expert in a reviewer panel a few times in order to get acquainted with the process and usual practice. Having participated in a few critical reviews, you could propose to take on the additional responsibility of acting as chairperson. 13.4 Conclusions Critical review is an important element of an LCA study that helps ensuring conformance to the relevant LCA standards ISO 14040 and 14044 and thus building credibility and trust in its methodology, data, results, the robustness of its conclusions, and ultimately increasing its acceptance among stakeholders. In the authors\u2019 experience, critical review can trigger a tremendous improvement of an LCA\u2019s rigour, transparency, technical quality and robustness, especially if conducted concurrently to the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1234, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 345, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the authors\u2019 experience, critical review can trigger a tremendous improvement of an LCA\u2019s rigour, transparency, technical quality and robustness, especially if conducted concurrently to the study. It also helps bringing in external and independent views and experiences, which typically enriches the methodological aspects, such as modelling, data, and the interpretation of results in a study. It is, however, not a guarantee that the study is perfect or even as perfect as possible since there will Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1235, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 345, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "always be aspects that could not be considered, that were overlooked, or that could not be addressed. Also, a critical review does not verify or validate the goals of an LCA or how its results will be used (ISO 2006b), which means that if the objective itself is problematic the LCA study may be stated as conform to ISO, while still supporting misleading conclusions or recommendations beyond the LCA report. Critical review is also not a validation process against objective evidence, such as measurements or other observations. This chapter provides a broad overview of several complementary aspects related to the critical review, without discussing them all in detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1236, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 346, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter provides a broad overview of several complementary aspects related to the critical review, without discussing them all in detail. The authors recommend the cited references for further reading, particularly the ISO standards of course, along with the publications by Kl\u00f6pffer (1997, 2005, 2012), Weidema (1997), Hamilton and Ayer (2013), and Curran and Young (2014), which will provide further depth and details, practical aspects, and experiences for the interested reader. They are certainly essential reads for aspiring critical reviewers and chairpersons, but also for practitioners of an LCA that will be exposed to a critical review. Consoli, F., Allen, D., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen, A., de Oude, N., Parrish, R., Perriman, R., Postlethwaite, D., Quay, B., S\u00e9guin, J., Vigon, B.: Guidelines for Life Cycle Assessment: A \u201cCode of Practice\u201d. SETAC, Pensacola, FL (1993) Curran, M.A., Young, S.B.: Critical review: a summary of the current state-of-practice. Int", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1237, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 346, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SETAC, Pensacola, FL (1993) Curran, M.A., Young, S.B.: Critical review: a summary of the current state-of-practice. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1667\u20131673 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0778-2 EC-JRC: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). EUR 24710 EN (2010a). doi:10.2788/39791 EC-JRC: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: Reviewer qualifications for Life Cycle Inventory data sets. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra, Italy (2010b). doi:10.2788/95543 European Commission: Recommendation 2013/179/EU on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations. Off J Eur Union 210 (2013). doi:10.3000/19770677.L_2013.124.eng Gleick, P.H.: Hummer versus Prius \u201cDust to Dust\u201d Report Misleads the Media and Public with Bad Science", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1238, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 346, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Off J Eur Union 210 (2013). doi:10.3000/19770677.L_2013.124.eng Gleick, P.H.: Hummer versus Prius \u201cDust to Dust\u201d Report Misleads the Media and Public with Bad Science. Pacific Institute, Oakland, CA (2007) Hamilton, M., Ayer, N.: Navigating the LCA Critical Review Process - EarthShift White Paper (2013) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Critical Review Processes and Reviewer Competencies: Additional Requirements and Guidelines to ISO 14044:2006 (ISO 14071). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2014) Jolliet, O., Saade-Sbeih, M., Shaked, S., Jolliet, A., Crettaz, P.: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1239, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 346, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2014) Jolliet, O., Saade-Sbeih, M., Shaked, S., Jolliet, A., Crettaz, P.: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment. CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL (2015) Kl\u00f6pffer, W.: Peer (Expert) review in LCA according to SETAC and ISO 14040. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2, 183\u2013184 (1997). doi:10.1007/BF02978411 Kl\u00f6pffer, W.: The critical review process according to ISO 14040-43. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10, 98\u2013102 (2005). doi:10.1065/lca2004.12.190 R.K. Rosenbaum and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1240, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 346, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kl\u00f6pffer, W.: The critical review of life cycle assessment studies according to ISO 14040 and 14044. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 1087\u20131093 (2012). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0426-7 Lang, B., Lupi, C., Omlin, M., Reinhardt, I.: Wo speist man \u00f6kologischer? M\u00f6glichkeiten und Grenzen von \u00d6kobilanzen im Restaurant-Vergleich. GAIA\u2014Ecol Perspect Sci Soc 3, 108\u2013115 (1994) Schulz, M., Mersiowsky, I.: Critical review of LCA\u2014essential for quality and understanding. In: 6th International Conference on Life Cycle Management. LCM 2013. Gothenburg, Sweden, p. 4 (2013) Weidema, B.P.: Guidelines for critical review of product LCA. Belgium, Brussels (1997) Author Biographies Ralph K. Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1241, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 347, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology. Interested in LCIA modelling of emissions and water/soil resource use, operationalisation of uncertainty management and spatial differentiation. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. Critical Review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1242, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "13 Critical Review", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 347, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA Tuomas J. Mattila Abstract Input\u2013output analysis can be used as a tool for complementing the traditionally process-based life cycle assessment (LCA) with macroeconomic data from the background systems. Properly used, it can result in faster and more accurate LCA. It also provides opportunities for streamlining the LCA inventory collection and focusing resources. This chapter reviews the main uses of input\u2013 output analysis (IO) to ensure consistent system boundaries, to evaluate the completeness of an LCA study and to form a basis for in-depth inventory collection. The use of IO as a data source for social and economic sustainability metrics is also discussed, as are the limitations of the approach. All aspects are demonstrated through examples and references both to recent scientific literature and publicly available datasets are provided. The aim of the chapter is to present the basic tools for applying IO in practical LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1243, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 349, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The aim of the chapter is to present the basic tools for applying IO in practical LCA studies. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Understand the historical background of input\u2013output analysis and how it relates to LCA. \u2022 Understand the basic equations of input\u2013output analysis. \u2022 Use input\u2013output datasets to find background information on product systems and processes. \u2022 Use hybrid input\u2013output analysis to identify hotspots and the effect of cut-off in process-LCA. \u2022 Use input\u2013output analysis to improve process-LCA dataset. T.J. Mattila (&) Finnish Environment Institute SYKE & Luonnonkoneisto Engineering Co-operative, Helsinki, Finland e-mail: tuomas.mattila@ymparisto.fi \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_14", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1244, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 349, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Use input\u2013output analysis as a basis for collecting more detailed process-LCA data. \u2022 Find social and economic data to supplement environmental LCA. \u2022 Understand the strengths and the limitations of using input\u2013output analysis as supplement to process-LCA. 14.1 This chapter introduces how to use input\u2013output analysis (IO) in life cycle assessment (LCA). IO was initially developed for macroeconomic systems analysis and planning, but it shares many approaches and methods with process-based LCA. After decades of separate methodological development, the recent trend is to combine the tools into environmentally extended input\u2013output analysis (EEIO), hybrid IO-LCA and comprehensive sustainability assessment. The application of IO together with LCA is assisted by the fact, that it shares the same structure as attributional LCA, linking environmental impacts to economic demand through a product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1245, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 350, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The application of IO together with LCA is assisted by the fact, that it shares the same structure as attributional LCA, linking environmental impacts to economic demand through a product system. An important problem in conventional process-based LCA is cut-off, or the omission of certain parts of the product system (see Chap. 9). LCA attempts to model every environmental, social and economic impact caused by a product throughout its life cycle from \u201ccradle to grave\u201d, integrated over time and space. In practice, this is impossible, and certain simplification for the system boundaries have to be introduced. Everything outside those system boundaries is considered to be \u201ccut-off\u201d from the analysis. If this cut-off is allowed to be subjective, it ruins the idea of comparable and repeatable results. Therefore detailed cut-off criteria, product category rules, standards and handbooks have been developed for standardising and harmonising system boundary setting (EC-JRC 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1246, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 350, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore detailed cut-off criteria, product category rules, standards and handbooks have been developed for standardising and harmonising system boundary setting (EC-JRC 2010). The product system of an LCA can be thought of as a branching tree. It starts from the functional unit and branches out to the first tier of inputs needed to supply the functionality. Each of these first tier inputs then branches out into second tier inputs and so forth (EC-JRC 2010). This branching out is repeated until all the identified inputs and outputs are either resources extracted or emissions emitted to the environment (i.e. \u201celementary flows\u201d). In practice, only a part of this branching out is done in an individual study. In a typical study, primary data is collected for the foreground processes, which are closest to the final user (see more about foreground process in Sect. 8.2.3). The remaining inputs are connected to LCA databases, which include product systems from previous studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1247, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 350, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8.2.3). The remaining inputs are connected to LCA databases, which include product systems from previous studies. This forms the background system. The result is a branching process diagram, which proceeds from an individual product towards more general background processes. In addition, there are processes and flows for which no data can be found, and they are considered cut-off. This dataset is then used to estimate, how much environmental T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1248, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 350, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impacts should be allocated to the product system in question. In comparison to this branching bottom-up approach, IO ends up with the same result from the top-down, starting from economy wide statistics and narrowing down to industries and product systems. The IO-based sustainability assessment does not start from a product, but inventory data are collected at the whole economy level. Then the total environmental, social and economic results are allocated to specific industries. This will give a set of \u201csatellite accounts\u201d, which describe how much direct impacts each sector causes during a year of production. Using economic allocation, these direct impacts are then combined into embodied impacts for each produced good or service (i.e. how much impact is caused by the whole upstream processing of a good or service). This results in a simultaneous IO-based LCA of all the products in the macroeconomic system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1249, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 351, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "how much impact is caused by the whole upstream processing of a good or service). This results in a simultaneous IO-based LCA of all the products in the macroeconomic system. The embodied impact intensities for each product or service can then be used to calculate footprints for subsystems of the economy (e.g. countries, sectors, individual consumers). A key assumption in IO is that the relationship between production and impacts is linear. This same assumption is shared by attributional LCA but not by consequential LCA. The attributional LCA proceeds by attributing a certain share of the global impacts to a product (e.g. \u201cWhat fraction of airplane emissions is attributed to an air-freight package?\u201d). Consequential LCA estimates the consequences of changing a part of the economy (e.g. \u201cHow much do global emissions change in response to one additional package? What if airfreight increases tenfold?\u201d) (see more about attributional and consequential LCA in Sect. 8.5.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1250, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 351, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cHow much do global emissions change in response to one additional package? What if airfreight increases tenfold?\u201d) (see more about attributional and consequential LCA in Sect. 8.5.3). Thus far, attributional LCA has been used much more than consequential LCA. While the consequential approach may be more relevant for decision-making, it also produces nonlinear models which are challenging to integrate with linear models such as IO. As the focus of this chapter is on introducing IO and its applications, the following will include applications to only attributional LCA. The IO-based approach has two main benefits: it is fast and it is comprehensive. Unlike a process-based LCA, which includes choices about system boundaries and is limited by the resources for inventory collection, an IO-based LCA has the whole economy as its system boundary. It shows indirect and feedback relationships among processes and sectors and is rapid and inexpensive to conduct", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1251, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 351, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It shows indirect and feedback relationships among processes and sectors and is rapid and inexpensive to conduct. Therefore, it is a good screening level tool. In spite of these benefits, it also has several drawbacks. Because IO relies on readily available statistics, the resolution of products is limited by the availability of statistics. This results in aggregation errors when the footprint of \u201csteel products\u201d is used instead of the footprint of \u201can office chair, of specified make and manufacturer\u201d. In addition, the data is usually at least a few years old, as it takes time for the statistical office to collect and harmonise the data from individual companies. These problems are also present in process-LCA databases, but usually the product disaggregation and technology mixes are more diverse. A major drawback is also the limited coverage of environmental impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1252, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 351, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A major drawback is also the limited coverage of environmental impact categories. Sector specific emissions for toxic substances especially are highly limited compared to the accuracy commonly found in process-LCA databases. Using process-LCA together with IO can utilise the benefits of IO and minimise the Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1253, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 351, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "problems. In a hybrid-LCA, process-LCA data is used for foreground systems and for reliable process-LCA datasets. IO-LCA is then used to capture all the missing flows. Ideally, this results in a comprehensive system boundary and high data quality. The structure of the chapter is to first give an outline of IO, starting from the background where it rose from. This gives perspective on the current applications. Then the three main uses of IO in LCA are discussed: filling gaps in process-LCA, providing a first draft template to identify hotspots for process-LCA data collection and using IO as a data source for economic and social sustainability assessment. The approach is practical more than theoretical. Each topic has a worked out example using real data to highlight the use of IO. A more mathematical description of IO and an application to the Finnish economy can be found from the dissertation of the author (Mattila 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1254, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 352, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A more mathematical description of IO and an application to the Finnish economy can be found from the dissertation of the author (Mattila 2013). 14.2 Introductory Examples to Environmentally Extended Input\u2013Output Analysis (EEIO) The origins of IO are in economic planning and the analysis of multiplier effects. These effects can be demonstrated with a very simple example. \u201cAssume that a farmer needs to supply 1000 kg of grain. Each 1000 kg of grain requires 30 kg of grain as seed. How much total grain has been produced to supply 1000 kg to a consumer?\u201d This problem presents a loop: the outputs of the process are used as its inputs. This results in an infinite series of tiers in the supply chain. For producing 1000 kg of grain, 30 kg of grain is needed for seed (1st tier), the production of 30 kg of grain requires 0.9 kg of seed (2nd tier), for which 0.027 kg of seed (3rd tier) was needed, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1255, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 352, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As each tier is much smaller than the previous tier, the total amount can be approximated by calculating a few tiers and then adding the results. For an accurate answer, the solution can be found from the input\u2013output relations. If the production of 1000 kg requires 30 kg of seed, the input\u2013output ratio is 30/1000 = 0.03. The net output per unit of production is then 1 \u22120.03 = 0.97. The total amount of grain needed for a net output of 1000 kg is then (1/0.97) \u0001 1000 kg = 1030.928 kg. In this case, there is a very small multiplier effect (0.03 units of additional production for each unit of demand). In historical times when yields were lower and part of the grain was used as feed for the working animals, the input\u2013output ratio was much higher and much of the production of grain was used to meet the inputs of producing that grain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1256, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 352, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In more general terms, the total amount of production x 1\u20444 y= 1 \u0003 a \u00f0 \u00de, where x is the total amount of production, y is the final demand and a is the input coefficient. These kinds of feedback loops are simple, when a process uses its own outputs as inputs. The problem becomes more challenging, when a process supplies outputs across the economy and uses inputs from several sources. The same feedback loops are present, but they can cycle through several tiers of production. These delayed T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1257, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 352, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "feedback loops are very common in complex supply chains (or more accurately supply networks), and make economic planning difficult. The problems of planned economies were what made Wassily Leontief develop input\u2013output analysis. He studied in the USSR and Germany, but later moved to the United States, where the wartime economy and subsequent restructuring of the economy provided a good testing ground and plenty of resources for applying the theory. His work with development of input\u2013output analysis earned him a Nobel prize in economy in 1973. In order to understand IO, let us look at an imaginary production system in a planned economy (Fig. 14.1). Assume that the goal is to build 1,000,000 trucks, and that needs inputs from four economic sectors: truck manufacture, metal manufacture, machine manufacture and ore mining", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1258, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 353, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14.1). Assume that the goal is to build 1,000,000 trucks, and that needs inputs from four economic sectors: truck manufacture, metal manufacture, machine manufacture and ore mining. The sectors are deeply interconnected with trucks needing inputs from metals and machinery; metals needing metals, machinery and ores; machinery needing metals and machines; and ores needing machinery. In addition, each sector needs trucks to transport goods and raw materials. The system clearly has several feedback loops at different levels. It could be solved stepwise, following each loop until the additional production needed would be very small. In a sense, it reminds us of life cycle assessment and interconnected unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1259, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 353, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It could be solved stepwise, following each loop until the additional production needed would be very small. In a sense, it reminds us of life cycle assessment and interconnected unit processes. A stepwise approach is feasible, if the system is quite small, but what if the system has thousands of sectors and millions of interactions Trucks Metals Machines Ores A = Trucks Metals Machines Ores Y = Trucks Metals Machines Ores 1 000 000 Trucks Metals Machines Ores (a) (b) Fig. 14.1 The same product system described as a flowchart and an input coefficient matrix (A) and final demand vector (y) Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1260, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 353, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "like the world economy? Fortunately, the solution is almost as simple as in the case of the grain and seed, and almost all of IO can be summarised in a single equation. The economic system can be described by using an input coefficient table (A in Fig. 14.1). Each column represents a sector, showing the inputs needed to produce one unit of output from that sector. For example, it takes 0.1 units of ores to make one unit of metals in the imaginary truck example. The outputs from the economic system are accounted separately in a final demand vector (y). It does not matter what the units are, although commonly a single unit of monetary value is used for each sector. Now the total amount of produced goods (x) is the sum of final demand y and the amount of production needed for intermediate demand (i.e. for making all the intermediate products needed to supply the final product)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1261, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 354, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for making all the intermediate products needed to supply the final product). The amount of intermediate production is in direct relation to the total production in each sector (x) and the amount of intermediate inputs each sector needs from other sectors. Written as an equation: x 1\u20444 y \u00fe Ax \u00f014:1\u00de If we have only a single sector, this results in the same solution as in the grain example: x = y/(1 \u2212a). When there are several sectors, the structure of the equation is the same but matrix inversion replaces scalar division. This gives the core equation of economic input\u2013output analysis: x 1\u20444 I \u0003 A \u00f0 \u00de\u00031y \u00f014:2\u00de where I is an identity matrix, which has ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere. In linear algebra, it has the same role as one in scalar algebra. (I \u2212A)\u22121 is the inverse of (I \u2212A), which can be thought of as the equivalent of division in matrix algebra", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1262, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 354, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In linear algebra, it has the same role as one in scalar algebra. (I \u2212A)\u22121 is the inverse of (I \u2212A), which can be thought of as the equivalent of division in matrix algebra. (The example can be followed in a spreadsheet program by using the functions MMULT() for matrix multiplication and MINVERSE() for inversion). This inverse of the input coefficient table is commonly known as the Leontief inverse, and it shows the system wide interconnections of each sector with other sectors in its supply chain. Applying Eq. (14.2) to the system in Fig. 14.1 gives a solution to the truck problem (Fig. 14.2). In order to produce 1,000,000 trucks for final demand, 1,012,608 trucks need to be manufactured. The elements of (I \u2212A)\u22121 describe the total production needed to provide one unit of final demand from the sector. These are often called indirect multipliers. For example, it takes 0.26 units of metals to produce a truck, while the direct input (A matrix in Fig. 14.1) is only 0.15", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1263, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 354, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These are often called indirect multipliers. For example, it takes 0.26 units of metals to produce a truck, while the direct input (A matrix in Fig. 14.1) is only 0.15. The indirect inputs take into account all the feedback loops in the system and are always bigger than the direct inputs. However, how does this relate to sustainability assessment, since many of the \u201csustainability aspects\u201d are externalities or outside the economic sectors? This has been solved through the introduction of \u201csatellite accounts\u201d and environmental extensions, thus resulting in an environmentally extended input\u2013output table T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1264, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 354, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(EEIO). The environmental extension describes how much emissions or resources are used for each unit of production on a sector. These \u201cdirect emission intensities\u201d are often collected as part of national statistics, especially for greenhouse gases and energy consumption. While the extension may sound difficult, it makes only minor additions to Eq. (14.2): g 1\u20444 Bx 1\u20444 B I \u0003 A \u00f0 \u00de\u00031y \u00f014:3\u00de where g is a vector of embodied environmental impacts associated with final demand y, and B is a matrix of direct environmental impact multipliers for each sector. If we were interested in land use and assume that the manufacturing sectors each require 0.01 m2 of land area and mining requires 1.0 m2 of land area (i.e. B = [0.01 0.01 0.01 1.0]), the total land area demand of the truck example is g = 0.01 1,012,608 + 0.01 \u0001 264,734 + 0.01 \u0001 299,480 + 1.0 \u0001 26,473 = 42,241 m2, with 26,473 m2 or 63% coming from the mining sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1265, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 355, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The same equation can also be written in a different form: g 1\u20444 Bx 1\u20444 B I \u0003 A \u00f0 \u00de\u00031y 1\u20444 Cy \u00f014:4\u00de where C is a matrix of embodied environmental impact intensity (impact/monetary unit) for all products in the system. It can be thought of as a life cycle inventory (LCI) dataset and is a very valuable in constructing hybrid LCAs and making first estimates for products and services for which process-LCA data is hard to find (e.g. insurance services). This simple example contains all the basic elements of EEIO and IO, which are used in all common applications of input\u2013output analysis ranging from product level to societal level. However, the example is deceptively simple, the actual usefulness of IO becomes more obvious when one uses a real world example. Example 14.1 Compare Danish and Chinese steel industry inputs from WIOD datasets 2000 and 2008. Look at total volume of inputs, direct input coefficients and indirect input coefficients", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1266, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 355, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Example 14.1 Compare Danish and Chinese steel industry inputs from WIOD datasets 2000 and 2008. Look at total volume of inputs, direct input coefficients and indirect input coefficients. Trucks Metals Machines Ores Trucks Metals Machines Ores = Y X (I-A)-1 Fig. 14.2 A linear algebra solution to the system in Fig. 14.1 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1267, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 355, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The WIOD (World Input\u2013Output Database) is one of the publicly available multiple region input\u2013output (MRIO) datasets. It is available from wiod.org. The dataset includes both the input\u2013output tables as well as the socio-economic and environmental accounts. For this example, we will have a look at the monetary input\u2013output table and derive the direct and indirect inputs for Danish and Chinese steel industries. The WIOT (world input\u2013output table) is arranged in a sector-by-sector format, with all the sectors for a given country in one unit (Fig. 14.3). For the excel file, the country code and sector codes for Danish steel are DNK 27t28 \u201cBasic metals and fabricated metal\u201d. In the spreadsheet, the total output (x vector) is the last of the columns and was $5753 M in year 2000 and $13 141 M in 2008. For Chinese steel production (CHN 27t28), the output was $211,880 M in 2000 and $1,251,139 M in 2008", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1268, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 356, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For Chinese steel production (CHN 27t28), the output was $211,880 M in 2000 and $1,251,139 M in 2008. Therefore, the Chinese metal production is considerably larger than the Danish and is growing at a rapid pace. However, has the production technology changed as well? The emissions of a sector can be considered from a production and life cycle perspective. For the production perspective, a key indicator is the direct emission intensity, which describes the fuel consumption of that sector per monetary unit of output. The direct emission intensity of Chinese metal production has decreased. In 2000, the emissions were 272 Mt CO2 (1.28 kg CO2/$) and in 2008 they were 578 Mt CO2 (0.46 kg CO2/$). For Danish metal industry, the corresponding figures were 0.4 Mt CO2 (0.07 kg CO2/$) in 2000 and 0.4 Mt CO2 (0.03 kg CO2/$) in 2008", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1269, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 356, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For Danish metal industry, the corresponding figures were 0.4 Mt CO2 (0.07 kg CO2/$) in 2000 and 0.4 Mt CO2 (0.03 kg CO2/$) in 2008. Both industries had obtained considerable reductions in emission intensity, but was this at the cost of increased outsourcing and more embodied emissions in the inputs? For this, we need the life cycle perspective of a sector level carbon footprint. A first step in calculating the carbon footprint is to convert the monetary flow data into input coefficients (i.e. how much inputs are needed to provide one unit of output; the A matrix). This is obtained by dividing each column j of the monetary flows by the corresponding total output (xj). (In this case, the x contains zero elements reflecting that some of the sectors are not active in the country, which results in an error", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1270, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 356, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(In this case, the x contains zero elements reflecting that some of the sectors are not active in the country, which results in an error. This can be avoided by replacing the zeros with a very small number such as 1/1000,000,000.) The input coefficients can be used for a rough AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA BELGIUM AUT AUS BEL AUS BEL AUT AUS AUT AUS BEL AUT BEL Fig. 14.3 A screenshot from a subset of the WIOT table from WIOD-database. Intra-country transactions are on the diagonal, while trade between countries is arranged on a grid. Each country has 35 sectors T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1271, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 356, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "comparison of the value added and input intensity of the sectors. The sum of all input coefficients for Danish steel in 2000 was 0.55 and for Chinese steel it was 0.77. This indicated that the Danish steel industry was able to produce more value added (i.e. less inputs needed for outputs produced) for each unit than Chinese. By 2008, the input coefficients for the industries had increased further to 0.62 for Denmark and 0.80 for China. This indicated that the industries had outsourced their input production to other sectors or countries and/or moved to lower refinement value products. The trend to outsourcing can be seen from the highest input coefficients (Table 14.1). For both countries, the Basis Metals and Fabricated Metal sector has a considerable amount of inputs from companies within itself. In addition, China has its own mining operations and imports ores from Australia (input coefficient increased by 140% from 2000 to 2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1272, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 357, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, China has its own mining operations and imports ores from Australia (input coefficient increased by 140% from 2000 to 2008). In contrast, the Danish steel industry has most of its purchases from retail and wholesaletrade services, and imports mainly processed metals from Germany. The largest change in the Danish steel industry has been the increase of recycling (input coefficient change of 100%). The monetary inputs are interesting, but as we are interested in the carbon footprint, a few more stages are necessary. The first stage involves calculating the Leontief inverse (I \u2212A)\u22121. The identity matrix I can be constructed in a spreadsheet by defining a table, where the elements are set to 1 if the row and the column have the same index [i.e. (1,1) or (2,2)] and 0 elsewhere. After this each element of A is subtracted from the corresponding element of I and the resulting matrix is inverted (MINVERSE() function in spreadsheet programs)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1273, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 357, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1,1) or (2,2)] and 0 elsewhere. After this each element of A is subtracted from the corresponding element of I and the resulting matrix is inverted (MINVERSE() function in spreadsheet programs). For the WIOD, the inversion will take a lot of memory and some time on most desktop computers. Closing additional programs and copying I and A matrices to a new spreadsheet document will help conserve memory. After the inversion, it makes sense to copy the inverted matrix to a new spreadsheet to avoid the program from repeating the calculation every time the document is changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1274, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 357, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After the inversion, it makes sense to copy the inverted matrix to a new spreadsheet to avoid the program from repeating the calculation every time the document is changed. Table 14.1 A comparison of top 5 direct input coefficients of Chinese and Danish steel products in 2000 and 2008 Sector Country In 2000 In 2008 Change (%) Input coefficient\u2014China basic metals Basic metals and fabricated metal CHN 0.33 0.33 Mining and quarrying CHN 0.07 0.09 Electricity, gas and water supply CHN 0.04 0.05 Machinery, nec CHN 0.02 0.03 Mining and quarrying AUS 0.01 0.02 Input coefficient\u2014Denmark basic metals Wholesale trade and commission trade DNK 0.06 0.08 Basic metals and fabricated metal DNK 0.07 0.06 \u221214 Basic metals and fabricated metal DEU 0.05 0.07 Retail trade DNK 0.03 0.03 Manufacturing, nec; recycling DNK 0.01 0.02 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1275, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 357, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The second stage involves some manual work (or macro programming) in collecting the emissions for each sector in the economy. The CO2 emissions for each sector in each country have to be collected into a column, which has the same ordering as the sectors and countries in the input\u2013output table. The WIOD has this dataset arranged in separate files for each country, which means that the files need to be combined. After this step, the emissions are divided by the corresponding total output x to yield the B matrix (in this case we have only CO2 emissions, so it is a vector instead of a matrix). After this the B matrix is arranged to be vertical (a row vector, using TRANSPOSE() function) and is multiplied with the (I \u2212A)\u22121 matrix (MMULT() function). The result is a row vector, which contains the carbonfootprint of all the products in the world (C matrix). It is a very useful dataset for recalculation of the examples in this chapter and in other applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1276, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 358, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is a very useful dataset for recalculation of the examples in this chapter and in other applications. For Chinese metal products in 2008, the carbon footprint was 2.20 kg CO2/$, or almost five times the direct emission intensity. For Danish metal products, the carbon footprint was 0.32 kg CO2/$ or almost ten times the direct emission intensity. Both industries have most of their carbon emissions in the supply chain. A first step in locating those emissions is multiplying the input coefficients of the sectors (in A matrix) with the carbon footprint intensities to have a look, which inputs have the highest embodied emissions. For Denmark, the emissions diverge globally at the first tier of the supply chain (Table 14.2). The top 5 embodied emissions include metal products from Germany, Russia, Denmark and Rest of the World (RoW; a statistical grouping of economies which were not included in the detailed country analysis of WIOD)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1277, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 358, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If a top 20 listing of emissions had shown, it would have included several more countries in and outside Europe. In contrast, the Chinese metal production has its supply chain focused in China. Most of the inputs were energy, machinery and raw materials for metal production. Although the metal product sectors of China and Denmark are so different that direct comparison is not meaningful, they provided an example of the use of EEIO to learn about global supply chains and their technological differences. This example also serves as a kind of a warning for using EEIO results in LCA without looking at the product mix in the sector. Using the Chinese industry average for a finished metal product would probably result in a major overestimation of the impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1278, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 358, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Using the Chinese industry average for a finished metal product would probably result in a major overestimation of the impact. Table 14.2 The inputs with the highest share of the carbon footprint of the basic metals sectors in Denmark and China in 2008 Denmark kg CO2e/$ China kg CO2e/$ Direct emission 0.03 Direct emission 0.46 Basic metals DEU 0.04 Basic metals CHN 0.74 Basic metals RoW 0.02 Electricity CHN 0.49 Basic metals RUS 0.02 Mining CHN 0.16 Basic metals DNK 0.02 Non-metallic mineral CHN 0.05 Electricity DNK 0.01 Machinery CHN 0.05 Total upstream 0.28 Total upstream 1.73 T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1279, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 358, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14.3 Avoiding Cut-Off Through Comprehensive System Boundaries Most modern supply chains branch out globally, as was seen in the example of Danish metal products. Collecting process-LCA data on a supply chain, which rapidly spreads over several countries and continents, is difficult. Also wholesale and retail trade, which may cover 10\u201320% of all the inputs to a product manufacturing, often have no process-LCA datasets. The practical consequence of global supply chains and a shift to more services is an increase of cut-off in process-LCA. Cut-off has always been unavoidable. Usually, it was assumed that the cut-off flows would be insignificant, but later studies have shown that the omission is often 30% or even much larger in some impact categories (Suh et al. 2004). In principle, there are two sources of cut-off: the identified cut-off and the non-identified cut-off", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1280, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 359, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2004). In principle, there are two sources of cut-off: the identified cut-off and the non-identified cut-off. The identified cut-off consists of flows that are identified during the process-LCA, but which have no LCI data available. The unidentified cut-off is flows which are omitted, since they are intangible (not related to energy or material flows) or simply overlooked. A real-life example of the latter would be ignoring maintenance services in a pulp and paper mill, although the maintenance services consume tools and specialty metals, with considerable impacts to metal depletion (Mattila 2013). Other classical examples would be ignoring insurance, facility rent, retail trade, marketing or software development. Although they may be below a specified cut-off limit at each stage, if these are omitted in all parts of the process-LCA product system, the complete omission will be significant. If economic or social indicators are considered, the omission will be even larger", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1281, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 359, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If economic or social indicators are considered, the omission will be even larger. In a case study of smartphone sustainability assessment, much of embodied child labour was in trade services and warehouse work in developing countries in the parts of the supply chain that supplied parts for smartphone assembly. This came as a surprise both to the analysts and the social responsibility people of the smartphone manufacturers, wholesale trade had previously been ignored in the inventory for child labour. Fortunately, IO can be used to estimate both identified and non-identified cut-off flows. The first case is termed missing inventories and the second is termed checking for completeness. Both are applications of so-called hybrid-LCA. For a more detailed description of different ways of constructing a hybrid-LCA, see (Suh and Huppes 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1282, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 359, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Both are applications of so-called hybrid-LCA. For a more detailed description of different ways of constructing a hybrid-LCA, see (Suh and Huppes 2005). A critique for using the IO dataset to fill gaps is that it usually contains very few LCIA impact categories, most often climate impacts from fossil fuels. However, for some types of products and technologies there is a strong correlation between this category and many other LCIA impact categories (excluding toxic impacts and land use) (Laurent et al. 2012), so one approach is to use the ratio of process-LCA climate impact to cut-off impact as a \u201ccorrection factor\u201d or estimate of cut-off magnitude. Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1283, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 359, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14.3.1 Estimating Missing Inventories from IO Data Process-LCA has traditionally focused on physical processes and products. Consequently most LCA databases lack services. It is quite straightforward to complete these missing inventory items by using input\u2013output results in a tiered analysis. The analysis consists of four stages: 1. Convert physical flows to monetary flows using price data or for example import statistics, which report both mass and price flows 2. Find an appropriate IO dataset (good geographical and year coverage, relevant environmental extensions included) 3. Convert consumer prices to producer prices (by removing value added tax as well astrade and transport margins) 4. Convert the monetary flow to the currency and year of the IO dataset using producer price indexes 5. Multiply the monetary flows with the corresponding LCI results from the IO dataset (matrix C in Eq. 14.4). It is easiest to describe this process again through an example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1284, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 360, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Multiply the monetary flows with the corresponding LCI results from the IO dataset (matrix C in Eq. 14.4). It is easiest to describe this process again through an example. Example 14.2 Estimate the carbon footprint for a wedding trip planned to be from Denmark to San Francisco. The planned flight distance is 18,000 km, some estimated costs would be $40 for public transportation, $3000 for hotels and $1000 for restaurants and $100 for travel insurance. Assuming that the emission intensity of airplane travel is 0.11 kg CO2-eq/tkm (ecoinvent 2.2), the climate impact of the flight would be 3960 kg CO2-eq. We will use the USEIO-LCA model for the economic flows (www.eiolca.net). The EIO-LCA model has a base year of 2002 both in producers and purchasers prices. For the purposes of this example, we will use the purchasers price model, which avoids translating the prices to producers prices (for now). In order to use the model the prices have to be converted to year 2002 prices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1285, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 360, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to use the model the prices have to be converted to year 2002 prices. This can be achieved through the detailed consumer price indexes (CPI), available from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov). Finding the right statistical category for each commodity requires some research and guesswork. For this example the CPI are presented in Table 14.3. Since prices have increased considerably from year 2002, the purchases of $4440 in 2014 would have been only $3265 in 2002. Using the converted prices, the carbon intensities from the EIO-LCA can be used to calculate the carbon footprint from the monetary flows (Table 14.3). Based on the results the overall footprint associated with the monetary flows would be 1844 kg CO2-eq, thus, compared to the emissions from the flight (3960 kg CO2-eq) the emissions of the monetary flows would be considerable. The major contributor is the stay at the hotel, contributing 1367 kg CO2-eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1286, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 360, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The major contributor is the stay at the hotel, contributing 1367 kg CO2-eq. The EIO-LCA presents a detailed description of the components for each of the carbon footprints. In the case of hotels, the main contribution is from the power generation and supply sector (59%), followed by direct emissions from hotel heating (14%). T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1287, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 360, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Based on the quick calculation, a good leverage point for reducing the emissions of the trip would be choosing a hotel with high energy efficiency and renewable energy. However, this example has two oversimplifications: first of all the process-based inventory for the flight probably has cut-off, so it represents an underestimation of the total impact; second, the emissions which occur high in the atmosphere have a larger radiative forcing than those close to the ground (therefore the contribution of the other purchases to the whole impact are probably less than the example indicates, and it would be best to avoid the flight altogether). Example 14.3 The EIO-LCA dataset used in Example 14.2 is quite old (2002). How much would the results change if WIOD year 2008 data would be used instead? Let us repeat the calculation, but with a different base year (2008) and with producer\u2019s prices, since WIOD is based on those", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1288, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 361, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the conversion from purchasers\u2019 to producers\u2019 prices, we will just remove the California sales tax (9%), by dividing the costs with 1.09. Since none of the purchases included transportation or retailtrade, we avoided the difficulty of finding the statistics for those. The results are presented in Table 14.4. Based on the results, the carbonfootprint for the monetary flows would be 1291 kg CO2-eq, much lower than with EIO-LCA but still significant. The main reasons for the difference are the reduced emission intensity from 2002 to 2008 and the aggregation errors introduced by the WIOD dataset. The EIO-LCA has 428 sectors, with a very detailed disaggregation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1289, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 361, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The EIO-LCA has 428 sectors, with a very detailed disaggregation. Table 14.3 Commodity price indexes for 2014 and 2002 for the four goods in the example, their carbon intensities and the contribution to the overall carbon footprint (excluding the flight) Commodity CPI CPI Purchase in 2014 In prices Carbon intensity (kg CO2-eq/ $2002) Carbon footprint (kg CO2-eq) Taxi $40 $25 1.870 Hotels $3000 $2445 0.559 Restaurants $1000 $729 0.580 Insurance $100 $66 0.117 Total $4440 $3265 Table 14.4 Commodity price indexes for 2014 and 2002, correction to producers\u2019 prices and the carbon footprint using WIOD 2008 data Commodity CPI CPI Purchase in 2014 In 2002 producers prices Carbon intensity (kg CO2-eq/$2002) Carbon footprint (kg CO2-eq) Taxi $40 $30 0.75 Hotels $3000 $2690 0.33 Restaurants $1000 $799 0.33 Insurance $100 $78 0.14 Total $4440 $3597 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1290, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 361, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In comparison, the WIOD only has 35 sectors for each country. Consequently, restaurant and hotel services are in the same category and have the same emission factor. Similar aggregation errors are common in the WIOD dataset in all supply chains, resulting in a more \u201cblurry\u201d image of the supply chain and its hotspots. 14.3.2 Estimating Completeness of the Process-LCA Dataset Input\u2013output can be useful for finding inventory data on flows that are commonly not found in process-LCA databases, such as insurance, financial services and hotels. However, it can also be used to estimate, how complete the process-LCA dataset is. This is based on estimating the input coefficient and value added in the process-LCA dataset. In Example 14.1, the Danish and Chinese basic metal industries were compared, and it was found that the Danish industry has a much lower sum of input coefficients (0.62) than the Chinese (0.8)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1291, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 362, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In Example 14.1, the Danish and Chinese basic metal industries were compared, and it was found that the Danish industry has a much lower sum of input coefficients (0.62) than the Chinese (0.8). It means that for each unit of production, the Danish industry produced value added for 0.38 units. If one calculates the input coefficients and value added for a process-LCA dataset and finds that the value added would be much higher (e.g. 0.9 units per unit of production) it either indicates a very profitable process, or much more likely an omission of some important costs (e.g. infrastructure rent, repairs, insurance and transport). In constructing a process-LCA, it is straightforward to get financial data for the foreground processes, as one is collecting primary data from companies in any case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1292, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 362, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In constructing a process-LCA, it is straightforward to get financial data for the foreground processes, as one is collecting primary data from companies in any case. However, it may be much more difficult to collect financial data from the companies in the supply chain, since they are most likely not willing to reveal their production cost breakdown to a purchaser of their products. In this case, the input coefficients of the IO-table can be used as a template. The list of physical inputs from an LCA unit process database can be compared with the amounts found in the IO-table inputs, taking note of the main differences in inputs in the two datasets. The IO-table inputs can also be circulated to the companies providing the data with a questionnaire, so they can indicate if their inputs differ considerably from the industry average inputs (this can also be a benchmarking process for the participating companies, increasing their interest for participation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1293, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 362, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A third approach for estimating the completeness of the process-LCA is to compare the carbon footprint composition between the process-LCA and the sector average carbon footprint. The formal tools for doing this are contribution analysis and structural path analysis (SPA). Contribution analysis maps out the location of direct emissions in the supply network, which contribute the most to the life cycle impacts. Structural path analysis converts the matrix representation of an IO-LCA into a description of process flows, which cause most of the impacts. The full details for these methods can be found in Heijungs and Suh (2002), but they are also incorporated into most LCA software. For the IO dataset, the EIO-LCA has a contribution analysis included in the toolbox and some IO datasets can be imported into LCA software. If neither case is applicable, one has to follow the approach T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1294, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 362, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "presented in Example 14.1 (i.e. calculate the carbon footprint matrix C and multiply the elements of A with it to give a first tier breakdown of the supply chain). If the IO-LCA-based results show a significant carbon footprint from trade services, they probably should be included in the process-LCA inventory. A problem in this straightforward approach is the lack of environmental extensions in IO-LCA. A given input might be highly significant for a single impact category (for example repair services for metal depletion), but if the impact category is not included in the IO dataset, it will not be identified as important. This problem will gradually be resolved as more impact categories are included in environmentally extended input\u2013output (EEIO) models. The process is now underway in impacts related to land use and biodiversity, hopefully sometime soon global inventories for toxic emissions would be published", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1295, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 363, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The process is now underway in impacts related to land use and biodiversity, hopefully sometime soon global inventories for toxic emissions would be published. 14.3.3 Using Input\u2013Output Analysis as a Template for LCA Thus far, we have been discussing how to use IO-LCA to fill the gaps in process-LCA. However, the process may be reversed: start from IO-LCA and focus the process-LCI collection work on the parts of the IO-product system, which have the highest environmental impacts. This approach is known as the path exchange method (Lenzen and Crawford 2009). It is a highly effective way of collecting LCI inventories. In practice, one performs a so-called Accumulative Structural Path Analysis (ASPA) (Suh and Heijungs 2007). The ASPA is conceptually simple: one multiplies all the direct inputs (A matrix) with the corresponding embodied impact intensities (C matrix). Then top ranking inputs are screened to the next step based on either a specified cut-off level (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1296, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 363, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Then top ranking inputs are screened to the next step based on either a specified cut-off level (e.g. more than 1% of total impact) or a specified inclusion limit (together the included inputs must cover >90% of total impact). After the screening, the process is repeated for each of the selected inputs for the second tier. This results in a branching tree structure of the process system, which can be visualised with a Sankey diagram or a flow chart (Fig. 14.4). After the path analysis has extracted the most critical pathways, process-LCA is used to check how much the actual inputs in the foreground system differ from those assumed in the IO-table. Then the LCA proceeds by replacing the most critical inputs with process-LCA collected inventory data. LCA software (such as SimaPro or OpenLCA) includes tools for drawing Sankey diagrams", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1297, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 363, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Then the LCA proceeds by replacing the most critical inputs with process-LCA collected inventory data. LCA software (such as SimaPro or OpenLCA) includes tools for drawing Sankey diagrams. If the IO dataset has been imported to the software, the path exchange method is straightforward (for import of IO data the reader is referred to instructional material for the respective LCA software). There is however a hidden risk in this simplicity. With the software, it is easy to overwrite the background IO data with the process-LCA which is collected. Because IO systems are so interconnected, this results in the change of every background process. For example, let us assume the studied product is in the basic chemicals sector, and electricity use is a critical input. If the process-LCI result for electricity consumption is much lower, Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1298, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 363, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "we need to change the default from the IO. If we just replace the input coefficient in the identified process, we automatically change the amount of electricity needed in all the companies in the basic chemicals sector! This will influence all the inputs for the product system, for example, the packaging materials probably needed cardboard, which needed some basic chemicals to manufacture. Therefore, it is important to make copies of the identified processes before changing them. It is possible to do the whole process manually in a spreadsheet (although using a mathematical programming language will make the work less tedious). The following example presents a simple iteration in carbon footprinting for a new product. Example 14.4 Using IO to create a template LCA system boundary for an underwater exploration robot. The OpenROV is an open sourced underwater exploration robot kit. The bill of materials and the estimated costs are found in the project web page (www.openrov.org)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1299, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 364, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The OpenROV is an open sourced underwater exploration robot kit. The bill of materials and the estimated costs are found in the project web page (www.openrov.org). For the purposes of this example, the bill of materials of 35 items was aggregated to IO classifications (Table 14.5). From this onwards, the analysis proceeded by calculating the carbon footprint (using WIOD 2008) for each of the materials, ranking the results, choosing a new set of inputs for the second tier and repeating. In each tier, the input coefficients in the A matrix were multiplied with the monetary flow of the inputs from that sector. For example: $141 were from the rubber and plastics sector, which had an input coefficient of 0.22 for \u201cChemicals and chemical products\u201d. Therefore, the input coefficients for the chemicals sector were multiplied with $31. Using a coarse cut-off limit of 5% of the total footprint, the following diagram was obtained in 30 min using spreadsheet software and drawing tools (Fig. 14.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1300, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 364, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Using a coarse cut-off limit of 5% of the total footprint, the following diagram was obtained in 30 min using spreadsheet software and drawing tools (Fig. 14.4). It highlights that from the bill of materials, the electronics, plastics and metals are the most relevant. Within the electronics supply chain, there are three components that should be investigated in detail: supply of basic metals, electricity and imported electronics. Within the plastic parts, inputs from chemical industry should be investigated, as should the electricity use. For metals, the direct emissions of metal manufacturing and the metal product inputs should be investigated. The only third tier input included (and it was just at the margin of 5% cut-off) was the direct emissions from the chemical manufacture needed for the plastic components. Overall, the identified processes cover only 52% of the total footprint. Repeating the analysis with a lower cut-off limit (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1301, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 364, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Overall, the identified processes cover only 52% of the total footprint. Repeating the analysis with a lower cut-off limit (e.g. 1%) would result in a significantly higher number of highlighted processes. Even with the coarse cut-off limit, the IO-based template seems reasonable. The main identified inputs were similar to what would have been identified using a Table 14.5 A cost breakdown for the OpenROV 2.7 underwater exploration robot classified to WIOD IO-sector classes. For simplicity, it was assumed all purchases would be from USA Input Cost Electronic and optical equipment $313 Rubber and plastics $141 Basic metals and fabricated metals $56 Manufacturing, unspecified $6 T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1302, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 364, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "process-LCA, but having a relative importance score added to them assists in priority setting for further inventory collection. 14.4 Using IO as a Source for Social and Economic Sustainability Assessment While few IO datasets include many indicators on environment, almost all of them have detailed socio-economic accounts. This can be used as a comprehensive background dataset for social and economic sustainability assessment. All national accounts include data on employment and value added. Some include the employment by worker category (gender, age and salary level). This can be used to find data for triple bottom line sustainability assessment (see Chap. 5), mapping out where economic activities are happening, where added value goes to and what kinds of salaries are paid to maintain and create the product system. For example, the WIOD dataset includes the number of employees and the number of persons engaged, and the hours worked by these people and the amount of compensation paid", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1303, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 365, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, the WIOD dataset includes the number of employees and the number of persons engaged, and the hours worked by these people and the amount of compensation paid. In addition, it includes a disaggregated dataset for high-medium and low-skilled labour (hours worked and compensation paid). This data can be used to map out, where in the product system work is being done, and the fairness of the compensation compared to the rest of the value added. Average pay in a given country or region is also straightforward to calculate from the data in order to facilitate interpretation. The social hotspots database (SHDB, socialhotspot.org) has taken this analysis a step further. The database includes inventory and characterisation matrices for social issues (see more about Social LCA in Chap. 16). They are based on risks associated with worker conditions in a given country and sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1304, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 365, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16). They are based on risks associated with worker conditions in a given country and sector. These are then used to multiply the hours worked in the supply chain in each sector and country to Metals 20% Plastics 37% Electronics 42% Basic metals, USA 7% Electricity, USA 5% Electronics, CHN 5% Chemicals, USA 12% Electricity, USA 8% Direct emission 4% Direct emission 6%, Metals, USA 5% OpenROV 210 kg CO2e Fig. 14.4 A first estimate of the critical parts of the supply chain for an underwater exploration robot prototype using WIOD data and accumulative structural path analysis with a cut-off of 5% Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1305, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 365, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "give an overall risk score for social sustainability, as well as individual indicator (137 indicators) and risk score results (134 risk scores). As more characterisation models become available for social life cycle assessment, there is increased opportunity to use them together with IO-LCA. One of the benefits of using LCA and IO together is that the analytical tools created for LCA are also applicable to the IO datasets. It is as straightforward to do structural path analysis or a contribution diagram for employment or employee compensation as it is for climate impacts. For example, using the example of the underwater robot the work hour footprint is 13.27 h of work, with the majority of it being 8 h in the electronics supply chain. Of that embodied work, 2.5 h were in USA and 1.4 in the Chinese electronics sector. Approximately 45% of workers in the Chinese electronics sector were low-skilled and 8% were high skilled in 2008", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1306, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 366, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Of that embodied work, 2.5 h were in USA and 1.4 in the Chinese electronics sector. Approximately 45% of workers in the Chinese electronics sector were low-skilled and 8% were high skilled in 2008. The manufacture of components created some knowledge intensive work, which might be considered beneficial. The value added per hour worked in that sector was 4.7 $/h, of which 33% was wages (labour compensation), equalling 1.6 $/h wages. This is in line with the average manufacturing wages in 2008 in China (Bureau of Labor Statistics, USA), so the sector pays average wage. The calculation could be taken further, by using structural path analysis to map out the entire value tree and the hours worked and the wages paid. These could then be compared to the average wages in the country to evaluate whether the operation is increasing the average wages in the country. The analysis presented above is based on average statistics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1307, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 366, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The analysis presented above is based on average statistics. This is a limitation for companies that have a strong policy of social responsibility in the supply chain, as their suppliers might be very different from the overall average figure. For those cases, the benefit of this kind of analysis is to provide a checklist of potential hotspots and to make sure these are addressed in choosing suppliers and negotiating policies. As the tools for social LCA become more widespread and sophisticated, the IO dataset provide a testing ground for using them. Relatively simple calculations can reveal valuable information about the amount and wages of workers. Complemented with other statistics collected for example by the United Nations International Labour Organization, the analysis can be taken deeper and more focused on issues such as work injuries or child labour", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1308, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 366, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14.5 Data Sources 14.5.1 Publicly Available EEIO Datasets There are several publicly available EEIO datasets (Table 14.6), many of them are available for free through an academic license. The datasets however differ in the amount of regions they cover, their sector disaggregation and number of impact categories. T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1309, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 366, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The WIOD (www.wiod.org) introduced in the examples of this chapter is a simple to use, relatively small and compact EEIO database. It has a resolution of 40 regions and 35 sectors, which makes it very aggregated and prone to aggregation errors. It also has very few impact categories (6). In comparison, the EORA (www.worldmrio.com) has a much higher resolution for sectors (on average 85 but ranging from 25 to 428 depending on country) and regions (190 regions). In spite of extensive disaggregation of emission types and sources, the database includes only greenhouse gases, energy, ecological footprint, human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) and some resource extraction impacts. The cost of a larger sector and country disaggregation is also that the full resolution multiple region input\u2013output analysis (MRIO) cannot be processed with a spreadsheet, but has to be operated through a mathematical programming language (e.g. MATLAB or R)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1310, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 367, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "MATLAB or R). EORA however has a large amount of footprint results precalculated and it has time series of the data, improving analysis possibilities further. EIO-LCA (www.eio-lca.net) contains some other datasets, but the core dataset is an input\u2013output table of the US in 2002. The resolution is considerable with 428 sectors and the amount of impact categories (the LCIA method TRACI is used) is fairly high for an EEIO model. The web interface (www.eio-lca.net) makes using the tool relatively easy. CEDA 4.0 (www.cedainformation.net) is based on the same data as EIO-LCA but is much more detailed on the environmental emissions. It has pre-characterised impact categories and 2500 emission and resource depletion categories (LCI inventory level). Currently CEDA 4.0 is available for 6 countries, but the version 5.0 is planned to have global coverage. The Waste Input\u2013Output Table is a single country input\u2013output table for Japan in 2000", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1311, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 367, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Currently CEDA 4.0 is available for 6 countries, but the version 5.0 is planned to have global coverage. The Waste Input\u2013Output Table is a single country input\u2013output table for Japan in 2000. For environmental impact assessment, it has only four impact categories, but the model has a unique approach to waste. Waste generation, processing and reuse have been modelled using separate sectors and technology specific coefficients. Although the data is not very useful in most analyses since it is old and focuses on a single country, the modelling approach is worth considering, especially if one is interested in circular economy research. Another dataset with Table 14.6 A comparison of publicly available EEIO datasets Database Latest data year Time series Regions Sectors Impact categories WIOD x EIO-LCA EXIOBASE 2.0 Waste input\u2013 output EORA x Average CEDA 4.0 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1312, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 367, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "detailed waste modelling is the FORWAST dataset, integrated in SimaPro for EU and representing year 2003 data. The EXIOBASE 2.0 (www.exiobase.eu) is a freely available update on the previous commercial EXIOBASE 1.0 database. It has data for the year 2007 for 48 regions and 163 sectors. The dataset has a large amount of impact categories, although many of them would be grouped into the same midpoint in LCIA (e.g. land use). EXIOBASE 3.0 is under development and is planned to have time series from 1995 to 2011. 14.5.2 Publicly Available Economic Accounts In addition to specific EEIO datasets, there are some well-known datasets for economic IO. For multiple region assessments (MRIO) the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) is one of the most used datasets. The current version 8 contains 129 regions and 57 sectors. The relatively coarse sector disaggregation limits analysis as does the data year (2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1313, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 368, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The current version 8 contains 129 regions and 57 sectors. The relatively coarse sector disaggregation limits analysis as does the data year (2007). OECD maintains an input\u2013output database, which has a harmonised set of country level input\u2013output tables with a 58 regions and 48 sectors resolution. The database is well documented and harmonised, similar to the Eurostat database, which contains 60 sector databases for EU27 countries, candidate countries and Norway. The Eurostat datasets are updated with a three year delay, the latest dataset being for the year 2011. In addition to individual countries, the Eurostat also publishes an aggregated table for EU27. OECD also maintains an inter-country IO dataset, which has harmonised the trade flows across countries. Depending on the type of analysis, this can offer some benefits if the focus is on global supply chains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1314, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 368, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depending on the type of analysis, this can offer some benefits if the focus is on global supply chains. Compared to the single country dataset, the trade-flows can be used to connect several countries together into a multiple region input\u2013output model (MRIO). 14.5.3 Adding New Environmental Extensions to Economic Input\u2013Output Analysis Since LCIA is progressing, many of the EEIO datasets do not contain the necessary inventory data or the characterisation models for including the relevant flows. Fortunately, it is rather straightforward to include new extensions to an IO dataset. First the data demands of the LCIA model need to be defined. Should the input data be spatially explicit? What kind of resolution is needed? Then the country total emission and resource use amounts are gathered. In the next stage, these total amounts are disaggregated to sectors using appropriate allocation rules", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1315, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 368, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the next stage, these total amounts are disaggregated to sectors using appropriate allocation rules. The same rules as for dividing LCA processes apply here: it is usually better to use technical information to do the division, when that fails, physical and monetary allocation can T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1316, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 368, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "be used. For example, in the case of disaggregating the EU-wide land cover classification data (CORINE) of industrial and commercial buildings a first step might be to find national statistics on industrial sites. After this, the industrial sites can be divided to the industrial sectors based on accounts on raw material extraction or material flow, and the commercial sites can be allocated to commercial sectors based on economic output. As always, it is useful to perform a sensitivity analysis to see whether the choices made in this stage influence the final outcomes of the research question (Most often not. It is the minor details, which take most of the time in disaggregation, but which provide the least benefit for the overall result). Presented as a list, the process is the following: 1. Identify the data needs of the LCIA model (spatial resolution, resolution in regard to emission source, location and sink, most relevant emissions for the impact categories) 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1317, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 369, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Identify the data needs of the LCIA model (spatial resolution, resolution in regard to emission source, location and sink, most relevant emissions for the impact categories) 2. Collect statistics on total emission in the defined region 3. Use auxiliary data to disaggregate the total into sectors 4. Check the impact of choices made during disaggregation through LCIA. A much more straightforward approach is to use emission factors or a ratio to another component already included in the EEIO dataset. For example, if black carbon emissions from combustion need to be added to the model, the energy consumption data of diesel fuel may be used, especially if additional data on the vehicle fleet of different sectors is available and can be used to justify different emission factors for different sectors (e.g. agriculture, forestry, freight road transportation, ship transportation and households)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1318, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 369, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "agriculture, forestry, freight road transportation, ship transportation and households). As the diesel fuel consumption is already divided by sector, the same aggregation can be used for the new emission category. Adding new LCIA categories requires manual work, estimation and creativity. Eventually the impact category may become so critical to environmental policy, that it is integrated to the IO satellite accounts by the statistical offices. Currently this has happened mainly with energy consumption, land use and greenhouse gas emissions. 14.6 Shortcomings of EEIO While EEIO has many benefits for LCA, it also has its shortcomings. From the viewpoint of LCA, a major flaw in most IO datasets is that they do not cover the life cycle from cradle to grave. Quite often, the end-of-life stage is missing, as is the construction of the infrastructure. These are considered as separate accounts in IO (construction investments and recycling)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1319, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 369, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Quite often, the end-of-life stage is missing, as is the construction of the infrastructure. These are considered as separate accounts in IO (construction investments and recycling). Some datasets (such as the CEDA 4.0) have integrated the capital investments into the input coefficients in order to give a more comprehensive picture of the overall inputs. In addition, the Japanese Waste Input\u2013Output Table has a disaggregated waste treatment sector and the impacts of Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1320, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 369, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "waste treatment for each sector. However, these are not common in EEIO datasets, and would have to be added through process-LCA in order to get a full cradle-to-grave assessment. A related problem is that the IO dataset includes data for a given year. But what if the infrastructure needed has been built a long time ago and is no longer maintained? Moreover, what about the eventual demolition and recycling of the infrastructure? Although IO datasets are spatially complete, they are not temporally complete pictures of the life cycle. This is good to keep in mind, especially when comparing options that are very spread out over time. Mining and energy production systems are typical examples. Ignoring the impacts to future generations undermines the whole purpose of sustainability assessment. As mentioned earlier, most EEIO datasets are based on a single year of production, while the emission intensities develop over time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1321, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 370, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As mentioned earlier, most EEIO datasets are based on a single year of production, while the emission intensities develop over time. For example, the carbon footprint of electricity production in China almost halved from 2002 to 2010 and the electricity production footprint in USA decreased by 37% (Fig. 14.5). Since the base year of EIO-LCA is 2002 and electricity generation is a major contributor to most of the carbon footprints, this means that many of the carbon footprints are now overestimated with the 2002 data. The rate of change is even more rapid in developing countries. This however is a problem which is common to both process and IO-LCA as background datasets are never up to date. A solution is to apply the path exchange method to update the emission intensities for the paths which are identified as important. The aggregation of sectors is another problem in using the IO datasets for LCA. This can be outlined with an example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1322, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 370, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The aggregation of sectors is another problem in using the IO datasets for LCA. This can be outlined with an example. The WIOD dataset has 40 sectors and one metal product sector. We used WIOD to estimate the LCA for the underwater exploration robot in Example 14.4, where the main source of emissions was the electronics. The carbon footprint of \u201celectronic and optical equipment\u201d from USA was 0.28 kg CO2-eq according to the WIOD dataset. The EORA dataset has a much more detailed classification, with 42 products listed under the category electronic China USA Direct emission intensity (kgCO2/$) Fig. 14.5 Carbon footprint of electricity generation in China and USA in 2002 and 2010. Source EORA dataset factor multipliers T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1323, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 370, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and measurement equipment. The carbon footprint of those products ranges from 0.38 kg CO2-eq (electricity and signal testing) to 1.09 kg CO2-eq (carbon and graphite products). The circuit boards and electronic components, which were most relevant for the example, would have a carbon footprint of approximately 0.58 kg CO2-eq, which is almost twice the value obtained from the WIOD. The aggregation of expensive goods and cheaper products and components in one sector results in an underestimation of the impacts of the latter. While the aggregation has benefits in making the database easier to handle, it also results in loss of precision. The loss depends on the sector and the product, which is analysed, as well as the impact category considered. The effect is magnified, when the characterisation factors of emissions have a large spread and single substance emissions can dominate the whole result (as is the case for the toxicity-related impact categories)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1324, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 371, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The more the product differs from the bulk of the sector\u2019s production, the larger the aggregation error. Fortunately, having access to a dataset like EORA means that we can double check the results from a more aggregated model against the disaggregated results, at least for the few impact categories which are included inEORA. 14.7 Summary This chapter has outlined the application of IO in making better LCAs. The applications of IO have progressed from the research of late 1990s to applicability in case studies. The increased data availability in recent years has increased the possibilities for applying IO. The main applications of IO in LCA are estimating inventories for flows, which are otherwise cut-off, evaluating the completeness of the LCA, highlighting potential hotspots for inventory collection and providing background data for social and economic sustainability assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1325, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 371, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, the data sources in IO databases make it possible to evaluate the completeness and relevance of process-LCA datasets, by comparing the base year and country of the technology with the emission intensities recorded in the IO statistics. IO-tables can be daunting at first, since they contain massive amounts of data. Once one gets used to them, they are a valuable addition to the toolbox of a LCA practitioner. EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) Heijungs, R., Suh, S.: The Computational Structure of Life Cycle Assessment. Kluwer academic publishers, Dortrecht (2002) Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1326, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 371, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Laurent, A., Olsen, S.I., Hauschild, M.Z.: Limitations of carbon footprint as indicator of environmental sustainability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46(7), 4100\u20134108 (2012) Lenzen, M., Crawford, R.: The path exchange method for hybrid LCA. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 8251\u20138256 (2009) Mattila TJ (2013) Input\u2013output analysis of the networks of production, consumption and environmental destruction in Finland. Doctoral dissertation. Aalto University, Espoo, Finland. https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/10942 Suh, S., Heijungs, R.: Power series expansion and structural analysis for life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(6), 381\u2013390 (2007) Suh, S., Huppes, G.: Methods for life cycle inventory of a product. J. Clean. Prod. 13(7), 687\u2013697 (2005) Suh, S., Lenzen, M., Treloar, G.J., Hondo, H., Horvath, A., Huppes, G., Jolliet, O., et al.: System boundary selection in life-cycle inventories using hybrid approaches. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1327, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 372, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 38 (3), 657\u2013664 (2004) Author Biography Tuomas J. Mattila Has worked on LCA development since late 2000s in two fields: impact assessment and environmentally extended input-output analysis. His background is in mathematical modeling and chemical engineering. In addition to his research work he also applies ecological engineering in consultancy and farming T.J. Mattila", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1328, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "14 Use of Input\u2013Output Analysis in LCA", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 372, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction Jan-Markus R\u00f6dger, Louise Laumann Kj\u00e6r and Aris Pagoropoulos Abstract The chapter gives an introduction to life cycle costing (LCC) and how it can be used to support decision-making. It can form the economic pillar in a full life cycle sustainability assessment, but often system delimitations differ depending on the goal and scope of the study. To provide a profound understanding this chapter describes several approaches and terms, fundamental principles and different types of costs. A brief introduction is given to conventional LCC and societal LCC but the main focus is on environmental Life Cycle Costing (eLCC) as the LCC approach that is compatible with environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in terms of system delimitation. Differences are explained and addressed, and an overview is given of the main cost categories to consider from different user perspectives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1329, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 373, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Differences are explained and addressed, and an overview is given of the main cost categories to consider from different user perspectives. As inventory data is often sensitive in financial analyses, a list of relevant databases is provided as well as guidance on how to collect data to overcome this hurdle. In an illustrative case study on window frames, the eLCC theory is applied and demonstrated with each step along the eLCC procedure described in detail. A final section about advanced LCC introduces how to monetarise externalities and how to do discounting. All authors contributed equally J.-M. R\u00f6dger (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: januw@dtu.dk L.L. Kj\u00e6r \u0001 A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1330, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 373, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "R\u00f6dger (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: januw@dtu.dk L.L. Kj\u00e6r \u0001 A. Pagoropoulos Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_15", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1331, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 373, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Understand the fundamental principles of Life Cycle Costing. \u2022 Know how to use Life Cycle Costing as a tool to make good decisions from different perspectives\u2014as a product/service developer or someone who buys a product/service. \u2022 Know historical and current application areas. \u2022 Know different variants of Life Cycle Costing approaches and understand their differences e.g. in terms of system boundary approaches. \u2022 Be familiar with the monetarisation of intangible elements, which approaches are available. \u2022 Know how to deal with costs in the future (discounting). 15.1 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) can form the economic pillar in a full life cycle sustainability assessment comprising the environmental, economic and social dimension (see Chap. 5). LCC is a versatile technique capable of being applied for a range of purposes and at different stages in the project or asset life cycle to support decision-making", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1332, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 374, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5). LCC is a versatile technique capable of being applied for a range of purposes and at different stages in the project or asset life cycle to support decision-making. It might be undertaken both as an absolute analysis (e.g. to support the process of budgeting) and as a relative analysis (e.g. in order to compare alternative technologies; Langdon 2007). Three variants of LCC can be distinguished. Conventional LCC, also termed financial LCC, is the original method, and in many ways synonymous with Total Cost of Ownership (TCO). Environmental LCC is aligned with LCA in terms of system boundaries, functional unit, and methodological steps. Lastly, Societal LCC includes monetarisation of other externalities, including both environmental impacts andsocial impacts. For conventional LCC, standards from various government bodies and industry sectors have been developed, includingISO 15663,IEC 60300-3-3, BS 3843, AS/NZS 4536, ISO 15686", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1333, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 374, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For conventional LCC, standards from various government bodies and industry sectors have been developed, includingISO 15663,IEC 60300-3-3, BS 3843, AS/NZS 4536, ISO 15686. For environmental LCC the work of the scientific working group within SETAC on LCC resulted in the LCC methodology described in (Hunkeler et al. 2008), while societal LCC is still at an early stage of development, and more research work is required. The three types of LCC will be explained in Sect. 15.2. As the approach that is most aligned with LCA, environmental LCC will be the type of LCC explained in depth and exemplified throughout this chapter. Section 15.3 presents the steps of an environmental LCC and provides some practical information for data gathering. A case study in Sect. 15.4 shows how to apply the approach. Section 15.5 elaborates on some advanced issues in LCC, including how to monetarise externalities and how to deal with discounting in LCC. J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1334, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 374, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.2 Fundamental Principles and Variants of LCC LCC can be conducted for different purposes, and the methodological choices will depend on the goal and scope of the study. This section introduces the fundamental principles in LCC, including the different purposes and the influence of the target group. This is followed by a description of different types of cost and terminology, before the three variants of LCC are explained. 15.2.1 Fundamental Principles of LCC As the name suggests, LCC is a technique that assesses costs over the life cycle of a product or a system. Literature features a multitude of terms synonymous to LCC to describe costing across the life cycle of a product, a system or a project, including Through-Life Costing (TLC), Whole-Life Costing (WLC) and Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1335, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 375, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should be noted that in the absence of any internationally recognised standard to describe these terms in detail, differences between them remain a subjective opinion based upon experience, field of study and economic standpoint (Boussabaine and Kirkham 2008). Conducting an LCC can have different purposes. It may be used as a planning tool, an optimisation tool, a tool for hotspot identification, as part of a life cycle sustainability assessment of a specific product, or to evaluate investment decisions. A primary consideration relates to the timing of the analysis, where two main types of LCC can be distinguished. Ex ante LCC is a prospective approach based on estimates, and is conducted at the early stages of decision-making. In contrast, ex post LCC is a retrospective approach based on actual results, usually conducted at the end of a project or a specific time period. Another relevant consideration is the target group", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1336, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 375, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In contrast, ex post LCC is a retrospective approach based on actual results, usually conducted at the end of a project or a specific time period. Another relevant consideration is the target group. The target group might be a single actor in a value chain such as a producer or a user or it might take the whole value chain into perspective. The choice of the target group during the goal and scope definition phase of the LCC has implication on the necessary level of detail. Consider the life cycle cost of a passenger car (see Fig. 15.1). At first, taking the driver perspective (user in Fig. 15.1) for a passenger car, fuel and insurance costs, as well as taxes and potential maintenance are very relevant information in the operation phase, indicated by different grey shadings in the figure. In contrast, a manufacturer would be interested in a detailed analysis of the operational (OPEX) and capital expenditures (CAPEX) such as logistics, research & development (R&D), marketing and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1337, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 375, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In contrast, a manufacturer would be interested in a detailed analysis of the operational (OPEX) and capital expenditures (CAPEX) such as logistics, research & development (R&D), marketing and so on. Taking the view of a recycler, they would rather be interested in a detailed description of the constitution of the service fees and those expenditures related to recycling the product. A detailed description of costs to be considered from different perspectives and in the different life cycle stages is given in Sect. 15.3. Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1338, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 375, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.2.2 Different Types of Costs and Terminology Costs, Revenues and Value Added A cost is normally considered as being synonymous with a price of something\u2014it is the monetary value that someone has to pay for something. In an LCC, costs are identified over the life cycle of the product. LCC can also include revenues which are considered as negative costs. Hunkeler et al. (2008) argue that there are no fundamental problems involved in adding the revenues in the analysis, as long as it is clear how it is being carried out, although for practical reasons they are frequently left out. Depending on the context, inclusion of revenues may be required in order to effectively support decisionmaking. Consider an example where a window manufacturer uses LCC to compare the life cycle costs of two windows. The two windows are identical, except that one has an extra decorative feature", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1339, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 376, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consider an example where a window manufacturer uses LCC to compare the life cycle costs of two windows. The two windows are identical, except that one has an extra decorative feature. In this example, for LCC to be of practical use, it needs to evaluate thetrade-off between the extra costs of the feature versus the expected increase in sales. In cases where LCC covers multiple target groups\u2014e.g. manufacturer and user in the passenger car example from before\u2014adding revenues can be confusing, as the cost for one actor is often the revenue for another. In this case, it is important to clearly distinguish between costs and revenues for each target group. In environmental LCC, where multiple perspectives are common, only the value added for each life cycle stage is accumulated in LCC, in order not avoid double counting. See Sect. 15.3 for a detailed description of value added. Material & Installation Utilization EoL Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1340, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 376, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "See Sect. 15.3 for a detailed description of value added. Material & Installation Utilization EoL Fig. 15.1 Different level of details for different actors in life cycle costing of a passenger car J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1341, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 376, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.2.3 Temporal Distribution Since in LCC, costs are accumulated over a lifespan, one needs to consider that the monetary flows occur at different times. This complicates the analysis for two reasons. The first is that prices change due to the market dynamics. Looking at cars for example: all costs associated with a car, viz. steel, labour, fuel, plastics, taxes, are likely to change from year to year. In the long run there is a sustained increase in the general price of goods, which effectively alters the purchasing power of currency\u2014 a phenomenon known as inflation. In LCC one would like to compare costs based on a chosen reference year and therefore all costs needs to be adjusted to that year when doing the comparison. This is done by using inflation rates. Equation 15.1 shows how to calculate the price P of a product at time t (in years) assuming an inflation rate r, where P(0) is the price at the reference year (t = 0)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1342, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 377, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Equation 15.1 shows how to calculate the price P of a product at time t (in years) assuming an inflation rate r, where P(0) is the price at the reference year (t = 0). P t\u00f0 \u00de 1\u20444 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00detP 0 \u00f0 \u00de \u00f015:1\u00de The second complicating fact is that people are likely to have a time preference, and often prefer to spend money later rather than now. One solution to take these considerations into account in LCC when comparing future and present costs is discounting. Discounting essentially weights impacts by assigning a lower weight to costs in the future than present costs, and is discussed in greater detail in Sect. 15.4. 15.2.4 Internal Versus External Costs Costs borne by actors directly involved in the life cycle of the product are termed internal costs (sometimes also referred to as \u2018private costs\u2019). However, a product or system may involve other costs, borne by other actors indirectly influenced by the product life cycle, e.g. as a result of pollution or othersocial impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1343, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 377, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, a product or system may involve other costs, borne by other actors indirectly influenced by the product life cycle, e.g. as a result of pollution or othersocial impacts. These are termed external costs. External costs (also termed externalities) are value changes caused by a business transaction, which are not included in its price, or value changes caused as side effects of the economic activity (Dodds and Galtung 1997; Hunkeler et al. 2008). For example, in the construction of a highway close to a residential area, one possible external cost that is not normally included in the life cycle costs of the highway is the value reduction of the houses close to the highway due to the increased noise levels. In conventional LCC, external costs are usually not included. If the external costs are already expressed in some monetary unit, they can be included in the environmental LCC. In societal LCC, externalities can be monetarised and included in the assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1344, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 377, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the external costs are already expressed in some monetary unit, they can be included in the environmental LCC. In societal LCC, externalities can be monetarised and included in the assessment. External costs and monetarisation in general is covered in Sect. 15.5 (Advanced LCC). Table 15.1 gives an overview of the most common terms used in LCC and their definitions. Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1345, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 377, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.2.5 Three Variants of LCC To understand the differences between the three types of LCC, Fig. 15.2 shows how they relate to the three pillars of sustainability (people, planet, and profit) and which costs they include. LCC can have various goals, depending on the needs and perspectives of the study commissioners. In an LCC of a private vehicle, the user might not be interested in the end-of-life stage of the car, while society might also include broader impacts, which are not borne by the user or the supply chain such as public health expenditures due to particulate matter emissions. To accommodate for these differences, three variants of LCC have been proposed (Hunkeler et al. 2008): Conventional LCC, Environmental LCC and Societal LCC. The differences between the three variants are summarised in Table 15.2. Conventional LCC (cLCC) Conventional LCC (also sometimes called financial LCC) was originally designed for procurement purposes in the U.S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1346, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 378, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Conventional LCC (cLCC) Conventional LCC (also sometimes called financial LCC) was originally designed for procurement purposes in the U.S. Department of Defence (White and Ostwald 1976; Korpi and Ala-Risku 2008). LCC is mainly applied as a decision-making tool, to support acquisition of capital equipment and long-lasting products with high Table 15.1 Definitions of terms used in LCC Term Definition Price The amount of money that will purchase a finite quantity, weight, or other measure of a good or service (Sullivan et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1347, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 378, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2006) Revenue The income generated from sale of goods or services, or any other use of capital or assets, associated with the main operations of an organisation before any costs or expenses are deducted Internal cost Costs borne by actors directly involved in the life cycle of the system under study External costs External costs (also termed externalities) are value changes caused by a business transaction, which are not included in its price, or which occur as side effects of economic activity (Dodds and Galtung 1997; Hunkeler et al. 2008) Value added Value added is the difference between the sales of products and the purchases of products or materials by a firm, covering its labour costs and capital costs as well as its profits (Hunkeler et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1348, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 378, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008) Life cycle costs The sum of value added over the life cycle of a product or a system (Moreau and Weidema 2015) Net Present Value (NPV) NPV is the sum of all the discounted future cash flows that takes into account the time value of money over the entire life time (Park 2011) Discounting A method used to convert future costs or benefits to present values using a discount rate (Langdon 2007) Inflation rate A measure of the overall change in prices for goods and services over time Exchange rate Currency conversion between different currencies J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1349, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 378, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "investment costs (Hunkeler et al. 2008). Conventional LCC is done from the perspective of a single actor, often the user of a solution. An example would be the procurement of a car, where the driver evaluates different options from an economic viewpoint. In this case, focus is on acquisition costs, taxes, fuel costs and anticipated maintenance costs and might even considerend-of-life costs orrevenues (second-hand value) in the evaluation. Conventional LCC can also be done from the manufacturer point of view, breaking down the life cycle costs with specific focus on the production stages, and\u2014if also borne by the manufacturer\u2014end-of-life costs. In conventional LCC, only internal costs are considered, often ending up with one result for Total Cost of Ownership (TCO), or in cases of hotspot identification with a breakdown of activities, also known as Activity-Based-Costing (ABC). Discounting of the results is recommended. See more about discounting in Sect. 15.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1350, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 379, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Discounting of the results is recommended. See more about discounting in Sect. 15.5. Environmental LCC (eLCC) Unlike the single actor perspective of the conventional LCC, environmental LCC (eLCC) is aligned with the ISO standard 14040 and 14044 on LCA in the sense that it takes the perspective of a functional unit and considers the whole life cycle, including all actors in thevalue chain or life cycle. Unlike the conventional LCC, which is industry driven, environmental LCC was rather developed to support LCA in the sense that it covers the economic dimension, and helps identify hot-spots in terms of both cost and environmental impacts. Besides the internal costs borne by actors in the life cycle, environmental LCC may also include external costs that are expected to be internalised in the near future. In the case of the car, this means that anticipated extra taxes on pollution from fuel combustion might be included in the operational cost", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1351, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 379, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the case of the car, this means that anticipated extra taxes on pollution from fuel combustion might be included in the operational cost. In principle, including external costs from environmental impacts that are quantified in the LCIA results in double counting, since the impacts are People (social impacts) Planet (environmental impacts) Profit/prosperity (monetary costs) External costs (externalities) Internal (private) costs or benefits Conventional LCC Environmental LCC Societal LCC Fig. 15.2 Comparison of the three different types of Life Cycle Costing (Adapted from UNEP 2011 guideline) Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1352, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 379, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "accounted for in both analyses. This is not necessarily a problem as long as it transparently shown in the presentation of results and is done consistently for all alternatives being compared (Hunkeler et al. 2008). Like in LCA, the environmental LCC is a steady-state model, and therefore no discounting of the results is usually done. Section 15.3 explains the steps of an eLCC in detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1353, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 380, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 15.2 Comparison of the different variants of life cycle costing Conventional LCC Environmental LCC Societal LCC Goal The assessment of all life cycle costs that are directly covered by the main producer or user in the product life cycle The assessment of all life cycle costs that are directly covered by all stakeholders connected to the product life cycle The assessment of all life cycle costs that are covered by anyone in the society Definition of the life cycle Economic lifetime, often excluding end-of-life Complete life cycle Complete life cycle Perspectives Mainly one stakeholder, either manufacturer or user One or more stakeholders connected to the life cycle Anyone in the society, often governments Reference unit Product or project Functional unit functional unit Types of costs Internal costs of one stakeholder, focusing mainly on acquisition and ownership costs Internal costs of stakeholders connected to the life cycle, plus external costs and benefits expected to be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1354, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 380, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "costs Internal costs of one stakeholder, focusing mainly on acquisition and ownership costs Internal costs of stakeholders connected to the life cycle, plus external costs and benefits expected to be internalised such as CO2 taxes Internal costs of all actors plus external costs, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1355, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 380, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impacts that production or consumption have on third parties Adjustment to inflation Yes Yes Yes Discounting of results Consistent, with discount factors ranging between 5 and 10% No. Discounting the results of the LCC would make the analysis inconsistent with the steady-state assumption of LCA (see Sect. 15.5 on discounting) Consistent but usually low discount factors (<3%) Consistent with LCA? No Yes, but with a risk of double counting the monetarised environmental impacts No, due to risk of double counting and inconsistencies with the quasi-dynamic approach in sLCC (see Hunkeler et al. (2008)) Standards Multiple standards, including ISO 15663, IEC 60300-3-3, BS 3843, AS/NZS 4536, ISO 15686 None, but follows the LCA standards ISO 14040/14044 Currently no standards J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1356, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 380, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Societal LCC (sLCC) The aim of the societal LCC is to support decision-making on a societal level including governments and public authorities. It includes quantifying the environmental effects in monetary terms. As such, societal LCC (sLCC) includes selected external costs by assigning a monetary value on them. This process is called monetarisation of costs (or impacts). In practice, it is performed by translating the impact results from the LCA into monetary units, e.g. assessing damage costs (see Sect. 15.5 for different monetarisation methods). In this way, the sLCC incorporates the LCA results, and the LCA results should therefore be reported as a subset of the LCC to avoid double counting. An LCC that monetarises all environmental impacts from the LCA is in some cases termed full environmental LCC (Hoogmartens et al. 2014). A sLCC goes one step further and also monetarises social impacts such as: affected social well-being, job quality, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1357, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 381, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014). A sLCC goes one step further and also monetarises social impacts such as: affected social well-being, job quality, etc. In this way, the LCC can be linked to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). An sLCC offers the possibility of presenting the result in one single monetary unit, essentially comprising all three pillars of sustainability in a combined Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) aimed at supporting e.g. policy decisions (see Chap. 5). However, this approach of combining all results in a single value is often criticised, mainly because of the uncertainties involved, stemming from both the fact that is difficult to ensure that all relevant external costs are taken into account and from the fact that the external costs are highly uncertain. Discounting is common in sLCC, see more in Sect. 15.5. As a method for supplementing LCA with economic measures, the eLCC is recommended due to the consistency in the scope of the two analyses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1358, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 381, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Discounting is common in sLCC, see more in Sect. 15.5. As a method for supplementing LCA with economic measures, the eLCC is recommended due to the consistency in the scope of the two analyses. The procedure and methodological considerations are presented in the following section, along with an application example using the case on window frames in Chap. 39 and also known from the other methodology chapters. 15.3 Environmental LCC (Aligned with LCA) Environmental Life Cycle Costing (eLCC) is the only analysis comparable to the environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. This section gives guidance on how to conduct an eLCC in a consistent way and in parallel to an LCA. It covers three steps: 1. Goal and Scope definition 2. Data collection 3. Interpretation and sensitivity analysis In general, the overall approach is very similar to the standardised LCA, but there are some important differences, which may both make the analysis easier and more laborious", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1359, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 381, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "One advantage is that characterisation or weighting of inventory data can be avoided in eLCC, since the aggregated cost data provide a direct Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1360, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 381, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "measure of the financial impact and can be aggregated without further processing. On the other hand, the distribution of impacts over time is very important in LCC compared to LCA due to the use of discounting which depends on when the impact or cost occurs. If eLCC results are intended to be used in parallel to LCA, various assumptions must be aligned which will be described in detail below. 15.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition The goal and scope definition in eLCC is similar to what is needed in LCA and henceISO 14040/44 should be used as a basis (see Chaps. 7 and 8). The goal and scope should be clearly defined but due to the iterative approach, the scope may be revised along the analysis. For instance, eLCC can be used both as a planning tool and as an accounting and reporting tool", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1361, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 382, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For instance, eLCC can be used both as a planning tool and as an accounting and reporting tool. Usually it is used for prospective, consequential, and change-oriented assessments to evaluate alternatives, in order to support the product or system design phase, which has utmost influence on prospective costs and emissions along the various life cycle stages. Functional Unit For an eLCC, the functional unit shall be defined in a similar manner as for an LCA (see Chap. 8). If the LCC is meant to be conducted in parallel to an LCA, the functional unit needs to be identical. System Boundaries System boundaries must be clearly defined and documented like in an LCA (see Chap. 8). If the eLCC is conducted in parallel to an LCA, system boundaries for both must be equivalent and assume the same user perspective. However, eLCC is coarser and it is not always necessary to break down all stages and collect all upstream processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1362, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 382, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, eLCC is coarser and it is not always necessary to break down all stages and collect all upstream processes. All real and anticipated money flows should be internalised in a systematic way. The inclusion of external costs in an eLCC is sometimes required while in other situations the system boundaries are negotiable. In general, the inclusion of external costs that are anticipated to be internalised in the decision-relevant future is required. Cut-Off Criteria There is an important difference between eLCC and LCA in terms of cut-off criteria. Especially for complex systems with more than a thousand processes, process-based LCA leaves out processes that are assumed to have a negligible contribution thus introducing cut-offs (see Chapt. 8). LCC on the other hand does not suffer from these truncation errors, as costs that occur upstream in the supply chain are assumed to be represented in the price of a product or a service", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1363, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 382, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8). LCC on the other hand does not suffer from these truncation errors, as costs that occur upstream in the supply chain are assumed to be represented in the price of a product or a service. The cost of purchasing a car for example will include all costs associated with the production of the car, including raw materials, overheads, R&D, marketing, profits for the supply chain and so on. If this is not the case, someone in the supply chain would have to produce at a loss or zero profit, a situation that is clearly unsustainable in the long run. J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1364, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 382, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although reasonable, the hypothesis that upstream costs are always included in the price is not without exceptions. The price of most commodities is strongly determined by the laws of supply and demand. Market downturns often leave those suppliers with the highest production costs in dire straits, forcing them to either sell at a loss or lay up their assets for a period until the market recovers. It should be highlighted that an eLCC can be used to inspire the system scoping of an LCA. When considering the life cycle of a product it might be easier for stakeholders to identify all monetary costs over the life cycle rather than environmental impacts and material uses. These costs can be used as a guidance to include all necessary processes (including services) needed to sustain a product or a system over its life cycle in the LCA. Services are often neglected in LCA and including them in the eLCC might inspire to also include them in the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1365, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": 383, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Services are often neglected in LCA and including them in the eLCC might inspire to also include them in the LCA. One example could be service and maintenance costs for a car, which is important for the life cycle costs, but might easily be forgotten in the LCA. Lastly, for minor costs that are not likely to alter the result of the analysis, cut-off criteria need to be applied. For a single life cycle stage (e.g. raw material extraction, production or transport, etc.) a rule of thumb could be that costs that are likely to contribute to less than 1% of the total cost of that stage can be neglected (Hunkeler et al. 2008). Allocation Complex systems are subject to allocation to perform an eLCC. In LCA, it is recommended by the ISO 14040 to divide theunit process into sub-processes or to expand the system in order to avoid allocation (see Chap. 8). On the other hand, system expansion is not performed in eLCC", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1366, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": 383, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8). On the other hand, system expansion is not performed in eLCC. This is due to the fact the eLCC is solely an attributional indicator that can only describe costs, and does not trace the consequences of particular decisions. Special attention is required to ensure a consistent system definition. The overhead costs are a good example where an allocation method is required. These costs describe all ongoing business expenses, which are not directly linked to production. For those categories, usually costs or revenues are de facto used as allocation keys. For example, in a refinery that refines crudeoil into a number of products, if 40% of the revenue comes from gasoline, then 40% of the overhead costs are allocated to gasoline production. Inventory In the inventory analysis, costs should be quantified in one currency (e.g. euro or US dollar) and be based on a common year", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1367, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": 383, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Inventory In the inventory analysis, costs should be quantified in one currency (e.g. euro or US dollar) and be based on a common year. For example, if a previous version of a product is compared with the latest version, the costs of both must be aligned in terms of the actual value of the currency at those specific times. If two variants of the same product (e.g. a sedan and a station car) are compared it is necessary to include all relevant costs. Relevant means in particular if costs of the alternatives change (e.g. energy costs, material costs, transportation, etc.). In terms of absolute LCCs (stand-alone) all costs must be taken in account. Simply adding costs of all actors in the life cycle would not yield any meaningful result. The cost of one actor is the revenue of another, and this process would end Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1368, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": 383, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "up aggregating the same costs multiple times. Instead, what should be considered in an eLCC is the value added at each stage of the life cycle. Value added is the difference between the sales of products and the purchases of products or materials by a firm, covering its labour costs and capital costs as well as its profits. To get an overview of the hot-spots of the assessed product systems it is recommended to use cost categories on different aggregation levels (see Fig. 15.3). The 1st level consists of three life cycle stages (Manufacturing, Operation and End-of-Life) and external costs. For a manufacturer, the main objective is to analyse every cost in detail during manufacturing, thus the level of detail is higher compared to the other stages in the life cycle. For an operator or user the main focus is on the different costs during the use of the product or service. This affects the data collection strongly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1369, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 384, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For an operator or user the main focus is on the different costs during the use of the product or service. This affects the data collection strongly. To make the data collection more applicable it should be distinguished between the user perspective and the manufacturer perspective (see Sect. 15.2) thus each life cycle stage has several sub-categories at the second level. For example, if the life cycle costs from a user perspective is to be analysed, Manufacturer Materials Transportation Research Design Acquisition Planning Construction Wages Certification Education Marketing ... User Acquisition Rental Life Cycle Costs Manufacturing Operation External Costs 1st Level Allowance Damage costs Prevention ... Manufacturer Maintenance Auxiliaries Wages Taxes Education Transportation ... User Transport Energy Maintenance Auxiliaries Taxes Insurance Capital Costs Depreciation Profit ... Manufacturer Service fee Profit Landfill fees Waste ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1370, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 384, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "User Transport Energy Maintenance Auxiliaries Taxes Insurance Capital Costs Depreciation Profit ... Manufacturer Service fee Profit Landfill fees Waste ... User Collection Dissambly Taxes Service fee Profit Landfill fees Waste ... End-of-Life 2nd Level Fig. 15.3 Overview of cost categories distinguish between aggregation levels and between Manufacturer and User perspective J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1371, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 384, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the level of detail for the manufacturing stage is much smaller and the acquisition costs can used as a decent proxy for every cost that occurs upstream. External costs as the fourth stage is another topic within the eLCC and consist mainly of costs for emission allowance (see Sect. 15.5), damage and prevention costs. If external costs are included in the assessment, care must be taken to avoid double counting as described in Sect. 15.2. 15.3.2 Collection of Data for Inventory Analysis The availability of reliable cost data is crucial in order to perform a realistic life cycle cost analysis. Gathering financial data can be time-consuming and will depend on the collaboration with the involved companies and institutions. The following sections discuss issues in regards to information gathering, particularly for company-based data sources, independent data sources and indirectly derived data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1372, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 385, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following sections discuss issues in regards to information gathering, particularly for company-based data sources, independent data sources and indirectly derived data. Company-Based Data Sources When collecting data internally in a company, there are usually several existing data sources. Accessing them requires the collaboration and involvement of various departments within the company, a task which may be challenging due to unclear responsibilities, lack of resources in the departments and confidentiality issues as well as constraints against an additional economic assessment method. Typical internal and external data sources in relation to each of the life cycle stages are: \u2022 Investment and Manufacturing stage. Internal: R&D, Production, and Human Resource Departments \u2022 Use stage. Internal: R&D, Product Development, accounting systems and Sales (e.g. consumption patterns and sale prices). External: Publicly available databases and industry statistics (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1373, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 385, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Internal: R&D, Product Development, accounting systems and Sales (e.g. consumption patterns and sale prices). External: Publicly available databases and industry statistics (e.g. fuel prices and taxation costs borne by the user). \u2022 End-of-life: Internal: R&D or Product Development, who have dealt with the recycling or redistribution of product systems. External: EU-directives, international conventions etc. Independent Data Sources Financial data can be very sensitive, especially if the results are intended to be published. In these cases most of the data need to be gathered from other independent data sources and references. Examples of public databases are shown in Table 15.3, giving an overview of different cost categories. These data are published at least annually", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1374, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 385, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Examples of public databases are shown in Table 15.3, giving an overview of different cost categories. These data are published at least annually. However, the scope of each database is different, and it is important to check each data source in terms of comprehensiveness, validity for different regions, currencies and time period to ensure that the data are comparable, while also taking the goal and scope definition into account. Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1375, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 385, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "CES EduPack (Granta Material Inspiration 2016) is a leading commercial database that comprises several material and process information. There is a specific Eco Design and Sustainable Development tool, which can analyse the product and design decisions in regards to costs. Another secondary data source for prices is economic input\u2013output tables combined with mass flow analysis on industry sector level. If information on material amount is available (e.g. from the LCA) information on how much a sector pays for the amount can be extracted from comparing monetary supply\u2013use tables and physical supply\u2013use tables. See Chap. 14 for more details on input output tables and their application in LCA. Indirectly Derived Data If all these above mentioned data sources are not able to provide the necessary cost data, a cost estimation technique needs to be applied. Cost estimation techniques associate the cost of a product or activity to the available information at the time of the analysis (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1376, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 386, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cost estimation techniques associate the cost of a product or activity to the available information at the time of the analysis (e.g. the cost of a window frame in regards to its size and bill of materials). The following techniques can be used to estimate costs: \u2022 Surveys and interviews \u2022 Expert opinions \u2022 Cost estimation techniques (qualitative or quantitative). Both surveys and interviews as well as expert opinions can provide useful cost estimates. While these methods are time-consuming, they can provide estimates in Table 15.3 Public database for life cycle cost data Type Scope Name Link Crude oil Sectors, monthly, country International Energy Agency www.iea.org/statistics/topics/ priceandtaxes Plastics Global, weekly The Plastic Exchange www.theplasticsexchange", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1377, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 386, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "com Marine fuel oils Sector, daily, global Ship and Bunker \u0301s www.shipandbunker.com/ prices Chemicals Sector, daily, global ICIS, Part of RELX Group www.Icis.com/chemicals Metals Sector, daily, global London Metal Exchanges www.lme.com Commodities Sector, yearly, global United Nations www.comtrade.un.org/data Inflation Sector, country, monthly World Bank www.data.worldbank.org Wages Sector, country, yearly International Labour Organization www.ilo.org Currency exchange rates Yearly, monthly World Bank www.data.worldbank.org Power, gas, coal, oil Daily European Stock Exchange www.eex.com/en J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1378, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 386, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "cases where data is either not available or hard to predict. Advanced survey methods such as the Delphi method (see Chap. 21) can help combine multiple expert opinions, with multiple rounds of questionnaires helping the group to converge towards a single number. Cost estimation techniques can be broadly classified into qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative techniques identify similarities between products and are more appropriate to implement when time is limited. One example is case-based reasoning (Huang et al. 2012), which compares previous cases and finds the most suitable to adjust to the new case. An example would be the preliminary determination of the cost of a construction project based on similar construction projects that occurred in the past. Quantitative techniques on the other hand are more accurate as they take different product or resource parameters during a whole product life cycle into account (Niazi et al. 2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1379, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 387, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Quantitative techniques on the other hand are more accurate as they take different product or resource parameters during a whole product life cycle into account (Niazi et al. 2006). The parametric approach for example assesses the characteristics of a product and determines mathematical relationships to describe its cost. It should be pointed out that in practice cost estimation is not necessarily linear, as twice the input does not necessarily produce twice the output. Reasons can include the associated economies (or diseconomies) of scale, the existence of large overheads and exponential relations between inputs. Use of advanced cost models such as simulation models or neural networks can take into account non linearity of costs and the dynamic behaviour of systems. 15.3.3 Interpretation and Sensitivity Analysis Sensitivity analysis inLCC is very similar to LCA, and is covered in detail in Chap. 11. However, there are some differences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1380, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 387, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.3.3 Interpretation and Sensitivity Analysis Sensitivity analysis inLCC is very similar to LCA, and is covered in detail in Chap. 11. However, there are some differences. The main difference relates to the fact that\u2014unlike environmental impacts and emissions\u2014commodity prices are much more volatile due to the market mechanisms of supply and demand and the fact that commodities are traded in thestock exchange. Prices are very sensitive to cyclical effects such as financial circles, seasonality etc. Therefore in LCC, the timing of costs is very important, and costs with high price variability such as fuel costs should be subject to sensitivity checks. 15.4 Step-by-Step Application of LCC In the following section, a case study of an environmental LCC is shown, elaborating the different steps to be conducted to identify the whole costs of a product. This procedure is explained by using the case study discussed in previous chapters (see Chap. 39 for a detailed description)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1381, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 387, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This procedure is explained by using the case study discussed in previous chapters (see Chap. 39 for a detailed description). The new window is expected by the company Nor-win to gain a market share of 20\u201330%. The new window differs from existing windows with respect toheat insulation properties, due to the combination of wood and a composite that is comprised of polyamide and glassfibre. Thus, the Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1382, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 387, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "new window is expected to have a lower overall environmental impact compared to earlier products from the company. However, a quantitative, life cycle costing has not been conducted yet to identify the full economic profile for the manufacturer and customer. The analysis is based on the aforementioned steps of \u2022 Goal and Scope definition \u2022 Data collection for inventory analysis \u2022 Interpretation and Sensitivity Analysis. As the goal and scope and the inventory analysis are similar to the described LCA cases, this section mainly focuses on how to gather life cycle costing data and the interpretation of the results. Nonetheless a short summary introduces the goal and scope of the study. 15.4.1 Goal and Scope The study aims to perform a stand-alone eLCC as guidance for the ongoing design of the new window. Economic hot-spots for the window will be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1383, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 388, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.4.1 Goal and Scope The study aims to perform a stand-alone eLCC as guidance for the ongoing design of the new window. Economic hot-spots for the window will be identified. The manufacturer wishes to position itself as a proactive company in terms of sustainability, which entails life cycle costing as well. The target audiences are: (1) design departments at the manufacturer and (2) customers to provide transparency about their new product. The function that is analysed here provides the properties described in the LCA for a minimum of 20 years. The analysis includes all life cycle stages from manufacturing to operation and EoL. However, the level of detail differs compared to the LCA as the data for raw material extraction, primary and secondary material production and other upstream processes are reflected in the final material costs. No cut-off criteria were applied because all needed cost data could be found for the time span of 20 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1384, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 388, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "No cut-off criteria were applied because all needed cost data could be found for the time span of 20 years. 15.4.2 Inventory Analysis Based on the inventory analysis from the LCA, a list of the materials and production related energy consumption was extracted. But the view on production had to be expanded to cover all costs (CAPEX, and OPEX, indirect costs and immaterial costs). Usually materials are traded hence these costs were found on specific market platforms or at thestock exchange (see Sect. 15.3). The market evaluation, the design and ramp-up of the production entail additional financial efforts and are covered by the R&D costs. Additionally entailed costs (e.g. labour, infrastructure, prototype production) were allocated by dividing the total costs with the total expected production volume. Usually the cost centre is broken down in very high J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1385, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 388, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "detail to identify potential cut-downs to improve the return of investment. To improve this rate, the OPEX-related costs are very important as well as they reflect the direct product related costs (e.g. raw material, energy, labour, service and maintenance). The labour costs for assembling the window are dependent on the employer and the production site; therefore official wage levels from several statistical websites were used. The so-called overhead costs include production related costs, e.g. heating and ventilation as well as for lighting. Indirect costs entail site permits, regulatory requirements and prospective liabilities. Those were excluded in the case study. Another cost driver is the immaterial costs (e.g. marketing and competition). An essential part for a company is to promote their products on the market. These additional costs were allocated by dividing the total costs with the total expected production volume", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1386, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 389, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An essential part for a company is to promote their products on the market. These additional costs were allocated by dividing the total costs with the total expected production volume. Some products or services need additional certification to increase their market value or achieve competitive edge. These costs were allocated by dividing the total costs with the total expected production volume. Another offer for the customer can be transportation from the manufacturing site to the door sill. All these costs are shown for one window in Table 15.4. The main cost driver is the window pane with about three quarter of the total costs. The labour is second most important driver with about 15% of the overall manufacturing costs. All others are relatively small. The operation costs are dominated by several drivers (see Table 15.5). Value added taxes (VAT), which are highly dependent on the market (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1387, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 389, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All others are relatively small. The operation costs are dominated by several drivers (see Table 15.5). Value added taxes (VAT), which are highly dependent on the market (e.g. Denmark 25%, Germany 19%), were added based on the price (costs plus profit for the manufacturer). A relatively low profit margin of 10% was assumed here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1388, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 389, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Denmark 25%, Germany 19%), were added based on the price (costs plus profit for the manufacturer). A relatively low profit margin of 10% was assumed here. As some Table 15.4 Calculation of the manufacturing costs of polyamide/glassfibre window Manufacturing costs Inventory value Costs [\u20ac] per unit Calculated costs [\u20ac] Worst case [\u20ac] Best case [\u20ac] Materials Window frame (kg) 14.36 1.63 23.47 26.53 19.55 Window pane (kg) 61.46 5.90 362.39 435.05 289.95 Window packaging (kg) 1.20 0.75 0.90 1.08 0.72 Production Assembly (Electricity) (MJ) 165.00 0.02 3.69 4.05 3.33 R&D (h) 0.01 36.74 0.37 0.39 0.35 Marketing (h) 2.00 0.30 0.60 0.63 0.57 Certification (\u2013) 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Overhead (\u2013) 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.10 1.90 Transportation (tkm) 52.83 0.16 8.23 9.88 6.59 Labour (h) 2.05 36.74 75.33 79.09 71.56 Total manufacturing costs 476.98 558.80 394.51 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1389, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 389, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "customers need a loan to purchase the window, interests were assumed here as well with an effective rate of 5% over one year. Usually the customer has to pay for the delivery of the windows as well, thus the transport performance from the inventory was used and multiplied with the specific costs (e.g. national statistical databases). The windows have to be installed as well and those costs entail the working hours as well as the travelling time of the craftsmen and are dependent on the country as well. However, the largest cost driver is the operation. The assumed 20 years, multiplied with the specific price for district heating including inflation adjustment rate (see Sect. 15.3), led to the result that almost half of the expenses are due to theheat losses. The End-of-Life stage of a product is always uncertain and future costs must be predicted (see Table 15.6). Theaverage inflation rate of the previous years (e.g. 10 years) was assumed as a good estimate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1390, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 390, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Theaverage inflation rate of the previous years (e.g. 10 years) was assumed as a good estimate. Taking the actual market costs (e.g. from recycling plants) and adjusting them with the inflation rate (e.g. from national statistical offices) over time (e.g. 20 years) led to a valid estimate. Based on the information from the life cycle inventory, the window will be mainly incinerated and recycled. Those costs were available at incineration plants and recycling stations. Adjusting those with an average annual inflation rate of 2% the prospective costs are roughly 48% higher than those in 2015", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1391, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 390, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Adjusting those with an average annual inflation rate of 2% the prospective costs are roughly 48% higher than those in 2015. Table 15.5 Calculation of the operational costs of polyamide/glassfibre window Operation costs Inventory value Costs [\u20ac] per unit Costs [\u20ac] Worst case [\u20ac] Best case [\u20ac] Acquisition costs Profit (%) 4.77 47.70 50.08 45.31 Taxes (VAT) (%) 5.25 131.17 152.22 109.96 Interests (%) 6.56 32.79 34.43 31.15 Transportation (tkm) 0.19 1.46 1.54 1.39 Installation (h) 36.74 146.96 154.31 139.61 Use (MJ) 12,400 0.03 334.76 351.50 267.81 Total operation costs 694.85 744.08 595.24 Table 15.6 Calculation of the EoL costs of polyamide/glassfibre window EoL costs Inventory value Costs [\u20ac] per unit Costs [\u20ac] Worst case [\u20ac] Best case [\u20ac] Window frame (kg) 14.30 0.67 9.63 11.56 7.70 Window pane (kg) 61.40 0.11 7.02 8.43 5.62 Window packaging (kg) 1.20 15.35 18.43 22.11 14.74 Transportation (tkm) 3.89 0.28 1.10 1.32 0.88 Total EoL-costs 36.18 43.41 28.94 J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1392, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 390, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can be concluded, that the manufacturing and operation stages are most dominant for the new window (Fig. 15.4). Although the costs are based on real market prices, official national and international databases and realistic inflation rates were assumed, an LCC always includes uncertainties. Therefore in each cost centre a specific deviation was assumed and described in the tables above as worst and best case. Based on the assumptions it can be concluded that the life cycle costs have a range of about +11 and \u221216% compared with the median price of 1.208 \u20ac over the entire time span of 20 years. 15.5 Advanced LCC This section covers some more advanced concepts in regards to LCC and monetarisation in life cycle assessments. 15.5.1 How to Monetarise? A general problem with some goods and services is that they cannot be traded and it is therefore difficult to determine an objective price for them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1393, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 391, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.5.1 How to Monetarise? A general problem with some goods and services is that they cannot be traded and it is therefore difficult to determine an objective price for them. Such cases of goods or services without a market can be grouped in the external costs category. Examples of external costs that may call for quantification in anLCC are: the societal cost of respiratory diseases due to air pollution from internal combustion engines, the societal benefits in regional biodiversity from an improved waste treatment plant or the individual benefits of reduced commuting time by using a private vehicle instead of public transport. In the absence of a market price for these values, it is necessary to use monetary valuation to determine their economic value. Operation EoL Median Best Worst Manu -facturing Fig. 15.4 LCC-results including best and worst case assumptions presented over its life cycle Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1394, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 391, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15.5.2 Monetarisation of External Costs Monetary valuation is important in both eLCC and sLCC. As mentioned before, eLCC expands the scope of the cLCC by including cash flows that are expected to be internalised, such as costs for waste disposal and emission taxes. sLCC goes even further, by adopting a societal perspective that includes both all internal costs and selected external costs, as defined in the goal and scope definition. While monetarisation of external costs can be useful in LCC, especially for socio-economic assessments, it can also be valuable in relation to LCA, as it allows comparisons across impact categories, if the monetarisation is done onmidpoint impact category level. Several methods have been proposed for monetarising externalities, and an overview is given in Fig. 15.5, while Table 15.7 gives a short description of the different approaches", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1395, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 392, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Several methods have been proposed for monetarising externalities, and an overview is given in Fig. 15.5, while Table 15.7 gives a short description of the different approaches. Most methods try to determine the individuals\u2019Willingness To Pay (WTP) for a particular benefit (or inversely, their willingness to accept a payment in return for a particular loss or disbenefit). An alternative principle determines the external costs in a more direct way by equating them to the costs that would have to be paid in order to avoid or counter balance the change. In order to determine the individuals\u2019 Willingness to Pay, different approaches exist, and within each approach multiple methods can be used\u2014each with its own pros and cons. For a more detailed description, see (Boardman et al. 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1396, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 392, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For a more detailed description, see (Boardman et al. 2010). Table 15.8 shows examples of values for monetarisinggreenhouse gas emissions obtained with three different methods from Table 15.7 and illustrates how the result may be very different depending on the methodology used. The table shows the uncertainties involved in monetarised impacts and how it is important to understand the methodologies behind the analysis. Showing a financial value can easily be perceived as something very definite, with a risk of oversimplifying what are in fact complex issues. While actual market-based costs are factual, monetarised impacts always depend on perceptions and value judgements, which make the underlying assumptions critical for supporting interpretation and presentation of results of an LCC that includes external costs. Methodological choices should always reflect the goal and scope of the study, taking the target audience and the decision-making context into account", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1397, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 392, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Methodological choices should always reflect the goal and scope of the study, taking the target audience and the decision-making context into account. 15.5.3 Discounting There are multiple reasons why costs that occur at different points in time are not directly comparable. From the perspective of behavioural economics, people have a time preference, and prefer to postpone payments as much as possible. A firm in the private sector will prefer to pay suppliers later, and in the meantime invest in expanding its own activities. To solve this problem, it is possible to give a higher weight to imminent costs andrevenues, and a lower weight to future payments. J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1398, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 392, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The way to determine those weights is through discounting. The weight w(t) for payments occurring at time t is called the discount factor. The discount factor depends on the discount rate r, which is the rate by which the discount factor w(t) decreases over time assuming a first order decrease. The discount factor is calculated as follows: w t\u00f0 \u00de 1\u20444 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00det \u00f015:2\u00de Determine individuals\u2019 Willingness to Pay Basic Principle Infer individuals\u2019 ability to pay Budget constraint Determine costs of avoiding or counter-balancing the change Abatement cost Observe individuals\u2019 behavior Hedonic pricing Averting behaviour Travel cost Market analogy method Trade-off method Asking directly for individuals\u2019 response Contingent Ranking method Closed-Ended Iterative Bidding method Open-Ended Willingness to Pay method Dichotomous Choice method Approach Method Legend Fig. 15.5 Determining costs\u2014approaches and methods. Based on (Boardman et al. 2010) Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1399, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 393, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The sum of all the discounted costs and revenues is theNet Present Value (NPV) and is equal to: NPV 1\u20444 X P t\u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00det 1\u20444 P 0 \u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00de0 \u00fe P 1 \u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00de1 \u00fe P 2 \u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00de2 \u00fe P 3 \u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00de3 \u00fe \u0001 \u0001 \u0001 P tmax \u00f0 \u00de 1 \u00fe r \u00f0 \u00detmax \u00f015:3\u00de Table 15.7 Determining costs\u2014approaches\u2019 description (Sources: Pizzol et al. 2014; Boardman et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1400, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 394, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010) Approach Description Possible application area (examples) Main weakness Methods Determine costs of avoiding or counter-balancing the change The value of the external cost equals the cost of measures needed to mitigate it Evaluate the cost of greenhouse gas emissions by assessing the costs for carbon sequestration Does not value utility losses, and hence does not express individuals\u2019 attitudes, but rather external targets Abatement cost Asking directly for individuals\u2019 response The goal is to elicit people\u2019s willingness to pay for changes in quantities or qualities of goods Ask a number of individuals how much they are willing to pay for the preservation of a national park Results are highly sensitive to potential sources of error in the survey, as for example the size and the representativeness of the sample of the respondents, and the wording of the questions Contingent ranking method, Dichotomous choice method, Close-ended iterative bidding, Open-ended willingness to pay", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1401, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 394, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of the sample of the respondents, and the wording of the questions Contingent ranking method, Dichotomous choice method, Close-ended iterative bidding, Open-ended willingness to pay method Observe individuals\u2019 behaviour For cases where there may not be a market for the good or service of interest, its value may be reflected indirectly in the substitute market for a related good Evaluate the benefit of newer catalysts in cars by evaluating its impact on healthcare costs for respiratory diseases This approach assumes that people make decisions under full information, a situation that is not satisfied in practice Market analogy method, Averting behaviour, Trade-off method, Travel cost, Hedonic pricing Infer individuals\u2019 ability to pay Determine willingness to pay for an additional Quality-Adjusted Life Year", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1402, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 394, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Evaluate the cost of a statistical life The approach is only applicable specifically to the value of human well-being Budget constraint J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1403, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 394, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "where P(t) denotes the cash flows at time t, which is the time of the cash flow. Figure 15.6 shows a simplified flow chart for deciding on the correct discount rate, together with a most probable value. In cases where there is no single correct discount rate, the effect of different discount rates should be investigated through sensitivity analysis, in particular for studies with a long time duration. The appropriate discount rate depends on the type of cost that is being discounted. For internal costs it is closely related to the cost of borrowing. For private companies a conservative discount factor might be anywhere between 5 and 15%, depending on the required return on investment (Hunkeler et al. 2008). After the financial crisis in 2008 and the worldwide public debt problem, a lower discount factor is more likely for private companies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1404, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 395, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008). After the financial crisis in 2008 and the worldwide public debt problem, a lower discount factor is more likely for private companies. In the public sector, national ministries of finance generally specify the discount rates to be used in the economic analysis of publicly funded projects. These typically fall into the range of 3\u20135% (Langdon 2007). In terms ofsocial impacts, British economist Frank P. Ramsey proposed a model in which society would attempt to maximise a social welfare function (Boardman et al. 2010). In that case, the discount rate would reflect on one hand impatience and on the other hand society\u2019s preference for smoothing consumption flows over time. Ramsey\u2019s formula for society\u2019s marginal rate of time preference gives: r 1\u20444 d \u00fe g \u0001 e \u00f015:4\u00de where r equals the pure rate of time preference (d), plus a term multiplying the long-run rate of growth in per capita consumption (g), by a constant (e)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1405, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 395, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ramsey\u2019s formula usually produces values in the range between 0.5 and 1.2% (Boardman et al. 2010). Finally for environmental impacts, the discount factor depends on the time horizon of the impacts under study. Toxicity from heavy metals can have a Table 15.8 Comparison of different approaches for monetarisation of greenhouse gasses in CO2-eq Example Cost per tonne CO2-eq (\u20ac) Reference Method Emission trading scheme (ETS) system (European Commission and Directorate-General Climate Action\u2014B: European & International Carbon Markets 2010) Market price Carbon offset program Carbon Offset Program Retrieved August, 2015, from http://www.myclimate.org Abatement cost LCIA method (Stepwise2006 v.1.2) 83 \u20ac Weidema (2009) Budget constraint Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1406, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 395, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "long time horizon, as heavy metals are often toxic to humans andecosystems and can remain available in the environment for thousands of years after emission. With that in mind, a discount factor of just 0.0001% that halves the importance of effects every 700,000 years might seem appropriate. On the other hand, toxicity from organic pesticides can have a much shorter time horizon. Diuron for example is a common pesticide with a half-life of approximately 2000 days, so by the same logic a much higher discount rate is appropriate. From the above example, it becomes clear that each environmental impact will require a different discount factor. Table 15.9 shows the calculation of the NPV of the fuel costs for the average driver in the US, driving 24 miles a day to and from work, by means of a fuel efficient car of 25 miles/gallon with 240 working days per year between 1996 and 2002, where 1996 is used as the reference year", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1407, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 396, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 15.7 shows the discounted fuel costs and discount factors for a range of discount rates. The cost of fuel is shown as the baseline (discounting at 0%). Notice that in case of a high discount factor, fuel costs occurring earlier in time are significantly more important than future costs. External cost Type of cost Type of impact Sector of the economy Internal cost Time horizon of the environmental impact Range: 0.001-0.1% Common value: 0.01% Environmental impact Ramsey formula Range: 0.5-1.2% Common value: 0.8% Social impact Company return on investment Range: 5-15% Common value: 8% Private sector Government long term borrowing rata Range: 2-4% Common value: 3.5% Public sector Fig. 15.6 Decision tree for choosing the correct discount factor J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1408, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 396, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 15.9 Calculation of net present value for a discount factor equal to 5%, by applying Eqs. 15.2 and 15.3 Year Time (t) Discount factor (r) 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82 0.78 0.75 Gasoline price (USD/gallon) 1.20 1.30 1.00 0.97 1.50 1.49 1.25 Fuel cost (USD) [P(t)] Present value (USD 1996) 300 * 1 325 * 0.95 250 * 0.91 243 * 0.86 375 * 0.82 373 * 0.78 313 * 0.75 Net present value (USD 1996) Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1409, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 397, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Boardman, A., Greenberg, D., Vining, A., Weimer, D.: Cost-Benefit Analysis, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2010) Boussabaine, A., Kirkham, R.: Whole Life-Cycle Costing: Risk and Risk Responses. Wiley, Hoboken (2008) Dodds, K., Galtung, J.: Peace by peaceful means: peace and conflict. Int. Aff. R. Inst. Int. Aff., Development and Civilization (1997). doi:10.2307/2623565 European Commission, Directorate-General Climate Action\u2014B: European and International Carbon Markets: Guidance on Interpretation of Annex I of the EU ETS Directive (excl. aviation activities), p. 26 (2010) Granta Material Inspiration: CES EduPack. Granta Design, Cambridge (2016) Hoogmartens, R., Van Passel, S., Van Acker, K., Dubois, M.: Bridging the gap between LCA, LCC and CBA as sustainability assessment tools. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 48, 27\u201333 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2014.05.001 Huang, X.X., Newnes, L.B., Parry, G.C.: The adaptation of product cost estimation techniques to estimate the cost of service", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1410, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 398, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Impact Assess. Rev. 48, 27\u201333 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2014.05.001 Huang, X.X., Newnes, L.B., Parry, G.C.: The adaptation of product cost estimation techniques to estimate the cost of service. Int. J. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 25, 417\u2013431 (2012). doi:10.1080/ 0951192X.2011.596281 Hunkeler, D.D., Lichtenvort, K., Rebitzer, G., Ciroth, A.: Environmental life cycle costing. CRC Press, Pensacola (2008) Korpi, E., Ala-Risku, T.: Life cycle costing: a review of published case studies. Manag. Audit. J. 23, 240\u2013261 (2008). doi:10.1108/02686900810857703 Langdon, D.: Life Cycle Costing (LCC) as a contribution to sustainable construction: A common methodology, Final Report. European Commission, Brussels (2007) Moreau, V., Weidema, B.P.: The computational structure of environmental life cycle costing. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1359\u20131363 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1411, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 398, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "European Commission, Brussels (2007) Moreau, V., Weidema, B.P.: The computational structure of environmental life cycle costing. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1359\u20131363 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0952-1 Niazi, A., Dai, J.S., Balabani, S., Seneviratne, L.: Product cost estimation: technique classification and methodology review. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 128, 563 (2006). doi:10.1115/1.2137750 Park, C.S.: Contemporary Engineering Economics. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2011) Pizzol, M., Weidema, B., Brand\u00e3o, M., Osset, P.: Monetary valuation in life cycle assessment: a review. J. Clean. Prod. 86, 170\u2013179 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.007 Sullivan, W.G., Wicks, E.M., Luxhoj, J.T.: Engineering Economy. Pearson Education, New Jersey (2006) Fig. 15.7 Discounted fuel costs and discount factors for a range of discount rates for the average US driver J.-M. R\u00f6dger et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1412, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 398, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "UNEP: Towards a Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment: Making Informed Choices on Products. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi (2011) Weidema, B.P.: Using the budget constraint to monetarise impact assessment results. Ecol. Econ. 68, 1591\u20131598 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.01.019 White, G., Ostwald, P.F.: Life cycle costing. Manag. Account. 57(7), 39\u201342 (1976) Author Biographies Jan-Markus R\u00f6dger Involved in LCA/LCC and LCM activities in various industries since 2010. Main activities are the application of science based assessment tools in actual product and production development processes. Interested in the integration of life cycle thinking in the manufacturing environment. Louise Laumann Kj\u00e6r Has been working with sustainability assessments and LCA within both the private and public sector as a consultant and researcher since 2009", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1413, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 399, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Louise Laumann Kj\u00e6r Has been working with sustainability assessments and LCA within both the private and public sector as a consultant and researcher since 2009. Special interests include Environmental Input/Output LCA, the relationship between economic and environmental impacts of products and services, and assessing the sustainability of innovative business models such as circular business models and product/service-systems. Aris Pagoropoulos Researcher of economic and environmental impacts of products and services, with a focus on the shipping and manufacturing industries. Main interests include LCC, data analysis and Environmental Input/Output LCA. Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1414, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "15 Life Cycle Costing: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 399, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction Andreas Moltesen, Alexandra Bonou, Arne Wangel and Kossara Petrova Bozhilova-Kisheva Abstract An expansion of the LCA framework has been going on through the development of \u2018social life cycle assessment\u2019\u2014S-LCA. The methodology, still in its infancy, has the goal of assessing social impacts related to a product\u2019s life cycle. This chapter introduces S-LCA framework area and the related challenges. It outlines the main conceptual differences between LCA and S-LCA and discusses the barriers in terms of methodological development and potential application. Three case studies are presented applying S-LCA in different contexts and using varying methods. In the light of the outlined differences, perspectives for the future development of S-LCA are discussed. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Understand the methodological phases of S-LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1415, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 401, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Understand the methodological phases of S-LCA. \u2022 Explain the main differences between LCA and S-LCA; the related challenges and implications. \u2022 Explain how social impacts are often defined in the SLCA literature. \u2022 Explain how social impacts depend on the conduct of the company rather than the nature of the process. \u2022 Demonstrate an overview of S-LCA applications in different contexts and using different methods. \u2022 Give examples where the use of SLCA for decision support may not benefit stakeholders in the product life cycle. \u2022 Discuss the perspectives for the future development of S-LCA. A. Moltesen (&) \u0001 A. Bonou \u0001 A. Wangel \u0001 K.P. Bozhilova-Kisheva Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: andreasmoltesen@gmail.com \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1416, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 401, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: andreasmoltesen@gmail.com \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_16", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1417, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 401, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16.1 Since the 60s, there has been increasing awareness that constant growth in consumption and production within the limits of the finite planet is not viable for humans andecosystems. This realisation has led to a vision forsustainable development. The key term \u201csustainability\u201d is defined in Chap. 5 as \u201cthe ability for meeting present human needs without compromising future generations\u201d after the commonly referenced Brundtland Report from 1987 (WCED 1987). The chapter also discusses that the goal of sustainable development was one of the motivations behind the development of LCA, which aims to support environmental protection. However, beyond the environmental concerns sustainability is also related to social aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1418, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 402, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, beyond the environmental concerns sustainability is also related to social aspects. The concerns on the social aspect of sustainability reflects in today\u2019spolicy frameworks such as United Nations\u2019 Sustainable Development Goals, in various national and international initiatives focusing on sustainability of supply chains, and in standardisation frameworks of social nature such as the ISO 26000\u2019s Guidance on Social Responsibility (ISO 2010; UN 2010; UNDP 2015). In this context, to be able to give a more comprehensive assessment of a product\u2019s or system\u2019s contribution to sustainability, an expansion of the LCA framework to also include the impacts on social entities (e.g. workers, consumers, communities) has been going on since the early years of this millennium. This expansion of LCA is known as the \u2018social life cycle assessment\u2019\u2014S-LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1419, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 402, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "workers, consumers, communities) has been going on since the early years of this millennium. This expansion of LCA is known as the \u2018social life cycle assessment\u2019\u2014S-LCA. The ambition for S-LCA is to be a methodology, in other words a system of methods with corresponding procedural steps, which if followed will lead to an assessment of the social impacts of a product over its life cycle. The initial development of S-LCA was strongly influenced by LCA, with the scientific community assuming that S-LCA can assess social impacts in the same way that LCA can assess environmental ones. Its methodological phases are thus similar to the ones discussed in Chaps. 7\u201312: \u2022 Goal definition addresses what is to be assessed and why the assessment is performed. \u2022 Scope definition addresses the choices made in order to perform the assessment and the limitations of the assessment. \u2022 Inventory analysis has the purpose of collecting the data outlined through the goal and scope definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1420, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 402, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Inventory analysis has the purpose of collecting the data outlined through the goal and scope definition. \u2022 Impact assessment uses models to translate inventory data into impacts. \u2022 Interpretation analyses the outcome of the previous phases in accordance with the goal of the study and tries to answer the question posed in the goal definition.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1421, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 402, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16.1.1 Status of S-LCA As described in Chap. 5, (environmental) LCA has been standardised, e.g. in the ISO 14000 series standards and in theEuropean Commission\u2019sILCD guideline (ISO 2006a, b; EC-JRC 2010), and is broadly acknowledged and applied in publicpolicymaking and private initiatives (see Part III of this book for examples of applications). In contrast, S-LCA is still in its infancy. The existing S-LCA literature thus presents a broad variety of approaches for the above methodological phases. Therefore, to characterise it as a consistent and consensual methodology will be misleading. Rather, one could probably speak of bits and pieces of methodological suggestions with the overall goal of assessingsocial impacts related to a product\u2019s life cycle. To date the most important step towards thestandardisation of S-LCA has been the development of the \u201cGuidelines to S-LCA\u201d under the UNEP-SETACLife Cycle Initiative (Beno\u00eet and Mazijn 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1422, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 403, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To date the most important step towards thestandardisation of S-LCA has been the development of the \u201cGuidelines to S-LCA\u201d under the UNEP-SETACLife Cycle Initiative (Beno\u00eet and Mazijn 2009). This was the result of a consensus process involving researchers working on S-LCA, mainly fromEurope and North America. The process, which lasted several years, was the first step towards bridging the differences present in the S-LCA community at the time of publishing. Yet, since a limited amount of research had been published prior to the \u201cGuidelines for S-LCA\u201d, this publication, rather than a definitive guide, can be considered as a first rough map, a skeleton for the future work on S-LCA. This was also emphasised by the main authors of the guidelines and has become evident in the later work on S-LCA where significant methodological problems have been revealed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1423, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 403, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This was also emphasised by the main authors of the guidelines and has become evident in the later work on S-LCA where significant methodological problems have been revealed. 16.1.2 Focus of Chapter The intention of this chapter is to give an introduction to the S-LCA area and the related challenges rather than to analyse its methodological aspects in detail or to give a stepwise description of how one could perform an S-LCA (for this we refer to the \u201cGuidelines for S-LCA\u201d which is more a \u201chow to\u201d guide). We outline the main conceptual differences between LCA and S-LCA drawing on the background knowledge of the LCA framework that you will obtain by reading Chaps. 7\u201312. The chapter further discusses the barriers that these differences set in relation to using the methodological framework of LCA for assessing social impacts. By \u201cbarrier\u201d is meant anything that could impede the ease of use, the accuracy, or the meaningfulness of the assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1424, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 403, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By \u201cbarrier\u201d is meant anything that could impede the ease of use, the accuracy, or the meaningfulness of the assessment. These observations are of key importance for the applicability and trustworthiness of S-LCA. The chapter\u2019s structure follows the methodological phases outlined earlier in this section, however, as the interpretation of S-LCA does not differ from the LCA, this phase is not described. The methodological overview is followed by a summary, discussing the implications of the differences between S-LCA and LCA. After this, a short presentation of three case studies applying S-LCA in different contexts and Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1425, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 403, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using varying methods is given to illustrate real applications of S-LCA. Finally, in the light of the outlined differences, perspectives for the future development of S-LCA are discussed. 16.2 Overview of S-LCA Methodology 16.2.1 Goal Definition S-LCA assesses \u201csocial impacts\u201d rather than environmental impacts as done in the LCA. But what is meant by \u201cassessing social impacts\u201d? There is a general consensus in the S-LCA community that the ultimate purpose of an S-LCA is to assess how human well-being is affected by products or systems throughout their life cycle (Weidema 2006; Dreyer et al. 2006; J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2010b). Using the LCA terms, well-being can thereby be considered as the Area of Protection in S-LCA, i.e. the concept that S-LCA is most fundamentally attempting to assess impacts on in order to ensuresustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1426, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 404, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the concept that S-LCA is most fundamentally attempting to assess impacts on in order to ensuresustainability. This also implies that S-LCA should provide a methodology not only for identifying the social changes caused by a product or system but also for characterising them and evaluating them in relation to how they contribute to some overall human well-being. S-LCA is to assess impacts on well-being, but well-being of whom? In principle, any affected human is considered a stakeholder in S-LCA, implying that if the well-being of a person is affected by some activity in the product life cycle, it should be included in the assessment. Prevailing stakeholder groups (see also Table 16.1) considered in S-LCA are the workers across the life cycle (who have gained the largest attention in S-LCA research); the local or regional communities affected by the product life cycle stages; and the product users (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1427, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 404, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008). Additionally, S-LCA may consider other stakeholders who can affect or can be affected by decisions taken across the product life cycle, e.g. shareholders, company owners and other decision-makers (Beno\u00eet and Mazijn 2009). 16.2.2 Scope Definition Impact Categories in S-LCA The goal of S-LCA is to assess impacts from the product life cycle on stakeholders\u2019 well-being. However, before assessing how it is affected we first need to define what well-being is. Despite being at the foundation of S-LCA, \u201cwell-being\u201d has been discussed to a rather limited extent by the S-LCA community (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2010b). The concept goes beyond physical health, i.e. psychological aspects play a central role in its essence. Furthermore, well-being in S-LCA is a concept commonly related to a personal (and thus subjective) experience. Thus, objectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1428, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 404, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "observable living conditions, such as income, physical health, housing, etc. are necessary but not sufficient to gauge well-being. In S-LCA, well-being is mainly understood in a descriptive way, meaning that S-LCA methodology developers have attempted to identify those social themes that contribute to human well-being and hence form the basis for the definition of impact categories for S-LCA. Indicatively in the \u201cGuidelines for S-LCA\u201d, there are more than 30 themes. Table 16.1 summarises some of these per stakeholder group: The social themes in Table 16.1 have been identified following three different approaches of which the first has been the dominant one. (i) Normative compliance: Most of the themes related to employees and workers have been based on international conventions relating to working conditions, namely conventions from the International Labour Organisation (ILO 2016). This is a UN organisation working to establish a set of universal worker rights", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1429, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 405, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is a UN organisation working to establish a set of universal worker rights. Although ILO conventions have been adopted by most countries, their enforcement is often weak. Other less authoritative standards such as the ones made by the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI 2016) have also been used to identify relevant social aspects for S-LCA. Normative requirements are undoubtedly useful for monitoringsocial impacts. Nonetheless, they should be perceived as the outcome of long political negotiations and compromises to reach international consensus rather than as scientifically valid instruments for assessing human well-being. Therefore, while the limits they set can be a reference for S-LCA, they are not absolute standards aiming to safeguard well-being and their direct adoption in S-LCA can be problematic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1430, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 405, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, while the limits they set can be a reference for S-LCA, they are not absolute standards aiming to safeguard well-being and their direct adoption in S-LCA can be problematic. Table 16.1 An overview of social impacts included in S-LCA approaches Worker related issues Non-discrimination Freedom of association and collective bargaining Child labour, including hazardous child labour Forced and compulsory labour Level and regularity of wages and benefits Physical working conditions Psychological working conditions Training and education of employees Society-related issues Corruption Development support and investments in society Local community acceptance of company Company commitment to sustainability issues Product user-related issues Integration of costumer health and safety concerns in product Availability of product information to product users Ethical guidelines for advertisements of product Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1431, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 405, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(ii) Social theory interpretation: A second approach, less commonly used in the S-LCA literature, is to use social theories about human well-being and from these derive the social themes relevant to include in S-LCA (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2010b). Yet, it remains a challenge to establish theoretically valid and to some extent mechanistic causal pathways (as also known from the environmental impact assessment in LCA) between various events in the product life cycle and well-being. Figure 16.1 shows an example of an impact pathway for child labour. (iii) Co-creation: A third approach, which is more discussed in literature than actually carried out (Dreyer et al. 2006; Kruse et al. 2009), is to identify the social impacts relevant to include in the S-LCA through participatory processes involving the stakeholders that are affected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1432, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 406, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2006; Kruse et al. 2009), is to identify the social impacts relevant to include in the S-LCA through participatory processes involving the stakeholders that are affected. The principle is that the affected stakeholders know what influences their well-being and how, and therefore they should be the ones to define what is relevant to assess. Even though it might seem preferable to base S-LCA on a combination of the two latter approaches, these introduce several challenges. One is that if the social impacts that affect well-being vary according to the perception of stakeholders, then aggregating impacts across the life cycle stages (which is a fundamental principle within the life cycle methodologies) might be problematic as different stakeholders along the life cycle will often have different perceptions. Another problem is related to the identification of relevant social themes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1433, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 406, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another problem is related to the identification of relevant social themes. The aspects considered in the ILO conventions or standards have been publicly accepted as relevant and important to consider. This is not necessarily the case for the aspects identified through theoretical analysis of \u201cwell-being\u201d or aspects defined by stakeholders themselves. Fig. 16.1 Impact pathway for the impact category child labour (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2010b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1434, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 406, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These approaches may therefore be more difficult to relate to a decision-maker, let alone to be streamlined. As a compromise, it has been suggested to let the normatively based impact categories function as a core set of impact categories that should always be included in an S-LCA and then supplement by co-created impact categories according to the relevance in the specific study (Dreyer et al. 2006). Setting the System Boundaries in S-LCA System boundaries in S-LCA, like in LCA, define which parts of the life cycle and which processes belong to the analysed system, i.e. which processes are required for providing the function defined by the functional unit (see Sect. 8.4). A distinction is done here between attributional and consequential approaches (see Sect. 8.5). For attributional assessments, the system boundaries have not been discussed explicitly by the S-LCA community and most case studies to date use the same kind of system boundaries as an attributional LCA, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1435, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 407, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "following a general supply chain logic. However, in consequential assessments there is a difference between LCA and S-LCA. Consequential LCA modelling includes only the processes that change because of the decision assessed. This is based on the premise that it is from a change in these processes or product uses that environmental impacts arise. Therefore, if no process change occurs, no impact change occurs. Social impacts on the other hand do not occur merely due to production processes or product uses. They occur in all of life\u2019s situations\u2014also when not carrying out a process or using a product. Taking the example of a worker within production of footballs, he/she may experience impacts related to conducting the work (e.g. unsafe conditions). The worker also experiences other impacts that only partly (if at all) can be related to the work (e.g. access to education for the worker\u2019s children)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1436, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 407, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "unsafe conditions). The worker also experiences other impacts that only partly (if at all) can be related to the work (e.g. access to education for the worker\u2019s children). This implies that when we are to assess the social impacts due to the change of a product or production process then we should account for both the direct and the indirect consequences, including those that would occur if the changes had not happened. In the example of the football worker, the social consequences of producing a number of footballs are that a number of labourers are needed, contributing to a certain employment rate in the community around the factory. A decision leading to a reduction of the production of footballs may lead to lowering the number of employed labourers. This means that less workers would be exposed to unsafe conditions, but on the other hand, more people would be unemployed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1437, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 407, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that less workers would be exposed to unsafe conditions, but on the other hand, more people would be unemployed. In other words, the change to be considered in a consequential S-LCA includes both the impacts associated with carrying out a process and those associated with not carrying it out in order to be able to judge the consequence of the change. Similar examples can be found for the product users (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2010a). In a more schematic form, the life cycle stages in a consequential S-LCA include the following (Fig. 16.2): This discussion about impacts of not producing may seem somewhat theoretical but consider the following real case: In 2006, the multinational footwear manufacturing company Nike discovered that one of their suppliers, Saga Sports in Pakistan, employed child labour. To avoid the risk of moral condemnation from their customers, Nike chose to cut their contract with the company. But since 70% Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1438, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 407, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of Saga Sports\u2019 production went to Nike, many of the 4000 workers were fired, impacting not only the workers but also the local society, where an estimated 20,000 people depended on the income (Montero 2006). Assume now that an S-LCA was made to show the impacts related to producing a football at Saga Sports not including the impacts of not producing. The assessment would capture the impacts of child labour in the production, and show that if the balls were produced somewhere else where no children were employed, the child labour would (probably) be eliminated in the production, and all other being equal, this would create a socially better product. That would obviously not reflect the complete consequence of the situation outlined above where a large number of people were fired (and where the child workers may very well have entered into other forms of child labour, potentially under worse conditions)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1439, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 408, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Given that the decision created negative social impacts in the local community, accounting for the impacts of not producing would give a more accurate picture. Including the impacts of both the production and the non-production/use/discarding is therefore essential in consequential S-LCA, and a distinct feature of S-LCA in comparison to LCA. In Sect. 8.5.4 it was discussed whether LCA modelling should be based on a consequential or attributional approach depending on the decision context and the goal of the study (in accordance with the European Commission\u2019s LCA guidebook, theILCD handbook, EC-JRC 2010). Even though the international S-LCA community has not discussed the specifics of the modelling approach in detail, the same modelling principles as in LCA could be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1440, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 408, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Even though the international S-LCA community has not discussed the specifics of the modelling approach in detail, the same modelling principles as in LCA could be applied. Identifying Causality Between Processes and Impact The perhaps most important difference between S-LCA and LCA concerns the relationship between the product life cycle and the associated social or environmental impacts: In LCA, generic life cycleunit process databases exist, that provide inventory data for various processes. A generic process accounts for certainelementary flows that lead to a certain assessment result. This result will be the same whenever the process is used. Although generic process data should only be used for the background processes (see the ILCD handbook and Sect. 9.3) they are generally considered representative of actual conditions with some accuracy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1441, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 408, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.3) they are generally considered representative of actual conditions with some accuracy. A good reason for SLCA assessing the consequences of a decision Extraction for A Production of A Use of A Disposal of A minus Non-production of A Non-disposal of A Non-extraction for A Non-use of A minus minus minus Fig. 16.2 The structure of an S-LCA for assessing the consequences of a decision to choose between product A and nothing reflecting that it must determine the difference between the induced activities and the status quo. In consequential (and attributional) LCA, all \u2018non\u2019 stages (representing the status quo) would normally be assumed to be zero", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1442, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 408, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "this is found in the physicochemical properties of materials, processes and related emissions. Consider, for example, the process of melting iron. Factory parameters may influence the efficiency of the process, but in all cases, a certain minimum amount of energy will be required due to the physical properties of iron. A generic process could account for an amount of energy based on average global conditions. As for the type of energy, it could be based on average energy mix. The existence of generic processes leads consequently, to a causal relationship between the nature or type of process and the assessed impacts. However, assessing social impacts is different. Even though no empirical studies have been conducted on the topic, there is a general consensus that the degree of causality between the type of process and social impacts is much weaker and less consistent compared to environmental impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1443, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 409, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To exemplify, as discussed previously, one of the issues very often considered in S-LCA is violations of ILO established labour rights. This includes workers\u2019 rights to organise in labour unions and abolishment of forced labour (anti-slavery). Consider now again the example of iron melting: there seems to be no causality between the actual process and the right of workers to organise in unions. Iron may be melted by workers who have the right to be organised or by workers who are denied this right. Rather than being related to the type of the process, it is therefore often stated in S-LCA literature that social impacts are related to the conduct of the company\u2014i.e. it is how the company is managed that determines the social impacts that it creates, rather than what it produces", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1444, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 409, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "it is how the company is managed that determines the social impacts that it creates, rather than what it produces. The example of iron production illustrates well how the type of the process causes specific elementary lows leading to environmental impacts, but at the same time tells very little about the social impacts it creates. Note that there are other cases where a generic causality between a process and its social impacts is easier to establish. Consider for example different types of work-related injuries, which is another often-included impact category in S-LCA. For this type of impacts, it seems reasonable to expect a higher number of cuts and bruises for a technician compared to an office worker. This means that different job functions tend to be differently correlated to various impacts. Furthermore, when a job function can be closely related to a process, it seems reasonable to make the connection between the social impact and the nature of the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1445, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 409, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, when a job function can be closely related to a process, it seems reasonable to make the connection between the social impact and the nature of the process. Had anyone made an empirical investigation of the matter, we assume that that the general findings could be represented as in Fig. 16.3. This point has enormous implications for S-LCA, and we will return to this issue several times throughout this chapter. The Issue of Impact Allocation S-LCA is, like LCA, focussed on assessing impacts related to a functional unit. In order to provide the functional unit, a number of processes need to be operated throughout the product life cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1446, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 409, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to provide the functional unit, a number of processes need to be operated throughout the product life cycle. But if it is the company\u2019s conduct rather than the operation of the process that causes the impacts, how should one allocate the impacts to each of the processes that the company performs and through that consistently to the life cycle of the product and the functional unit orreference flow? Several different approaches have been presented in literature. A frequent Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1447, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 409, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "suggestion is to allocate social impacts of the company to the process, based on the working time required to perform it. Impact allocation can then be expressed by the following equation: Social impactsprocess 1\u20444 Working timeprocess=Working timetotal in company \u0001 Social impactstotal in company \u00f016:1\u00de Other allocation keys than working time are also suggested in literature. An example is to use value creation. In this case, the formula would be the same, except that \u201cworking time\u201d would be substituted with \u201cvalue creation\u201d. Although the goal of the study may indicate which approach is the right to use, it is in many cases up to the S-LCA practitioner to choose. This choice, if not arbitrary, will often depend on what information is available or on other motivations of the S-LCA practitioner. Consequently, two challenges arise. One, related to the freedom of choosing allocation key. This jeopardises the credibility of the method since the choice can heavily influence the S-LCA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1448, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 410, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consequently, two challenges arise. One, related to the freedom of choosing allocation key. This jeopardises the credibility of the method since the choice can heavily influence the S-LCA results. The second challenge is related to access to information. For a practitioner who is not deeply involved in the product life cycle (e.g. working in a lead company in thevalue chain) getting data on value creation and working time may be very difficult which may hinder the applicability or the ease of use of the assessment. The goal of the assessment could specify what impacts to allocate to the process. Thus, here again, there is a difference between attributional and consequential approaches. If the goal of the study is to assess the consequences of a choice, calling for a consequential S-LCA then the allocation approach would be different than the one expressed in Eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1449, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 410, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the goal of the study is to assess the consequences of a choice, calling for a consequential S-LCA then the allocation approach would be different than the one expressed in Eq. 16.1, since all social impacts that occur as a consequence of the decision should be included: Social impactsprocess 1\u20444 Social impactstotal for world; process is performed \u0003 Social impactstotal for world; process is not performed \u00f016:2\u00de In the football example in Sect. 16.2.2 above, we discussed that the assessment should include both the impacts that occur when the footballs are produced, and the impacts that occur when they are not. This means that identifying the consequence Impacts dependent on Conduct of company Nature of process Fig. 16.3 The extent to which social and environmental impacts are controlled by the conduct of the company or the nature or type of process. In general, social can be considered much more dependent on the conduct of the company than environmental impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1450, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 410, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of a decision will necessarily include an estimation of a counterfactual. Such an assessment will be quite difficult in most cases and though it is a central point of S-LCA, it is still unclear how it can be done in practice. 16.2.3 Inventory Analysis In both LCA and S-LCA, an inventory of data is made. In LCA, these data aim to capture environmental exchanges. Physical flows such as mass and energy to and from the processes are included in the assessment (as discussed in Chap. 9). Depending on the accuracy of the measurement techniques, these can often be determined with a very high degree of certainty. For assessing social impacts, the same \u201cmass and energy balance approach\u201d cannot be applied. Instead, we have to specify some interplay between the process and its social surrounding on which data should be collected. Table 16.1 presents impact categories which we could include in an S-LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1451, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 411, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Instead, we have to specify some interplay between the process and its social surrounding on which data should be collected. Table 16.1 presents impact categories which we could include in an S-LCA. Nevertheless, identifying data that are both available and can capture the impact we are trying to assess is not straightforward. For example, as shown in Table 16.1, almost all S-LCA approaches consider discrimination towards workers as a relevant impact to include in an S-LCA. However, what data should be collected to assess its occurrence? Some have suggested using the ratio between male and female workers. Although corresponding data could be easy to collect, this does not seem to be a very accurate indicator for company induced discrimination. The reasons for a lower representation of a gender, e.g. women in the company, may for example be that the company gets more male than female applicants, which will lead to more male employees all other things being equal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1452, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 411, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "women in the company, may for example be that the company gets more male than female applicants, which will lead to more male employees all other things being equal. A more accurate indicator, but by no means bulletproof, may relate to, e.g. workers\u2019 direct experiences of being discriminated due to gender, race, religion, etc. However, getting data on the actual experience of the worker can be quite difficult and time-consuming. This case exemplifies the dilemma between the ease of use of the indicator (relating to access to information), and its accuracy (relating to how well the indicator captures the phenomena we are trying to assess). An underlying debate relates to the essence of well-being and to the extent to which the concept can be meaningfully described objectively or subjectively. In Sect. 16.2.2 we discussed both approaches in terms of choosing the social issues to be included in \u201cwell-being\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1453, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 411, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In Sect. 16.2.2 we discussed both approaches in terms of choosing the social issues to be included in \u201cwell-being\u201d. A similar discussion is relevant regarding the indicators that can represent these issues. Objective indicators relate to living or working conditions that can be identified without consulting the stakeholder about his or her perceptions. However, research on well-being indicates that there is a rather poor correlation between subjective experience, and objective living conditions. One is not necessarily happy when he/she is rich, healthy, has many friends, etc. Thus, in order to get an accurate measure of how a product life cycle changes the well-being of the affected stakeholders, subjective indicators are also needed. A subjective indicator may be an Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1454, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 411, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "open question asked to the relevant person about, e.g. how satisfied are you with X. Existing S-LCA approaches have prioritised the development and application of objective indicators due to higher data availability and reproducibility at the expense of the limited accuracy in indicating actual changes in well-being. Another methodological debate concerns whether one should use process\u2014or result indicators, i.e. indicators that are related to the quality of a company\u2019s formal management system or to the company\u2019s measured social performance compared to the other companies in the product life cycle. The idea behind the first approach is that the occurrence of social impacts in a company will correlate with the initiatives in place to avoid them. For example, if a company has a strong system in place to ensure that discrimination in the hiring of employees is not occurring, then fewer cases of discrimination will occur", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1455, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 412, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, if a company has a strong system in place to ensure that discrimination in the hiring of employees is not occurring, then fewer cases of discrimination will occur. The second approach is about assessing the actual occurrence of social impacts based on reports or observations. The idea is simply that the reported incidences give an accurate picture of the impacts occurring. Both approaches have pros and cons. The mere existence of a high-quality management system does not certify compliance and implementation in the everyday routines of the company. Likewise, a low reported or observed occurrence of impacts may be because the company (intentionally or unintentionally) or an external auditor does not report the incidences systematically. Which of the two approaches is most accurate, is difficult to tell. To date, the most common approach is to use performance indicators. For more information about the management indicators, the reader may refer to Dreyer et al. (2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1456, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 412, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To date, the most common approach is to use performance indicators. For more information about the management indicators, the reader may refer to Dreyer et al. (2010). The Data Collection Problem While LCA may be performed at an acceptable level of accuracy using generic databases, the focus on company behaviour in S-LCA implies that site-specific data are indispensable. Specific information is needed not only for the company in question, but also for the context of national and regional regulatory frameworks, monitoring agencies, socio-economic conditions, etc. Obviously, this requirement for site-specific data imposes a tremendous burden in terms of costs and time spent. A second, but related, problem is the difficulty to identify the companies in the product chain and get relevant data. Often, only first-tier suppliers can be reached easily", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1457, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 412, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A second, but related, problem is the difficulty to identify the companies in the product chain and get relevant data. Often, only first-tier suppliers can be reached easily. Reasons for this may be that suppliers are unwilling to hand over information to the buyer about who their suppliers are in fear that the buyer would simply circumvent them. Another reason is that the goods might be bought on open markets with a large number of unidentified suppliers. Three different approaches have been proposed to mitigate this data collection challenge: One is to create databases of social impacts where one could find a specific company\u2019s performance. This would enable the S-LCA practitioner to circumvent the central problem of having to audit each implicated company. However, the strenuous task of company identification would still remain. Compiling such databases may seem very ambitious", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1458, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 412, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, the strenuous task of company identification would still remain. Compiling such databases may seem very ambitious. Yet, the main challenge is not about collecting the data (many companies already undergo social audits which could potentially be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1459, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 412, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "used as data source in an S-LCA), but rather about making these data publicly available. A second approach is to base S-LCA on indicators that are more closely related to the nature of the process. An example may be to relate the local value creation from a company in a product\u2019s life cycle to the increase in average lifetime of the population where the value creation results in increased income (Norris 2006). Then value creation, which is a relatively process-related phenomenon, could be used as an indicator for impacts on average lifetime in the affected population. However, whether this, or other more process-related indicators, will actually be able to capture the breadth of social impacts and well-being is questionable. A third and probably the most feasible approach is to make databases of social impacts related to sectors and countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1460, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 413, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A third and probably the most feasible approach is to make databases of social impacts related to sectors and countries. These could provide a basis for the assessment and the S-LCA practitioner would only need to know where the various stages in the life cycle take place. An example is the Social Hotspot Database (SHDB 2016) presenting social impacts in a number of categories per working hour in different sectors and geographic regions. However, given that in many cases there will be significant differences in the social impacts within one sector in a country, the S-LCA based on this approach is generic and its representativeness for a specific product will be highly uncertain. Companies in the product\u2019s life cycle would risk being assigned an outright invalid score and this lack of accuracy makes this approach less useful for S-LCAs of specific products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1461, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 413, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Companies in the product\u2019s life cycle would risk being assigned an outright invalid score and this lack of accuracy makes this approach less useful for S-LCAs of specific products. 16.2.4 Impact Assessment The impact assessment of an S-LCA, similar to LCA, consists of the elements classification, characterisation, normalisation and weighting (see Sect. 8.2.5). Of these, only classification and characterisation will be addressed below. Even though literature on the area is scarce, normalisation and weighting are considered to be performed like in LCA. Classification According to ISO 14044 (2006) classification is the element of the impact assessment, in which the inventory flows are assigned to different impact categories. Classification in LCA is central because of the nature of the inventory analysis. To capture the exchanges between a process and the environment, data collection is based on inputs and outputs of energy and mass", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1462, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 413, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To capture the exchanges between a process and the environment, data collection is based on inputs and outputs of energy and mass. The same approach is not feasible in S-LCA, since there is no way to capture the total exchanges between a process (or a company) and the social world. Therefore, the inventory analysis in an S-LCA is designed to measure certain aspects of interest such as the ones shown in Table 16.1. It is thus known beforehand why this type of data is collected, and to what they contribute. Classification is in this way built into the indicators in S-LCA. Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1463, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 413, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Characterisation In LCA, hundreds of elementary flows may be included in the inventory. For a decision-maker to be able to evaluate this information there is a need for translating these flows into a number of meaningful environmental impact scores. This translation is essential, to indicate the importance of the flows. For example, emissions of benzene need to be translated into some measure of toxicity, which can be compared to and summarised with impacts from other toxic emissions, to give results that are meaningful for decision-makers. In S-LCA, the situation is somewhat different. Similar to LCA, there is a list of impact categories. However, the number of social indicators (which are the equivalent for the elementary flows in LCA) is much smaller. In some cases, there is a one-to-one relationship between number of indicators and impact categories, e.g. when accounting for work-related diseases, ILO violations or the like", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1464, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 414, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In some cases, there is a one-to-one relationship between number of indicators and impact categories, e.g. when accounting for work-related diseases, ILO violations or the like. In this case, there will be no need for characterisation, i.e. the indicator results are directly meaningful for the decision-maker. In other cases several indicators are established for each impact category, e.g. in order to describe \u201cdecent working conditions\u201d. In the latter case, there will be a need for translating the data on these indicators into impacts. An example of such a translation is given in Spillemaeckers et al. (2004). Their approach is to collect data on certain conditions A, B, C and D. Then a certain impact is said to occur depending on the number and the extent to which the conditions are met. Another example can be seen in Dreyer et al. (2010). A separate discussion, similar as in LCA (see Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1465, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 414, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another example can be seen in Dreyer et al. (2010). A separate discussion, similar as in LCA (see Sect. 10.2.3), is whether the assessment should be done at a midpoint level in theimpact pathway, or whether the characterisation should aim to go all the way to an endpoint. An example for midpoint assessment is to establish impact groups such as \u201cviolations of ILO conventions\u201d, \u201cnon-lethal working accidents\u201d, etc. Whenever an incidence within each group occurs, then a score is assigned, e.g. if workers are not allowed to organise in unions (which is a violation of an ILO convention) in the product life cycle the \u201cviolation of ILO convention\u201d impact group gets a score of 1. If there is also child labour (which is also a violation of an ILO convention), the \u201cviolation of ILO conventions\u201d impact group gets a score of 1 more. In this way, social impacts can be grouped and characterised. However, the question here is, whether this is meaningful", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1466, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 414, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this way, social impacts can be grouped and characterised. However, the question here is, whether this is meaningful. What is the value for the decision-maker given that all kinds of nuances are disregarded through a more or less random grouping and scoring? Earlier in this chapter, we discussed that the ultimate goal of SLCA is to assess the changes in human well-being. Consequently, S-LCA researchers have suggested that the midpoint-oriented impact categories should be further related to the Area of Protection in S-LCA, i.e. human well-being. Along these lines, Weidema (2006) established quantitative severity scores for various social impacts, whereby very different social impacts could be compared and summarised. More concretely, he suggested translating all impacts into loss of QALYs (Quality adjusted life years), according to the equation:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1467, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 414, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "QALY 1\u20444 YLL \u00fe k\u0004YWL \u00f016:3\u00de where YLL is years of life lost, YWL is years of well-being loss and k is a constant denoting the loss of life quality associated with the impact. When knowing what are the social impacts that affect life expectancy, how severe they are and their duration, the loss of QALYs can be calculated for each social impact. Then, impacts can simply be added to give a total score. The approach is similar to assessing DALYs in LCA (see Sect. 10.2.3). The advantage of a single score is that it supports an easy overview of the product performance. The weakness, however, is that one needs to assign severity scores to very different types of impacts, ranging from incidences of discrimination to cancer. This is a rather difficult and uncertain task, which might lack comprehensiveness and consistency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1468, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 415, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is a rather difficult and uncertain task, which might lack comprehensiveness and consistency. 16.3 Implications of the Problems Related to the S-LCA As we have seen in this chapter, there are two main differences between LCA and S-LCA, which have a significant impact on the usability of S-LCA. The first relates to establishing a causality between processes and impacts. The environmental impacts depend on the nature of the process, whereas social impacts depend on multiple factors such as the conduct of the company and the culture in which it operates. This affects inventory analysis and data collection. In order to perform a reasonably accurate LCA we only need to know the types of the processes involved in the life cycle. However, this approach would drastically lower the accuracy of S-LCA, because of this low causal relationship between process and social impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1469, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 415, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, this approach would drastically lower the accuracy of S-LCA, because of this low causal relationship between process and social impacts. Additional information about the company that operates the process is needed, which in most cases is going to be more difficult to get than simply getting an overview of the type of processes. The second difference is that when S-LCA is to be used for decision support, there is a need for assessing both the impacts of producing/using/discarding and of not producing/using/discarding the product. This adds complexity anduncertainty to data collection in comparison to LCA. From an overall perspective, these differences indicate that the combined accuracy and ease of use of S-LCA is, and is likely to continue to be, poorer compared to LCA. Same accuracy would require detailed knowledge about the actual life cycle of the product and about the impacts of not producing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1470, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 415, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Same accuracy would require detailed knowledge about the actual life cycle of the product and about the impacts of not producing. Same ease of use would require generic process data, which in most cases will give us assessments of very low accuracy. Existing initiatives, such as databases with social audit information about companies, partially address the issue. Yet, the challenge of identifying the companies that carry out each process, remain. The third identified barrier is the meaningfulness of S-LCA results for providing decision support. For the case of LCA, better decisions are understood as decisions that lead to less environmental impacts. The LCA informs the decision-maker about Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1471, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 415, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the environmental impacts related to the entire life cycle of, e.g. two products with comparable functional units. The decision-maker can hereby choose the product that is associated with lower environmental impacts. The LCA hereby has an environmental effect if used in decision support by eliminating the \u2018bad\u2019 environmental choices, assuming that the LCA is carried out correctly. One may think that the same argument is valid when it comes to S-LCA, with the only difference that it should improve social impacts when used for decision support. However, this may not be the case. The effect of using S-LCA in decision support may in fact be outright negative as the following example shows. Assume that an S-LCA of a product shows that the workers in the product life cycles experience very poor working conditions. The decision-maker may on this basis choose not to buy or use the product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1472, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 416, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Assume that an S-LCA of a product shows that the workers in the product life cycles experience very poor working conditions. The decision-maker may on this basis choose not to buy or use the product. But how will this decision improve the working conditions? One way may be that the company with the poor working conditions will go out of business. This will eliminate the poor working conditions for the worker but will increase unemployment. Going unemployed will rarely help the worker despite the poor working conditions\u2014remember that the worker took the job in the first place and probably only had worse alternatives. Another scenario could be that instead of going out of business, the company will become aware that the social conditions of the working place are a market parameter (measured through S-LCA). This realisation may lead to improving the working conditions at the working place", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1473, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 416, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This realisation may lead to improving the working conditions at the working place. However, research on the topic indicates that creating improvements, which are not only improvements on paper but real experienced improvements for the workers, is very difficult, and will often require a change in working culture, which is not likely to happen as a result of living up to the standards set by the S-LCA (Barrientos and Smith 2007; Bezuidenhout and Jeppesen 2011). Further detail about the effect of using S-LCA is explored in J\u00f8rgensen et al. (2012) and it is outside the scope of this chapter to go into all details of the argument. Yet these examples indicate that the same logic, which is valid for LCA, may not be directly transferable to the SLCA area when it comes to the effect of using SLCA and LCA for decision support. Whether these issues will deem S-LCA unusable is impossible to say\u2014it will depend on the needs of the user", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1474, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 416, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Whether these issues will deem S-LCA unusable is impossible to say\u2014it will depend on the needs of the user. It seems though they may well prevent S-LCA from gaining the popularity and widespread use that is seen for LCA. Limitations for its usability can be exemplified for two main areas where LCA is used for decision support: (i) Prospective assessments: in this case, LCA aims to assess the expected environmental impacts from new innovations. This assessment is only possible because we assume a causal link between process and environmental impact. Future environmental impacts can be estimated based on reference products and technologies. Thus, if there is no (or only a very weak) link between process and impact, as is the case for social impacts, this prospective assessment will have no or only a very limited accuracy. (ii) Assessment of product families: Following a parallel argument as used above, it is possible to make a generic LCA for, e.g. vacuum cleaners, as they more or", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1475, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 416, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "less all include the same components and consume comparable amounts of electricity throughout their use. Again, this is possible because of the link between environmental impacts and process. In S-LCA, where there is no or only a very weak link this will impede the possibility for reaching an assessment of a product family with a reasonable degree of accuracy. 16.4 S-LCA Case Studies While the S-LCA methodology is still immature, experiences from its application in product case studies are important drivers for its future development. This section will present three cases to illustrate how main challenges are addressed in current research. 16.4.1 Laptop Computer The first case study by Ciroth and Franze (2011) concerns a lightweight laptop (ASUSTeK UL50Ag notebook for office use) and assesses environmental and social impacts in parallel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1476, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 417, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, the goal is not a comparison of products, but (1) identification of social and environmental hotspots, (2) recommendations on company andpolicy level and (3) application of the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA on a complex product. Specifically regarding (4), the effectiveness of the EU Ecolabel (the Flower) criteria is discussed. The case study is very comprehensive and detailed; however, the use (and re-use) stage is not considered. Note that for this stage most S-LCA studies only account for the aspects included in the stakeholder group \u201cconsumers\u201d. The case study points to human well-being as the ultimate goal of LCA and notes the pervasive significance of computer use in modern life. Nonetheless, it stops at the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA, which relates to company behaviour and to general behaviour within the specific industrial sector. Thus, the indicators proposed are found \u201cnot applicable to use phases as there are no companies or industries involved\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1477, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 417, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, the indicators proposed are found \u201cnot applicable to use phases as there are no companies or industries involved\u201d. The study is concerned with midpoint categories only, as \u201cthe use of endpoint implies the aggregation of results, which in turn reduces transparency and increases uncertainty\u201d. The study acknowledges that interviews with directly affectedstakeholders are to be preferred to other data collection methods. However, it mentions that, with a few exceptions, the time needed for local and site-specific data collection is prohibitive. Although the study suggests a participatory approach in defining impact categories and indicators, there is no reflection on the assessment\u2019s validity, in relation to cultural differences between nations and regions. Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1478, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 417, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Allocation is not applied. Instead, \u201ceach company is considered as one unit no matter which different products the company produces and which of these products are relevant for the study\u201d. Thus, if an impact is occurring in a company in the life cycle, all the company\u2019s products will be associated with this impact to the same extent regardless of, e.g. the working time used for producing each product. Also, an equalweighting factor for the companies included in the life cycle is used, meaning that regardless that one company contributes far more than another in terms of, e.g. the total working time, to the final product, all companies will \u2018count\u2019 the same in the final assessment. The computer case study represents a thorough effort to test the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA and does substantiate a range of methodological problems as well as overall issues of relevance and comprehensiveness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1479, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 418, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most significantly, it demonstrates that the S-LCA findings and conclusion bring no new insights beyond those that could already be expected prior to the study. Considering the costs and time involved in an S-LCA study like this, the question about what the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA have to offer compared to more simple audit tools remains unanswered. 16.4.2 Cut Roses from Ecuador and the Netherlands The second case study, by the same authors (Franze and Ciroth 2011), compares the production in Ecuador and the Netherlands of a bouquet of cut roses with 20 flowers per bouquet, packaged and transported to the flower auction in Aalsmeer, the Netherlands. The main objective is to \u201ctry out\u201d the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA. The study conducts in parallel an LCA and an S-LCA of the production system. It does recognise that social impacts are inter-related and may include many indirect effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1480, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 418, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The study conducts in parallel an LCA and an S-LCA of the production system. It does recognise that social impacts are inter-related and may include many indirect effects. Nonetheless, the discrete impact categories associated with each stakeholder group and the wide range of sub-categories are considered satisfactory. Problems with quality of data from various sources, considering the motivation, structure of companies, NGOs and government institutions, are mentioned. Not surprisingly, the study concludes that social impacts in the Netherlands are mainly positive, while environmental impacts, in particular during winter, are rather negative. Thus, from an environmental point of view, importing roses from Ecuador is to be preferred over producing them in the Netherlands. Yet, from a social perspective, the Netherlands is preferred over the production in Ecuador", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1481, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 418, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Yet, from a social perspective, the Netherlands is preferred over the production in Ecuador. Regarding social conditions, the study outlines a general scenario for improvement, but such an intention is beyond the scope of the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA. For the social impact assessment, a simple colour coding is used for scoring, and noweighting is performed. The use stage is only marginally considered in terms of health and safety of consumers.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1482, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 418, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16.4.3 Greenhouse Tomatoes The third case study by Andrews et al. (2009) departs from the calculation of quantitative impacts based on the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA and asks the question \u201cWhat percentage of my supply chain has attribute X\u201d. The X may represent an existing CSR indicator, and the basis for calculating the percentage is the total working hours within the chain. The case study points to the potential of life cycle attribute assessment (LCAA) \u201cto piggyback off other initiatives\u201d (ISO 14001, GRISustainability Reporting, SA 8000, FSC, and the US Green Building Council\u2019s LEED programme). However, depending on different stakeholder interests, working hours may be substituted, e.g. by \u201cforested acres\u201d to check on the percentage of FSC certified acres", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1483, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 419, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, depending on different stakeholder interests, working hours may be substituted, e.g. by \u201cforested acres\u201d to check on the percentage of FSC certified acres. The study selects eight indicators, one of which is \u201cwage levels\u201d, and asks the question whether wage levels have properties as an indicator in S-LCA that equal energy consumption in LCA which in many studies serve as \u201can important indicator that is closely related with results across many impact categories\u201d. All indicators are selected at a midpoint, i.e. regarded as means to an end. The study recognises that data quality declines as Input\u2013Output tables at sector level are used instead of more detailed process flows. Therefore, primary data were collected through company interviews. The fact that the tomato company in this case dominates its own supply chain and that no supplies are produced overseas limits the data quality problem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1484, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 419, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The fact that the tomato company in this case dominates its own supply chain and that no supplies are produced overseas limits the data quality problem. The study manages to pinpoint the percentage of compliance with CSR criteria and the spots where more CSR activity is needed. The three case studies respond to the call of the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for S-LCA, except for the third, which adopts the holistic perspective of life cycle assessment and then aligns with CSR criteria. These selected case studies and other contributions to the S-LCA literature suggest solutions for a range of unresolved issues. However, establishing a methodological consensus and a base for comparative studies is still needed. In conclusion, the studies exemplify that S-LCA is not yet a mature methodology. Findings are often predictable, and the additional value of an S-LCA is not evident in comparison to other approaches, particularly when considering the heavy data requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1485, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 419, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Findings are often predictable, and the additional value of an S-LCA is not evident in comparison to other approaches, particularly when considering the heavy data requirements. 16.5 Future Development The major driver for the S-LCA development has been to create a social assessment method that \u201cmimics\u201d as closely as possible the principles of LCA with a view for a possible integration of the two and also acknowledging that a life cycle perspective is relevant for social impacts as it is for environmental impacts. This is supported by a concept of sustainability, according to which societies are operating within environmental limits. Having elaborated LCA to some level of consensus and maturity, it is now time to tackle the social dimension of sustainability. Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1486, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 419, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A fundamental problem in the social version of theLCA framework is that central differences between the environmental and social issues may be overlooked. One reason may be that natural scientists venture beyond their scope in the effort to establish S-LCA as a clone of LCA. Considering the well-established LCA paradigm and institutionalised LCA research community the risk of disregarding social sciences altogether cannot be excluded. Seen in this light, it seems that future development of S-LCA might follow two paths. One is to continue the current trend and fully exhaust the \u2018LCA cloning\u2019 approach, which will call for more research within areas such as indicator development, characterisation modelling in S-LCIA, establishing and validatingimpact pathways, aggregation procedures, normalisation references and valuation methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1487, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 420, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another path, however, would be to more fully acknowledge existing social science research, which would raise fundamental questions about the foundations of the methodology. It would for example lead to reviewing recent concepts of human well-being in order to inspire a redefinition of an integrated set of social impact categories. Regardless of whether S-LCA will succeed in integrating important lessons from the social sciences, S-LCA cannot escape its purpose of being a methodology that is (1) life cycle oriented and (2) aiming for social assessment. This conjunction will inevitably lead to significant data requirements for which there is no miracle cure. Without a solution to this issue, S-LCA studies will probably continue to be limited to one or a few companies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1488, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 420, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Without a solution to this issue, S-LCA studies will probably continue to be limited to one or a few companies. This will raise the question: \u201cwhat makes S-LCA worthwhile to develop and use considering that assessments of social impacts in companies have long been developed?\u201d Andrews, E., Lesage, P., Beno\u00eet, C., et al.: Life cycle attribute assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 13, 565\u2013 578 (2009). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2009.00142.x Barrientos, S., Smith, S.: Do workers benefit from ethical trade? Assessing codes of labour practice in global production systems. Third World Q. 28, 713\u2013729 (2007) Beno\u00eet, C., Mazijn, B.: Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of Products. UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Paris (2009) Bezuidenhout, A., Jeppesen, S.: Between the state, market and society: labour codes of conduct in the Southern African garment industry. Dev. South Afr", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1489, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 420, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Paris (2009) Bezuidenhout, A., Jeppesen, S.: Between the state, market and society: labour codes of conduct in the Southern African garment industry. Dev. South Afr. 28(5) (2011) Ciroth, A., Franze, J.: LCA of an Ecolabeled Notebook, Consideration of Social and Environmental Impacts Along the Entire Life Cycle. Berlin (2011) Dreyer, L., Hauschild, M., Schierbeck, J.: A Framework for social life cycle impact assessment (10 pp). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 88\u201397 (2006). doi:10.1065/lca2005.08.223 Dreyer, L.C., Hauschild, M.Z., Schierbeck, J.: Characterisation of social impacts in LCA: Part 1: development of indicators for labour rights. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 247\u2013259 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0148-7 EC-JRC: European Commission-Joint Research Centre-Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed Guidance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1490, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 420, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union (2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1491, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 420, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Franze, J., Ciroth, A.: A comparison of cut roses from Ecuador and the Netherlands. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 366\u2013379 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0266-x GRI: Global Reporting Initiative. https://www.globalreporting.org/Pages/default.aspx (2016). Accessed 29 June 2016 ILO: International Labour Organisation. http://www.ilo.org/global/lang\u2013en/index.htm (2016). Accessed 29 June 2016 ISO: Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) ISO: Guidance on Social Responsibility (ISO 26000:2010). ISO the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2010) J\u00f8rgensen, A., Le Bocq, A., Nazarkina, L., Hauschild, M.: Societal LCA methodologies for social life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1492, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 421, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 96\u2013103 (2008) J\u00f8rgensen, A., Finkbeiner, M., J\u00f8rgensen, M.S., Hauschild, M.Z.: Defining the baseline in social life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 376\u2013384 (2010a). doi:10.1007/s11367-0100176-3 J\u00f8rgensen, A., Lai, L.C.H., Hauschild, M.Z.: Assessing the validity of impact pathways for child labour and well-being in social life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 5\u201316 (2010b). doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0131-3 J\u00f8rgensen, A., Dreyer, L.C., Wangel, A.: Addressing the effect of social life cycle assessments. Int. J. LCA 17(6), 828\u2013839 (2012) Kruse, S., Flysj\u00f6, A., Kasperczyk, N., Scholz, A.J.: Socioeconomic indicators as a complement to life cycle assessment: an application to salmon production systems. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14, 8\u201318 (2009). doi:10.1007/s11367-008-0040-x Montero, D.: Nike\u2019s dilemma: is doing the right thing wrong? Christ. Sci. Monit. (2006) Norris, G.A.: Special issue honouring Helias A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1493, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 421, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14, 8\u201318 (2009). doi:10.1007/s11367-008-0040-x Montero, D.: Nike\u2019s dilemma: is doing the right thing wrong? Christ. Sci. Monit. (2006) Norris, G.A.: Special issue honouring Helias A. Udo de Haes: broadening the scope of LCA social impacts in product life cycles towards life cycle attribute assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 1, 97\u2013104 (2006). doi:10.1065/lca2006.04.017 SHDB: Social Hotspot Database. http://socialhotspot.org/ (2016). Accessed 29 June 2016 Spillemaeckers, S., Vanhoutte, G., Taverniers, L., et al.: Integrated product assessment\u2014the development of the label \u201csustainable development\u201d for products ecological, social and economical aspects of integrated product policy (2004) UN: United Nations Global Compact Sustainable Supply Chains. http://supply-chain. unglobalcompact.org/site/index (2010). Accessed 20 Dec 2015 UNDP: Sustainable Development Goals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1494, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 421, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "http://supply-chain. unglobalcompact.org/site/index (2010). Accessed 20 Dec 2015 UNDP: Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/ corporate/sustainable-development-goals-booklet.html (2015) WCED: World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1987) Weidema, B.P.: The integration of economic and social aspects in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 89\u201396 (2006). doi:10.1065/lca2006.04.016 Author Biographies Andreas Moltesen Has been working with LCA since 2006 with a particular focus on social life cycle assessment. He has later worked on life cycle assessments of biofuels and is currently particularly involved with life cycle assessments of transport systems. Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1495, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 421, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Alexandra Bonou LCA expert and modeller focussing on ecodesign since 2009. Has worked on integrating life cycle thinking and environmental target setting in organisations of the private and public sector. Interested in life cycle management, product development, social life cycle assessment. Arne Wangel Sociologist studying international technology transfer and capacity building in South countries. Since 2008 involved with LCA with main interests in application of LCA in global value chain analysis, strategies for building LCA capacities in South countries, and development of a methodology for Social LCA. Kossara Petrova Bozhilova-Kisheva Experienced in LCSA of construction and demolition waste recycling into building materials and SLCA methodology development. Interested in LCSA, SLCA, health impact assessment, eco-design, product/technology development, built environment, energy systems and system analysis.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1496, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "16 Social Life Cycle Assessment: An Introduction", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 422, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part III", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1497, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Applications", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice Ralph K. Rosenbaum Abstract While Part II of this book presents the theoretical foundation and methodology of LCA, Part III is dedicated to a comprehensive discussion of how this methodology has been adapted and applied in practice. The chapters of Part III provide an easily readable and accessible introduction to different fields of LCA application with their specific decision situations, user competences and stakeholder needs, and associated methodological challenges and adaptations. While Part II of this book presents the theoretical foundation and methodology of LCA, Part III is dedicated to a comprehensive discussion of how this methodology has been adapted and applied in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1498, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 425, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The chapters of Part III provide an easily readable and accessible introduction to different fields of LCA application with their specific decision situations, user competences and stakeholder needs, and associated methodological challenges and adaptations. Chapters 18\u201325 deal with the role of LCA and life cycle thinking in various decision contexts and discuss the methodological adaptations for specific uses of LCA, such as policy support, organisational LCA, life cycle management, ecodesign, and ecolabelling and differences and synergies between LCA and the Cradle-to-Cradle concept and certification system: 18. Life Cycle Thinking and the use of LCA in policies around the world 19. Globalisation and mainstreaming of LCA 20. Organisational LCA 21. Future-oriented LCA 22. Life Cycle Management 23. Ecodesign implementation and LCA 24. Environmental labels and declarations 25. Cradle to cradle and LCA R.K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1499, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 425, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Organisational LCA 21. Future-oriented LCA 22. Life Cycle Management 23. Ecodesign implementation and LCA 24. Environmental labels and declarations 25. Cradle to cradle and LCA R.K. Rosenbaum (&) IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT \u2013 Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, 361 Rue Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Breton, BP 5095, 34196 Montpellier, France e-mail: ralph.rosenbaum@irstea.fr \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_17", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1500, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 425, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The remaining chapters of Part III are all dedicated to the application of more \u2018classic\u2019 LCA to different technology domains comprising both some of the central sectors of society and some of the more specialised fields to give an introduction to the broad practical use of LCA in the assessment of products and technologies: 26. LCA of energy systems 27. LCA of electromobility 28. LCA of buildings and the built environment 29. LCA of food and agriculture 30. LCA of biofuels and biomaterials 31. LCA of chemicals and chemical products 32. LCA of nanomaterials 33. LCA of drinking water supply 34. LCA of wastewater treatment 35. LCA of solid waste management systems 36. LCA of remediation of soil and groundwater Chapters 18\u201325 all have their individual structure and different learning objectives as stated in the beginning of each chapter, reflecting the diversity of the subjects that they cover. In contrast, Chaps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1501, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 426, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In contrast, Chaps. 26\u201336 on the use of LCA in different technology domains have a more harmonised structure covering the following aspects: \u2022 Introduction, providing the context and a description of the sector or technology, a brief history of LCA application in this area, definitions of specific terminology relevant for the concerned application (e.g. firstand second-generation biofuels), and the main questions relative to the environment that LCA is used to answer (e.g. is organic agriculture better than intensive or extensive agriculture?). \u2013 Literature review, giving an overview over a selection of published case studies and essential further reading material focusing on \u2013 the main life cycle stages, drivers, and processes contributing to potential environmental impacts, and \u2013 what the main impacts are, including potential burden-shifting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1502, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 426, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Specific methodological issues, discussing what the literature survey has identified as the main methodological considerations and challenges when applying LCA to this technology field, structured into: \u2013 General issues (not specific to any of the following four methodological phases) \u2013 Goal and scope \u2013 Inventory and product system modelling \u2013 Impact Assessment \u2013 Interpretation. R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1503, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 426, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Conclusions of LCA studies for this sector/technology, summarising the main findings of LCA studies related to the respective technology field in terms of: \u2013 Main tendencies and shared conclusions among essential literature \u2013 Controversial conclusions among essential literature \u2013 Recent advances and achievements as well as remaining limitations \u2013 Perspectives and further research needs, i.e. the most important current methodological shortcomings for this technology/sector. The learning objectives of the chapters on the use of LCA in different technology fields are also the same across all chapters and are thus presented only once, in the following. After studying one of the Chapters from 26 to 36, the reader should have acquired the following capabilities for the respective technology domain: \u2022 Discuss the role, relevance and state of the art of LCA in the respective technology domain. \u2022 Use the technology domain-specific terminology and definitions correctly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1504, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 437, "book_page": 427, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Use the technology domain-specific terminology and definitions correctly. \u2022 Explain the key methodological issues, challenges, limitations and good practice of applying LCA within the technology field and their implications for the results of an LCA. \u2022 Contrast major environmental concerns and challenges related to the respective technology and its environmental performance against its benefits. \u2022 Outline the main factors and hot spots influencing the environmental performance of a technology. \u2022 Be aware of the main literature available for a technological application domain of LCA including its common findings as well as contrasted differences in conclusions drawn. Enjoy the reading! Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1505, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "17 Introduction to Part III: Application of LCA in Practice", "pdf_page": 437, "book_page": 427, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World G. Sonnemann, E.D. Gemechu, S. Sala, E.M. Schau, K. Allacker, R. Pant, N. Adibi and S. Valdivia Abstract The chapter explains what Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) is about, why it is about taking a life cycle approach and shows that SCP-related policies have been developed at the intergovernmental level and in different regions of the world. A key element at the international level is the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP adopted in 2012 and the global agreements on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted in 2015. Life cycle thinking has become mature, moving from its academic origins and limited uses, primarily in-house in large companies, to more powerful approaches that can support the provision of more sustainable goods and services through efficient use in product development, external communications, in support of customer choice, and in public debates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1506, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 429, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Now governments can use LCA for SCP policies. For this purpose LCA databases are needed. LCA is in particular relevant for policies focusing on design for sustainability, sustainable consumer information, sustainable procurement and waste management, minimization and prevention as well as sector-specific policies like sustainable energy and food supply. Examples of life G. Sonnemann (&) \u0001 E.D. Gemechu ISM-CyVi, UMR 5255, University of Bordeaux, Talence, France e-mail: guido.sonnemann@u-bordeaux.fr G. Sonnemann \u0001 E.D. Gemechu ISM-CyVi, UMR 5255, CNRS, 33400 Talence, France S. Sala \u0001 E.M. Schau \u0001 R. Pant European Commission, Directorate D: Sustainable Resources, Bioeconomy Unit, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy K. Allacker Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering Science, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium N. Adibi PLATEFORME [avniR]-cd2e, Loos-en-Gohelle, France N. Adibi WELOOP, 27 Rue du Stade, 62300 Lens, France S. Valdivia World Resources Forum, St", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1507, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 429, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Adibi PLATEFORME [avniR]-cd2e, Loos-en-Gohelle, France N. Adibi WELOOP, 27 Rue du Stade, 62300 Lens, France S. Valdivia World Resources Forum, St. Gallen, Switzerland \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_18", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1508, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 429, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "cycle thinking and the use of LCA in policies are provided for numerous countries around the world but with a certain focus on the European Union. It can be expected that the use of LCA in policies for the sustainability assessment of products will further increase, also slowly covering more means of implementation such as incentives and legislative obligations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1509, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 430, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the basic principles of Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP), covering exploration, extraction, product development, manufacturing, use and end of life options; \u2022 Discuss which SCP policies have been developed at the intergovernmental level and in different regions of the world; \u2022 Express the link to focus areas particularly relevant for LCA-based policies such as design for sustainability and sustainable consumer information; \u2022 Value the examples of life cycle thinking and the use of LCA in policies provided for numerous countries around the world; \u2022 Explain the opportunities of using LCA in policies for the sustainability assessment of products in the future aiming at showing the efficiency of the means used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1510, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 430, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.1 Introduction to Policies on Sustainable Consumption and Production Over the last few decades, the need to transition into a more sustainable society has become more and more evident and pressing. In return, global efforts to address sustainability challenges have also significantly increased. To this end, especially 2015 was the year of sustainability, which included not only the global agreement on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), but also the Paris Agreement. It was reached by the parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on 12 December 2015 in Paris and symbolizes a fundamentally new course in the two-decade-old global fight against climate change. \u201cThe necessary shift tosustainable consumption and production (SCP) patterns will do much to improve the lives of some of the world\u2019s poorest people as well as protect the rich resources that nature provides", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1511, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 430, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "But we will not achieve this shift unless we have effective policies, social and technological innovation, public and private investment, and the engagement of governments, business, consumers, educators and the media. Each and every one of us will have a role to play ...\u201d (UNEP 2012a).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1512, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 430, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SCP is understood as the \u201cThe use of services and related products, which respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life while minimizing the use of natural resources and toxic materials as well as the emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle of the service or product so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations\u201d (Norwegian Ministry of Environment, Oslo Symposium 1994). It means that SCP is a holistic approach that has at its core a life cycle perspective, which is the attitude of becoming mindful of how everyday life has an impact on the environment and society. According to UNEP (2012a) SCP focuses on resource efficiency that is about ensuring that natural resources are efficiently produced and processed, and consumed in a more sustainable way, as well as about reducing the environmental impact from the consumption and production of products over their full life cycles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1513, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 440, "book_page": 431, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By producing more well-being with less material consumption, resource efficiency enhances the means to meet human needs while respecting the ecological carrying capacity of the earth. Such improvements can also increase the competitiveness of enterprises, turning solutions for sustainability challenges into business, employment and export opportunities. The fundamental objective of SCP is to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation. SCP policies cover all the areas highlighted in Fig. 18.1. One of UNEP\u2019s six sub-programmes is on Resource Efficiency and SCP. The overarching aim of this sub-programme (UNEP 2013a) is to detach economic growth from unsustainable resource use and environmental degradation. In general, it can be observed that governments in support of a shift to sustainable consumption and production focus more on production in developing countries and on consumption in developed countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1514, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 440, "book_page": 431, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SCP is covered under the SDG 12 on responsible consumption and production. By applying the life cycle approach, priorities can be identified more transparently and inclusively and policies can be targeted more effectively so that the maximum environmental benefit is achieved relative to the effort expended (CEC 2005a). The chapter focuses first on life cycle thinking and then on LCA in policies at the international level, with a particular focus on intergovernmental organizations including the European Union (EU) and selected countries around the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1515, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 440, "book_page": 431, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.2 Policies Based on a Life Cycle Thinking at the International Level and Around the World 18.2.1 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP On June 2012 established a landmark in the international recognition of SCP in policies with the adoption of \u201cthe 10-Year Framework of Programmes onSustainable Consumption and Production Patterns (10YFP)\u201d by the Heads of State at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)\u2014as Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1516, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 440, "book_page": 431, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "stated in paragraph 226 of the Rio+20 Outcome Document \u201cThe Future we Want\u201d (UNCSD 2012a). The 10YFP is a concrete and operational outcome of Rio+20. It is a global framework of action to enhance international cooperation to accelerate the shift towards SCP in both developed and developing countries. The framework will support capacity building and provide technical and financial assistance to developing countries for this shift. The 10YFP will develop, replicate and scale up SCP and resource efficiency initiatives, at national and regional levels, decoupling environmental degradation and resource use from economic growth, and thus increase the net contribution of economic activities to poverty eradication and social development. It responds to the 2002 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and builds on the 8-year work and experience of the Marrakech Process\u2014a bottom-up multi-stakeholder process, launched in 2003 with strong and active involvement from all regions in the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1517, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 432, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The 10YFP will also build on the work of the national cleaner production centres and other SCP best practices engaging a wide range of stakeholders (UNEP 2012b). The adopted document in Rio+20\u2014The Future we Want (UNCSD 2012b)\u2014 provides the vision, goals and values of the 10YFP as well as its functions, organizational structure, means of implementation, criteria for programmes design and Sustainable resource management Cleaner produc\u019fon & Resource Efficiency Sustainable transport Eco-labelling and cer\u019ffica\u019fon Sustainable procurement Sustainable marke\u019fng Sustainable lifestyles Waste Management Design for sustainability Sustainable Consump\u019fon and Produc\u019fon Fig. 18.1 SCP policies along the product life cycle (UNEP 2010a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1518, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 432, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "an initial, non-exhaustive list of five programmes. UNEP has been requested to serve as the 10YFP Secretariat and to establish and administer a Trust Fund to support SCP implementation in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The 10YFP operational structure is summarized in Fig. 18.2. The 10YFP is called to assist countries in reaching a common vision that promotes a life cycle perspective, among other aspects of SCP. This call for LCT in the development of SCP policies in countries is demanding life cycle based expertise, data, methodologies, skills andresources and the support of stakeholders and initiatives worldwide. SCP programmes need a solid scientific andpolicy knowledge base and the use of a mix of efficient instruments such as education, training and data collection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1519, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 442, "book_page": 433, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SCP programmes need a solid scientific andpolicy knowledge base and the use of a mix of efficient instruments such as education, training and data collection. Need of support from the LCA expert community for implementing the 10YFP could be on result-based indicators for the 10YFP, understanding how LCA could be used better for policymaking, guidance on product sustainability information (e.g. hot spot methodology), input for the global SCP Clearinghouse on Sustainable Consumption and Production platform1 (including south\u2013south cooperation), and the involvement of life cycle experts and regionalstakeholders in the development of the 10YFP programmes. Fig. 18.2 10YFP operational structure (UNEP 2012b) 1www.scpclearinghouse.org/fr/. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1520, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 442, "book_page": 433, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.2.2 UNIDO/UNEP Programme on Resource-Efficient Cleaner Production Recognizing that resource efficiency requires Cleaner Production (CP) and vice versa, UNIDO and UNEP have moved towards Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP). RECP recognizes that CP methods and practices generate multiple benefits that are relevant to many of today\u2019s most pressing global challenges, including mitigation of GHG emissions and adapting to climate change; responding to increasing scarcity ofwater, fuels and other materials; providing decent jobs; and halting environmental degradation. RECP, therefore, builds upon CP in accelerating the application of preventive environmental strategies to processes, products and services to increase efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the environment. UNIDO and UNEP launched in 1994 a joint programme to establish National Cleaner Production Centres/Programmes (NCPCs/NCPPs)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1521, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 443, "book_page": 434, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "UNIDO and UNEP launched in 1994 a joint programme to establish National Cleaner Production Centres/Programmes (NCPCs/NCPPs). They incorporated the lessons learned from the NCPCs in their joint RECP programme strategy. The strategy was approved in 2009 for implementation. It supports the global imperative to decouple economic development from further environmental degradation and resource depletion. The programme aims to improveresource efficiency and environmental performance of businesses and other organizations in developing and transition countries. The envisioned principal outcome is the widespread adaptation and adoption of RECP methods, practices, technologies and policies. The past decade has demonstrated that these are applicable and relevant. The challenge is now to scale-up their application so that they become common practice rather than isolated initiatives in a few selected enterprises (UNIDO/UNEP 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1522, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 443, "book_page": 434, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The challenge is now to scale-up their application so that they become common practice rather than isolated initiatives in a few selected enterprises (UNIDO/UNEP 2013). 18.2.3 OECD: Sustainable Materials Management and Green Claims One of the policies of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that is clearly stating a strong reference to LCT is Sustainable Materials Management (SMM). It is increasingly recognized as apolicy approach that can make a key contribution to green growth and the challenges that are posed by sustained global economic and demographic growth. One of the key challenges of the SMM approach is to effectively address the environmental impacts that can occur along the life cycle of materials, which frequently extends across borders and involves a multitude of different economic actors (OECD 2012). The OECD Committee on Consumer Policy launched a project to examine ways to enhance the value and effectiveness of green claims in April 2009.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1523, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 443, "book_page": 434, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental claims, also termed \u201cgreen claims\u201d, are assertions made by firms about the environmentally beneficial qualities or characteristics of goods and services. They can refer to the manner in which products are produced, packaged, distributed, used, consumed and/or disposed of. In addition to the environmental aspects, these claims are sometimes defined to include the social responsible or ethical manner in which products are produced and distributed. The Committee\u2019s work underscores the complexity of the issues and challenges facing stakeholders in the field of environmental claims. There is agreement, however, on a number of basic principles that could enhance the value and effectiveness of claims (OECD 2010). 18.2.4 Asia/Pacific: Strategy of Green Growth and Circular Economy In the Asia\u2013Pacific region, SCP rides on the back of the economic growth and broader sustainable development agenda", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1524, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 444, "book_page": 435, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.2.4 Asia/Pacific: Strategy of Green Growth and Circular Economy In the Asia\u2013Pacific region, SCP rides on the back of the economic growth and broader sustainable development agenda. The strategy of Environmentally Sustainable Economic Growth, or Green Growth, is an approach that is promoted by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), has been widely adopted by countries in the region. It was launched in 2005 at the Fifth Ministerial Conference on Environment and Development in Seoul, Republic of Korea, as a way to reconcile tensions between efforts to achieve two of the Millennium Development Goals, namely, poverty reduction and environmental sustainability. Green Growth promotes SCP, the development of sustainable infrastructure, and the introduction of green tax reform for reducing poverty, while UNESCAP has since provided capacity building to some national governments towards the development of Green Growth strategies (UNESCAP 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1525, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 444, "book_page": 435, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An important role in Asia plays the Circular Economy promoted by the government in China and inspired by Japanese and German Recycling Economy Laws. China\u2019s rapid economic growth demands major supplies of all basic industrial commodities, in competition with other nations. China\u2019s emissions cross boundaries and oceans, impacting Korea, Japan, and North America. Its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is rising rapidly. The Circular Economy approach to resource-use efficiency integrates cleaner production and industrial ecology in a broader system encompassing industrial firms, networks or chains of firms, eco-industrial parks and regional infrastructure to support resource optimization. State-owned and private enterprises, government and private infrastructure, and consumers all have a role in achieving the Circular Economy (Indigo Development 2009). Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1526, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 444, "book_page": 435, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.2.5 Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC): Regional Action Plan and Mercosur Policy on SCP A Regional Council of Government Experts on SCP was set up in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2003 to support the implementation of the SCP regional strategy. The Regional Council has also provided inputs and advice to the LAC Forum of Ministers of the Environment. The LAC Forum of Minister of the Environment is the most representative and influential gathering of environmental policymakers in the region and endorsed important elements of the regional SCP strategy. In 2005 the Fifteenth Meeting of the Forum of Ministers of the Environment of Latin America and the Caribbean (Caracas, Venezuela) decided to foster the preparation of SCP policies, strategies and action plans. The Sixteenth Meeting of the Forum (in Dominican Republic in 2008) approved the regional Action Plan on SCP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1527, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 436, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Sixteenth Meeting of the Forum (in Dominican Republic in 2008) approved the regional Action Plan on SCP. The region has identified the following four priorities on SCP: National Policies and Strategies, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs), Sustainable Public Procurement and Sustainable Lifestyles (UNEP 2008). Agreeing on the need for a common SCP policy with a focus on eco-efficiency and the reduction of hazards forhuman health and the environment, Mercosur member countries signed the Declaration on Cleaner Production Principles in October 2003. This led to the approval of the Mercosur Policy or Promotion and Cooperation onSustainable Consumption and Production in 2007 (Mercosur 2007). Signed by an important trade block of the world, this policy sets an important example for regional coordination on SCP. The policy contributed to the further development of national SCP action plans such as the Argentinian one (Decreto 1289, 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1528, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 436, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The policy contributed to the further development of national SCP action plans such as the Argentinian one (Decreto 1289, 2010). 18.2.6 Africa: African 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP SCP activities in Africa started in the mid-1990s. The UNIDO and UNEP established National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) in 1995, which have remained the major institutions for promoting SCP in the region. Since 2000, the African network of NCPCs started to convene biannual regional roundtables on SCP. In 2004, the NCPCs formed the African Roundtable on SCP (ARSCP) as a not-for-profit regional institution to promote SCP. The ARSCP is a multi-stakeholder forum and its activities include, but are not limited to, the organization of national and sub-regional SCP roundtables developing sub-regional and regional programmes and projects on SCP, and organizing trainings on selected SCP topics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1529, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 436, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ARSCP pioneered the development of the African 10-Year Framework of Programmes (10YFP) on SCP adopted by the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (2005). Thestrategic focus of the 10YFP is linking SCP with the challenges of meeting basic needs in a more sustainable manner. The", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1530, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 436, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "major achievements of the African 10YFP on SCP fall under five categories: (i) Mainstreaming, (ii) Energy, (iii) Water, (iv) Information-based instruments and (v) Sustainable Public Procurement (UNEP 2013b). 18.2.7 Reference to Life Cycle Thinking in Different SCP Policies Around the World and the Role of Trade From the policy examples described above, we can conclude that the topic of addressing environmental impacts of products, materials and resources throughout their life cycles in an integrated way is mainly covered in the SCP policy framework of developed countries. In contrast, in general, the SCP policy programmes of the developing regions of the world focus on national policies, specificresources and business development. The expansion of life cycle based environmental standards andregulations in industrialized countries could have significant impacts on market access of developing countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1531, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 446, "book_page": 437, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The expansion of life cycle based environmental standards andregulations in industrialized countries could have significant impacts on market access of developing countries. Therefore, the fear in many developing countries is that stricter product standards in the markets of developed countries will act as trade barriers for their exports. Moreover, there is widespread suspicion that environmental restrictions are sometimes used as indirect means of protecting the industries in developed countries (Verbruggen et al. 1995). 18.3 LCA Promotion and Policies at the International Level 18.3.1 UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative In 2002 UNEP jointly with the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and partners from governments, academia, civil society, business and industry joined forces to promote life cycle approaches worldwide as a way to increase resource efficiency and to accelerate a transition towards more sustainable consumption and production patterns", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1532, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 446, "book_page": 437, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After the publication of the ISO 14040 standard dealing with LCA, UNEP and SETAC, aware of the need for dissemination and implementation, jointly began to engage more partners to work on the articulation of science-based existing efforts around LCT and established the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative (Toepfer 2002). The Life Cycle Initiative\u2019s activities to date have been carried out in two phases, in which around 200 members of the global life cycle community have been actively involved. The first phase (2002\u20132007) focused on establishing the Life Cycle Initiative as a global focal point of life cycle-related knowledge and activities and on building an expert community of practitioners. Activities to move the Life Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1533, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 446, "book_page": 437, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cycle agenda forward concentrated on three important fields of work: (1) Life Cycle Management (LCM), (2) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), as well as the cross-cutting area of social impacts along the life cycle. At the end of the first phase a process was started to help the creation of regional and national life cycle networks, in particular in developing countries, to support capability development. Phase 2 activities (2007\u20132012) saw the Life Cycle Initiative evolve to be more participative with regard to stakeholders, encouraging more involvement from key actors at the global level in order to achieve common understanding and agreement on tools and strategies being developed. The main outcomes of phase 2 were accomplished through close collaboration with crucial stakeholders in the field", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1534, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 438, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main outcomes of phase 2 were accomplished through close collaboration with crucial stakeholders in the field. In both phases, the Life Cycle Initiative was able to provide support in the application of sustainability-driven life cycle approaches based on lessons learned from leading organizations by its capacity of engaging with world-class experts and practitioners working in product policy, management and development (UNEP/SETAC 2012). Building on the achievements from phases 1 and 2 and in particular the results of a stakeholder consultation process in 2011 and 2012, the vision for phase 3 (2012\u2013 2017) was coined as \u2018a world where life cycle approaches are mainstreamed\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1535, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 438, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Activities in phase 3 focus on creating the enabling conditions to (a) enhance the global consensus and relevance of existing and emerging life cycle methodologies and data management; (b) expand capabilities worldwide and make life cycle approaches operational for organizations; and (c) communicate current life cycle knowledge to influence and partner with stakeholders. Five flagship projects have been defined in the areas of (i) data and databases management, (ii) global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators, (iii) product sustainability information \u2018meta\u2019 guidance, (iv) LCA for organizations and (v) global capability development and implementation. Moreover, a special effort on communication and stakeholder outreach has been initiated. These activities are expected to be implemented jointly with a number of other projects. Progress made in phase 3 are monitored every 2\u20133 years by key indicators and compared to a baseline survey carried out in 2012", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1536, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 438, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Progress made in phase 3 are monitored every 2\u20133 years by key indicators and compared to a baseline survey carried out in 2012. A crucial deliverable and ongoing activity of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative (Sonnemann et al. 2011) is to help overcoming the lack of consistent and high-quality LCA data worldwide and to support capacity building for developing countries is the Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment databases published in 2011 by UNEP/SETAC (2011) and the follow-up activities in phase 3. These principles give guidance for proper gathering and management of data, which enable better, more reliable life cycle assessment results and improve their use for decision-making. Life cycle data availability had been recognized by UNEP as a strategic element for advancing SCP through the development and implementation of life cycle based tools and approaches that need these data.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1537, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 438, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.3.2 International Resource Panel The International Resource Panel was established in 2007 to provide independent, coherent and authoritative scientific assessment on the sustainable use of natural resources and the environmental impacts of resource use over the full life cycle and to contribute to a better understanding of how to \u201cdecouple\u201d economic growth from environmental degradation (UNEP 2010a). By providing up-to-date information and best science available information contained in the International Resource Panel\u2019s reports is intended to be policy relevant and support policy framing, policy and programme planning, and enable evaluation and monitoring of policy effectiveness (UNEP 2012c). The broad scope of the Resource Panel requires a wide range ofsustainability experts who organize, review, validate, integrate and communicate findings from studies by appropriate scientists through activities at the working group level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1538, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 448, "book_page": 439, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Resource Panel may limit its size to 30\u201350 members, while many more scientists are expected to be engaged in the various working groups. Reports of the International Resource Panel include the following: \u2022 Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles (2013); \u2022 Measuring Water Use in a Green Economy (2012); \u2022 Decoupling naturalresource use and environmental impacts from economic growth (2011); \u2022 Priority products and materials: assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production (2010); \u2022 Assessing biofuels: towards sustainable production and use of resources (2009). These reports take a life cycle perspective and often refer to LCA studies reviewed. The report on assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production, for example, identifies priorities amongst global consumption activities, industrial sectors and materials from primary industries in terms of their environmental impacts and their resource use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1539, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 448, "book_page": 439, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can play a role in directing environmental and resource policy to those areas that really matter. There is a significant opportunity to improve the basis for decision-making by assessing best available scientific information from a global perspective in order to direct the attention of decision-makers to the big problems first, while avoiding burden shifting in time, space and between environmental impacts (UNEP 2010b). 18.3.3 FAO Partnerships on Bioenergy and Livestock Bioenergy The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) was established to implement the commitments taken by the G8 in the 2005 Gleneagles Plan of Action to support Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1540, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 448, "book_page": 439, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cbiomass and biofuels deployment, particularly in developing countries where biomass use is prevalent\u201d. Following a consultation process among developing and developed countries, international agencies and the private sector, the GBEP was launched at the 14th session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD 14) in New York on 11 May 2006 (FAO 2009). From 2007 to 2012 GBEP received a renewed mandate by the G8. The Camp David Summit declared to applaud the Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) for finalizing a set of sustainability indicators for the production and use of modern bioenergy and for initiating capacity building activities through a Regional Forum in West Africa and to invite GBEP to continue implementing capacity building activities that promote modern bioenergy for sustainable development (The White House 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1541, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 440, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In line with GBEP\u2019s Terms of Reference and the state of the international debate on bioenergy, a Task Force on GHG Methodologies was established under the leadership of the United States of America, co-chaired by United Nations Foundation, to analyse the full life cycle of transport biofuels and solid biomass, and to develop a common methodological framework for the use of policymakers and stakeholders when assessing GHG impacts by which the methodologies of GHG life cycle assessments could be compared on an equivalent and consistent basis (FAO 2013). Livestock The Partnership on the environmental benchmarking of livestock supply chains is looking to improve how the environmental impacts of the livestock industry are measured and assessed, a necessary first step in improving the sustainability of this important food production sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1542, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 440, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the Rio+20 sustainable development conference, governments agreed on the necessity of making agricultural production more sustainable, and stressed in particular the need to shift to more sustainable livestock production systems (FAO 2012). FAO and governmental, private sector, and nongovernmental partners work together on a number of fronts to strengthen the science of environmental benchmarking of livestock supply chains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1543, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 440, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "FAO and governmental, private sector, and nongovernmental partners work together on a number of fronts to strengthen the science of environmental benchmarking of livestock supply chains. Activities planned for the initial 3-year phase of the project include the following (FAO 2012): \u2022 Establishing science-based methods and guidelines on how to quantify livestock\u2019s carbon footprint, covering various types of livestock operations and rearing systems; \u2022 Creating a database of greenhouse gas emission factors generated for the production of different kinds of animal feed\u2013feed production and use offer significant opportunities for reducing livestock emissions; \u2022 Developing a methodology for measuring other important environmental pressures, such aswater consumption and nutrient losses.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1544, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 440, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.3.4 ITU Sustainability Standards for the Information and Communications Technology Industry A number of global companies in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector are increasingly being asked by their customers, investors, governments and other stakeholders to report on their sustainability performance. In response to this growing demand, the Toolkit on environmental sustainability for ICT companies is an International Telecommunication Union (ITU) led initiative; that means it is carried out by ITU together with over 50 partners. The Toolkit provides plenty of detailed support on how ICT companies can build sustainability into the operations and management of their organizations, through the practical application of international standards and guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1545, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 441, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Toolkit provides a set of agreed upon sustainability requirements for ICT companies that allows for a more objective reporting of how sustainability is practiced in the ICT sector in these key areas: sustainable buildings, sustainable ICT in corporate organizations, sustainable products, end of life management, general specifications and Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), and an assessment framework for environmental impacts of the ICT sector. It puts international standards and guidelines into context and brings them to life with real-life examples, showing how ICT organizations around the world are dealing with their sustainability challenges (ITU 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1546, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 441, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.4 Examples of LCA Promotion and Use in Policies Around the World 18.4.1 According to a recent survey done by theLife Cycle Initiative (UNEP/SETAC 2016), the main role of LCA in policies in the last years has been in environmental labelling and the formulation of regulations on product use and waste management mostly in developed countries and still in a very limited way in developing ones. Also, certain governments have been promoting life cycle based policies and encouraging the use of life cycle assessment, for example, to estimate GHG and other emissions of biofuels. Legislation and certification schemes for biofuels are currently emerging, like the global RSB2-certification, and mineral oil tax exemption for biofuels of national authorities (UK, Switzerland, Netherlands, Germany, California, etc.); these certification schemes include a range of life cycle impact assessment indicators (SQCB 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1547, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 441, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Policymakers in Denmark and Germany are using interpretations of LCA studies to distinguish between more or less environmentally friendly packaging systems and/or materials; and LCA has 2Roundtable on sustainable biofuels. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1548, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 441, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "already been successfully used for the case of the Swedish waste incineration tax (Bj\u00f6rklund and Finnveden 2007). However, there is a perceived risk that they are ignoring the uncertain and subjective nature of LCA assessments, which raises questions about the appropriateness of using an LCA-based estimate as a performance metric in public policy. The examples show that there are high expectations of the future use of LCA in SCP policy areas\u2014such as sustainable public procurement and eco-design directives as well as consumer information. However, there are still certain challenges to overcome such as the lack of good quality and available data, more capacity building and resources. International dialogue and consensus on those issues are required for advancing more life cycle based policies to influence the marketplace, in particular taking into consideration the special context of developing countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1549, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 451, "book_page": 442, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following examples from different regions of the world provide an overview of LCA promotion and use in policies with quite some detail for the European Union and for selected countries with a certain focus on databases. 18.4.2 Europe: EU and Switzerland EU Policies Integrating Life Cycle Thinking and Life Cycle Assessment In the EU at European and national level, over the last 20 years, there has been an increasing emphasis on integrated approaches in environmental policy. Policy has been focusing on linkages between environmental media (air, water, soil) and cross-cutting environmental themes (e.g. climate change, biodiversity etc.) that pay more attention to sustainable resource use. All of these policies aim at fostering the reduction of environmental impact and at further integrating resource use issues and the negative impacts associated to their use in a coordinated way (CEC 2005b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1550, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 451, "book_page": 442, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In a growing number of policies and business instruments, LCT and LCA have been recognized as useful approaches in policy support in terms of impact assessment, implementation measures and monitoring needs. Since 1990, the European Council resolution of 7 May 1990 on waste policy invited the European Commission to submit as soon as possible a proposal for a European-wide eco-labelling scheme covering the environmental impact during the entire life cycle of the product. This resulted in the first EUregulation regarding Eco-label (CEC 1992) where the evaluation of the impact associated with product life cycle is the core of the label scheme. Hence, the first area integrating LCT and eco-design concepts was related to waste policy and to the need of informing consumers. Since then several policy initiatives integrated LCT. It can be interpreted that the EU has already made significant steps, through various policies building from the Integrated Product Policy (IPP) (CEC 2003)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1551, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 451, "book_page": 442, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can be interpreted that the EU has already made significant steps, through various policies building from the Integrated Product Policy (IPP) (CEC 2003). In the IPP, the European Commission (EC) concluded that LCA provides the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products that are currently available. However, the need for more consistent data and consensus on LCA methodologies was underlined. The further integration of LCT and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1552, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 451, "book_page": 442, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "within policies builds on achievements made in the context of the Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste (CEC 2005a), the Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources (CEC 2005b), the Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy Action Plan of 2008 (CEC 2008a). In 2005, the IPP Communication was particularly strengthened by the EC\u2019s Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources (CEC 2005b). It focuses on decoupling economic growth from environmental impacts. LCT is a core to this thematic strategy, being a foundation of the indicators that will be developed to monitor progress across the community. The global dimension is equally recognized through UNEP recommendation to establish the International Resource Panel. Among others, the Action Plans on Sustainable Consumption and Production and on Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) (CEC 2008a) helped to identify and overcome barriers for SCP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1553, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 443, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Among others, the Action Plans on Sustainable Consumption and Production and on Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) (CEC 2008a) helped to identify and overcome barriers for SCP. The plans built upon ongoing European initiatives and instruments, including the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS), the Eco-Label Scheme, the Environmental Technology Action Plan (ETAP), Green Public Purchasing (GPP), the Eco-design of Energy-using Products (EuP) Directive as well as others. This was done in light of increasing coherence among the different related policy areas, while addressing gaps and supporting global interaction. In more recent updates more overarching policy documents such as the Resource Efficiency Flagship Initiative of the Europe 2020 Strategy (CEC 2011a), and another related Roadmap (CEC 2011b) that state, by 2050, the EU economy shall have developed in such a way as to accommodate resource constraints and planetary boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1554, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 443, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In 2013, a landmark communication has been released: the Single Market for Green Products (CEC 2013a, b). A brief description of the main initiatives over the last 10 years is given below, entailing initiatives of several EC Directorates General (DGs) such as DG Environment, DG Enterprise and Industry and DG Climate: \u2022 Integrated Product Policy Communication Building on Environmental Life Cycle Thinking\u2014Integrated Product Policy (IPP) seeks to minimize environmental impacts by looking at all phases of a products\u2019 life cycle and taking action where it is most effective (CEC 2003). \u2022 Stimulating technologies for sustainable development\u2014Assessments of technologies should verify the technological performance and the claimed performance from an economic and environmental viewpoint, taking into account the whole life cycle of the technology (CEC 2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1555, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 443, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste\u2014In order to secure a higher level of environmental protection, the proposal is to modernize the existing legal framework\u2014i.e. to introduce life cycle analysis in policymaking and to clarify, simplify and streamline EU waste law (CEC 2005a). \u2022 Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources\u2014To have a higher impact in reversing unsustainable trends, containing environment degradation and preserving the essential services that natural resources provide, environment policy needs to move beyond emissions and waste control (CEC 2005b). Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1556, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 443, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 REACh Regulation on Chemicals\u2014Risk assessment and management of chemicals have integratinglife cycle thinking (EC 2006). \u2022 Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable industrial policy Action Plan\u2014The Action Plan aims to reduce the overall environmental impact and consumption of resources associated with the complete life cycle of goods and services (CEC 2008a). \u2022 Public procurement for a better environment\u2014Procurement is described as a process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle when compared to goods, services and works with the same primary function that would otherwise be procured (CEC 2008b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1557, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 444, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Waste framework directive\u2014the directive aims at clarifying key concepts like the waste hierarchy; strengthening the measures that must be taken in regard to waste prevention; introducing an approach that takes into account the whole life cycle of products and materials and not only the waste phase (EC 2008). \u2022 Eco-design directive\u2014The Eco-design Directive provides with consistent EU-wide rules for improving the environmental performance of energy-related products through eco-design (EC 2009a). \u2022 Community Eco-Management and Audit Scheme\u2014The EMAS IIIregulation prescribes that for non-industrial organizations, such as local authorities or financial institutions, it is essential that they also consider the environmental aspects associated with their core business, these include, amongst others, product life cycle-related issues (EC 2009b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1558, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 444, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Eco-label\u2014The EU aims at establishing a voluntary eco-label award scheme intended to promote products with a reduced environmental impact during their entire life cycle (EC 2010a). \u2022 Energy labelling directives\u2014In the directive text is stated that when the Commission reviews progress and reports on the implementation of the SCP/SIP Action Plan in 2012, it will in particular analyse whether further action to improve the energy and environmental performance of products is needed, including the products\u2019 environmental impact during their life cycle (EC 2010b). \u2022 Resource efficiency flagship\u2014In the resource efficiency manifesto, one of the road map aims is to create better market conditions for goods and services that have lower impacts across their life cycles, (CEC 2011a, and the related roadmap CEC 2011b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1559, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 444, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Building sector and Construction work regulation and Strategy for the sustainable competitiveness of the construction sector and its enterprises\u2014One of the basic requirements for construction works set in EU regulation (EC 2011b) state that the construction works must be designed and built in such a way that they will, throughout their life cycle. Moreover, in the strategy for thesustainability of the building sector (CEC 2012a), a coherent and mutually recognized interpretation of the performances through harmonized indicators is advocated. \u2022 Proposal for a General Union Environmental programme to 2020\u2014Measures will also be taken to further improve the environmental performance of goods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1560, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 444, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and services on the EU market over their whole life cycle through measures to increase the supply of environmentally sustainable products and stimulate a significant shift in consumer demand for these products (CEC 2012b). \u2022 Communication on Bioeconomy\u2014Actions are set towards the enhancement of bioeconomy markets, taking into account added value, sustainability, soil fertility and climate mitigation potential; supporting the future development of an agreed methodology for the calculation of environmental footprints, e.g. using LCA (CEC 2012c)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1561, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 445, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using LCA (CEC 2012c). \u2022 Building the single market for green product\u2014The Single Market for Green Products initiative proposes a set of actions, establishing two methods to measure the environmental performance throughout the life cycle of products and organizations, theProduct Environmental Footprint (PEF) and the Organization Environmental Footprint (OEF); providing principles for communicating environmental performance, such as transparency, reliability, completeness, comparability and clarity; supporting international efforts towards more coordination in methodological development and data availability (CEC 2013a, b). In the wide policy context presented before, there is an increasing need of life cycle based policy support activities. It is considered of the utmost relevance to develop a science-to-policy interface, due to the broad implications of the decisions supported by LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1562, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 445, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is considered of the utmost relevance to develop a science-to-policy interface, due to the broad implications of the decisions supported by LCA. In this context, the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (EC-JRC) is leading a \u201cscience-to-policy\u201d process: gathering, capitalizing and evaluating existing knowledge in order to provide robust support to policy decision-making (Sala et al. 2012). The EC-JRC is working towards providing this policy support through a number of project and initiatives, such as follows: \u2022 European Platform on LCA; \u2022 Support for the product and organization environmental footprint; \u2022 Development of life cycle based indicators for resources, products and waste (EC-JRC 2012); \u2022 Definition of methods to include LCT in waste management (EC-JRC 2011a, b, c); \u2022 Definition of methods to include resource efficiency criteria for energy using products (Ardente and Mathieux 2012); \u2022 Use of LCA for building futurescenarios for policy evaluation (EC-JRC 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1563, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 445, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The European Platform on LCA In its Communication on Integrated Product Policy (CEC 2003), the European Commission concluded that LCA provides the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products currently available. In the document, the need for more consistent data and consensus LCA methodologies was underlined. It was therefore announced that the Commission will provide a platform to facilitate communication and exchanges on life cycle data and launch a coordination initiative involving both ongoing data collection efforts in the EU and existing Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1564, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 445, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "harmonization initiatives. In 2005, DG Environment together with the Institute for Environment and Sustainability established the European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment (EPLCA). This Platform promotes the availability, exchange and use of quality-assured life cycle data and methods. The EPLCA aims to improve the credibility, acceptance and use of LCA in business and public authorities; to ensure greater coherence across LCA-based instruments and to provide robust decision support to a range of environmental policies and business instruments (see Fig. 18.3). The main deliverables of the EPLCA are the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD), the European Reference Life Cycle Database (ELCD), the LCA Resources Directory and LCT Forum mailing list", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1565, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 446, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ILCD Handbook, launched in 2010, is a series of detailed technical documents, providing guidance for good practices in LCA in business and government, serving as a \u201cparent\u201d document for the development of sector- and product-specific guidance documents, criteria and simplified tools. The European Commission\u2019s Environmental Footprint for Products and Organizations To date, a company wishing to market its product as green in several EU Member State markets faces a confusing range of choices of methods and initiatives, and might find its needs to apply several of them in order to prove the product\u2019s green credentials. This is turning into a barrier for the circulation of green products in the Single Market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1566, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 446, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is turning into a barrier for the circulation of green products in the Single Market. The recent EC initiative \u201cBuilding the Single Market for Green Products\u2014Facilitating better information on the environmental performance of products and organisations\u201d is a step towards removing this ambiguity by improving the way how environmental performance of products and organizations is measured and communicated (CEC 2013a). Within this initiative, the EC Environmental Footprint was adopted as a harmonized method for multi-criteria (i.e. multi-impact category) environmental LCA of products and organizations. Environmental Footprint (EF) is a new harmonized scheme for multi-criteria life cycle environmental assessment of products and organizations developed by the European Commission\u2019s JRC in close cooperation with Directorate-General for the Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1567, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 446, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The two guidelines on Product EF (PEF) and Organization EF (OEF) provide specific and practical guidance for comprehensive, robust and consistent environmental assessment of products and organizations. To further support comparisons and comparative assertions within product groups and sectors, Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCRs) and Organization Environmental Footprint Sector Rules (OEFSRs) are developed in a 3-year pilot phase starting in 2013. Chapter 24 offers more details on the PEF/OEF. EU Policy Background and Rationale The EC Environmental Footprint fits within the integrated product policy (IPP) and the SCP/SIP Communication of the European Union. More recently, in December 2010, the environmental ministers of the Member States of the EU met in the Environment Council and invited the European Commission to \u201cdevelop a common", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1568, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 446, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "methodology on the quantitative assessment of environmental impacts of products, throughout their life-cycle, in order to support the assessment and labelling of products\u201d (Council of the European Union 2010). The EC \u201cRoadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe\u201d (CEC 2011a) was an answer to this invitation and proposes ways to increase resource productivity and to decouple economic growth from both resource use and environmental impacts, taking a life cycle perspective. One of its objectives is to \u201cEstablish a common methodological approach to enable Member States and the private sector to assess, display and benchmark the environmental performance of products, services and companies based on a comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts over the life-cycle (\u2018environmental footprint\u2019)\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1569, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 456, "book_page": 447, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In April 2013, the EC published the communication on \u201cBuilding the Single Market for Green Products\u2014Facilitating better information on the environmental performance of products and organisations\u201d (CEC 2013a). The Commission Recommendation (CEC 2013b) that encourages EU Member States and the private sector to use the EC PEF and OEF methods to measure and communicate the environmental performance of products and organizations accompanies the communication. The PEF and OEF methods based on LCA are integral part of the Fig. 18.3 Life cycle data and methods as the basis of tools and approaches for supporting sustainable production and consumption policies Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1570, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 456, "book_page": 447, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Recommendation. This is seen as an important step forward to ensure robust decision support for consumers, industry and policymakers. France France is among the European countries that are active in the transition towards sustainable production and consumption patterns. In recent years, many public and private initiatives were launched: \u201cGrenelle environment\u201d and \u201cFrench Energy Transition\u201d are among these initiatives. Grenelle Environmental Labelling Based on the Grenelle II law (French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy 2010), in 2011\u20132012 France conducted a national experimentation on consumer product environmental information. The experimentation covered the quantification of environmental impacts and the communication of environmental footprints to the consumer. More than 160 companies participated. All sectors were represented, with about one-third from the food and beverage area", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1571, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 448, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "More than 160 companies participated. All sectors were represented, with about one-third from the food and beverage area. Several foreign companies\u2014from Chile, Colombia, Sweden, etc.\u2014 were part of the experimentation. The French governmental conclusion report now constitutes the roadmap for additional future developments including the development and consolidation of the technical tools (database, PCR, calculators). Furthermore, the French Government participate and contribute actively to the EU \u201cPEF/OEF\u201d Environmental Footprint pilot phase. Energy Transition for Green Growth Act The Energy Transition for Green Growth Act represents the French government\u2019s aim\u2014linked to the Paris Agreement (COP21)\u2014to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, diversifying its energy model and increasing the deployment ofrenewable energy sources (French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1572, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 448, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The actions focus on the buildings, transport, Circular Economy, renewable energy and nuclear energy. The initiative also aims to remove regulatory constraints. The government aims to implement the energy transition with the involvement of all stakeholders. Even though the role of Life Cycle Thinking has been highlighted in these initiatives, the application of Life Cycle approaches in is yet far from being mainstream. Many LCA-related activities were conducted by private and public key actors including networks in France in recent years, either directly linked to or from beyond the aforementioned initiatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1573, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 448, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Many LCA-related activities were conducted by private and public key actors including networks in France in recent years, either directly linked to or from beyond the aforementioned initiatives. Switzerland Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) jointly with other Swiss Federal Offices backs ecoinvent, the Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, which is a Competence Centre of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Z\u00fcrich (ETH Zurich) and Lausanne (EPF Lausanne), the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA) and the Swiss Federal Research Station Agroscope Reckenholz-T\u00e4nikon (ART). The ecoinvent centre", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1574, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 448, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "holds one of the world\u2019s leading LCA databases. The centre\u2019s mission is to establish and provide scientifically sound and transparent international life cycle assessment and life cycle management data and services to industry, consultancies, public authorities and research institutions. Switzerland provides also technical assistance to other countries aiming at building up LCA knowledge. Switzerland supports an international approach through the use of the Global Guidance Principles delivered by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, as well as the development of Product Category Rules and the environmental Life Cycle Impact Assessment Indicators under development. Another key issue is global interoperability; in this context FOEN supports activities to increase data availability, transparency, capabilities and the use of gate-to-gate unit process data in a \u201cLego bricks\u201d approach to enhance the interoperability among databases (UNEP 2013b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1575, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 449, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.4.3 The North American Free Trade Agreement Countries: USA and Mexico USA The USA has developed LCA databases to support the work of the private and public sectors on sustainability. The most recent activity is the LCA Digital Commons Project at the UNDA National Agricultural Library. The goal is to develop a database and toolset intended to provide data for use in LCAs of food, biofuels, and a variety of other bio-products. Researchers at the University of Washington Design for Environment Laboratory have developed initial unit process data. OpenLCA provides core software for the Commons database. The development of visualization tools is underway with Earthster. Listed below are some of the organizations and resources data, which are contributing to the LCA Digital Commons project (UNDA National Agricultural Library 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1576, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 449, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Listed below are some of the organizations and resources data, which are contributing to the LCA Digital Commons project (UNDA National Agricultural Library 2013). Organizations involved are: \u2022 US EPA promotes the use of LCA to make more informed decisions through a better understanding of the human health and environmental impacts of products, processes, and activities and supported the development of the Global Guidance Principles on LCA Databases. \u2022 National Renewable Energy Laboratory\u2014created and maintains the U.S. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Database to help LCA practitioners answer questions about environmental impact. \u2022 The Sustainability Consortium drives scientific research and the development of standards and IT tools, through a collaborative process, to enhance the ability to understand and address the environmental, social and economic implications of products. \u2022 The OpenLCA Project creates modular software for life cycle analysis and sustainability assessments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1577, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 449, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 The OpenLCA Project creates modular software for life cycle analysis and sustainability assessments. The software is available as open source and is free. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1578, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 449, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 New Earth is a non-profit organization initiating, facilitating and implementing innovative strategies and tools to help achieve sustainable development on a global level such as Earthster. \u2022 The American Centre for Life Cycle Assessment is a non-profit membership organization formed in 2001 to increase awareness of and to promote the adoption of Environmental LCA among industry, government and NGOs. \u2022 The Innovation Centre for U.S. Dairy is working with the entire dairy industry to foster innovation and give consumers more of what they want, when and where they want it. Data resources available include the following: \u2022 Earthster\u2014This website is the home of a new system that is web-based, free and open source (non-proprietary). It begins by inviting participation purely on the basis of providing zero-cost access to markets; this is something that any business can respond positively to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1579, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 450, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It begins by inviting participation purely on the basis of providing zero-cost access to markets; this is something that any business can respond positively to. Next, buyers and consumers at one end of the system have the ability to send signals to producers about the desired environmental and social attributes or characteristics of products and their life cycles. Third, producers have the ability to download and use free software to rapidly benchmark themselves versus industry averages, and optionally to click-to-report environmental and social attributes of their processes and products to the marketplace. Fourth, LCA data providers, and developers of methodologies, scorecards, labelling systems, etc., all have the ability to process the publicly provided information using their own systems, providing decision-makers with customized reports with only the data of interest to the decision-maker", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1580, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 450, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 US Life Cycle Inventory Database provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory is publicly available and contains data modules for commonly used materials and processes, such as primary fuel production and combustion, electricity generation and transformation processes. \u2022 The ecoinvent Database provided by the Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, which was and is supported by Swiss Federal Offices. \u2022 GaBi Databases generated by PE International. \u2022 ELCD Core Database provided by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. Mexico Major barriers and needs for LCA in Mexico consist in lack of information, regulations and capacities on LCA, as well as a lack of diagnosis of the market and its requirement for a good LCA and the right private\u2013academic\u2013public partnership", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1581, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 450, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Conditions required to overcome these barriers are to establish the structure of global life cycle policies according to internal needs and to get the training for its development as well as open LCA to different sectors in order to promote partnership for the development of tools that can support the design, development and implementation of policies. Issues and deliverables needed for advancing LCA-based policies include the following:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1582, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 450, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Diagnosis and assessments about how to introduce LCT and LCA in policies according to conditions in Mexico, \u2022 Identification of which policies and sectors must be influenced to do so, as well as life cycle experts available in the country. With regard to life cycle inventory datasets, from 2005 onwards data was collected from public and private sources. In 2010 the database format was designed in compliance with existing documentation formats. From 2010 the IT platform and data management have been implemented such as the identification of policies and sectors that need to be targeted (e.g. energy, transport). Since then data are available in the national database called the Mexican Life Cycle Inventory Mexicaniuh (UNEP 2013b). In Mexico, a regulation for sustainable buildings (NMX 2013) on criteria and minimum environmental requirements needs the impact assessment of the whole life cycle of buildings (including the use phase)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1583, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 451, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In case of the replacement of building materials, it is also demanded the use of third-party reviewed LCAs of alternative materials for comparative assertion purposes (G\u00fcereca et al. 2015). 18.4.4 Other OECD Countries: Japan and Australia Japan Since 2000 Type III-based Environmental Declarations have been developed in the so-called EcoLeaf programme. Moreover, since 2008 the Carbon Footprint Programme (CFP) has been developed. The business is aware of these programmes but their uptake is faced with challenges. It is not easy for consumers to understand the label so that they could be willing to buy labelled product. Therefore, it is needed to prepare the grounds for sales promotion with cost-efficiency. In addition, a carbon offset pilot programme based on the CFP where communities can collect credits has been developed, as were general guidelines on Supply Chain GHG Emission Accounting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1584, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 451, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, a carbon offset pilot programme based on the CFP where communities can collect credits has been developed, as were general guidelines on Supply Chain GHG Emission Accounting. Two international LCA workshops were organized in Japan in February 2013, which focused on Future Utilization of Visualized Information on Environmental Impacts in Product Life Cycle and Corporate Value Chain as well as Sharing of experience and findings of world\u2019s major initiatives. Concerns were raised about the appropriate criteria for the selection of a large number of environmental impact categories and the corresponding data availability, in particular in developing countries. Moreover, before using the results for comparative assertion on uncertainly and accuracy of databases as well as the methodologies behind the data collected need to be discussed between database managers, developers and policymakers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1585, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 451, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finally, the impact categories to be addressed will differ according to the Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1586, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 451, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product category. Hence, there is a need to get global consensus in developing Product Category Rules (PCRs) (UNEP 2013b). Australia The National AusLCI Initiative was set up to support national goals coming from the public and private sectors. LCA database guidance has been developed with Australian industry and practitioners and is generally compliant with Ecoinvent guideline and UNEP-SETAC Global Guidance Principles on LCA Databases. The datasets are being presented in EcoSpold andILCD format. Unit process and system processes are both being provided. AusLCI next steps are to increase the coverage of building products by migrating data from the BPIC database into the AusLCI to allow access for more sectors, to further increase building and agriculture coverage and to begin publishing data in ecoinvent as part of a National Project Agreement. LCA has been successfully used in the Voluntary Green Building Rating", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1587, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 452, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA has been successfully used in the Voluntary Green Building Rating. Challenges and opportunities cover the regional and international data harmonization and interoperability, acceptance of user-friendly decision support tools for different stakeholders, policy support lessons, including public procurement, as well as value and risk case studies as relevant areas (UNEP 2013b). 18.4.5 Emerging Economies in Asia: China and Thailand China The policies in China based on LCA are all very recent, from 2012: Technology assessment and implementation for energy conservation and emission reduction, evaluation and recommendation of energy efficiency products and eco-design of products. These policies are all supporting the Chinese policy approach aiming at the establishment of a circular economy. Also encouraging is the policy on the Eco-design of Industrial Products Guidance of 2013 (MIIT/MEP/NRDC 2013) which is boosting mainstreaming of LCA in China by promoting its use in product design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1588, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 452, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also encouraging is the policy on the Eco-design of Industrial Products Guidance of 2013 (MIIT/MEP/NRDC 2013) which is boosting mainstreaming of LCA in China by promoting its use in product design. The Chinese Life Cycle Database (CLCD) has been developed since 2007 and published in 2010 by Sichuan University and IKE Technology. The goal is to have a fundamental LCA database representing Chinese technology and market average with more the 600unit processes of fundamental products in one core model. More global agreements and practical guidelines are desirable, such as the UNEP/SETAC Global Guidance Principles for LCA Database that are a starting point and need to be actively disseminated. Overall in China, there is a huge need for capacity building and technical assistance, although a number of university, research centres and companies have identified the life cycle topic as a promising approach for the future and are catching up with regard to theinternational level (UNEP 2013b).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1589, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 452, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thailand Thai National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), which is part of the Ministry of Science and Technology, has a leading role in the development of a Thai LCA database. Progress has been made in LCT and LCA through the introduction of the Thai Green Label (Type 1), the green procurement activities, the promotion of biofuels (ethanol 2001, biodiesel 2005) and the National Green Growth Strategies (2013\u20132018). These topics are covered and need to further be implemented as LCA-related actions in the SCP and Green Economy Roadmap. Thailand is using life cycle inventory data to quantify the Green Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of its industrial sectors, as well as LCA and Life Cycle Costing to assess Phase 1 (2008\u20132011) of the Thai Green Public Procurement Plan (ORDER PRE/116/2008 2008) to decide whether and how to implement phase 2 (2014\u20132017) (Mungcharoen 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1590, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 453, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As next steps, more capacity building activities, for example, on indicators for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the field of agri-food, decoupling and Green GDP are needed as well as joint activities with other Asian countries, such as the set-up of the LCA Agri-Food Asia Network (UNEP 2013b). 18.4.6 Emerging Economies in Latin America and Africa Brazil At present LCA-based policies in Brazil include, for instance, the Brazilian Life Cycle Assessment Programme (2010), the National Solid Waste Policy (Federal Law No. 12.305, 2010, and Decree No. 7.404, 2010, MMA 2010) and the Brazilian Eco-label Type 1 Scheme. For example, the National Solid Waste Policy calls for shared responsibilities among relevant stakeholders along the life cycle of wastes and the use of LCA to promote products with fewer environmental impacts. Proposed future policies cover GHG inventory and Green Procurement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1591, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 453, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Proposed future policies cover GHG inventory and Green Procurement. The major needs and barriers for implementing LCA-based policies in Brazil and the conditions to overcome these barriers are as follows: (i) governmental funding to the National LCA Programme; (ii) private funding from industrial sectors; (iii) industrial awareness of main achievements, in terms of economic and environmental profits, using the methodology as a management tool; and (iv) public awareness and capacity building for policymakers. Focus areas the government needs to work on to advance the uptake of LCA are the following: \u2022 Governmental funding for applied research and technological development projects during the next 10 years. \u2022 Increasing participation of the private/industrial sectors in the development of Life Cycle Inventories, aiming to build a Brazilian primary data LCI database", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1592, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 453, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Increasing participation of the private/industrial sectors in the development of Life Cycle Inventories, aiming to build a Brazilian primary data LCI database. \u2022 Capacity building of policymakers and private sector through specific industrial associations support (similar approach used by EU with European associations). Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1593, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 453, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Brazilian government has made a major effort to develop a national LCA database (UNEP/SETAC 2011), working among others with UNEP and reviewers provided by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative to increase the quality of the datasets in this emerging database. Needs for capacity building include the promotion of specific courses on LCA topics in the academy (undergraduate and graduate level) and in the industry educational system (professional level). Moreover, the organization of international seminars, in coordination with the European Commission and UNEP/SETAC, to disseminate successful case studies of industry in OECD countries on the utilization of LCA in their supply chain management and to train on international and global guidelines, data acquisition approaches and reviewing schemas are also required (UNEP 2013b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1594, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 454, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "South Africa Carbon footprints are much debated and many private firms have theirs assessed, albeit most often not based on LCA and not captured in any national policy. There is some concern about trade barriers based on carbon footprints, and at sub-national government level it is especially the fruit- and wine-exporting Western Cape where this is a serious concern. Some kind of \u2018life cycle thinking\u2019 is embodied in the Mineral Resources Development Act of 2002 through the \u2018planning for mine closure\u2019 regulations, but this is more of a temporal type of life cycle thinking, not one of shiftings of burdens to other players in the supply chain (e.g. through fuel switching) or between environmental compartments. The recently promulgated national waste management strategy is very strongly aligned to the waste hierarchy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1595, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 454, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "through fuel switching) or between environmental compartments. The recently promulgated national waste management strategy is very strongly aligned to the waste hierarchy. Environmental considerations were somehow considered in the establishment of the biofuels industrial strategy of 2007; the Energy Information Administration for a fuel ethanol plant has included a GHG balance. The umbrella environmental legislation, called the \u2018national environmental management act\u2019 (NEMA 1998) probably does include some loose reference to LCT and principles. The ecoinvent project for developing a South African database is seen as a starting point for a possible national database", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1596, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 454, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ecoinvent project for developing a South African database is seen as a starting point for a possible national database. Participants of a roadmap discussion for a South African LCA Database organized in Cape Town on 3 and 4 Feb 2015 identified the potential key role of the National Cleaner Production Centre (NCPC) for access to the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA), as well as to its large industry network to take advantage of this seed project. In the longer term, it might make sense to create an independent national LCA database. In the short term, also capacity building on life cycle thinking and LCA is important to increase the maturity of those approaches in the country in order to provide the basis for the development of LCA-based policies. Colombia A SCP action plan explicitly incorporates LC thinking (MAVDT 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1597, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 454, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Colombia A SCP action plan explicitly incorporates LC thinking (MAVDT 2010). Also in the same year, a national public procurement policy (MinAm 2010) was issued which updates and integrates the national plan on green markets with the national SCP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1598, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 454, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "action plan. The national public procurement policy aims at providing life cycle based criteria for sustainable purchasing by public offices and at supporting the implementation of these criteria. No national database is under development in Colombia. 18.5 Conclusions The present chapter explains what Sustainable Consumption and Production is about, why it is about taking a life cycle approach and shows that SCP-related policies have been developed at the intergovernmental level and in different regions of the world since the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. A key element at the international level is the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP that has been adopted in Rio+20 and provides multiple opportunities for promoting policies based on life cycle thinking and using LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1599, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 455, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life cycle thinking has been considered mature, moving from its academic origins and limited uses primarily in-house in large companies to more powerful approaches that can efficiently support the provision of more sustainable goods and services through efficient use in product development, external communications, in support of customer choice, and in public debates (Pennington et al. 2007). Now governments can use LCA for SCP and resource efficiency policies. LCA is in particular relevant for policies focusing on design for sustainability, sustainable consumer information, sustainable procurement and waste management, minimization and prevention as well as sector-specific policies like sustainable energy and food supply. The execution of LCA studies is directly required in policies evaluating the environmental preference of biofuels in different countries. It can be expected that the use of LCA in policies for the sustainability assessment of products will further increase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1600, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 455, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can be expected that the use of LCA in policies for the sustainability assessment of products will further increase. Conflicts between free trade and environmental requirements to products have become evident (e.g. ISO process on carbon footprinting) and need to be taken seriously. LCA as an analytical tool is not much the problem but its use in certification and trade relevant polices will continue to generate conflicts. Environmental standards and regulations have penitential impact on the market access of developing countries; hence, there is a fear in those countries that any further strictness on product standards in the developed countries\u2019 market could result in creating a significant trade barrier for their exports. In this context the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has an important role to play", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1601, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 455, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this context the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has an important role to play. Under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement (l994), Members (governments) are obliged to adopt international standards wherever feasible and this includes ISO standards. One consequence is that businesses (including governments as trading parties) can make adherence or certification/registration under ISO standards a term or condition of trade with a foreign business (UNEP 2013b). In particular, the European Commission is moving rather quickly in putting LCA into policy use. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1602, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 455, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "18.6 Perspectives Overall, we see that definitely some areas still need improvements to ensure better integration in policymaking, even in Europe. It is often considered a critical task to find the right balance between, e.g. \u2022 Enhancing the comparability of LCAs by being prescriptive versus providing the required flexibility in order to apply LCA for many different types of applications in very diverse product groups or sectors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1603, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 456, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Allowing limited assessments on a few impact categories with a high degree of certainty versus pushing towards more comprehensive assessments including impact categories with a lower degree of certainty whilst being transparent about their need for improvement; \u2022 Scientific robustness of available Life Cycle Impact Assessment models versus applicability and feasibility aspects; \u2022 Cementing the status quo, towards \u201cstability\u201d of the recommendations over time, versus encouraging further improvements related to both LCIA method development and related; \u2022 LCI data availability and quality; \u2022 Ensuring sufficiently robust quality of LCA results, including the methods and underlying data used, via review and verification requirements versus applicability and feasibility aspects. The above-mentioned aspects are crucial for any sustainability assessment methods and require actions by several stakeholders (from methods developed to policymaking) to ensure applicability and efficacy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1604, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 456, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From the policymaking side, there is a need to balance the stability of the recommendation (to be applied in a business and policy context) and the thriving scientific development, for example, in the field of impact assessment. Furthermore, finding the best solution to guarantee comparability among studies and being open to updated data, models and factors are of paramount importance. Mainstreaming the use of LCA in such policies is currently hampered by the missing availability of high-quality data worldwide. There are concerns related to data availability for running the evaluations, ensuring robustness and representativeness of data. Knowledge mining and review of existing studies are extremely crucial for supporting policies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1605, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 456, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Knowledge mining and review of existing studies are extremely crucial for supporting policies. Opportunities for the future of national databases are emerging through the Global Network of interoperable LCA Databases that is an initiative from the International Forum on LCA Cooperation International started by the EC and UNEP in 2012, and now supported by a number of national governments around the world. Its vision is to establish \u201ca global network comprised of independently-operated and interoperable LCA databases that connects multiple data sources to support life cycle assessment in a way that facilitates sustainability-related decisions\u201d. More detailed objectives include to define and contribute to the availability of an electronic system and protocol to enable access", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1606, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 456, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "by users to the majority of the LCA databases and other relevant sustainability data, meaning that the LCA datasets and other data therein can be easily accessed in an exchange format that allows to use them seamlessly in LCA software, with sufficient documentation of metadata that allows defining fitness for purpose by any user. However, for this to happen it is not only necessary to contribute to the availability of an electronic system and protocol but also to foster capacity building in emerging economies and developing countries, in which more and more of the global production and consumption is taken place. For such capability development efforts to be successful they need to focus as much on the demand side by training on life cycle management in business and life cycle thinking in policies as on the technical aspects with regard to national LCA databases and regionalized life cycle impact assessment methods. These needs are addressed further in Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1607, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 457, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These needs are addressed further in Chap. 19 on Globalisation and mainstreaming of LCA. Finally, life cycle based policymaking in the future will have to address also the means to implement policies (incentives, legislative obligations and thresholds, etc.) based on life cycle assessment results. This implies that upcoming opportunities of using LCA in policies for the sustainability assessment of products need to be accompanied by ways to show the efficiency of the policies put in place. SCP policies based on life cycle thinking are starting to be well developed at the international level and around the world, while there is a need for further promotion of LCA-based policies based on a widely accepted analysis of the benefits and limits of such polices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1608, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 457, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Our expectation, based on the past experience of using life cycle thinking and LCA for policy support, is that the use of life cycle methodologies and related methods and tools in policy support will continue to grow in influence in the foreseeable future. Acknowledgements We would like to thank UNEP for the permission to use the material from the unpublished draft report (UNEP 2013b) on \u201cLife cycle thinking and the use of life cycle assessment in sustainable consumption and production policies: Exchange of experiences and the need for quality data availability and capacity building\u201d. This report was initiated by Jodie Bricout from cd2e and includes the content of the presentations from the 2nd Intergovernmental Dialogue on LCA held in Paris, France, in April 2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1609, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 457, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This report was initiated by Jodie Bricout from cd2e and includes the content of the presentations from the 2nd Intergovernmental Dialogue on LCA held in Paris, France, in April 2013. We would like to thank the delegations from Switzerland, USA, Mexico, Japan, Australia, China, Thailand and Brazil for these presentations, without which it would not have been possible to give a worldwide overview of LCA promotion in policies, covering all these countries. These delegations included well-known LCA experts such as Rolf Frischknecht from Switzerland, Nydia Suppen from Mexico, Atsushi Inaba from Japan, Greg Foliente from Australia, Hongtao Wang from China and Thumrongrut Mungcharoen from Thailand. Moreover, Harro von Blottnitz from the University of Cape Town provided valuable information on the situation in the South Africa", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1610, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 457, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moreover, Harro von Blottnitz from the University of Cape Town provided valuable information on the situation in the South Africa. Finally, the authors would like to thank especially Lloren\u00e7 Mil\u00e0 i Canals from UNEP and Bruce Vigon from SETAC for their support in moving the Life Cycle Initiative through Phase 3 with the vision of a world where life cycle approaches are mainstreamed. We hope to testimony with this chapter that the world is slowly moving in this direction. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1611, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 457, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "African Ministerial Conference on Environment: African 10-Year Framework Programme on Sustainable Consumption and Production (2005) Ardente, F.E., Mathieux, F.: Integration of Resource Efficiency and Waste Management Criteria in European Product Polices\u2014Second Phase, Report No 3. Refined Methods and Guidance Documents for the Calculation of Indices Concerning Reusability/Recyclability/ Recoverability, Recycled Content, Use of Priority Resources, Use of Hazardous Substances, Durability. JRC Technical Report 73188, European Union, Luxembourg (2012). ISBN: 978-92-79-25931-9 Bj\u00f6rklund, A.E., Finnveden, G.: Life cycle assessment of a national policy proposal: the case of a Swedish waste incineration tax. Waste Manage. 27(8), 1046\u20131058 (2007) CEC: Integrated Product Policy\u2014Building on Environmental Life-Cycle Thinking. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1612, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 458, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste Manage. 27(8), 1046\u20131058 (2007) CEC: Integrated Product Policy\u2014Building on Environmental Life-Cycle Thinking. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. COM (2003) 302 final (2003) CEC: Stimulating Technologies for Sustainable Development: An Environmental Technologies Action Plan for the European Union. Communication from the Commission. COM (2004) 38 final (2004) CEC: Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste. COM (2005) 666 (2005a) CEC: Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. Communication from the Commission. COM (2005) 670 (2005b) CEC: Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy Action Plan. Communication from the Commission. COM (2008) 397/3 (2008a) CEC: Public Procurement for a Better Environment. Communication from the Commission. COM (2008) 400 (2008b) CEC: A Resource-Efficient Europe\u2014Flagship Initiative Under the Europe 2020 Strategy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1613, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 458, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Communication from the Commission. COM (2008) 400 (2008b) CEC: A Resource-Efficient Europe\u2014Flagship Initiative Under the Europe 2020 Strategy. Communication from the Commission. COM (2011) 21 final (2011a) CEC: Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe. Communication from the Commission. COM (2011) 571 (2011b) CEC: Strategy for the Sustainable Competitiveness of the Construction Sector and its Enterprises. Communication from the Commission. COM (2012) 433 (2012a) CEC: Proposal for a decision of the European Parliament and of the Council on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 \u201cLiving well, within the limits of our planet\u201d. COM (2012) 710 (2012b) CEC: Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bio-Economy for Europe. Communication from the Commission. COM (2012) 60 (2012c) CEC: Building the Single Market for Green Products\u2014Facilitating Better Information on the Environmental Performance of Products and organisations. Communication from the Commission", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1614, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 458, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Communication from the Commission. COM (2013) 196 (2013a) CEC: Commission recommendation of 9 April 2013 on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations 2013/179/EU. Brussels (2013b) Chomkhamsri, K., Pelletier, N.: Analysis of Existing Environmental Footprint Methodologies for Products and Organizations: Recommendations, Rationale, and Alignment. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra (2011) Council of the European Union: Council conclusions on sustainable materials management and sustainable production and consumption: key contribution to a resource-efficient Europe 3061st ENVIRONMENT Council meeting, Brussels, 20 Dec 2010. Retrieved from http://www", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1615, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 458, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Retrieved from http://www. consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/envir/118642.pdf (2010) Decreto 1289/10: Incorp\u00f3rase al ordenamiento jur\u00eddico de la Rep\u00fablica Argentina la Decisi\u00f3n N\u00b0 26/07 del Consejo del Mercado Com\u00fan del MERCOSUR. Argentina (2010) EC: Regulation (EC) No1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1616, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 458, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC (2006) EC: Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives Text with EEA relevance (2008) EC: Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products (2009a) EC: Regulation (EC) No 1221/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November on the voluntary participation by organisations in a Community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS), repealing Regulation (EC) No 761/2001 and Commission Decisions 2001/681/EC and 2006/193/EC (2009b) EC: Regulation No 66/2010 of the European", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1617, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in a Community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS), repealing Regulation (EC) No 761/2001 and Commission Decisions 2001/681/EC and 2006/193/EC (2009b) EC: Regulation No 66/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the EU Ecolabel (2010a) EC: Directive 2010/30/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the indication by labelling and standard product information of the consumption of energy and other resources by energy-related products (2010b) EC: Life Cycle Thinking and Assessment, Joint Research Centre, http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/index_ jrc (2011a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1618, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 18 Nov 2011 EC: Regulation No 305/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonised conditions for the marketing of construction products and repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC (2011b) EC-JRC (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability): International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) handbook. Retrieved 26 Nov 2012, from http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/publications (2010\u20132012) EC-JRC (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability): Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Waste Management A technical guide to Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for waste experts and LCA practitioners. European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports 65850; ISBN 978-92-79-21017-4 (PDF) (2011a) EC-JRC: Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Bio-Waste Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1619, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports 65850; ISBN 978-92-79-21017-4 (PDF) (2011a) EC-JRC: Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Bio-Waste Management. A practical guide to Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports 65851; ISBN 978-92-79-21019-8 (PDF) (2011b) EC-JRC: Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste Management. A practical guide to Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Scientific and Technical Reports 65852; ISBN 978-92-79-21021-1 (PDF) (2011c) EC-JRC: Life Cycle Indicators Framework: Development of Life Cycle Based Macro-Level Monitoring Indicators For Resources, Products and Waste For the EU-27. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Technical Report 73336 (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1620, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, European Union, Luxembourg, JRC Technical Report 73336 (2012). ISBN: 978-92-79-25937-1 EC-JRC (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability): Sustainability assessment of future-oriented scenarios: a review of data modelling approaches in Life Cycle Assessment, draft, submitted to internal review (2013) FAO: The Global Bioenergy Partnership Common Methodological Framework for GHG Lifecycle Analysis of Bioenergy. GBEP Secretariat, Rome, Italy (2009) FAO: New effort to harmonize measurement of livestock\u2019s environmental impacts, News Article. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150555/ (2012). Accessed 1 Aug 2013 FAO: The Global Bioenergy Partnership", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1621, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150555/ (2012). Accessed 1 Aug 2013 FAO: The Global Bioenergy Partnership. GBEP Secretariat, Rome, Italy (2013) French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy: Le Grenelle Environnement\u2014 Grenelle 2 law, Paris, France (2010) Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1622, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 459, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy: Energy Transition for Green Growth Act: User Guide for the Act and its Attendant Actions, Paris (2015) G\u00fcereca, P.L., Ochoa, R., Gilbert, H., Suppen, N.: Life cycle assessment in Mexico: overview of development and implementation. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20(3), 311\u2013331 (2015) Indigo Development: China seeks to develop a circular economy. http://www.indigodev.com/ Circular1.html#refs (2009). Accessed 29 July 2013 ISO (International Organization for Standardization): ISO 14040. Environmental Management\u2014 Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland (2006) ITU: Toolkit on environmental sustainability for the ICT sector. http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/ oth/4B/01/T4B010000060001PDFE.pdf (2012). Accessed 17 Dec 2013 MAVDT: Pol\u00edtica Nacional de Producci\u00f3n y Consumo Sostenible de Colombia. www", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1623, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 460, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/ oth/4B/01/T4B010000060001PDFE.pdf (2012). Accessed 17 Dec 2013 MAVDT: Pol\u00edtica Nacional de Producci\u00f3n y Consumo Sostenible de Colombia. www. minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=155:plantilla-asuntosambientales-y-sectorial-y-urbana-8#pol%C3%ADtica-y-criterios (2010). Accessed 25 Apr Mercosur: Pol\u00edtica de Promoc\u00edon y Cooperac\u00edon en Producc\u00edon u Consumo Sostenibles en el Mercosur (2007) MIIT/MEP/NRDC: Eco-design of industrial products guidance. Published in 2013 by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People\u2019s Republic of China, and the National Development of Reform Commission (NDRC). www.indigodev.com/sepa_eip_guideline.html (2013). Accessed 28 Feb 2015 MinAm: Gu\u00eda Conceptual y Metodol\u00f3gica de Compras P\u00fablicas Sostenibles de Colombia. Ministerio de Ambiente y el Centro Nacional de Producci\u00f3n m\u00e1s Limpia de Colombia. www", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1624, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 460, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 28 Feb 2015 MinAm: Gu\u00eda Conceptual y Metodol\u00f3gica de Compras P\u00fablicas Sostenibles de Colombia. Ministerio de Ambiente y el Centro Nacional de Producci\u00f3n m\u00e1s Limpia de Colombia. www. minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=155:plantilla-asuntosambientales-y-sectorial-y-urbana-8#gu%C3%ADa (2010). Accessed 25 Apr 2016 MMA: Politica Nacional de Res\u00edduos S\u00f3lidos \u2013 Minist\u00e9rio do Meio Ambiente. Lei no 12.305/2010, Decreto No. 7.404/2010. www.abdi.com.br/ (2010). Accessed 28 Feb 2015 Mungcharoen, T.: LCA applications in Thailand. In: Proceedings of the 2014 Chinese Conference on Life Cycle Management (CLCM), Beijing. www.clcm.org.cn/ 2014 (2013) NMX: Norma Mexicana NMX-AA-164-SCFI-2013: Edificacion Sustentable \u2013 Criterios y Requerimientos Ambientales Minimos (Sustainable building\u2014minimum environmental criteria and requirements). http://biblioteca.semarnat.gob.mx/janium/Documentos/Ciga/agenda/ DOFsr/DO3156.pdf (2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1625, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 460, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "http://biblioteca.semarnat.gob.mx/janium/Documentos/Ciga/agenda/ DOFsr/DO3156.pdf (2013). Accessed 28 Feb 2015 Norwegian Ministry of Environment: Oslo Symposium (1994) OECD: Environmental Claims\u2014Findings and Conclusions of the, Committee on Consumer Policy, Paris (2010) OECD: Sustainable Materials Management: Making Better Use of Resources. OECD, Paris (2012) ORDER PRE/116/2008: [Thai] Green public procurement plan of the state general administration and its public bodies, and the managing bodies of the social security. Published on 21 January. www.measures-odyssee-mure.eu/public/mure_pdf/transport/SPA44.PDF (2008). Accessed 28 Feb 2015 Pennington, D., Wolf, M., Bersani, R., Pretato, U.: Overcoming barriers to the broader implementation of life cycle thinking in business and public administration. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(7), 458\u2013460 (2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1626, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 460, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(7), 458\u2013460 (2007). doi:10.1065/lca2007.07.355 Sala, S., Pant, R., Hauschild, M., Pennington, D.: Research needs and challenges from science to decision support. Lesson learnt from the development of the international reference life cycle data system (ILCD) recommendations for life cycle impact assessment. Sustainability 4(7), 1412\u20131425 (2012) Sonnemann, G., Vigon, B., Broadbent, C., Curran, M.A., Finkbeiner, M., Frischknecht, R., Inaba, A., Schanssema, A., Stevenson, M., Ugaya, C., Wang, H., Wolf, M.-A., Valdivia, S.: Process on \u201cglobal guidance for LCA databases\u201d. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16(1), 95\u201397 (2011) SQCB: Legislation and certification schemes for biofuels, sustainability quick check for biofuels. http://www.sqcb.org/ (2013). Accessed 25 Mar 2013 The White House: Camp David Declaration, G8 Summit (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1627, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 460, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Toepfer, K.: Editorial for Int J LCA on the launch of the UNEP-SETAC life cycle initiative. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 7(4), 191 (2002) UNCSD: The future we want, Rio+20 outcome document, Rio de Janeiro (2012a) UNCSD: 10-Year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production patterns, A/CONF.216/5 adopted document, Rio de Janeiro (2012b) UNDA National Agricultural Library: LCA digital commons project. http://www.lcacommons.gov (2013). Accessed 31 July 2013 UNEP: Final Report of the Fourth Government Experts Meeting on Sustainable Consumption and Production for Latin America and the Caribbean, Sao Paulo (2008) UNEP: final draft mission document. International panel for sustainable resource management\u2014 UNEP. http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/Mission%20Document.pdf (2010a). Accessed 19 Dec 2013 UNEP: Assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production: priority products and materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1628, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 461, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 19 Dec 2013 UNEP: Assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production: priority products and materials. In: Hertwich E., van der Voet E., Suh S., Tukker A., Huijbregts M., Kazmierczyk P., Lenzen M., McNeely J., Moriguchi Y.A. (eds.) Report of the Working Group on the Environmental Impacts of Products and Materials to the International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management. Paris (2010b) UNEP: Global Outlook on SCP Policies: Taking Action Together. UNEP, Paris, France (2012a) UNEP: The 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production, 4p. UNEP, Paris, France (2012b) UNEP: Responsible Resource Management for a Sustainable World: Findings from the International Resource Panel. UNEP, Paris, France (2012c). 36 p UNEP: Resource efficiency and sustainable consumption and production. http://www.unep.org/ roa/Programmes/resourceefficiency-old/tabid/7180/Default.aspx (2013a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1629, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 461, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "UNEP, Paris, France (2012c). 36 p UNEP: Resource efficiency and sustainable consumption and production. http://www.unep.org/ roa/Programmes/resourceefficiency-old/tabid/7180/Default.aspx (2013a). Accessed 8 Mar UNEP: Life cycle thinking and the use of life cycle assessment in sustainable consumption and production policies: exchange of experiences and the need for quality data availability and capacity building. Unpublished draft report including presentations from the 2nd intergovernmental dialogue on LCA, Paris (2013b) UNEP/SETAC: Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment Databases\u2014A Basis for Greener Processes and Products. UNEP/SETAC, Paris (2011) UNEP/SETAC: Greening the Economy through Life Cycle Thinking\u201410 Years of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. UNEP/SETAC, Paris, France (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1630, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 461, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "UNEP/SETAC, Paris (2011) UNEP/SETAC: Greening the Economy through Life Cycle Thinking\u201410 Years of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. UNEP/SETAC, Paris, France (2012). 60 p UNEP/SETAC: Opportunities for National Life Cycle Network Creation and Expansion Around the world with a Special Focus on Mainstreaming and LCA Database Development in Emerging Economies, Based on a Global Survey. UNEP/SETAC, Paris, France (2016) UNESCAP: Report of the Ministerial Conference on Environment and Development in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand (2005) UNIDO: Joint UNIDO-UNEP Programme on Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production in Developing and Transition Countries. http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Services/ Environmental_Management/Contacts/Contacts/RECP%20Programme%20Flyer%20April% 202010%20(2).pdf (2010). Accessed 17 Dec 2013 UNIDO/UNEP: Joint UNIDO-UNEP Programme on Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production in Developing and Transition Countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1631, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 461, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 17 Dec 2013 UNIDO/UNEP: Joint UNIDO-UNEP Programme on Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production in Developing and Transition Countries. http://www.unep.fr/scp/cp/pdf/RECP%20Programme% 20Flyer%20April%202010.pdf (2013). Accessed 10 Dec 2013 Verbruggen, H., Kuik, O., Bennis, M.: Environmental Regulations as Trade Barriers for Developing Countries: Eco-Labelling and the Dutch Cut Flower Industry, CREED Working Paper No 2, Institute for Environmental Studies, Amsterdam (1995) Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1632, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 461, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative and the European Commission concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views expressed do not necessarily represent the decision or the stated policy of the European Commission, UNEP or SETAC, nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes constitute endorsement. Author Biographies Guido Sonnemann Involved in LCA development and promotion in the word since the mid-1990s. Has led the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative Secretariat and publications such as the Global Guidance Principles on LCA Databases. Main LCA interests are chemistry and resources, integration with criticality and risk, plus LCM and public policy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1633, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 462, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main LCA interests are chemistry and resources, integration with criticality and risk, plus LCM and public policy. Eskinder Gemechu LCA expert since 2009 with a background in chemical, environmental and process engineering. Recent research focus was resource impact assessment modelling, working towards methodological integration of LCA and resource criticality assessment under the LCSA assessment framework. Serenella Sala LCA expert focusing on environmental and ecological modelling since 2001. Main areas of research are related to models, methods and indicators for integrated impact assessment and sustainability assessment, including their role in the science-policy interface. Erwin M. Schau Expert in LCA. Has a background in industrial economics and technology management. He has been involved in LCA for industry and academia since 2000, from 2012 stronger focus on the policy side with the European Union Environmental Footprint. Main interests are feed, food and fibre", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1634, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 462, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "He has been involved in LCA for industry and academia since 2000, from 2012 stronger focus on the policy side with the European Union Environmental Footprint. Main interests are feed, food and fibre. Karen Allacker LCA expert focusing on the construction sector since 2001. Research focus on quantitative sustainability assessment of the built environment from a life cycle thinking perspective. When working for the EC-JRC, she was involved in the development of the Environmental Footprint. Rana Pant LCA expert with experience in industry and the Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission. Topics covered are applying Life Cycle Thinking to solid waste management, Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook and Environmental Footprint. Naeem Adibi Currently working as Managing director of WELOOP in northern France. He has a multidisciplinary background in engineering, environmental sciences and management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1635, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 462, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Naeem Adibi Currently working as Managing director of WELOOP in northern France. He has a multidisciplinary background in engineering, environmental sciences and management. He holds a PhD degree in civil engineering from French Ecole Centrale de Lille. He has been coordinating numerous LCM and LCA projects in building construction, automotive and recycling, as well as in a range of industrial sectors.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1636, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 462, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sonia Valdivia Co-chair of the capacity building area of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative and Co-coordinator of the Social Life Cycle Alliance. As UNEP officer, she managed the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative between 2005 and 2014. Her areas of interest include life cycle management, social LCA and LCA based policies. Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1637, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "18 Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 463, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA Arne Wangel Abstract The chapter describes how a globalised economy exacerbates the need of a mainstreaming of LCA, in particular the emergence of long, complex and geographically highly dispersed global value chains (GVCs). In documenting the three phases of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, a conventional roadmap for global mainstreaming of LCA is drawn. However, the questioning by some South governments of the rationale and a North methodological bias of LCA draws attention to the significance of national and local contexts in developing countries. The chapter argues a more elaborate concept for building capacity for LCA in developing countries and suggests how to strategize national LCA agendas", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1638, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 473, "book_page": 465, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The chapter argues a more elaborate concept for building capacity for LCA in developing countries and suggests how to strategize national LCA agendas. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter the reader should have a clear understanding of the importance of the context of globalisation for the development of LCA methodology, its dissemination of and the capacity building for LCA, in particular with regard to the adoption of LCA in developing and industrialising countries. 19.1 Introduction: The Global Challenge for LCA The greenhouse effect spans the entire globe causing disruption of livelihood for millions of people across continents. The pattern of climate gas emissions mirrors the last century of human civilisation, when mass production and consumption emerged and became internationalised. Thus, mitigating as well as adapting to these environmental impacts constitutes a global challenge. A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1639, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 473, "book_page": 465, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, mitigating as well as adapting to these environmental impacts constitutes a global challenge. A. Wangel (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: arne.wangel@gmail.com \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_19", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1640, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 473, "book_page": 465, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The organisational forms of internationalisation of production have changed from exchange of goods across borders by trading companies, to include foreign investment in overseas territories, and to establish subsidiaries of multinational corporations after the Second World War. Supported by improved information and transport technologies, selected segments have been outsourced or offshored to locations offering low tax regimes, low labour cost, same or better quality, delivery on-time and other advantages. More recently, some corporations are transforming from vertically integrated wholly owned companies into sliced up global supply chains organised by lead firms, e.g. branded manufacturers or major retailers. The lead firms cross national borders and combine value-added activities by a range of suppliers into global value chains (GVCs) for the manufacture of a final product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1641, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 466, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The lead firms cross national borders and combine value-added activities by a range of suppliers into global value chains (GVCs) for the manufacture of a final product. The growth of emerging economies (first of all in BRIC countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China) is to a significant extent a result of this new form of internationalisation of production, as \u201cGVCs began to concentrate in these giant countries that offered seemingly inexhaustible pools of low-wage workers, capable manufacturers, abundant raw materials and sizeable domestic markets. Thus, China became the \u2018factory of the world\u2019, India the world\u2019s \u2018back office\u2019, Brazil had a wealth of agricultural commodities, and Russia possessed enormous reserves of natural resources plus military technologies linked to its role as a Cold War Superpower\u201d (Gereffi2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1642, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 466, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Looking at trade statistics, the increasing importance of global production chains is reflected in the rising trade in intermediate inputs, which now represent more than half of the goods imported by OECD economies and close to three-fourths of the imports of large developing economies, such as China and Brazil. This phenomenon poses new challenges, because \u201cimported inputs also account for a significant chunk of exports, blurring the line between exports and imports as well as between domestic products and imports. As part of global production chains, products at different stages of value added may be imported and re-exported multiple times, increasing the size of reported exports and imports relative to global and national value added\u201d (World Economic Forum 2012). The centre of gravity in world trade is shifting from West to East, as the financial and economic crisis in US and EU drags", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1643, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 466, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The centre of gravity in world trade is shifting from West to East, as the financial and economic crisis in US and EU drags. The crisis has not \u201creversed globalization, but accelerated two long-term trends in the global economy: the consolidation of GVCs and the growing salience of markets in the South\u201d (Cattaneo et al. 2010). However, inequalities among developing countries may increase. Conventional trade statistics on gross trade flows between nations reflect the dispersed production process in quite imprecise terms. Thus, recently, an alternative measure, GVC income, which is defined as the income generated in a country by participating in global manufacturing production, has been suggested (Timmer et al. 2015). This will allow a detailed analysis at product level on the distribution of activities in a global value chain among suppliers and the amount of value added with each supplier", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1644, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 466, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). This will allow a detailed analysis at product level on the distribution of activities in a global value chain among suppliers and the amount of value added with each supplier. The World Input\u2013Output Database (WIOD 2012) enables an analysis of the implications of production fragmented across borders, e.g. for A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1645, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 466, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "shifting patterns in demand for skills in labour markets, or for local emissions of pollutants to the environment. Life cycle assessment of GVCs is confronted with a similar data problem. Making use of generic databases developed in industrialised countries may produce imprecise or invalid results for processes and materials in developing countries, whose different properties and conditions of operation may cause a high degree of uncertainty. 19.2 Global Product Life Cycles Thus, the length, complexity and geographical location of life cycle segments in GVCs, often in very diverse socio-economic contexts, present challenges for conducting LCA. The following three examples illustrate why an inventory of valid and precise site-specific data is crucial and why this objective may be hard to achieve. The farming of pangasius in Vietnam and its processing into frozen fillets for export to industrialised countries have brought tremendous growth to the national economy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1646, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 467, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The farming of pangasius in Vietnam and its processing into frozen fillets for export to industrialised countries have brought tremendous growth to the national economy. However, aquaculture involves serious environmental problems such as fish feed containing zinc, copper, cadmium and mercury; water pollution due to uneaten feed or faeces and improper discharge of wastewater from the ponds; loss of mangrove forest causing loss of biodiversity and natural barriers against tsunamis; and antibiotics residues in wild fish around farms. Nonetheless, the strong competition in international markets, first of all from China, motivates a prime concern about compliance with health and food safety standards in Vietnamese aquaculture management. To perform a life cycle assessment of pangasius production is hampered by difficulties in getting site-specific data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1647, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 467, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To perform a life cycle assessment of pangasius production is hampered by difficulties in getting site-specific data. A Dutch-Vietnamese research team conducted what they termed as a \u2018stakeholder-based screening life cycle assessment up to the exit-gate of the fish farm\u2019. The study identified two critical processes: (1) feed ingredient production, transport and milling; and (2) pond effluents in grow-out farming. For the first process, a generic inventory had to be used, as only five out of 30 feed producing companies in the Mekong delta provided data for the team. The team suspected that producers use secret formula, do not meet sanitary standards and are reluctant to provide information out of fear of government authorities (Bosma et al. 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1648, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 467, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The team suspected that producers use secret formula, do not meet sanitary standards and are reluctant to provide information out of fear of government authorities (Bosma et al. 2011). Concerning the second critical process, which requires data to be collected from the farmers, the experience of food traceability systems shows that keeping records on inputs and outputs is an extra work task, for which no manpower can be spared during peak production (Yong 2008). Farmers are also concerned about data security, as some may use prohibited drugs in the ponds (own interviews 2009). Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1649, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 467, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While feed producers\u2019 secrecy, out of fear of negative sanctions from public authorities and lack of capacity for record-keeping with primary producers, bar the access to local data in Vietnam, an example from Ghana shows that the final segments of the life cycle of some products may be completely hidden. The export of second-hand computers to Ghana, some of which is illegal, extends the use phase of the life cycle of these products to meet needs of cheap computing for consumers in Africa. When the life time of the recycled product comes to a definitive end, final disposal is often performed under hazardous conditions, e.g. by open fire, causing severe problems for the environment and for the occupational health and safety of workers exposed. Only data collection on-site will be able to capture the processes in this and other informal sectors of the national economy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1650, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 468, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Only data collection on-site will be able to capture the processes in this and other informal sectors of the national economy. In Malaysia, emerging capacity for assessing environmental impacts of a product having strategic importance for the national economy illustrates that the validity of foreign LCA studies based on generic data is being contested by local studies based on local data. Palm oil production in Malaysia is a natural resource sector of strategic importance. The sector has developed over four decades and contributes 5\u20136% to GDP. In 2011, palm oil and palm oil-based products, ranked as the largest exports revenue earner with a total combined value of RM 80.30 billion, contributed 61.8% to total exports (MPOB 2011). Crude palm oil production accounts for app. 3.5% of the total environmental impacts in Malaysia (Yusoff and Hansen 2007). The country accounts for 39% of world production and 44% of world exports (MPOB 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1651, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 468, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3.5% of the total environmental impacts in Malaysia (Yusoff and Hansen 2007). The country accounts for 39% of world production and 44% of world exports (MPOB 2014). Palm oil is sold on the world market in fierce competition with other vegetable oils and subjected to frequent price fluctuations. The rationale of the strong R&D efforts is to safeguard the export revenue from this strategic commodity. This includes science-based arguments for the healthier properties\u2014in terms of cholesterol content\u2014of palm oil (MPOC 2016) as compared to soya bean oil. As a contested product, industry-driven research is directed to investigate the environmental concerns about palm oil production. LCA is adopted as a tool to drive back opposition from environmental, non-governmental organisations and from competitors and prove that palm oil has comparatively less environmental impact than other vegetable oils", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1652, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 468, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the scientific discussion, several Malaysian researchers claim that European databases are not representative for processes in Asia; thus in LCAs, according to them, palm oil appears to be worse than it really is. These three examples point to the limitations involved when relying on generic databases only. Conditions in developing countries may be very different, when it comes to climate, habitats and natural resources characteristics and also with regard to the socio-economic and regulatory context. In the globalised economy, it is evident that a vibrant, strong and internationally well-connected LCA research community in any country is needed to produce relevant and valid LCAs of products and services. This is part of a general challenge of mainstreaming the use of LCA (Rebitzer and Sch\u00e4fer 2009). A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1653, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 468, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "19.3 The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative for Global Mainstreaming of LCA The origin of capacity support specifically targeting LCA was the framework programme on Sustainable Consumption and Production established by UNEP DTI as part of its follow-up of the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002. The 10-year framework programme focuses on SMEs as reliable suppliers, regional life cycle networks, and training programmes targeted at National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) (De Leeuw 2006). Joining with the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative focused on forming a focal point, i.e. a community of practitioners and stakeholders, and defined the following three objectives for its first phase 2002\u20132006: 1. Global representation in the various bodies of the initiative 2. Organisation of activities around the world 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1654, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 469, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Global representation in the various bodies of the initiative 2. Organisation of activities around the world 3. Organisation of capacity building material and of activities aiming at developing countries as well as small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Thus, international outreach and capacity building was clearly targeted (Udo de Haes 2003). During this period, three regional networks were formed in Africa (Ramjeawon et al. 2005), Asia and Latin America; also an open forum with more than 1000 members from all over the world has been established. A range of awareness workshops, scientific conferences and outreach activities to cleaner production centres have been conducted. Practical tools in the form of training manuals and guides have been produced and disseminated covering Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Life Cycle Inventories, Social Life Cycle Assessment, Life Cycle Management and a Life Cycle Database Registry (Sonnemann 2003, 2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1655, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 469, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The First Edition of the LCA Award 2006\u20132007 acknowledged pioneering works and individual commitment to Life Cycle Assessments in developing countries, e.g. research to assess the environmental impact of sugar production in South Africa, newsprint paper production in Zimbabwe and new approaches to assess impacts on biodiversity in Brazil (Sonnemann and Valdivia 2007). The mission for the second phase 2006\u20132010 of the Life Cycle Initiative was to bring science-based Life Cycle approaches into practice worldwide, thus explicitly setting capacity development on the agenda. The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative served as an umbrella for a number of separate projects with different forms of affiliation to the Initiative. The Life Cycle Awards for projects using Life Cycle approaches in developing countries were being continued (Sonnemann and Valdivia 2007). A number of training and scientific events have been conducted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1656, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 469, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A number of training and scientific events have been conducted. In the Asia Pacific Region, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Research Centre for Life Cycle Assessment, Tsukuba, Japan, was organising LCA workshops, e.g. focussing on food and waste chains in the region (Inaba et al. 2001, 205\u2013206). Also, a survey has been completed, which compares levels of LCA implementation between nations in using indicators such Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1657, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 469, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "as numbers of seminars, workshops, case studies, the establishment of a LCA Forum or Society, LCI Database development, LCIA methodology development, the extent of application by industries and worldwide technology transfer. A regular LCA event in Asia Pacific was reflected in the Seventh International Conference on EcoBalance. The third phase 2012\u20132016 targeted the mainstreaming of the use of life cycle approaches, including better accessibility to cost-effective, robust methodologies and tools based on reliable data, transfer of scientific knowledge to the wider society and improved global communication channels of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative via a number of flagship projects: \u2022 Environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators \u2022 LCA of Organisations \u2022 Data and database management \u2022 Global Principles and Practices for Hotspot Analysis \u2022 Global capability development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1658, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 470, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The flagship project on Global capability development (UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative 2016) had the aim to strengthen and consolidate the life cycle work in the regions, including documentation of local consultants and databases available. Focal points at Governmental offices (including national statistic offices for data management aspects) and chambers of commerce were identified and linked to the national networks. Some deliverables identified for this flagship include the following: \u2022 Establishing a baseline on the level of Life Cycle Thinking worldwide, assessing the current capabilities on Life Cycle issues in non-OECD countries, with updates planned for every 3 years to trace the evolution. \u2022 Life cycle tools (i.e. on life cycle management, life cycle based footprinting indicators and eco-design) spread across the emerging and rapidly growing economies via the Life Cycle Initiative\u2019s or local platforms. \u2022 South\u2013south (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1659, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 470, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 South\u2013south (e.g. in Latin America) cooperation for increased implementation and North\u2013South cooperation for methodologies\u2019 enhancement, data generation and exchange. \u2022 Life cycle experts\u2019 and practitioners\u2019 network established in each region. \u2022 Online tools, if possible, translated into several languages including English, Spanish, Chinese and Portuguese. In 2001, LCA capacity constraints were documented for Argentina (Arena 2000). In 2006, UNEP DTI took stock of the situation in developing countries (Sonnemann and de Leeuw 2006). In 2007, the need for LCA of globalsupply chains of food products and transboundary movement of waste was highlighted (Inaba et al. 2007). In 2012, an analysis by Toolseeram Ramjeawon of the status of LCA in developing countries and of the need to build LCA capacities (Ramjeawon 2012) pointed to the lack of technical expertise and the absence of awareness as main barriers for improving beyond a very limited or non-existent level of A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1660, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 470, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "implementation of LCA. A mapping based upon a six criterion definition, which resulted in a total of one hundred local, regional and global LCA networks around the world, confirms this situation. The survey received a response from only six networks in developing countries, primarily in South America and Southeast Asia, leaving Africa and Central Asia almost unrepresented. The analysis by Ramjeawon (2012) suggested that joining global value chains provides one avenue for improvement with producers in developing countries, because the foreign lead firms will require LCA-based documentation of environmental performance from their suppliers to facilitate entry to markets in Europe and US (Ramjeawon 2012). Domestically, the key recommendation is for the government to create effective demand for LCA by launching national sustainable consumption and production action plans (Ramjeawon 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1661, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 471, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Domestically, the key recommendation is for the government to create effective demand for LCA by launching national sustainable consumption and production action plans (Ramjeawon 2012). However, closing the enormous gap between levels of implementation in developing countries and industrialised countries calls for a wide range of capacity building activities to be adopted in developing countries. A roadmap was proposed with the following progressive steps (Ramjeawon 2012): 1. Introduction of life cycle topics in educational programmes and research activities; 2. Networking; 3. Setting up a national inventory database and development of tools to set up, maintain and disseminate data; 4. Development of national life cycle impact assessment methodologies; 5. Capacity development to apply LCA in industry and in public decision-making; 6. Promotion of LCA applications and creating a stock of success stories and dissemination; 7. Policy development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1662, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 471, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Capacity development to apply LCA in industry and in public decision-making; 6. Promotion of LCA applications and creating a stock of success stories and dissemination; 7. Policy development. In 2011, global guidance principles for LCA databases were launched (Sonnemann et al. 2013). In 2015, the status of life cycle management in emerging economies was assessed (Valdivia et al. 2015). As one of few countries, Malaysia has launched a comprehensive plan for implementation of LCA. In 2006, the National Initiative to Develop the Lifecycle Inventory Database for the Development of Eco-Friendly Products and Services (SIRIM 2016) was initiated under the NinthMalaysia Plan. The initiative is hosted at SIRIM Berhad with support from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for a number of the activities under the project. The main objective is to develop the National Life Cycle Inventory Database asthe basis for LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1663, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 471, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The main objective is to develop the National Life Cycle Inventory Database asthe basis for LCA studies. Thiswill support the National Eco-labelling Programme and facilitate compliance with environmental standards in international trade. The specific objectives are as follows: \u2013 To develop the national life cycle inventory (LCI) database; \u2013 To develop a critical mass of local LCA practitioners; \u2013 To develop eco-labelling criteria documents for the National Eco-labelling Programme; Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1664, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 471, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To create awareness among industry and consumer groups on the importance of LCA in today\u2019s manufacturing and procurement practice. Thus, the national LCA initiative intends to roll out basic resources for LCA practices by sourcing data on relevant processes in Malaysia, by supplying definitions of eco-labelling criteria, by initiating broad-based effort to create awareness the significance of LCA among stakeholders, and by supporting the creation of a pool of LCA resource persons. In 2008, SIRIM completed a project under the EU Asia Pro Eco Programme Sustainable Production and Consumption as the Long-term Solution to Reduce Urban Environmental Degradation\u2014Developing a Reference Framework for Electrical and Electronic Products, establishing a reference framework that links the roles and contribution of all stakeholders in the supply demand chain of electrical and electronic products, i.e. manufacturers, retailers and consumers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1665, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 472, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "manufacturers, retailers and consumers. All five major public universities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Malaya, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, have rather limited LCA research activities\u2014currently there is no permanent research group specialising in LCA. Results are not communicated beyond those researchers, who are producing them, except as training modules produced for staff training within the Department of Environment (DOE). Once completed, the national life cycles inventories (LCIs) will be made available to industry on a subscription basis. SIRIM has conducted an extensive outreach effort, in particular to SMEs; however, attendance to awareness and training workshops has been low. Only the plastic manufacturers have adopted LCA thinking and methods to highlight the environmental impact of the plastic bag product chain as compared to that of products with a similar function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1666, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 472, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Only the plastic manufacturers have adopted LCA thinking and methods to highlight the environmental impact of the plastic bag product chain as compared to that of products with a similar function. Environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are not concerned with LCA thinking, except for the Business Council for Sustainable Development\u2014 Malaysia (BCSDM 2016). The Environmental Management and Research Association of Malaysia (ENSEARCH 2016), the membership of which is primarily drawn from environmental professionals in industry, is not introducing LCA thinking as such. Some years back, ENSEARCH widely publicised the concept of cleaner production. More recently, ENSEARCH supports the application of green technologies with a focus on energy efficiency and waste minimisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1667, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 472, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "More recently, ENSEARCH supports the application of green technologies with a focus on energy efficiency and waste minimisation. As one of the rapid industrialising countries in Asia, Malaysia benefits from transfer of knowledge on environmental management systems by transnational companies as a part of corporate policy in their overseas subsidiaries. However, the small- and medium-scale companies with local ownership, which constitute the majority of enterprises in most sectors, are unable to allocate resources or staff for improving environmental performance. Universities may be in a position to include research on life cycle assessment, possibly triggered by the availability of a foreign research grant, which is specific in scope and has a limited duration. The effort to develop a national LCA knowledge base, also servicing the private sector, may encounter financial and capacity constraints of the national research infrastructure. A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1668, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 472, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "19.4 LCA and South Policy Agendas Global inequalities in resource distribution between the North and a number of developing countries in the South are the cause of serious capacity constraints also in the area of environmental management, in particular with regard to life cycle assessment. This has motivated some governments to assert the position that LCA is part of a \u2018green protectionism\u2019 agenda in trade policies of the North. Such agenda is seen as a push for industrial modernisation denying developing countries a growth potential, which countries in the North have enjoyed during a more than one-century long process of industrialisation. Thus, stakeholders in developing countries originally adopted an altogether critical stand of confronting the rationale of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1669, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 473, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, stakeholders in developing countries originally adopted an altogether critical stand of confronting the rationale of LCA. In response to the influence of retail buyers, purchasing departments, product development teams, as they present their long \u2018arm\u2019 of environmental audits of suppliers in developing countries, delegates from the Third World claimed a \u2018one-sided focus on environment\u2019 at an LCA workshop during the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, September 2002. They argued that LCA tools are (1) too complicated for practical use; (2) too focused on environmental problems as defined by industrialised countries; (3) one-sided in terms of ignoring costing and social issues such as work environment, human safety and employment. The delegates further observed that life cycle indicators will select against old-fashioned, polluting industries, thus not help to protect employment in developing countries (Udo de Haes 2004, 8)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1670, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 473, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The delegates further observed that life cycle indicators will select against old-fashioned, polluting industries, thus not help to protect employment in developing countries (Udo de Haes 2004, 8). In response, the need for simplification of LCA tools was recognised; an increased focus on soil erosion, water scarcity, and regional conditions was encouraged. Efforts to include consequences with regard to soil erosion, water scarcity, other regional conditions and land use into life cycle assessments have been recommended and in some cases practiced. Most prominently, land use consequences with regard to biofuel have been extensively analysed and discussed (Dallemand et al. 2010) and the enlargement of the scope of life cycle indicators to cover occupational health and safety, working conditions and other social issues was promoted. Nonetheless, life cycle approaches aim to stimulate modernisation of industry favouring the development of modern, less-polluting industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1671, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 473, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nonetheless, life cycle approaches aim to stimulate modernisation of industry favouring the development of modern, less-polluting industry. The environmental burdens in developing countries are typically higher than those in industrialised countries per functional unit (Udo de Haes 2004). This line of argument corresponds to the recommendation of Aid for trade as needed to effectively dissolve perceptions among developing countries that environmental and social standards are equivalent to green protectionism. Financial support to facilitate trade is considered to pave the way for long-term alliances between developing and developed countries linking trade and sustainable development. Udo de Haes Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1672, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 473, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "outlined several options for combining environmental (or social) requirements as calculated by LCA with real financial support: \u201c(1) the costs of such schemes could be funded by industrialised countries, because it is these countries that\u2014 justly!\u2014ask for these schemes; (2) technical assistance could be given for the functioning of such schemes, including validation as to whether the respective criteria have been met; (3) funds may be provided for the transition into more modern, efficient technology\u201d (op.cit., 10). A range of intergovernmental programmes to support the diffusion of climate mitigation are now in existence (de Coninck and Puig 2015). The criticism that LCA methods are quite demanding in terms of time spent, data, software and analytical skills is raised when considering strategies to improve the livelihood of small producers (Riisgaard 2010, 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1673, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 474, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Instead of conducting the time-consuming and costly exercise of a full LCA, several types of simplified LCA have been suggested (e.g. Hochschorner and Finnveden 2003; Hur et al. 2005; Xiaoming and Yi 2007). One approach is a stripped down version based on product categories (\u2018product families\u2019, cf. Lenau et al. 2002). The effort is to focus on a few essential indicators, while maintaining the substance of environmental aspects. Another approach is to conduct a preliminary assessment in the format of a Life Cycle Check to identify \u2018hotspots\u2019 and the need for more detailed analysis (Wenzel et al. 2001). An alternative, pragmatic approach combines LCA, risk analysis and scenario analysis into a systematic screening process prompting go/no go decisions (Kl\u00f6pffer et al. 2007). Basically, the environmental concerns in developing and industrialised countries have a different origin", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1674, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 474, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007). Basically, the environmental concerns in developing and industrialised countries have a different origin. While non-governmental organisations in industrialised countries have played a major role in alerting the public to the hazards of industrial pollution for human health and nature and pushing for regulation, trade policy conditionalities for entry into export markets currently provide the main motivation for complying with environmental standards in developing countries. This kind of regulation is driven by consumers in industrialised countries giving preference to, e.g. eco-labelled products. Also, many subsidiaries of multinational corporations operating in developing countries are directed to adopt corporate policies on environmental standards. However, for other companies, particularly those which are locally owned, efforts for improving eco-efficiency of products and services are driven as part of optimisation targeting cost savings to be gained", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1675, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 474, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, in many developing countries, the scope for civil society is restricted leaving environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs) with few avenues for addressing policy agendas and public debate at large. Thus, strategies for the mainstreaming of LCA worldwide need to consider how the LCA agenda of improving eco-efficiency of products and services relate to policy positions of the government, the private sector and public discourse. A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1676, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 474, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "19.5 Building Capacity for LCA in Developing Countries The mere availability of relevant tools and trained professionals does not create transition. For a comprehensive strategy of mainstreaming LCA in developing countries, the concept of capacity development needs to be elaborated. In 2002, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) reviewed decades of technology transfer and observed \u201cDonors can ship out four-wheel-drive vehicles, or textbooks, or computers; they can dispatch expatriate experts, whether on long-term secondment or on short-term consultancies. But they have not really appeared to transfer knowledge\u2014or at least not in the catalytic way that might ignite a positive chain reaction throughout developing societies\u201d (Fukuda-Parr et al. 2002, 3). Numerous cases of mismatch between ready-made technology packages and a different socio-economic and political context, into which the package was parachuted, have been documented in the history of technical assistance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1677, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 475, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On this basis, the UNDP report called for a complete change of paradigm, as \u201cforeign experts ... can run multiple seminars and courses that improve the individual skills of thousands of people. However, the capacity of local institutions and of countries as a whole has still not appeared adequate to meet the challenges of development\u201d (ibid). The report identified three levels of capacity development: (1) the training of individuals which is only meaningful when jobs are available in relevant; (2) local institutions operating as well-functioning organisations and interacting with a conducive; and (3) enabling environment of related institutions, regulations and policies. Accordingly, the new paradigm goes far beyond a simple identification of a relative absence of, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1678, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 475, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accordingly, the new paradigm goes far beyond a simple identification of a relative absence of, e.g. a critical mass of LCA experts in developing countries: \u201cRather than starting from a mail-order catalogue of standard parts to be forced into likely looking slots, the challenge instead should be fully to understand the local situation and move forward from there\u2014step by step\u201d (op.cit., 13). The concept of capacity can be further elaborated to include five core capabilities: 1. The capability to self-organise and act. Actors are able to mobilise resources (financial, human and organisational); create space and autonomy for independent action; motivate unwilling or unresponsive partners; and plan, decide and engage collectively to exercise their other capabilities. 2. The capability to generate development results. Actors are able to produce substantive outputs and outcomes (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1679, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 475, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. The capability to generate development results. Actors are able to produce substantive outputs and outcomes (e.g. health or education services, employment opportunities, justice and rule of law); sustain production over time; and add value for their clients, beneficiaries, citizens, etc. 3. The capability to establish supportive relationships. Actors can establish and manage linkages, alliances and/or partnerships with others to leverage resources and actions; build legitimacy in the eyes of key stakeholders; and deal effectively with competition, politics and power differentials. 4. The capability to adapt and self-renew. Actors are able to adapt and modify plans and operations based on monitoring of progress and outcomes; proactively anticipate change and new challenges; and cope with shocks and develop resilience. Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1680, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 475, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The capability to achieve coherence. Actors can develop shared short- and long-term strategies and visions; balance control, flexibility and consistency; integrate and harmonise plans and actions in complex, multi-actor settings; and cope with cycles of stability and change (Morgan 2006, 8ff). Ortiz and Taylor have further suggested assessing whether capacity development is supporting the development of \u2018standing capacities\u2019 that result in an organisational readiness to respond to new and unforeseen challenges. \u201cStanding capacity\u2019 requires intangible qualities such as relationship leverage, programme design capabilities, innovative culture, autonomous self-motivation and agile, adaptive management response-ability\u201d (Ortiz and Taylor 2008). At the level of planning and implementing specific capacity development projects, several approaches have been proposed. One attempt is the Results-oriented approach to capacity development and change (ROACH)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1681, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 476, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "One attempt is the Results-oriented approach to capacity development and change (ROACH). It was launched at the request of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) following their evaluations of capacity development components in existing projects. ROACH stresses these dimensions when embedding interventions into existing structures, enabling ownership and facilitating organisational learning: \u2022 Both functional\u2013rational and political aspects of change must be addressed. Moreover, they must be addressed inside and outside the organisation. Inside, capacity development in a functional\u2013rational sense must ensure that \u2018the job is getting done\u2019, as this is supplemented by \u2018political\u2019 activities, e.g. to force change in internal power relations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1682, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 476, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to force change in internal power relations. Outside the organisation, the capacity development activities of the functional\u2013rational kind will seek to create an \u2018enabling environment\u2019 for the organisation for getting its job done, while political activities will strive to get power relations right and accommodate the interests of stakeholders involved. \u2022 The context of the target organisation is given full consideration, as both factors within the influence of the project and those beyond are identified and addressed (Boesen and Therkildsen 2005). 19.6 Outlook Mainstreaming of LCA cannot be assumed to be completed as a straightforward and linear process. A conventional sequence of interventions, Transferring tools, building knowledge bases and training professionals, focusing on inputs (e.g. free software) to make the system work, will produce only limited results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1683, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 476, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "free software) to make the system work, will produce only limited results. Handing down the torch to national stakeholders with an ambition to build consensus and long-term knowledge networking needs to be followed up by local processes to integrate the inputs into the specific national and corporate context of environmental management. A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1684, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 476, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In short, a national agenda must target \u2018home grown\u2019, demand-driven specific opportunities for the implementation of LCA according to existing capacities and enabling environment parameters, as determined by the authorities for civil society and the private sector. Considering the basic North\u2013South asymmetries, specific tasks include the following: 1. Adapting LCA methodology to conditions of developing economies both in terms of life cycle inventory data that are representative of the conditions of the country and impact assessment for regionally relevant impact categories and resource-based impact categories like land use and water use. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1685, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 477, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. Strategizing the adoption of LCA in developing countries\u2014at least these capacity constraints and opportunities must be explored: (1) causes of data insufficiency; (2) current constraints in organisational capacity of key stakeholders; (3) types of relationships between actors within the product chain; (4) gaps in institutional capacity of the enabling environment; and (5) strategy options through extensive dialogues with stakeholders. 3. Reconfiguring the relationship between \u2018sender\u2019 and \u2018recipient\u2019 in international development cooperation on LCA: a. In relation to government policy, LCA methodologies need to respond to the specific context of developing countries to fully incorporate socio-economic concerns of the private and public sector, and policy makers in developing countries. Also, programmes of action for LCA in developing countries must be strategized to integrate with the current level and scope of environmental management in a given country. b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1686, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 477, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also, programmes of action for LCA in developing countries must be strategized to integrate with the current level and scope of environmental management in a given country. b. In relation to company practices, research on simplified tools for small producers must be stepped up, and manuals for application must build upon examples relevant to production and services in developing countries. Data representing regional conditions must be made available for both inventory and impact assessment. c. In relation to the actors in domestic and export markets, the application of LCA in developing countries must produce immediate and tangible benefits as a contribution to transition towards national objectives of sustainable production and consumption, and as enabling steps to maintain or access positions in global value chains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1687, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 477, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Examples of public and private sector actors pioneering such effort within the context of real economic flows of aid, trade and investment, are as follows: \u2022 Joint capacity building at South partner universities facilitating LCA research, teaching, assessment of local products and contributions to a national life cycle inventory database, e.g. as facilitated by the Danish programme \u2018Building Stronger Universities\u2019 (BSU 2016). Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1688, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 477, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Transnational companies exploring business options for shared value projects targeting improved environmental performance and socio-economic benefits (Porter and Kramer 2011). Arena, A.P.: Spreading life-cycle assessment to developing countries. J. Ind. Ecol. 4(3) (2000) BCSDM: BCSDM. http://www.wbcsd.org/regional-network/members-list/asia/bcsdmalaysia.aspx (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 Boesen, N., Therkildsen, O.: A Results-Oriented Approach to Capacity Change. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danida, Copenhagen (2005) Bosma, R., Anh, P.T., Potting, J.: Life cycle assessment of intensive striped catfish farming in the Mekong Delta for screening hotspots as input to environmental policy and research agenda. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16(9), 903\u2013915. doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0324-4 (2011). Accessed 6 June 2016 BSU: Building Stronger Universities in developing countries. http://dfcentre.com/research/ building-stronger-universities-bsu/ (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1689, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 478, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0324-4 (2011). Accessed 6 June 2016 BSU: Building Stronger Universities in developing countries. http://dfcentre.com/research/ building-stronger-universities-bsu/ (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 Cattaneo, O., Gereffi, G., Staritz, C.: Global value chains in a postcrisis world: resilience, consolidation, and shifting end markets. In: Cattaneo, O., Gereffi, G., Staritz, C. (eds.) Global Value Chains in a Postcrisis World: A Development Perspective, pp. 3\u201320. World Bank, Washington (2010) Dallemand, J.F., et al.: Biomass for transport, heat and electricity: scientific challenges. Manag. Environ. Qual. Int. J. 21(4), 523\u2013547 (2010). http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/ 14777831011049142. Accessed 9 June 2016 De Coninck, H., Puig, D.: Assessing climate change mitigation technology interventions by international institutions. Clim. Change 131(3), 417\u2013433 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1690, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 478, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 9 June 2016 De Coninck, H., Puig, D.: Assessing climate change mitigation technology interventions by international institutions. Clim. Change 131(3), 417\u2013433 (2015). doi:10.1007/s10584-0151344-z De Leeuw, B.: Life cycle management in developing countries: state of the art and outlook. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11(1), 123\u2013126 (2006) ENSEARCH: ENSEARCH. http://ensearch.org/ (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 EU Asia: EU Asia Switch. http://www.switch-asia.eu/policy-support-components/rpsc/policydialogue/ (2016) Fukuda-Parr, S., Lopes, C., Malik, K.: Capacity for Development: New Solutions to Old Problems. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London (2002) Gereffi, G.: Global value chains in a post-Washington Consensus world. Rev. Int. Polit. Econ. 21 (1), 9\u201337 (2014) Hochschorner, E., Finnveden, G.: Evaluation of two simplified life cycle assessment methods. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8(3), 119 (2003) Hondo, H., et al.: Designing our future society using systems thinking", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1691, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 478, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8(3), 119 (2003) Hondo, H., et al.: Designing our future society using systems thinking. November 25\u201327, 2006, Tsukuba, Japan. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(1), 66\u201369 (2007) Hur, T., et al.: Simplified LCA and matrix methods in identifying the environmental aspects of a product system. J. Environ. Manag. 75(3), 229\u2013237. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/B6WJ7-4FR8PTN-1/2/de380d30525f74b7da63b9ca0ab6e87a (2005) Inaba, A., Grant, T., Moriguchi, Y.: Developing a research network for life-cycle assessment in the Asia Pacific Region. J. Ind. Ecol. 5(3), 6\u20138 (2001) Inaba, A., et al.: LCA of global supply chains\u2014from production through to end of life management. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(3), 205\u2013206. http://www.springerlink.com/index/10. 1065/lca2007.04.321 (2007). Accessed 26 July 2016 A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1692, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 478, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kl\u00f6pffer, W., et al.: In: Proceedings of the Workshop on Nanotechnology and Life Cycle Assessment (October 2006). ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/nanotechnology/docs (2007) Lenau, T., et al.: Environmental Design in Product Families. Danish Environmental Production Agency, Copenhagen (2002). (in Danish) Morgan, P.: The concept of capacity, Maastricht and Brussels, the Netherlands. The European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM) (2006) MPOB: Malaysian Palm Oil Board. http://www.palmoilworld.org/sustainability.html (2011). Accessed 8 June 2016 MPOB: Malaysian Palm Oil Board. http://www.mpoc.org.my/Malaysian_Palm_Oil_Industry.aspx (2014). Accessed 8 June 2016 MPOC: Malaysian Palm Oil Council. http://www.palmoilhealth.org/tag/cholesterol/ (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 Ortiz, A., Taylor, P.: Emerging Patterns in the Capacity Development Puzzle. Why, What and When to Measure? Institute of Development Studies (IDS) (2008) Porter, M.E., Kramer, M.R.: Creating Shared Value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1693, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 479, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Why, What and When to Measure? Institute of Development Studies (IDS) (2008) Porter, M.E., Kramer, M.R.: Creating Shared Value. How to Reinvent Capitalism\u2014and Unleash a Wave of Innovation and Growth. Harvard Business Review (January\u2013February). https:// archive.harvardbusiness.org/cla/web/pl/product.seam?c=8062&i=8064&cs= 1b64dfac8e4d2ef4da5976b5665c5540 (2011) Ramjeawon, T., von Blottnitz, H., Kituyi, E., Mebratu, D.T.: LCA knowledge network in Africa (ALCANET). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10(6), 449 (2005) Ramjeawon, T.: Building capacity for life cycle assessment in developing countries. In: Curran, M. A. (ed.) Life Cycle Assessment Handbook a Guide for Environmentally Sustainable Products. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) Rebitzer, G., Sch\u00e4fer, J.H.: The remaining challenge\u2014mainstreaming the use of LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14(S1), 101\u2013102 (2009). http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11367-009-0077-5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1694, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 479, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14(S1), 101\u2013102 (2009). http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11367-009-0077-5. Accessed 26 July 2016 Riisgaard, L.: Integrating poverty and environmental concerns into value-chain analysis: a strategic framework and practical guide. Dev. Policy Rev. 28(2), 195 (2010) SIRIM: LCA Malaysia. http://lcamalaysia.sirim.my/ (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 Sonnemann, G.: Int J LCA and the initiative collaborate to enhance global capacity of LCA and LCM. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8(5), 306\u2013306 (2003). http://link.springer.com/10.1007/ BF02978924. Accessed 26 July 2016 Sonnemann, G.: Corner: UNEP/SETAC life cycle initiative. Strengthening capacity building through regional networks. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 9(5), 334 (2004) Sonnemann, G., et al.: Global guidance principles for life cycle assessment databases: development of training material and other implementation activities on the publication. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1695, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 479, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18(5), 1169\u20131172 (2013) Sonnemann, G., de Leeuw, B.: Life cycle management in developing countries: state of the art and outlook. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11(S1), 123\u2013126 (2016). http://www.springerlink.com/ index/10.1065/lca2006.04.020. Accessed 26 July 2016 Sonnemann, G., Valdivia, S.: Corner: UNEP/SETAC life cycle initiative. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(7), 544 (2007) Timmer, M.P., et al.: An illustrated user guide to the world input\u2013output database: the case of global automotive production. Rev. Int. Econ. 23(3), 575\u2013605 (2015). doi:10.1111/roie.12178 Udo de Haes, H.A.: The UNEP/SETAC life cycle initiative\u2014a personal view of the results after one year. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8(5), 307\u2013309 (2003). http://link.springer.com/10.1007/ BF02978925. Accessed 3 Aug 2016 Udo de Haes, H.A.: Life-cycle assessment and developing countries. J. Ind. Ecol. 8(1\u20132), 8\u201310 (2004). http://doi.wiley.com/10.1162/1088198041269436", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1696, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 479, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed 3 Aug 2016 Udo de Haes, H.A.: Life-cycle assessment and developing countries. J. Ind. Ecol. 8(1\u20132), 8\u201310 (2004). http://doi.wiley.com/10.1162/1088198041269436. Accessed 8 June 2016 UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative: http://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/activities/phase-iii/globalcapability-development/ (2016). Accessed 8 June 2016 Valdivia, S., et al.: Mainstreaming life cycle sustainability management in rapidly growing and emerging economies through capacity-building. In: Sonnemann, G., Margni, M. (eds.) Life Cycle Management. LCA Compendium-The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment, Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1697, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 479, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pp. 263\u2013277, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands . doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7221-1. http://link. springer.com/10.1007/978-94-017-7221-1 (2015) Wenzel, H., et al.: Product Life Cycle Check. A Guide (1st Draft). Institut for Produktudvikling, Danmarks Tekniske Universitet, Kgs. Lyngby (2001) WIOD: World input\u2013output database. http://www.wiod.org/new_site/home.htm (2012). Accessed 8 June 2016 World Economic Forum: The Shifting Geography of Global Value Chains: Implications for Developing Countries and Trade Policy. World Economic Forum (2012) Xiaoming, X., Yi, D.: A simplified and practical life-cycle design system based on feature-based modeling. In: 2007 Chinese Control Conference, pp. 166\u2013169 (2007) Yong, A.: M-FIT Results (Malaysia Food Information and Traceability (M-FIT) Project). FoodReg Malaysia, Mimeo, Ho Chi Minh City (2008) Yusoff, S., Hansen, S.B.: Feasibility study of performing an life cycle assessment on crude palm oil production in Malaysia. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1698, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 480, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(1), 50\u201358 (2007) Author Biography Arne Wangel Sociologist studying international technology transfer and capacity building in South countries. Since 2008 involved with LCA with main interests in application of LCA in global value chain analysis, strategies for building LCA capacities in South countries, and development of a methodology for Social LCA. A. Wangel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1699, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "19 Globalisation and Mainstreaming of LCA", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 480, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 20 Organisational LCA Julia Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and Matthias Finkbeiner Abstract The most applied and widespread approaches for environmental assessments at the organisation level have only recently extended their view beyond the factory gates. Even if they now consider the full value chain, they still mostly concentrate on a single environmental aspect like greenhouse gases (GHGs). While LCA was originally developed for products, its benefits and potential can be extended to the assessment of organisations. Organisational LCA is built on the principles, requirements and guidelines of ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, but requires some adaptations in the scope and inventory phases, when the unit of analysis and the system boundaries are defined. Also, the approach for data collection needs to be fixed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1700, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 489, "book_page": 481, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also, the approach for data collection needs to be fixed. Organisational LCA is a compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of the activities associated with the organisation adopting a life cycle perspective. It includes not only the facilities of the organisation itself, but also the activities upstream and downstream the value chain. This methodology is capable of serving multiple goals at the same time, like identifying environmental hotspots throughout the value chain, tracking environmental performance over time, supporting strategic decisions, and informing corporate sustainability reporting. Several initiatives are on the way for the LCA of organisations: the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative published the \u2018Guidance on organizational LCA\u2019, using ISO/TS 14072 as a backbone; moreover, the European Commission launched a guide for the organisation environmental footprint", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1701, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 489, "book_page": 481, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to, \u2022 discuss the difference between product LCA and organisational LCA, \u2022 explain the objective and utility of organisational LCA for an organisation, J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco (&) \u0001 M. Finkbeiner Chair of Sustainable Engineering, Department of Environmental Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany e-mail: julia.martinezblanco@campus.tu-berlin.de; julia.martinez@uab.cat \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_20", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1702, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 489, "book_page": 481, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 give a general overview of the existing methodological frameworks, \u2022 implement the key elements of the organisational LCA methodology, \u2022 understand the links between organisational LCA and other environmental tools. 20.1 The life cycle approach was originally developed for products and is internationally accepted as the best tool available for assessing the environmental impacts of products (both goods and services). While product LCA can be used to support product decisions, e.g. as part of an ecodesign process (see Chap. 23), many environmental issues and aspects are rather managed on the organisational level, e.g. as part of an environmental management system. To support organisational management and decision-making, the application of LCA to another object, i.e. for the assessment of organisations, seems meaningful. The benefits and the potential of the LCA approach do definitely apply to organisational LCA as well", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1703, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 482, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for the assessment of organisations, seems meaningful. The benefits and the potential of the LCA approach do definitely apply to organisational LCA as well. However, the evaluation of the environmental performance of an organisation can be even more demanding than that of products. The value chain of an organisation involves not only one chain of suppliers and other partners, but a network of them, which may be rather complex in big organisations. The central element of this chapter is the so-called organisational LCA or LCA of organisations. This still relatively new member of the LCA family is defined as the compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts (considering a multi-impact approach) of the activities associated with an organisation adopting a life cycle perspective. The chapter provides an overview of the state of the art of organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1704, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 482, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The chapter provides an overview of the state of the art of organisational LCA. It discusses the need and features of the LCA of organisations, digs into the differences with product LCA, presents several leading initiatives that promote the concept, and finally provides some hints for the successful application of the methodology. 20.1.1 The Way Towards Organisational LCA Organisations, including companies, corporations, firms, public institutions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) etc. have a key responsibility to reduce their environmental impacts. A crucial step on the way to improve environmental performance is the quantification and the consideration of environmental aspects within the organisation\u2019s strategy and operation. There are already some methodologies for quantifying the environmental performance of organisations and they are widespread among organisations J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1705, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 482, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Fig. 20.1). Most common approaches for the assessment at the organisational level are environmental management systems (EMS), which usually follow ISO 14001 or EMAS in the European context, schemes for carbon footprinting like ISO 14064 and ISO 14069 and the well-known GHG Protocol Initiative. The latter, together with product LCA, and derived approaches like Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) of the European Commission and Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), constitute the set of tools which include the life cycle or value chain concept (see Chap. 24). Product LCA, PEF, EPDs and EMS include more than one environmental aspect, thus could be tagged as multi-impact tools", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1706, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 483, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24). Product LCA, PEF, EPDs and EMS include more than one environmental aspect, thus could be tagged as multi-impact tools. Although existing approaches at the organisation level (like EMS and corporate carbon footprinting) consider the assessment of the value chain only optionally and/or focus mostly on a single aspect (like GHGs), their application and discussions have prompted and steered the future use of an LCA of organisations. The first efforts in the life cycle community on organisational footprinting took place in the 1990s (Taylor and Postlethwaite 1996; Finkbeiner et al. 1998; Clift and Wright 2000). They were continued by combining input\u2013output analysis with LCA (Huang et al. 2009). In the last years, several initiatives have further developed the concept (see Sect. 20.4). PEF EPDs LCA (ISO 14044) EMS (ISO 14001 & EMAS) GHG Protocol ISO 14064 & ISO 14069 Product carbon footprint CSR (GRI) OBIA Finkbeiner et al. (1998) IO & LCA Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1707, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 483, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.4). PEF EPDs LCA (ISO 14044) EMS (ISO 14001 & EMAS) GHG Protocol ISO 14064 & ISO 14069 Product carbon footprint CSR (GRI) OBIA Finkbeiner et al. (1998) IO & LCA Fig. 20.1 The organisation\u2019s environmental toolbox: precursory approaches. Source adapted from Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. (2016) Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1708, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 483, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.1.2 Underlining Organisational LCA Features Organisational LCA is the first approach that analyses all the three dimensions shown in Fig. 20.1 in a comprehensive way. Therefore, unlike existing methods, organisational LCA: \u2022 assesses the organisation, not a product (organisational dimension) \u2022 assesses the value chain of an organisation, not only the own facilities (life cycle dimension) \u2022 assesses a set of relevant environmental impacts and aspects, not just one (multi-impact dimension). The management of organisations requires facts and figures for a better informed environmental decision-making and for setting effective improvement strategies. For this purpose, information and data are needed on the level at which the decisions are taken, i.e. on the organisational level. Organisational LCA draws a comprehensive picture of the environmental performance of an organisation and reveals the environmental hotspots (e.g. operations, facilities, suppliers, brands)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1709, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 484, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Organisational LCA draws a comprehensive picture of the environmental performance of an organisation and reveals the environmental hotspots (e.g. operations, facilities, suppliers, brands). This helps the organisation to prioritise targets, actions, programmes, efforts and budget in a more efficient and effective way than in the conventional gate-to-gate corporate environmental management view. Previous studies and discussions about the environmental performance of organisations and their value chains, which focused mostly on GHG emissions, revealed that the upstream and downstream activities often significantly influence the overall environmental performance of organisations (WRI and WBCSD 2011; Downie and Stubbs 2013; Makower et al. 2014). As examples, only 2% of the corporate carbon footprint of the consumer goods company Unilever or 8% for the cosmetic company Natura originate in the manufacturing steps within the companies\u2019 boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1710, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 484, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The remaining 98 and 92%, respectively, are emitted over the life cycle, i.e. throughout the value chains (Natura 2014; Unilever 2015). Because the management and decisions of an organisation affect the environmental impacts of its supplier network, as well as the use stage and end-of-life of the products in the portfolio, organisations need to focus environmental inquiries beyond their own facilities. Here it is proposed to do it by adopting the life cycle perspective for the organisation that will shed light on and support the management of the value chain. Land, water and air are intricately influencing ecosystems and humans. Decisions made in the name of protecting one environmental \u2018medium\u2019 can result in the detriment of another, and even lead to consequences for human health (UNEP 2012). Therefore, as promoted by product LCA, a holistic approach is needed in organisational LCA in order to prevent trade-offs or the shifting of burdens. J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1711, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 484, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.2 Organisational LCA Versus Product LCA As product LCA is the basis of organisational LCA, this section summarises the connections between the two methodologies. Furthermore, Sect. 20.5 provides an outline of the main elements in the scope and inventory phases. For further detail on the topic of this section, see Annex D in UNEP (2015) and Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. (2015a). 20.2.1 Complementarities and Similarities Organisational LCA follows the four-phase methodology stated by LCA standards (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044), including goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation. As a matter of fact, most of the principles, requirements and guidelines of the LCA standards apply also for organisational LCA (with minor terminology amendments). For instance, the requirements in ISO 14040/44 for impact assessment, reporting and review basically apply to both product and organisational LCA (Finkbeiner and K\u00f6nig 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1712, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 485, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For instance, the requirements in ISO 14040/44 for impact assessment, reporting and review basically apply to both product and organisational LCA (Finkbeiner and K\u00f6nig 2013). Furthermore, product LCA and organisational LCA are complementary in three different ways: \u2022 Complementary levels of assessment: they may accompany each other and provide different levels of information to the organisation. For instance, organisational LCA could be used to identify the environmental hotspots at the organisation and throughout the whole value chain, and product LCA could then provide further insights on the key products and activities identified. \u2022 Organisational LCA usually needs product LCA data: in organisational LCA, the modelling of the environmental impacts of the products or services provided by suppliers very often involves the use of specific or generic product LCA datasets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1713, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 485, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Transferability of the results: a proxy organisational LCA could be calculated by the weighted summation of the product LCAs for the products in the organisation\u2019s portfolio (plus supporting activities). The other way around also works, generic product LCAs results could be generated from organisational LCA results based on specific allocation keys. 20.2.2 Main Differences There is one fundamental difference between the two methods: organisational LCA is not designed for comparison between organisations, while one prominent aim of product LCA is to achieve comparability between different products providing the Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1714, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 485, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "same service. As stated in ISO/TS 14072, \u201cthe results [of organisational LCA] are not intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public\u201d, as the results of product LCAs may be. In organisational LCA, the unit of comparison is not consistent between organisations, because the organisation and its product portfolio is unique and can differ strongly depending on the sector, the size, the location, and the overall business model. The description of the scoping elements in product LCA aims to achieve comparability (apart from transparency and reproducibility) (see Chap. 8). The definition of \u2018reporting organisation\u2019, \u2018reporting flow\u2019 and \u2018system boundary\u2019 (see Table 20.1) in organisational LCA is motivated to guarantee a meaningful performance tracking. Performance tracking, a promising application for organisational LCA, is the regular assessment of the environmental performance of an organisation over time to measure its continuous improvement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1715, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 486, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Performance tracking, a promising application for organisational LCA, is the regular assessment of the environmental performance of an organisation over time to measure its continuous improvement. This connects also perfectly with the overall goal of environmental management systems. Of course, this also considers a kind of comparison, but the subject compared over time is the same organisation, not a competing one. Apart from the comparability issue, there is another obvious difference, i.e. the object of study: an individual product or an organisation, respectively. As a consequence of these two main differences, some principles, requirements and guidelines from ISO 14040/44 do need to be adapted for organisational LCA. Main differences arise during the scoping and inventory phases. Table 20.1 summarises major discrepancies in the scope phase that are related to the definition of the unit of analysis and the boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1716, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 486, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 20.1 summarises major discrepancies in the scope phase that are related to the definition of the unit of analysis and the boundaries. Due to the nature of the new object of study and the scoping changes, it is also necessary to bear in mind some new operational considerations during the inventory analysis (see Sect. 20.5). 20.3 Main Benefits and Applications As mentioned above, comparisons between different organisations appear neither meaningful nor robust at this point in time. In accordance with ISO/TS 14072, an organisational LCA shall state that the results will not be used for studies envisaged to be used for comparative assertions between organisations intended to be disclosed to the public (e.g. ranking among organisations). However, there are a number of other benefits that an organisational LCA can generate. Some of these are listed in the Table 20.2. J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1717, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 486, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 20.1 Differences between product LCA and organisational LCA (based on Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. 2015a) Product LCA Organisational LCA Unit of analysis General The object of study is the product, i.e. any good or service The object of study is the organisation, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1718, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 487, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a sole-trader, company, corporation, firm, enterprise, authority, partnership, charity or institution, or part or combination thereof, whether incorporated or not, public or private The main purpose of the unit of analysis is to find the relation between two or more products that provide the same function and are compared The unit of analysis represents the comparability basis between years for environmental performance tracking of the organisation Definition Functional unit is the quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit Reporting organisation defines the organisation under study to be used as a unit of analysis Functional unit is defined according to the main function(s) of the product Reporting organisation includes: subject of study, consolidation method, and reference period Quantification Reference flow is a measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit Reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1719, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 487, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and reference period Quantification Reference flow is a measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit Reporting flow is a measure of the outputs from the reporting organisation during the reference period Reference flow refers to the number of units needed to fulfil the functional unit Reporting flow represents the quantification of the product portfolio of the reporting organisation: including type and quantity of products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1720, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 487, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It may be expressed per unit, weight or volume and by other measures, like number of employees or revenue System boundary General No distinction is done between direct and indirect impacts System boundary includes direct and indirect activities Defined by The system boundary is derived from the type of product and it is not directly dependent on the functional unit considered The definition of the reporting organisation is the determining issue for stating the system boundary, as the subject of study and the consolidation method are critical for the definition of the boundaries (continued) Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1721, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 487, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.3.1 Integration into Management and Decision Analysis Systems LCA of organisations provides comprehensive information\u2014along the value chain and for multiple impact categories\u2014at the level at which decisions are taken and beyond the organisation\u2019s walls. Through its results, the organisation understands which are the risks and impact reduction opportunities and has strong arguments to elucidate which are the most effective actions to reduce the organisation\u2019s environmental impacts. This is also encouraged by the new version of EMS standard ISO 14001 (ISO 2015a), which stresses the relevance of life cycle thinking and the consideration of the supply chains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1722, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 488, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is also encouraged by the new version of EMS standard ISO 14001 (ISO 2015a), which stresses the relevance of life cycle thinking and the consideration of the supply chains. Table 20.1 (continued) Product LCA Organisational LCA Other Comparison Comparison between products is expected and can be communicated, provided that the scope of the assessment is equivalent External communication of comparative assertions between organisations is discouraged Time Generally, results of the study are relatively time-independent over a reasonable period The environmental results of the organisation are reported for a given reference period Supporting activities Those activities that are not directly linked to the production (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1723, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 488, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "business travel, leased assets, heating, cleaning services, managerial offices) are usually disregarded Those activities not directly related with the production process are included Table 20.2 Main benefits of organisational LCA application Analytical benefits \u2219Gain insight about the main actors and the impacts involved in internal operations and value chain \u2219Identify environmental hotspots throughout the value chain for each of the environmental categories considered \u2219Track the environmental performance of the organisation over time Managerial benefits \u2219Get support to define which are the priority actions and targets at different levels \u2219mprove organisational procedures, for instance in the collection and management of environmental data \u2219Get the basis for voluntary or regulatory reporting and environmental communication with stakeholders \u2219Show environmental awareness for marketing purposes Societal benefits \u2219Reduce pressure on the environment and avoid future negative effects on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1724, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 488, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and environmental communication with stakeholders \u2219Show environmental awareness for marketing purposes Societal benefits \u2219Reduce pressure on the environment and avoid future negative effects on the organisation \u2219Incentivise suppliers in the value chain, consumers, and even competitors to adopt environmental friendly practices J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1725, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 488, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1726, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 488, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Organisational LCA scheme allows the organisation to: \u2022 Run different scenarios: to assess the effect of proposed actions or measures. \u2022 Set environmental targets: to define quantified reductions for a certain impact category to be achieved in a target year on the basis of a reference year. Within the context of organisational LCA the organisation could define reduction targets for the whole organisation and for its parts, and at the short and long term. \u2022 Track performance: to compare the environmental results of the organisation\u2019s own operations over time. The performance could be evaluated against the environmental targets. 20.3.2 Integration into the Environmental Toolbox of Organisations Organisational LCA can complement the environmental toolbox of organisations (see Fig. 20.1) but also benefits from it. Existing experience applying other environmental or sustainability methodologies and the associated data collected will streamline the application of organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1727, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 489, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Existing experience applying other environmental or sustainability methodologies and the associated data collected will streamline the application of organisational LCA. The second column of Table 20.3 summarises how the application and integration of organisational LCA is simplified depending on the type or class of tools already applied in the respective organisation. The third column presents some of the additional benefits and added value of applying organisational LCA in addition to the existing approaches and tools. In general, the framework of interdepartmental work on environmental issues and communication channels with suppliers, established during the implementation of an environmental tool will facilitate the application of other methodologies, organisational LCA or others from the toolbox", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1728, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 489, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, the results of an organisational LCA may be the backbone for environmental performance reporting with voluntary sustainability reporting schemes\u2014like the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), and the United Nations Global Compact principles. 20.4 Existing Frameworks for Organisational LCA Currently, there are three leading initiatives working on the development and agreement of approaches for the environmental multi-impact assessment of organisations and their value chains. At the global level, ISO developed the technical specification \u201cISO/TS 14072: Environmental management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and guidelines for Organisational Life Cycle Assessment\u201d (ISO 2014), which adapts the Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1729, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 489, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "requirements of product LCA to organisations and states some potential benefits that LCA can bring to organisations. ISO/TS 14072 serves as the basic foundation of the \u2018Guidance on Organizational Life Cycle Assessment\u2019 (UNEP 2015), developed within a flagship project of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative (UNEP/SETAC 2016). This document builds on the ISO specification, but goes into greater detail with regard to the capabilities of organisational LCA and its methodological framework. Eleven case studies were included in the guidance document to illustrate some methodological aspects as well as the benefits that the methodology could bring to organisations. At the regional level, the European Commission launched the so-called Organisation Environmental Footprint (OEF) Guide (European Commission 2013a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1730, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 490, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the regional level, the European Commission launched the so-called Organisation Environmental Footprint (OEF) Guide (European Commission 2013a). The document aims to increase reproducibility and comparability by underlining prescriptiveness over flexibility to ensure that the methodology is applied consistently (European Commission 2013a). At the European level, OEF together with an equivalent guide for product footprinting (i.e. PEF Guide) is supposed to achieve an important goal, the implementation of LCA into European environmental policy. The three approaches are similar in many ways and share most of the principles, requirements and guidelines, but they are not totally interchangeable. The name of Table 20.3 Integration of organisational LCA at the organisation\u2019s environmental toolbox Tool type How does the tool streamline the application of organisational LCA? How does organisational LCA complement the tool? Organisational on-site assessment (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1731, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 490, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EMS) The organisational on-site assessment offers data for direct activities and guides the identification of the targeted suppliers Organisational LCA complements and refreshes the EMS of organisations mainly by broadening the horizon from on-site to value chain improvements LCA at product level (e.g., PEF, EPDs, product carbon footprint) It may roughly identify some important hotspots in the value chain that should be further assessed. Organisational LCA may consist of the addition of the different LCAs weighted by the amount of products It brings a more comprehensive understanding of the organisation environmental performance by including the whole portfolio and supports organisation-related decisions Life cycle and single-indicator assessment for corporations (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1732, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 490, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "GHG Protocol, ISO 14064) The overall analytical framework, the data collection procedures and tools developed for the single-indicator assessment may guide the scoping definition of the multi-impact approach Organisational LCA will identify impacts beyond the specific single indicator, thus avoiding unintended consequences and burden shifting J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1733, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 490, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the methodology depicted by ISO/TS 14072, organisational LCA (OLCA), was adopted by the UNEP Guidance with the exception of the acronym, which includes a hyphen, i.e. O-LCA. The European Commission proposed the term Organisation Environmental Footprint (OEF). Apart from the acronym, only few and minor differences exist between the ISO standard and the UNEP Guidance. However, the OEF Guide has some requirements that do not align with life cycle standard principles (Finkbeiner 2013; Galatola and Pant 2014; Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. 2016). Examples include the recycling formula for end-of-life and the default set of impact categories and methods. In addition, the OEF Guide considers the option of comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public to be valid within the same sector and according to specific sectorial guides (which are under development)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1734, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 491, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.4.1 Frontrunners Although complete and rigorous applications of organisational LCA are not yet common practice, several examples already exist offrontrunners that have developed their own methodology, sometimes inspired by product LCA or corporate carbon footprinting. These examples encompass the application of organisational LCA. At this point, the foremost source of examples is the UNEP Guidance that includes 11 experiences from companies of different sectors, sizes and regions (UNEP 2015), like the U.S. food and beverage conglomerate Mondel\u0113z, the hotel group Accor, the German car manufacturer Volkswagen, the retail group Colruyt, the Australian Inghams, the Japanese Shiseido, and the natural gas provider Storengy. Furthermore, existing initiatives for organisational LCA road tested the methodological approaches and the application of their respective reference documents. The UNEP Guidance was road tested by twelve organisations that volunteered to take the lead in this process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1735, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 491, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The UNEP Guidance was road tested by twelve organisations that volunteered to take the lead in this process. The process is presented at the publication \u201cRoad testing Organizational Life Cycle Assessment around the world: Applications, experiences and lessons learned\u201d (UN Environment 2017). The pilot phase of the OEF initiative focused on the development of two sectorial guides (retail and copper production) and aims to develop further ones for other sectors in the future. 20.5 Crash Course for Applying Organisational LCA The summary of the main methodological issues of organisational LCA is presented here according to UNEP (2015) and ISO/TS 14072. Most of the requirements stated and the methodology presented here are also similar in the OEF Guide. Organisational LCA follows the four-phase approach proposed in the ISO 14040/44. It is in the scoping phase that the major methodological differences with product LCA are found (see Table 20.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1736, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 491, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Organisational LCA follows the four-phase approach proposed in the ISO 14040/44. It is in the scoping phase that the major methodological differences with product LCA are found (see Table 20.1). The inventory analysis for organisational Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1737, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 491, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA is governed by the same principles, requirements and guidelines as product LCA (see Chap. 9), however, it has its own particularities due to the higher complexity of the object assessed and the new scoping elements used. As a consequence, this section will focus on the three key methodological issues of organisational LCA: two at the scoping level, i.e. the reporting unit and the boundaries, and finally one issue at the inventory level related to data collection. The rest of the elements of the goal and scope phase (like allocation, data quality requirements, assumptions, value choices and optional elements, limitations, etc.) and the other two phases of an LCA, impact assessment and interpretation, are also included in a study of organisational LCA and should primarily follow ISO 14040/44. 20.5.1 Reporting Unit As in product LCA, the scope defines the breadth, depth and detail of the study in accordance to the stated goals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1738, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 492, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.5.1 Reporting Unit As in product LCA, the scope defines the breadth, depth and detail of the study in accordance to the stated goals. The new elements that are specific for organisational LCA are the definition of the subject being assessed and how the system boundary is drawn. Both are presented in Fig. 20.2, along with a simplified example. The unit of analysis in organisational LCA is the reporting unit that is defined as the quantified performance expression of the organisation under study to be used as a reference. It is broken down into two elements: the reporting organisation and the reporting flow. The primary purpose of the reporting organisation is to describe the unit of analysis, i.e. what is to be understood by \u2018the organisation\u2019. The definition includes three aspects summarised in Table 20.4. The reporting flow represents the quantification of the unit of analysis. It is a measure of the outputs from the reporting organisation during the reference period", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1739, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 492, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reporting flow represents the quantification of the unit of analysis. It is a measure of the outputs from the reporting organisation during the reference period. Reporting flow description shall use quantitative terms and is commonly based on Organisa\u019fon Repor\u019fng organisa\u019fon Repor\u019fng flow System boundary Defini\u019fon of the ou\u019elow (por\u019eolio quan\u019ffica\u019fon) e.g. 1 million of juice bo\u01a9les and 1.5 million juice individual boxes. Defini\u019fon of the organisa\u019fon under study e.g. the producer of juices Juicy, S.L. including all the operated facili\u019fes in Denmark and their product por\u019eolio in the year 2016 Who is the subject repor\u019fng? e.g. Juicy, S.L. Set of criteria specifying which ac\u019fvi\u019fes are part of the studied system. It includes direct and indirect (upstream and downstream) resource use and emissions e.g. includes manufacturing, suppliers (like fruits, sugar, packaging), along with use (refrigera\u019fon) and EoL (packaging and a\u014cer use-by date products) Repor\u019fng unit Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1740, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 492, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "includes manufacturing, suppliers (like fruits, sugar, packaging), along with use (refrigera\u019fon) and EoL (packaging and a\u014cer use-by date products) Repor\u019fng unit Fig. 20.2 Main elements in the scope phase of organisational LCA J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1741, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 492, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the portfolio records. It is recommended to group the portfolio into clusters of similar products. The quantification could be based on: \u2022 Physical terms: unit of goods or number of services or in terms of weight or volume. \u2022 Non-physical terms: economic revenue or number of employees. To be used only in certain situations: e.g., big and very diverse portfolios or when each product in the portfolio is unique. Ideally, apart from the type of products and the amounts produced for each of them, the reporting flow should also include information about the quality and the durability of the products, particularly when actions are taken that change any of those characteristics. Table 20.4 The three features to define the reporting organisation Feature Guidelines Comments Subject of study The subject selected should represent a clear unit of operation, and shall be transparently justified and reported The assessment of the full organisation is recommended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1742, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 493, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If properly justified, the assessment may focus on segments or selected parts of an organisation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1743, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 493, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "business divisions, brands, regions or facilities) Assessing a segment of the organisation could be preferred if it is: \u2219A pilot for a broad application in the future \u2219An autonomous part pioneering the application Consolidation method It is a systematic approach that specifies which parts of the organisation should be considered in the study and which should not It is particularly important for big or complex organisations (i.e., including wholly owned operations, incorporated and non-incorporated joint ventures, subsidiaries, etc.) The consolidation approach should be chosen depending on the complexity of the organisation and what is to be prioritised: risk or effective tracking and implementation of management policies Three methods exist: \u2219Financial/operational control approaches: the organisation includes units over which it has financial/operational control \u2219Equity share approach: the organisation includes units according to its share of equity interest Reference period Time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1744, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 493, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the organisation includes units over which it has financial/operational control \u2219Equity share approach: the organisation includes units according to its share of equity interest Reference period Time period for which the organisation is reporting It is recommended to assess one operation cycle or fiscal year For example 2016 Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1745, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 493, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.5.2 System Boundary: Direct and Indirect Activities The other key element in Fig. 20.2 is the system boundary. The system boundary is the set of criteria specifying which activities are part of the studied system and which resource use and emissions associated with them are included in the study. It is in accordance to the reporting organisation previously selected. Figure 20.3 shows the list of proposed activities at the reporting organisation and through the value chain and examples of emissions and resources to include. The system boundary includes and differentiates resource use and emissions and also linked activities that are: \u2022 Direct: from sources that are owned or controlled by the reporting organisation, like, e.g. combustion or process emissions, natural resources consumption and leachates at facilities of the organisation. \u2022 Indirect: occur at sources owned or controlled by another organisation or the consumer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1746, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 494, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Indirect: occur at sources owned or controlled by another organisation or the consumer. They take place throughout the value chain (upstream or downstream) and are consequence of the activities of the reporting organisation. Examples include purchased electricity, employee commuting and use of sold products. Unlike in corporate carbon footprinting, where only greenhouse gas emissions from the generation of electricity are mandatory apart from direct emissions, in organisational LCA direct resource use and emissions and all the relevant upstream resource use and emissions shall be included and it is also recommended to assess downstream burdens. Downstream activities should be included always, particularly if products use energy or generate emissions during their use phase. Fig. 20.3 Direct and indirect activities to be considered in an organisational LCA J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1747, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 494, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20.5.3 Inventory: Collecting Data from Whole Organisation As in product LCA, life cycle inventory is the phase that addresses data collection and modelling of the system and it should include the whole set of inputs and outputs from activities involved in the provision of the reporting flow and within the system boundary. Two approaches can be used to collect the data of the inventory in organisational LCA: \u2022 Bottom-up approach: it entails adding the different LCAs of the products in the portfolio of the reporting organisation, weighted by the amount of products that are produced during the reference period, together with the supporting activities. The organisation may define clusters or families of products and assess only representative or proxy products. See an example of clustering in Mil\u00e0 i Canals et al. (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1748, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 495, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The organisation may define clusters or families of products and assess only representative or proxy products. See an example of clustering in Mil\u00e0 i Canals et al. (2011). \u2022 Top-down approach: it considers the reporting organisation as a whole, and adds upstream (cradle-to-gate) models for all inputs of the organisation and downstream (gate-to-grave) models for all outputs. Additionally, a hybrid approach or intermediate approach that is using both bottom-up and top-down data may be feasible. As presented in Fig. 20.4, the data collected in the inventory should be differentiated between direct and indirect activities. The organisational LCA should include supporting activities. Those are activities of the organisation that are not directly involved in the production process (like heating, cleaning, canteen services, commuting of employees, research and marketing activities, etc.) but are part of the organisation\u2019s activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1749, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 495, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Different plans for the collection of the data may be designed for direct and indirect activities (see Fig. 20.4). In general, better quality and more specific data is expected for activities inside the reporting organisation, and for indirect activities identified as significant (on environmental terms, mass, economic or others). Specific data are also welcomed to model indirect activities, but higher use of assumptions, extrapolations and generic data is expected for them. 20.6 Final Remarks Organisational LCA application may reveal environmental hotspots where the organisation should focus energies and intervention, throughout the value chain and among all the products and operations involved in the provision of the portfolio. Understanding risk and impact reduction opportunities gives a solid ground to strategic decisions at different levels, for instance, when making decisions on technologies, investments and new product lines. It may also serve as the Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1750, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 495, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "framework for tracking environmental performance over time and for informing corporate sustainability reporting. Most of the principles, requirements and guidelines for product LCA apply also for organisational LCA with some minor terminology amendments. Major discrepancies between the product and organisational LCA are during the definition of the unit of analysis and the associated system boundary and for the completion of the inventory. Organisational LCA studies are not thought for comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. Therefore, the need of consistency at the scope phase is for environmental performance tracking. This still relatively new member of the LCA family has the potential to promote and spread life cycle approaches especially for those actors which do not apply them yet. Many organisations have implemented EMS over several years\u2014in 2014 more than 300,000 organisations in about 170 countries had certified EMS according to ISO 14001 (ISO 2015b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1751, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 496, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Many organisations have implemented EMS over several years\u2014in 2014 more than 300,000 organisations in about 170 countries had certified EMS according to ISO 14001 (ISO 2015b). Organisational LCA can complement and refresh the mature EMS of these organisations and pinpoint significant and more cost-effective improvement options upstream and downstream the gates of the organisation\u2019s sites. Organisations of all sizes and sectors have a key responsibility in the efforts to reduce environmental impacts. Large corporations play a promising role, but the contribution of medium and small organisations is also important if addressed as a collective. In developing countries, almost 200,000 EMS were certified in 2013 (ISO 2015b), while there is still a need for checking and promoting the application of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1752, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 496, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In developing countries, almost 200,000 EMS were certified in 2013 (ISO 2015b), while there is still a need for checking and promoting the application of LCA. LCA of organisations may overcome some of the barriers for the SPECIFIC DATA Directly measured or collected data representa\u019fve of processes or ac\u019fvi\u019fes at a specific facility or set of facili\u019fes Significant indirect ac\u019fvi\u019fes (highly recommended) Direct ac\u019fvi\u019fes (mandatory) GENERIC DATA Data sourced from a third-party like: life cycle inventory database, industry-average, scien\u019ffic papers and government sta\u019fs\u019fcs source Other indirect ac\u019fvi\u019fes Other indirect ac\u019fvi\u019fes (recommended) Fig. 20.4 Specific and generic data prioritisation J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1753, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 496, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "implementation of LCA in SMEs and developing countries, since LCA of organisations provides an overall idea of the environmental performance without having to perform independent LCAs for many products. Furthermore, the threat of selecting against non-best available technologies is reduced because comparative assertions are discouraged in organisational LCA. The existing initiatives for the LCA of organisations and consequently also this chapter focus so far on environmental impacts only. However, the organisational LCA approach can also be promising for assessing further sustainability dimensions, like social aspects. Social performance is determined by how an organisation conducts towards its stakeholders, while current Social LCA (S-LCA) rather focuses on the product level and has to face the challenges in relating the social impacts to the product when in fact they are mainly caused by the behaviour of organisations (see Chap. 16). Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1754, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 497, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16). Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. (2015b) demonstrate and discuss how a social organisational LCA approach can overcome some of the methodological and practical challenges of the more product related S-LCA. Clift, R., Wright, L.: Relationships between environmental impacts and added value along the supply chain. Technol. Forecast Soc. Change 65, 281\u2013295 (2000) Downie, J., Stubbs, W.: Evaluation of Australian companies\u2019 scope 3 greenhouse gas emissions assessments. J. Clean. Prod. 56, 156\u2013163 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.09.010 European Commission: Commission recommendation of 9 April 2013 on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations (2013/179/ EU). Off. J. Eur. Union (2013). http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32013H0179. Accessed June 2016 Finkbeiner, M.: Product environmental footprint\u2014breakthrough or breakdown for policy implementation of life cycle assessment? Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1755, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 497, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed June 2016 Finkbeiner, M.: Product environmental footprint\u2014breakthrough or breakdown for policy implementation of life cycle assessment? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 618 (2013). doi:10. 1007/s11367-013-0678-x Finkbeiner, M., K\u00f6nig, P.: Carbon footprint and life cycle assessment of organizations. J. Environ. Account. Manag. 1, 55\u201363 (2013). doi:10.5890/JEAM.2012.01.005 Finkbeiner, M., Wiedemann, M., Saur, K.: A comprehensive approach towards product and organisation related environmental management tools. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 3, 169\u2013178 (1998). doi:10.1007/BF02978825 Galatola, M., Pant, R.: Reply to the editorial \u201cproduct environmental footprint\u2014breakthrough or breakdown for policy implementation of life cycle assessment?\u201d written by Prof. Finkbeiner (Int J Life Cycle Assess 19(2):266\u2013271). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1356\u20131360 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1756, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 497, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finkbeiner (Int J Life Cycle Assess 19(2):266\u2013271). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1356\u20131360 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0740-3 Huang, Y.A., Lenzen, M., Weber, C.L., et al.: The role of input\u2013output analysis for the screening of corporate carbon footprints. Econ. Syst. Res. 21, 217\u2013242 (2009). doi:10.1080/ 09535310903541348 ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines for Organizational Life Cycle Assessment (ISO/TS 14072). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2014) ISO: Environmental Management Systems\u2014Requirements with Guidance for Use (ISO 14001: 2015). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2015a) Organisational LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1757, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 497, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO: ISO Survey 2014. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2015b). http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_survey_executive-summary.pdf?v2014. Accessed June 2016 Makower, J., Mattison, R., Salo, J., Kelley, D.: State of Green Business 2014. GreenBiz Group and Trucost (2014). http://info.greenbiz.com/rs/greenbizgroup/images/state-green-business-2014. pdf. Accessed June 2016 Mart\u00ednez-Blanco, J., Inaba, A., Finkbeiner, M.: Scoping organizational LCA\u2014challenges and solutions. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 829\u2013841 (2015a). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0883-x Mart\u00ednez-Blanco, J., Lehmann, A., Chang, Y.-J., Finkbeiner, M.: Social organizational LCA (SO-LCA)\u2014an organizational approach to strengthen the implementation of S-LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1586\u20131599 (2015b). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0960-1 Mart\u00ednez-Blanco, J., Inaba, A., Finkbeiner, M.: Life cycle assessment of organizations. In: Finkbeiner, M. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Life Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1758, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 498, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0960-1 Mart\u00ednez-Blanco, J., Inaba, A., Finkbeiner, M.: Life cycle assessment of organizations. In: Finkbeiner, M. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Life Cycle Assessment. Springer, Dodrecht (2016). (Vol. 7, Special Forms of LCA) Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L., Sim, S., Garc\u00eda-Su\u00e1rez, T., et al.: Estimating the greenhouse gas footprint of Knorr. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 50\u201358 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0239-5 Natura: Natura report 2013 (2014). http://natu.infoinvest.com.br/ptb/4888/Relatrioanualemingls. pdf. Accessed June 2016 Taylor, A.P., Postlethwaite, D.: Overall business impact assessment (OBIA). In: Proceedings of the 4th SETAC LCA Case Study Symposium, Brussels, Belgium (1996) UNEP: Greening the Economy Through Life Cycle Thinking: Ten Years of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. Life Cycle Initiative, United Nations Environment Programme and Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Paris (2012) UNEP: Guidance on Organizational Life Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1759, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 498, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Initiative, United Nations Environment Programme and Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Paris (2012) UNEP: Guidance on Organizational Life Cycle Assessment. Life-Cycle Initiative, United Nations Environment Programme and Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Paris (2015). http://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/o-lca_24.4.15-web.pdf. Accessed June 2016 UNEP/SETAC: Life cycle initiative website (2016). www.lifecycleinitiative.org. Accessed June UN Environment: Road testing Organizational Life Cycle Assessment around the world: Applications, experiences and lessons learned. Life-Cycle Initiative, United Nations Environment Programme andSociety forEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Paris (2017) Unilever: Unilever sustainable living plan 2014: scaling for impact (2015). https://www.unilever. co.uk/Images/uslp-2014-uk-ire.compressed\u20133-_tcm1252-469820_1_en.pdf", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1760, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 498, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "https://www.unilever. co.uk/Images/uslp-2014-uk-ire.compressed\u20133-_tcm1252-469820_1_en.pdf. Accessed June WRI and WBCSD: Corporate Value Chain (Scope 3) Accounting and Reporting Standard\u2014 Supplement to the GHG Protocol Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard. World Resources Institute and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2011). http:// www.ghgprotocol.org/files/ghgp/Corporate%20Value%20Chain%20(Scope%203)% 20Accounting%20and%20Reporting%20Standard.pdf. Accessed June 2016 Author Biographies Julia Mart\u00ednez-Blanco Involved in the use and development of life cycle thinking methodology since mid-2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups. Main LCA interests and experience are the application to the organization level and to the agricultural and waste sectors. Matthias Finkbeiner Developing and applying LCA, LCM, LCC, SLCA and footprints since the 1990s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1761, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 498, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Matthias Finkbeiner Developing and applying LCA, LCM, LCC, SLCA and footprints since the 1990s. Chair of the ISO-Committee for LCA, the LCM conference series and the UNEP/SETAC groups on carbon footprint and organizational LCA. Interested in the real world application of life cycle based sustainability assessment approaches in companies and policy. J. Mart\u00ednez-Blanco and M. Finkbeiner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1762, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "20 Organisational LCA", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 498, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 21 Future-Oriented LCA Stig Irving Olsen, Mads Borup and Per Dannemand Andersen Abstract LCA is often applied for decision-making that concerns actions reaching near or far into the future. However, traditional life cycle assessment methodology must be adjusted for the prospective and change-oriented purposes, but no standardised way of doing this has emerged yet. In this chapter some challenges are described and some learnings are derived. Many of the future-oriented LCAs published so far perform relatively short-term prediction of simple comparisons. But for more long-term time horizons foresight methods can be of help. Scenarios established by qualified experts about future technological and economic developments are indispensable in future technology assessments. The uncertainties in future-oriented LCAs are to a large extent qualitative and it is important to emphasise that LCA of future technologies will provide a set of answers and not \u2018the\u2019 answer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1763, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 499, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The uncertainties in future-oriented LCAs are to a large extent qualitative and it is important to emphasise that LCA of future technologies will provide a set of answers and not \u2018the\u2019 answer. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to \u2022 Explain the challenges of prospective LCA studies. \u2022 Explain the differences between foresight and LCA. \u2022 Provide an overview of some tools for performing prospective assessments. S.I. Olsen (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: siol@dtu.dk M. Borup \u0001 P.D. Andersen Division for Technology and Innovation Management, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_21", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1764, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 499, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.1 Introduction: The Need for Future-Oriented LCA LCAs are often regarded as suitable for decision support also in decision-making that concerns the future, e.g. in technology and product development or strategic decision-making. Surveys on the use of LCA in Nordic countries and in European industry and business show that LCA is frequently used for strategic purposes (e.g. Roos et al. 2016; Frankl and Rubik 2000). Thus, LCA practitioners and researchers apply LCA as a tool in strategy processes and longer term planning. However, the basic economic, environmental and societal/social conditions change with time, and current conditions may therefore not be valid. The environmental interventions of future systems are a product of very complex interactions and dependencies of these basic conditions and thus uncertain. Additionally, scaling issues, i.e. that operational-scale technologies differ from laboratory or pilot scale, adds uncertainties (e.g. Frischknecht et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1765, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 500, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Additionally, scaling issues, i.e. that operational-scale technologies differ from laboratory or pilot scale, adds uncertainties (e.g. Frischknecht et al. 2009; Caduff et al. 2014). Distinctions between retrospective and prospective LCAs, and between state-oriented LCA with an accounting perspective and change-oriented LCA (attributional or consequential) are made (Rebitzer and Ekvall 2004) and traditional life cycle assessment methodology must be adjusted or changed for the prospective and change-oriented purposes. However, no standardised way of doing this has emerged. As explained in Part II of this book, the core of process-based LCA has traditionally been a detailed analysis of the processes of the entire life cycle of the product. It is assumed that the product is known and fully specified and, in principle, all materials, resource consumptions, discharges and environmental impacts, including all subprocesses, should be assessed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1766, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 500, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, there is always a limit to how much information is included and a tendency to focus more on some parts and processes than others. These limitations can become a problem if the LCA is narrowly considered a question of obtaining the results and figures that come from the process. If instead the LCA is considered a process of learning in which the people and organisations involved in the process acquire knowledge about the product and its environmental impacts, the limitations will often appear less severe. One of the important outcomes of an LCA is the knowledge obtained about which parts of the life cycle process are uncertain and of which there exists no precise information. To make proper sense of the results, a detailed understanding of the background of the figures is needed. Over the years, prospective elements and learning/decision elements have increasingly been introduced into LCA (e.g. Wender et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1767, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 500, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Over the years, prospective elements and learning/decision elements have increasingly been introduced into LCA (e.g. Wender et al. 2014). The prospective elements of LCA concern both the production system or functional unit that is the object for the LCA, as well as the general societal conditions surrounding this system. In strategy management literature, the latter is often labelled the system\u2019s strategic environment; not to be confused with the system\u2019s physical environment which most often is in focus in life cycle assessments. In practice, it is often difficult S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1768, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 500, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to distinguish exactly between the product system and its societal condition. One practical way to distinguish this is that the characteristics of product systems can be affected (selection of materials and their flows) by its manufacturer whereas the societal conditions (such as cost of energy and commodities, availability of materials, cycles in national economies) cannot be affected. Second, future changes are not only affected by possible decisions. Future changes in both the product system and in its surrounding societal conditions are affected by four types of factors: (1) socio-cultural, (2) technological, (3) economic and (4) political/legal factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1769, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 501, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With this in mind we define prospective or future-oriented LCA as a systematic assessment of future events and developments in society, technology, economy and policy that in the long-term could considerably influence the product system (and/or functional unit) and its societal conditions and hereby the environmentally relevant flows. It is argued that integration of long-term scenarios in LCA is needed for use of LCA in typical strategic planning and public policy planning. A more explicit and systematic handling of uncertain aspects are important dimensions in this and have been addressed, e.g. by Miller and Keoleian (2015). A working group (WG) was established by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) to address the issues of developing systematic scenarios as a basis for studies of future product systems (Weidema et al. 2004). Its report provides rather detailed recommendations for development of scenarios with a particular focus on the needs in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1770, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 501, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2004). Its report provides rather detailed recommendations for development of scenarios with a particular focus on the needs in LCA. Scenarios include three basic elements \u201cthe definition of alternative future circumstances, the path from the present to the future, and the inclusion of uncertainty about the future\u201d. In this chapter, the aim is to provide a broader understanding of the concepts and methods for future-oriented studies as well as linking up to literature on future-oriented LCA. Scenario analysis is therefore just one of the methods included here to address the uncertain future. 21.1.1 Foresight and Future-Oriented LCA The practical processes to strategically deal with the future development of science, technology, economy and of the society has been studied since the 1940s (Jantsch 1967; Bell 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1771, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 501, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Many of the widely used foresight techniques were developed by American military planners during the Cold War period\u2014aiming to \u2018think the unthinkable\u2019 and to prepare for it\u2014and later-on adapted by large corporations to strengthen their intelligence capability. Over time, the conceptual and methodological development of prospective technology assessment (also known as and used interchangeably with the term \u2018foresight\u2019) has broadened, and produced a considerable and varied toolbox with ample applications in governmental policy-making and corporate strategizing. Today, it has become an important Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1772, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 501, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "practice to deal with uncertainties in technology development and strategically guide decision-making, planning and actions. Whereas LCA seeks a systematic and comprehensive analysis of environmental impacts over a product\u2019s life cycle, technology foresight usually does not focus particularly on environmental aspects of future technologies. On the contrary, technology foresight is often criticised for having a too optimistic and positive view on the future technologies disregarding the environmental impacts and risks that also are connected to the technologies. Furthermore, it is well documented that experts in general are over-optimistic in their assessment of the future potential of the technology in which they have their expertise (Tichy 2004). The principles of life cycle assessment are thus very different from the principles of technology foresight. On many points the two approaches are quite opposite, as shown in Table 21.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1773, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 502, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The principles of life cycle assessment are thus very different from the principles of technology foresight. On many points the two approaches are quite opposite, as shown in Table 21.1. But how can technological foresight then be relevant to LCAs that are usually made for present-time products and systems? The key elements of life cycle assessment are the identification and analysis of all the different processes in the entire life cycle of an industrial product or a technological system, including careful accounting of the materials and energy flows associated with the processes. Technology foresight studies normally address partial elements of the (future) technological systems in the sense of the main technical functionality, while a life cycle assessment gives a more comprehensive picture of the actual technological system in use and its different components", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1774, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 502, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In its traditional form, LCA is a very detailed method, focusing on certainties and the most precise data available, while a foresight study is sketchier, process-oriented and\u2014at least to some extent\u2014trying to deal with the uncertain aspects of future developments. The next section explains some of the methods applied in foresight studies a bit more in detail. Table 21.1 Characteristics of the methodological approaches of LCA and technology foresight\u2014 in a traditional and archetypical form Issue Life cycle assessment Technology foresight Concept of time Present and near future Future, long-term perspective Procedural focus Analysis, assessment, interpretation Synthesis, reflection, interpretation, elucidation Data sources Data, information, records, etc. Information, opinions, questionnaires, statements, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1775, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 502, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Information, opinions, questionnaires, statements, etc. Analysis object Products or services with the same functionality Technical functionality of technologies and systems Delimitation of analysis Life cycle perspective, environmental impacts Many issues and themes Key results Objectified results, aiming to provide precise answers Sketches, scenarios, strategies and uncertainties Adapted from Rasmussen et al. (2005), see also text S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1776, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 502, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.2 Prospective Methods In this section the aim is to provide a broader view of different methods that can be applicable in future-oriented LCAs. Prospective technology analyses (or technology foresight) apply a variety of methods and approaches that have been adapted from standard social-science research methodologies. One group is the quantitative methods such as S-curve analyses, analogies, experience curves, and different sorts of extrapolations of time series. LCA studies most often apply this type of methods when there is need to predict the future and they are mainly applicable for the short-term analyses (see also Table 21.2). Quantitative methods are often difficult to apply in prospective analyses where uncertainty is high, time horizons long and changes in technology or market situation can be large. We are then left with qualitative methods (or judgmental methods) such as literature reviews, expert panels, scenarios, futures workshops and Delphi surveys", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1777, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 503, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We are then left with qualitative methods (or judgmental methods) such as literature reviews, expert panels, scenarios, futures workshops and Delphi surveys. An overview of the use of technology foresight methods in policy making can be found in Popper (2008). An overview of their use in corporate contexts can be found in Daheim and Uers (2008). Over the last 50 years, systematic methods of analysing expected futures have been developed. Foresight has appeared as a common name designating these methods. The purpose of technology foresight is not prediction of the future or exclusively to identify data about a technology in the long-term future. The purpose is rather to establish a fuller understanding of the possible technology futures and the forces shaping the future developments. The goal is to support current strategic discussion and decision-making as well as possible rather than predicting precisely. Foresight develops a well-informed context for current decisions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1778, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 503, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The goal is to support current strategic discussion and decision-making as well as possible rather than predicting precisely. Foresight develops a well-informed context for current decisions. 21.2.1 Diffusion Modelling, S-Curves and Analogies Diffusion modelling, S-curves and analogies are all quantitative methods for prospective technology analyses. S-curves or \u2018Utterback-curves\u2019 are based on the assumption\u2014or empirical observation\u2014that technologies usually go through a distinct technological maturity life cycle on the market (Utterback 1996). Related models are diffusion models or Fisher-Pry substitution models (Fisher and Pry 1971). The S-curve hypothesis states that the market growth is slow in the early phase (infant or ascent phase). In the next phase market growth rapidly increases (growth phase), and in a third phase (market maturing) growth flattens out or even becomes negative, see Fig. 21.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1779, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 503, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the next phase market growth rapidly increases (growth phase), and in a third phase (market maturing) growth flattens out or even becomes negative, see Fig. 21.1. Hereafter, new technologies fulfilling the same needs or several needs in a better or cheaper way overtake the market. It is often useful to check scenarios for the future diffusion of the technology with traditional S-curve methodologies. Traditional market forecasts based on extrapolation of historical data in the early phases of a technology\u2019s market presence tend to underestimate the growth rates of the market, whereas the later forecasts Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1780, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 503, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "overestimate the growth rate. The reason for this is that the technology has reached a more mature phase resulting in a less steep market growth. Anticipating an analogue technological maturity life cycle can be helpful, but the overall problem is to estimate when the market peak occurs. 21.2.2 Experience Curve (Learning Curve) The concept of experience curves is based on learning curves first introduced by T.P. Wright reporting on a study of cost reductions in airplane production in America in the 1920s and 1930s (Wright 1936). The experience curve in contrast to learning curves applies not only to labour-intensive situations, but also to process-oriented ones. During the 1960s and 1970s experience curves were increasingly used in industrial forecasting and marketing strategy (Fusfeld 1970; Boston Consulting Group 1972). The experience curve describes how cost reductions appear in line with accumulated production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1781, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 504, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The experience curve describes how cost reductions appear in line with accumulated production. Accumulated production is used as a substitute for accumulated experience in the learning system. The mathematical expression of the experience curve can be written in the following way: Ct 1\u20444 C0 \u0001 Q\u0003k t t 1\u20444 1; . . .; T; \u00f021:1\u00de where observations of the unit cost at time t, Ct are calculated as average over the observed variables. C0 is the cost of the first unit produced. Qt is the accumulated production at time t, and, finally, k is the learning factor. In future-oriented LCA learning curves can be used for estimating future efficiencies of new technologies, and it has been shown that the learning factor (k) is fairly stable for each specific technology and is typically between 0.9 and 0.75 (Weidema et al. 2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1782, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 504, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2004). It has also been shown that emission coefficients are closely related to the cumulative investment and it is suggested that conservative learning factors (0.85\u20130.95) can be used as proxies for the physical efficiency improvements in flows (Weidema et al. 2004). As examples, the performance and efficiency of operational-scale technologies will differ from those of laboratory-scale or pilot-scale equipment in terms of performance and efficiency figures gained with process modelling. Gavankar et al. (2014) suggest that LCAs based on immature data should be interpreted in conjunction with their technology and manufacturing readiness level. This can in practice relate to the learning curves. 21.2.3 Delphi Studies Delphi is characterised by Linstone and Turoff (1975) \u201cas a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1783, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 504, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem\u201d. In practice, Delphi studies are often based on questionnaires sent to a selected panel of experts. The foresight period may range from few years to 20 or 30 years. A Delphi process includes typically two rounds where the results from each round are communicated to the participants in order to achieve a consensus or reveal divergent (bipolar) viewpoints among the participants. Technology foresight studies based on the Delphi method have been carried out on a national level in Japan since the 1970s. Delphi surveys are often based on the formulation of \u2018statements\u2019 about the future societal, technological, economic or political development. An example could be \u2018More than 75% of all new wind turbines are without gear-boxes\u2019. Statements can be formulated as a desk-study or using iterative processes at workshops or via questionnaires", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1784, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 505, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An example could be \u2018More than 75% of all new wind turbines are without gear-boxes\u2019. Statements can be formulated as a desk-study or using iterative processes at workshops or via questionnaires. The statements are then exposed to a number of questions such as: \u2018Period in which the statement will have first occurred\u2019, \u2018If realised what will be the impact on the environment?\u2019, etc. Lists of such statements and questions are sent in two rounds to selected experts. When filling in the questionnaire the experts are typically also asked to state their level of expertise on each of the statements. See the example in Table 21.2. For statement 1 some kind of normal distribution can be observed on the period in which the statement will first occur. For statement 4 the results indicate disagreement among the respondents. Market diffusion Ascent phase Market growth Market maturing Working prototype Commercial application Fast market increase Market saturation Development Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1785, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 505, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Market diffusion Ascent phase Market growth Market maturing Working prototype Commercial application Fast market increase Market saturation Development Fig. 21.1 Example of an S-curve Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1786, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 505, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.2.4 Scenarios Scenarios can be defined as stories describing different but plausible futures. They are developed using techniques that systematise the perceptions of alternative futures (Schwartz 1998). Scenarios are basically tools for taking a long-term view in a world of great uncertainty. Up until the 1970s, most future studies aimed at predicting the future using various computer-based forecasting techniques. The rise of scenario analysis in strategic planning activities has largely been ascribed to the inability to provide credible forecasts and the perceived need for introducing tools for imagining, analysing, discussing, suggesting and preparing for sets of equally \u2018plausible\u2019 futures and running scenarios is essential when handling prospective assessments. 21.2.5 Technology Roadmaps Technology roadmapping is a forward-looking approach developed and widely used to support strategic long-term planning within organisations like industrial companies (e.g. Phaal et al. 2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1787, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 506, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Phaal et al. 2004). As the name indicates, road map studies analyse and discuss the road ahead for the development of a specific industrial product or a specific technology. Roadmaps seek to capture the surrounding conditions, threats and opportunities for a particular group of stakeholders in a technology area or in an area of technology application. Table 21.2 Example of Delphi statements and affiliated questions related to future environmental impacts of wind turbines Your level of expertise on the field of the statement Period in which the statement will have first occurred Impact on wind power's cost competitiveness Environmental effects due to manufacturing and decommissioning of wind technology Statement No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1788, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 506, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Statements about future wind power technology Own field of work Knowledgeable No knowledge Before 2005 2006 \u2013 2010 2011 \u2013 2015 2016 \u2013 2020 After 2021 Never Highly beneficial Beneficial Neutral Harmful Highly harmful Highly beneficial Beneficial Neutral Harmful Highly harmful 10% of Europe's electricity from wind power 14 28 28 11 15 19 15 12 More than half of all new turbines in Europe are placed offshore 11 29 10 10 11 15 40% cost reduction of wind produced electricity relative to 2001 13 24 Global implementation of Kyoto targets 13 18 10 19 12 50% increase in EU and European national expenditure on wind power related research 13 21 12 Other renewable source of energy (other than hydro) becomes fully competitive with wind 11 11 10 15 Competitive concept for storage of wind energy (e.g. based on hydrogen) 26 15 11 14 Source Andersen and Bjerregaard (2001) S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1789, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 506, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Technology roadmaps can take on different forms. Usually, they include a graphical representation of the future developments as a central element. These often appear as multi-layered charts describing connections between different sub elements and different expected trends and developments. The connections between the different developments also indicate how and in what time period different actors are meant to contribute. Figure 21.2 shows an example of such graphical representations of roadmaps. Horizontally, it goes from the past to a future vision and vertically it goes from identification of, e.g. specific skills through development of a technology based on these skills, a product delivered by the technology and to the market for that product. Usually, a graphical representation of the future development and the interplay between different sub-elements is a central element in a roadmapping exercise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1790, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 507, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Usually, a graphical representation of the future development and the interplay between different sub-elements is a central element in a roadmapping exercise. Through describing and discussing the possible road ahead, including the problems and risks that can be expected, the roadmap perspective is built up. The technology roadmapping approach is increasingly applied in foresight studies, especially in those exercises that are focused upon particular industrial sectors like, e.g. the energy sector. Traditional technology roadmapping describes a specific, partial perspective, e.g. the perspective of an industrial company or interest organisation with a clearly defined goal. The approach is thus explicitly subjective and normative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1791, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 507, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the perspective of an industrial company or interest organisation with a clearly defined goal. The approach is thus explicitly subjective and normative. Within the limitations of the subjective perspective, the approach of technology roadmapping can lead to a comprehensive and multi-facetted understanding of a desirable development path for a technology and of the interplay between different kinds of activities (e.g. market, scientific, or industrial activities), different drivers of change, etc. Fig. 21.2 Example of the architecture of a technology roadmap project. After Phaal et al. (2004) Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1792, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 507, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.3 Key Concepts in Future-Oriented LCA 21.3.1 Dealing with the Future Future orientation is often categorised into short-term (1\u20135 years), medium-term (3\u201315 years), long-term (more than 20 years), and very long-term (more than 50 or 100 years). Several types of approaches to the future can be distinguished depending on the purpose of the study. \u2022 Predictive approaches, which answer the question \u201cWhat will happen?\u201d are meant to be defined for simple objects and short-term studies. Predictive studies are forecasts (the likely scenario) and what-if (conditioned to some specific events). Predictive approaches aim at describing the most likely futures and generally involve forecasting current trends into the future creating \u2018surprise-free\u2019 or \u2018business as usual\u2019 like images of the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1793, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 508, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Explorative approaches, which answer the question \u201cWhat can happen?\u201d aim at describing a number of plausible futures, which may be possible, desirable/feared and/or realisable, and start out from present trends leading to equally likely futures. They are external (related to exogenous conditions) and strategic (conditioned to some actions completed in a certain way). Cornerstone scenarios are also defined as explorative scenarios and are meant for complex objects (e.g. energy systems) and long-term time horizons. \u2022 Anticipative or normative approaches, which answer the question \u201cHow can a specific target be reached?\u201d are created on the basis of desirable or feared visions of the future. Anticipative approaches involve working backwards from a future state to find possible pathways to that particular future. This methodology is often termed \u2018back-casting\u2019. In practice, scenarios in future-oriented LCAs are often based on a mix of prediction, exploration and anticipation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1794, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 508, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This methodology is often termed \u2018back-casting\u2019. In practice, scenarios in future-oriented LCAs are often based on a mix of prediction, exploration and anticipation. The SETAC WG on scenarios in LCA defined all methods for dealing with the future in future-oriented LCA and divided them into six groups of methods: extrapolation methods, exploratory methods, dynamic modelling, cornerstone scenarios, participatory methods and normative methods, and put them into an LCA application setting as illustrated in Fig. 21.3. When choosing and applying a future-oriented method (e.g. a scenario approach) it is important to keep in mind that the time horizon must be consistent with the goal of the study (Weidema et al. 2004). An important distinction is made between \u2018what-if\u2019 scenarios and \u2018cornerstone \u2018scenarios. \u2018What-if\u2019 scenarios are used to compare two or more well-known situations. They are the most widely used and frequently applied in the sensitivity analysis as discussed in Chaps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1795, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 508, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2018What-if\u2019 scenarios are used to compare two or more well-known situations. They are the most widely used and frequently applied in the sensitivity analysis as discussed in Chaps. 11 and 12. \u2018Cornerstone \u2018scenarios are more uncertain and do not necessarily provide quantitative results. They point out a potential direction of future development and have a more long-term perspective. Future-oriented technology assessment in most cases deals with cornerstone S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1796, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 508, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "scenarios and focus of the remainder of this chapter will be on approaches in this category, since these are less developed in the LCA literature. 21.3.2 Dealing with Time Horizons Time horizons in a future-oriented LCA is a central issue. Choice of time horizon depends on the focus area and the goal of the LCA. For example, foresight for areas that are difficult to change, such as roads and energy supply infrastructure, needs to have a different time horizon than foresight for areas that change quickly, such as information and communication technology. In practice, future-oriented LCA studies often look towards the future in the long-term or medium-term, but set up possibilities for action and recommendations in the short-term. 21.3.3 Dealing with Uncertainty In this context the term uncertainty does not refer to statistical uncertainty or uncertainty on measurements or data values of given parameters, but uncertainty in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1797, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 509, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.3 Relevance of different future-oriented approaches in relation to applications of LCA (Weidema 2003) Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1798, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 509, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a more qualitative sense. It is uncertainty about what the characteristics of the technology are, how widespread the technology is going to be used, and other open questions and issues that are yet unknown. Therefore, uncertainty in future-oriented LCA studies will necessarily need to be addressed in a qualitative manner, at least in part of the analysis, and cannot be reduced to stochastic, systemic or methodological uncertainties only. Traditionally, many scientific areas aim at identifying and describing certainties and neglect or underestimate the uncertain aspects and risks connected to the field and to the new knowledge produced. In connection with technology development and techno-scientific activities, this has been called the tradition of objectification or purification (Latour 1993). For example, questions of how the technology will be produced, which use-context it implies, which support technologies, infrastructures and support systems it requires, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1799, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 510, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, questions of how the technology will be produced, which use-context it implies, which support technologies, infrastructures and support systems it requires, etc. can be hidden or ignored. Moreover, analyses within the history of science and technology and within the sociology of knowledge, show that a considerable amount of new uncertainties and risks are generated in connection with development of new technology and new knowledge (e.g. Beck 1992). As a response to this, new forms of analytical practices that focus more explicitly on the uncertainties have been developed (e.g. Harremo\u00ebs 2003). When dealing with sustainability and environmental aspects of new knowledge and technologies, the way uncertainties and risks are addressed by the different knowledge communities becomes of completely central importance (Funtowicz et al. 1999; Hisschem\u00f6ller et al. 2001; EEA 2001; Lemons 1995). An illustration of the traditional focus on certainties is a figure with a circle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1800, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 510, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1999; Hisschem\u00f6ller et al. 2001; EEA 2001; Lemons 1995). An illustration of the traditional focus on certainties is a figure with a circle. Inside the circle is the known. Outside the circle is the unknown, called \u2018no-know\u2019 in Fig. 21.4. In between is a large, fuzzy area of partially known but uncertain issues. The fully known area is in fact very small and therefore, dealing with technology development and transition processes to new technological systems is identical to working with the uncertain issues. To be capable of analysis and assessment of the uncertainties is of central importance for the development of new technology areas since they include \u2018positive\u2019 opportunities as well as \u2018negative\u2019 effects and risks of the new developments. Two main types of uncertainty are usually pointed out in the uncertainty literature: Epistemic uncertainty (lack of knowledge) and variability uncertainty (ontological uncertainty\u2014due to inherent variability and indeterminacy). See Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1801, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 510, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "See Chap. 11 for further details on both. In connection with decision support through analysis and modelling, a distinction between three levels of uncertainty in between fully determined and total ignorance and indeterminacy have been pointed out (Walker et al. 2003): 1. Statistical uncertainty; 2. Scenario uncertainty; 3. Recognised ignorance. Scenario uncertainty refers to assessment of possible, plausible futures and the making of\u2014to some degree unverifiable\u2014assumptions in connection with this. S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1802, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 510, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The uncertainties of future-oriented LCA activities belong to a large extent to level 2 and 3, rather than level 1. From a technology foresight perspective, the differences between technology foresight and LCA can in practice be used productively in the design of strategic, future-oriented studies with sensitivity to environmental aspects (Rasmussen et al. 2005). For example, a combination of technology foresight and LCA were employed in a project in the wind energy area, making it possible to keep a strategic environmental perspective throughout the project (Andersen et al. 2007). From the technology foresight methods, trends mapping, a Delphi questionnaire, scenarios and a number of different expert panels were employed. In the first phase, a full present-time LCA was carried out. A later step in the process was a simplified LCA \u2018scanning\u2019 of selected aspects of the future wind power technology. Figure 21.5 shows the different phases of the project", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1803, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 511, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A later step in the process was a simplified LCA \u2018scanning\u2019 of selected aspects of the future wind power technology. Figure 21.5 shows the different phases of the project. On the other hand, the need to forecast future product systems in prospective LCA can also draw a lot upon the principles of foresight, e.g. in the attempt to build scenarios. Some suggestions for the inclusion of forecasting methods are provided by Weidema et al. (2004) in a systematic form as presented in Table 21.3 and in Fig. 21.3. There has been a number of studies applying prospective LCA in practice with some of them aiming more at the methodological aspects, in particular for assessing emerging technologies (Wender et al. 2014; Frischknecht et al. 2009). When performing LCA for emerging technology cases, practitioners have responded with a number of strategies to be prospective, including: \u2022 Developing structured scenarios within LCA models (Pesonen et al. 2000; Hospido et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1804, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 511, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2000; Hospido et al. 2010) \u2022 Statistical time-resolved data (Zimmermann et al. 2015) \u2022 Thermodynamic process modelling (Grubb and Bakshi 2011) Fig. 21.4 Understanding of \u2018known\u2019 and unknown (\u2018no-know\u2019) (Harrem\u00f6es 2003) Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1805, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 511, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Consideration of experience curves from analogous industries to identify potential future improvements in efficiency (Wender and Seager 2014) \u2022 Dimensional analysis to explore scaling effects (Caduff et al. 2014; Gavankar et al. 2014) \u2022 Exploring market-driven impacts through consequential LCA (Weidema 2003), and \u2022 Uncertainty bounding analyses to provide upper and lower limits to environmental impact (Eckelmann et al. 2012). These advances allow the development of life cycle inventories descriptive of future technological developments and accounting for parameter and scenario uncertainty in exploring how the life cycle inventory may change with future developments and alternative process configurations (Wender et al. 2014). However, many of the advances do not address the complex long-term forecasting (Table 21.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1806, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 512, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014). However, many of the advances do not address the complex long-term forecasting (Table 21.3). LCA at a state-of-the-art wind power system Mapping current trends of wind power technologies and concepts Expert panel brainstorm on future wind technology Delphi survey on future wind technology Scenarios of future wind power systems Expert panel brainstorm on environmental aspects of decommissioning current and future wind technology LCA scanning of future wind power systems Reporting Fig. 21.5 Example of methodological design of a technology foresight-LCA project in the wind energy area. Modified from Andersen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1807, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 512, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.5 Example of methodological design of a technology foresight-LCA project in the wind energy area. Modified from Andersen et al. (2007) Table 21.3 Suggested forecasting methods for studies with different time frames and complexity Term Complexity Specific and predictable Less predictable and more complex Short (1\u20135 years)\u2013 medium (3\u201320 years) Extrapolation methods Dynamic modelling and participatory methods Long (>20 years) Dynamic modelling, exploratory and normative methods Cornerstone scenarios methods Reproduced from Weidema et al. (2004) S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1808, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 512, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21.4 Concluding Remarks LCA is to a large extent being applied to support decisions that extend into the future. There are a number of challenges related to such future-oriented LCAs to which foresight methods may provide important inputs even though both methods are very different. LCAs aim to provide quantitative results, but much of our knowledge of the future is only qualitative. Therefore, LCA of future technologies will provide a set of answers and not \u2018the\u2019 answer. In addition to the steps already taken in any LCA, which to a large extent relate to different extrapolation methods, future-oriented LCA need to establish scenarios and to relate to uncertainties that are not just stochastic but rather linked to scenario uncertainty and recognised ignorance. Scenarios should be established through the help of qualified experts about future technological and economic developments, which are indispensable in future technology assessments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1809, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 521, "book_page": 513, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Scenarios should be established through the help of qualified experts about future technological and economic developments, which are indispensable in future technology assessments. Different types of scenarios are relevant to different situations, e.g. what-if scenarios are relevant in comparison of well-known situations in the short-term and in specific cases, whereas cornerstone scenarios aim to point out a potential direction in the future development with a long-term perspective. A number of prospective or foresight methods, from extrapolation to technology roadmaps, were presented which all can play a role when performing future-oriented LCA. However, providing more specific guidance in performing future-oriented LCA is difficult due to different requirements and conditions for each specific case in terms of, e.g. time horizon and complexity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1810, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 521, "book_page": 513, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "time horizon and complexity. Nonetheless, a set of questions about the future technology development in a given field is a helpful tool developed to systematically address the different kinds of driving forces shaping the future technology development in this field. The questions help getting, at first, an overview of the driving forces and barriers and, later, maintaining this overview in the further discussion of the driving forces. The set of questions is presented in Appendix. Appendix: Questions The questions are formulated as standard questions which can be specified further in the work in the different technology areas according to the needs. The questions ensure that different types of development mechanisms can be addressed in a systematic manner. It is not expected that answers can be found to all questions in all cases. There will probably be questions which cannot be answered or where only vague guesses can be suggested", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1811, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 521, "book_page": 513, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is not expected that answers can be found to all questions in all cases. There will probably be questions which cannot be answered or where only vague guesses can be suggested. One\u2019s first answers to the set of questions can be taken up again later in the analysis process, whereby some of the answers and the understanding of the development dynamics can be refined. The set of questions below is an example of questions that can be used for illuminating future developments in an area (the area in the example is energy Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1812, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 521, "book_page": 513, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technology). The questions can either be used in a questionnaire survey, for dialogue with individual experts or for reflection internally among the LCA analysts. It is structured in three sections: \u2022 Basics\u2014what technology are we talking about. \u2022 Drivers for technology change. \u2022 Changes resulting from the drivers. Both \u2018positive\u2019 and \u2018negative\u2019 drivers (barriers) are meant to be included. The types of driving forces addressed are: \u2022 Technical and technological issues. \u2022 Science and knowledge developments. \u2022 Energy systems\u2014infrastructures. \u2022 Use of the technology\u2014e.g. what role in the electricity systems? \u2022 Where, on which markets, is the technology used\u2014how wide spread is the use? \u2022 Regional and geographical aspects. \u2022 Industrial production of the technology. \u2022 Innovation networks and innovation communities of the technology. \u2022 Public regulation and public support. \u2022 Societal and political concerns. \u2022 Environmental challenges and possible risks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1813, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 514, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Innovation networks and innovation communities of the technology. \u2022 Public regulation and public support. \u2022 Societal and political concerns. \u2022 Environmental challenges and possible risks. Each question can be asked for (a) the near future; (b) the midterm future and (c) the long-term future. 1. Basics (in brief) 1:1 What technology is addressed? 1:2 What different basic technology concepts are available or seen as possible alternatives in the future? By technology concepts we mean for example, thin-film PV, silicon PV, etc. 1:3 What are the main elements (sub-technologies) of these technology concepts? e.g. tower, blades, foundation, net connection, etc. of off-shore wind farms, etc. 2. Drivers for technology change By \u2018drivers\u2019 is both meant \u2018positive\u2019 and \u2018negative\u2019 (limiting) factors influencing the development of the technology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1814, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 514, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of off-shore wind farms, etc. 2. Drivers for technology change By \u2018drivers\u2019 is both meant \u2018positive\u2019 and \u2018negative\u2019 (limiting) factors influencing the development of the technology. 2:1 For each main element: What are the relevant developments in techniques and technological knowledge connected to this component? 2:2 For each main element: What relevant influences from generic techno-scientific areas as material research, nanotechnology, biotechnology, biochemistry and information and communication technology can be identified as drivers for change? For example, functional surfaces, biochemical processes, corrosion knowledge, material techniques, sensor technology, microbiologic processes, etc. S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1815, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 514, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:3 What are the relevant developments in integration of the technology in the energy systems and infrastructures? For example, integration technologies, institutional and organisational arrangements, development of fuel supply chains, regulatory procedures, etc. 2:4 What are the relevant developments in the use of the technology: what role will it have in electricity systems? For example, central/decentral production; general purpose or specific purpose, niche markets, etc. 2:5 What are the relevant developments in dissemination of the technology\u2014 how widespread will the use be; on what specific markets? 2:6 What regional/national/geographical aspects can be identified as drivers for technology change? For example, specific conditions in some regional electricity systems, climatic aspects, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1816, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 515, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:7 What relevant developments in industrial production of the technology can be identified as drivers for technology change? 2:8 What relevant developments in the knowledge community and the network of innovators of the technology can be identified as drivers for technological change? For example, developments in the \u2018industrial sector\u2019 of the technology, industrial innovators/manufacturers, research programmes, other support institutions, etc. 2:9 What public regulation and public support can be identified as drivers for technology change? For example, market support, development programmes, etc. 2:10 What public, societal and political concerns can be identified as drivers for technology change? e.g. security of supply, employment, safety issues, emission restrictions, etc. 2:11 What developments in environmental challenges and risks can be identified and become drivers for technology change? 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1817, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 515, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "security of supply, employment, safety issues, emission restrictions, etc. 2:11 What developments in environmental challenges and risks can be identified and become drivers for technology change? 3. Resulting changes from the drivers This section concludes from section 2, sketching the picture of the technology in the short-term future, medium-term future and long-term future and pointing out relevant LCI issues. 3:1 Taken into account the questions in section 2\u2014What main development path can be identified for the technology? 3:2 Taken into account the questions in section 2\u2014What relevant alternative/extreme development paths can be identified? 3:3 Direct changes: Technology change. Picture of the future technology: What will, in brief, be the characteristics of the technology, its design, costs, use and life cycle? \u2022 Total design and selection of technology concept (also covering material use). \u2022 Design and the main sub-technologies/main parts. \u2022 Production processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1818, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 515, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Design and the main sub-technologies/main parts. \u2022 Production processes. Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1819, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 515, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Installation, e.g. system/support structure, foundation, site preparation, power conditioning equipment, land requirement and storage requirement. \u2022 Operating and maintenance. \u2022 Dismantling and waste handling. 3:4 Expected impacts on LCI issues How will these changes lead to changes in LCI issues (material/resource consumptions, environmental impacts, etc.) \u2022 Total design and selection of technology concept (also covering material use) \u2022 Design and the main sub-technologies/main parts \u2022 Production processes \u2022 Installation, e.g. system/support structure, foundation, site preparation, power conditioning equipment, land requirement and storage requirement. \u2022 Operating and maintenance \u2022 Dismantling and waste handling Andersen, P.D., Bjerregaard, E.: Prospective life-cycle assessment on wind power technology 2020. In: TA-Datenbank-Nachrichten, nr. 4, vol. 10 (2001) Andersen, P.D., Borup, M., Krogh, T.: Managing long-term environmental aspects of wind turbines: a prospective case study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1820, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 516, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: TA-Datenbank-Nachrichten, nr. 4, vol. 10 (2001) Andersen, P.D., Borup, M., Krogh, T.: Managing long-term environmental aspects of wind turbines: a prospective case study. Int. J. Technol. Policy Manag. 7(4), 339\u2013354 (2007) Beck, U.: Risk Society. Towards a New Modernity, 1st edn. SAGE Publications Ltd., Thousand Oaks, CA (1992). (13: 978-0803983465) Bell, W.: Foundations of Futures Studies, vol. 1. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick. IBSN: 978-0-7658-0539-3 (2009) Boston Consulting Group: Perspectives on Experience, Boston, MA (1972) Caduff, M., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Koehler, A., Althaus, H.-J., Hellweg, S.: Scaling relationships in life cycle assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 18(3), 393\u2013406 (2014). doi:10.1111/jiec.12122 Daheim, C., Uerz, G.: Corporate foresight in Europe: from trend based on logics to open foresight. Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1821, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 516, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 18(3), 393\u2013406 (2014). doi:10.1111/jiec.12122 Daheim, C., Uerz, G.: Corporate foresight in Europe: from trend based on logics to open foresight. Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 20(3), 321\u2013336 (2008) Eckelman, M.J., Mauter, M.S., Isaacs, J.A., Elimelech, M.: New perspectives on nanomaterial aquatic ecotoxicity: production impacts exceed direct exposure impacts for carbon nanotoubes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46(5), 2902\u20132910 (2012). doi:10.1021/es203409a EEA: Late Lessons From Early Warning: The Precautionary Principle 1896\u20132000. Environmental Issues Report no. 22. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen (2001) Fisher, J.C., Pry, R.H.: A simple substitution model of technological change. J. Forecast. Soc. Change 3, 75\u201388 (1971) Frankl, P., Rubik, F. (eds.): Life Cycle Assessment in Industry and Business: Adoption Patterns, Applications and Implications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1822, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 516, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Forecast. Soc. Change 3, 75\u201388 (1971) Frankl, P., Rubik, F. (eds.): Life Cycle Assessment in Industry and Business: Adoption Patterns, Applications and Implications. Springer, Berlin (2000) Frischknecht, R., B\u00fcsser, S., Krewitt, W.: Environmental assessment of future technologies: how to trim LCA to fit this goal? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14(6), 584\u2013588 (2009). doi:10.1007/ s11367-009-0120-6 S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1823, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 516, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Funtowicz, S., O\u2019Connor, M., Ravetz, J.: Scientific communication, international cooperation and capacity building for sustainable development. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. 2(3), 363\u2013367 (1999) Fusfeld, A.R.: The technology progress function: a new technique for forecasting. Technol. Forecast. 1, 301\u2013312 (1970) Gavankar, S., Suh, S., Keller, A.A.: The role of scale and technology maturity in life cycle assessment of emerging technologies a case study on carbon nanotubes. J. Ind. Ecol. 00, 1\u201310 (2014). doi:10.1111/jiec.12175 Grubb, G.F., Bakshi, B.R.: Life cycle of titanium dioxide nanoparticle production. J. Ind. Ecol. 15 (1), 81\u201395 (2011) Harrem\u00f6es, P.: The need to account for uncertainty in public decision making related to technological change. Integr. Assess. 4(1), 18\u201325 (2003) Hisschem\u00f6ller, M., Hoppe, R., Dunn, W.N., Ravetz, J.R.: Knowledge, Power, and Participation in Environmental Policy Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1824, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 517, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Integr. Assess. 4(1), 18\u201325 (2003) Hisschem\u00f6ller, M., Hoppe, R., Dunn, W.N., Ravetz, J.R.: Knowledge, Power, and Participation in Environmental Policy Analysis. Transaction Publishers, London (2001) Hospido, A., Davis, J., Berlin, J., Sonesson, U.: A review of methodological issues affecting LCA of novel food products. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15(1), 44\u201352 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367009-0130-4 Jantsch, E.: Technological Forecasting in Perspective. OECD, Paris (1967) Latour, B.: We have never been modern. Harvester Wheatsheaf, Birmingham (1993) Lemons, J. (ed.): Scientific Uncertainty and Environmental Problem Solving. Blackwell Science, Oxon (1995) Linstone, H., Turoff, M. (eds.): The Delphi Method: Techniques and Applications. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA (1975) Miller, S.A., Keoleian, G.A.: Framework for analyzing transformative technologies in life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49(5), 3067\u20133075 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1825, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 517, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Addison Wesley, Reading, MA (1975) Miller, S.A., Keoleian, G.A.: Framework for analyzing transformative technologies in life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49(5), 3067\u20133075 (2015). doi:10.1021/es505217a Millet, S.M., Honton, E.J.: A Manager\u2019s Guide to Technology Forecasting and Strategy Analysis Methods. Batelle Press, Columbus (1991) Pesonen, H.-L., Ekvall, T., Fleischer, G., Huppes, G., Jahn, C., Klos, Z.S., et al.: Framework for scenario development in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 5(1), 21\u201330 (2000). doi:10.1007/ BF02978555 Phaal, R., Farrukh, C.J.P., Probert, D.R.: Technology roadmapping\u2014a planning framework for evolution and revolution. In: Technology Forecasting and Social Change. Elsevier 71(1\u20132), 5\u2013 26 (2004) Popper, R.: How are foresight methods selected? Foresight 10(6), 62\u201389 (2008) Rasmussen, B., Borup, M., Andersen, P.D., Borch, K.: Prospective technology studies with a life cycle perspective. Int. J. Technol. Policy Manag", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1826, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 517, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Technol. Policy Manag. 5(3), 227\u2013239 (2005) Ravetz, J.: What is post-normal science. Futures 31, 647\u2013654 (1999) Rebitzer, G., Ekvall, T. (eds.): Scenarios in Life-Cycle Assessment. SETAC Press, Pensacola (2004) Roos, S., Zamani, B., Sandin, G., Peters, G.M., Svanstr\u00f6m, M.: A life cycle assessment (LCA)- based approach to guiding an industry sector towards sustainability: the case of the Swedish apparel sector. J. Clean. Prod. 133, 691\u2013700 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.146 Schwartz, P.: The art of the long view. Planning for the future in an uncertain world, p. 272. Wiley, New York (1998) Tichy, G.: The over-optimism among experts in assessment and foresight. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 71, 341\u2013363 (2004) Utterback, J.M.: Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation. Harvard Business School Press, Harvard (1996) Walker, W.E., Harremo\u00ebs, P., Rotmans, J., van der Sluijs, J.P., van Asselt, M.B.A., Janssen, P., Krayer von Krauss, M.P.: Defining uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1827, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 517, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Harvard Business School Press, Harvard (1996) Walker, W.E., Harremo\u00ebs, P., Rotmans, J., van der Sluijs, J.P., van Asselt, M.B.A., Janssen, P., Krayer von Krauss, M.P.: Defining uncertainty. A conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support. Integr. Assess. 4(1), 5\u201317 (2003) Weidema, B., Ekvall, T., Pesonen, H., Rebitzer, G., Sonnemann, G., Spielmann, M.: Scenarios in Life-Cycle Assessment. Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), Pensacola, FL (2004) Future-Oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1828, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 517, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Weidema, B.: Market Information in Life Cycle Assessment. Environmental Project 863. Danish Environmental Protection Agency (2003). www.mst.dk Wender, B.A., Seager, T.P.: Anticipatory life-cycle assessment of SWCNT-enabled lithium ion batteries. In: David R. (ed.) Nanotechnology for sustainable manufacturing, CRC Press pp. 247\u2013262 (2014) Wender, B.A., Foley, R.W., Prado-Lopez, V., Ravikumar, D., Eisenberg, D.A., Hottle, T.A., et al.: Illustrating anticipatory life cycle assessment for emerging photovoltaic technologies. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48(18), 10531\u201310538 (2014). doi:10.1021/es5016923 Wright, T.P.: Factors affecting the cost of airplanes. J. Aeronaut. Sci. 3, 122\u2013128 (1936) Zimmermann, B.M., Dura, H., Baumann, M.J., Weil, M.R.: Prospective time-resolved LCA of fully electric supercap vehicles in Germany. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 11(3), 425\u2013434 (2015). doi:10.1002/ieam.1646 Author Biographies Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1829, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 518, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 11(3), 425\u2013434 (2015). doi:10.1002/ieam.1646 Author Biographies Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. Mads Borup Analysed energy technology development and energy sector change towards sustainability since early 2000s. Works with analyses of innovation system dynamics, transition processes, sustainable consumption and production system, and green technology foresight. Interested in socio-technical, systemic perspectives on technology innovation. Per Dannemand Andersen Since mid-1990s research interests were technology foresight, strategy and strategy processes in industrial sectors, and innovation and research strategy in energy technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1830, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 518, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Besides technology foresight practice, interests included methodology development for foresight and the position of foresight exercises within policy development. S.I. Olsen et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1831, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "21 Future-Oriented LCA", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 518, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 22 Life Cycle Management Niki Bey Abstract This chapter gives an overview of Life Cycle Management (LCM)\u2014a discipline that deals with the managerial tasks related to practicing sustainable development in an organisation. Just as Life Cycle Assessment, LCM advocates the life cycle perspective, and it applies this perspective in decision-making processes. The chapter shows that LCA can play a key role in LCM since LCA provides quantitative performance measurements. It also explains, which stakeholders need to be considered, how LCA and LCM relate, how LCA can be used to develop Key Performance Indicators, and addresses how LCM can be integrated into an organisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1832, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 519, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to \u2022 Define Life Cycle Management (LCM) and describe its links to related approaches and terms \u2022 Give an overview of the central elements of LCM and how LCM relates to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) \u2022 Identify central stakeholders and their areas of influence on decisions \u2022 Describe factors needed to make LCM work in organisations \u2022 Describe how to develop Key Performance Indicators for use in LCM practice \u2022 Practice LCM activities and decision-making contexts by means of a case study In general, this chapter takes the viewpoint of a Life Cycle Management practitioner. N. Bey (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: niki@dtu.dk \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_22", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1833, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 519, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.1 Introduction\u2014What Is LCM? 22.1.1 Definition of Life Cycle Management\u2014And Distinction Against Related Terms Private individuals and managers in organisations constantly make choices in the context of all kinds of activities; be it shopping in supermarkets, choosing a holiday destination, selecting means for business travel or refurbishing a family home or equipping an entire office building. When working towards sustainable development, any such choice will imply the question, which option may be the preferable one in a holistic perspective. The way advocated and described in this book is to answer this question through taking a view on the life cycles of the involved products and systems. Practicing the above in managerial decision-making is Life Cycle Management (LCM); i.e. the making of managerial decisions with a sustainability-oriented, holistic view on the life cycles of the products, service activities and systems that the managerial decisions are dealing with", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1834, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 520, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the making of managerial decisions with a sustainability-oriented, holistic view on the life cycles of the products, service activities and systems that the managerial decisions are dealing with. Once adopted, Life Cycle Management means taking a constant view on many life cycles of products and systems, and practicing LCM thus influences decision-making processes in many contexts, in fact in more or less all activities an individual or an organisation pursues. Examples of decision-making in an organisation may be selecting engineering materials for products (e.g. for window frames), choosing suppliers providing materials and services, selecting logistics solutions (e.g. rail transport vs. air transport), designing or redesigning factories\u2014 or schools or residential houses\u2014and even selecting among different options for public transportation systems to be established by a municipality\u2014and all this potentially in different geographical regions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1835, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 520, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCM can, with full legitimacy and good reasoning, be practiced without a focus on environment and sustainability, e.g. for pure cost optimisations. However, it will always involve a view on entire life cycles. LCM in this chapter\u2014and in common understanding\u2014does build on the principles of sustainable development and Life Cycle Thinking (LCT). And LCM applies LCT in a generic and flexible way to business management, potentially employing any life cycle-based approaches and methods, such as: \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), [sometimes also referred to as \u2018Environmental LCA\u2019 (E-LCA)] \u2013 Social LCA (S-LCA or SLCA) (Chap. 16) \u2013 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) (Chap. 15); \u2013 Ecodesign/Life Cycle Design (LCD)/Sustainable Product Design (SPD), Design for Recycling/Circularity and others (Chap. 23)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1836, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 520, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "16) \u2013 Life Cycle Costing (LCC) (Chap. 15); \u2013 Ecodesign/Life Cycle Design (LCD)/Sustainable Product Design (SPD), Design for Recycling/Circularity and others (Chap. 23). This also covers combinations and/or simplifications of such approaches as well as classic business tools, such as stakeholder analysis, SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis (with sustainability focus), etc. In the remainder of this chapter, the term \u2018tool\u2019 also stands synonymously for \u2018method\u2019 and \u2018instrument\u2019. N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1837, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 520, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is very important to acknowledge that it is always up to the individual organisation to decide which tools their particular Life Cycle Management approach should comprise\u2014there is no \u2018one-size-fits-all\u2019 LCM approach. Rather, LCM draws upon the above outlined tools and approaches\u2014something that can be called a toolbox (UNEP/SETAC 2007)\u2014from which the organisation picks its individual set leading to their tailor-made LCM approach. This is because a large number of factors such as product type, business model, market presence, organisational maturity, level of ambition, value chain position, regulatory frameworks and others can play a decisive role for what a meaningful and feasible approach would be for a given organisation. A prominent, already existing suggestion towards combining environmental, economic and social assessment is Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1838, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 521, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A prominent, already existing suggestion towards combining environmental, economic and social assessment is Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA). The two principally possible methodological options to generate LCSA results are either to present three sets of impact category indicators next to each other (from LCA, LCC, and SLCA) or to develop methods for integrated inventory analysis and integrated impact assessment to reach integrated impact scores (Kloepffer 2008; Guin\u00e9e et al. 2011). However, although principally targeted towards LCM, none of the two options seems immediately feasible for decision-support in Life Cycle Management for the following reasons: In the combined option, the resulting relatively large, combined number of indicators e.g. 20...30, may rather confuse than guide the decision-maker", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1839, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 521, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20...30, may rather confuse than guide the decision-maker. The integrated approach, however, suffers from several methodological challenges, one of them being how to deal with location-specificity, which is crucial in both LCA and SLCA but not (yet) addressed to the extent needed. Thus, further research is required, potentially also integrating insights from, e.g. Multi-Criteria Analysis, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making, etc. (e.g. Linkov and Seager 2011; Prado et al. 2012). Life Cycle Management is applicable in businesses and organisations of all kinds, sizes, markets and supply chain/value chain positions\u2014be it manufacturers, retailers, service providers or other organisations\u2014be they for-profit or not-for-profit, i.e. even a sports club can practise LCM. This chapter therefore uses the term \u2018organisation\u2019 as a placeholder for \u2018business\u2019, \u2018company\u2019 or any other product producing company and/or service-providing entity practicing LCM", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1840, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 521, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter therefore uses the term \u2018organisation\u2019 as a placeholder for \u2018business\u2019, \u2018company\u2019 or any other product producing company and/or service-providing entity practicing LCM. Since this is a Life Cycle Assessment textbook, one can appropriately say \u2018LCM puts LCA into practice\u2019 and also \u2018LCA is a key tool in the LCM toolbox\u2019. However, unlike Life Cycle Assessment, LCM operates without being a methodology consisting of a number of well-described distinct phases or steps (and LCM is not ISO standardised either). In addition, also contrary to LCA, LCM has no deterministic character, i.e. from a given starting point and given constraints it does not necessarily lead to the same conclusions, for instance the same recommendations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1841, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 521, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from a given starting point and given constraints it does not necessarily lead to the same conclusions, for instance the same recommendations. Rather, LCM is a management concept with an underlying life cycle-sustainability-oriented mind-set, and it comprises a number of different tools that can be applied in combination or separately, by different departments of an organisation or any stakeholder, and in a variety of decision-making contexts, such as choice of manufacturing processes in production development or supplier choice in the purchase department. LCM thus pulls Life Cycle Assessment and other Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1842, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 521, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "quantitative or qualitative decision-support tools into concrete decision-making contexts. This is explained in Example Box 22.1. Example Box 22.1 A concrete LCM decision-making context is, for instance, whether or not to choose a certain new material that product developers\u2014due to some technical properties\u2014may find advantageous for a product type (e.g. for window frames). That material may also have adverse environmental properties, have a higher price per unit than alternative traditional materials, and may be more difficult to source and process in manufacturing than alternatives. In order to find out more on specifically the environmental properties of the material, either LCAs or other quantitative or qualitative assessments or data sources can be reviewed (in case they are at hand for the practitioner) or be actively commissioned", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1843, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 522, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This would provide a basis for the material decision\u2014and other factors, such as manufacturability, will have to be included in this decision context too. If it is decided to conduct an LCA, still some options exist as to how this LCA should be performed, e.g. whether a life cycle screening could suffice versus a full formal LCA, and whether to perform the assessment by own staff (that might even have to be hired/trained first) or by consultants (which may be expensive). Both choices influence the required time for the LCA, the incurred costs, and potentially other factors, e.g. the quality of the obtained LCA result. All this establishes the basis for the environment-oriented part of the decision of what material to select, and thus ultimately, all this may have an influence on the life cycle sustainability profile of the product, which the material is part of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1844, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 522, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In Life Cycle Management practice, the mechanical/technical, economic and manufacturing-related properties (as well as potentially additional ones) would have to be assessed as well\u2014and communicated appropriately to individuals inside the organisation with different professional backgrounds, since the final decision is usually not made by one person alone. The above example indicates the breadth of contexts that the LCM practitioner may have to take into account, incl. the variety of tools, like LCA, that can be employed in support of making life cycle-spanning decisions. Qualitative tools such as guidelines and checklists may be employed as well. When looking at the LCA framework with its four phases and the Direct applications described in ISO 14040 (see Fig. 22.1), Life Cycle Management covers all of these Direct applications, such as Product development and improvement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1845, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 522, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.1), Life Cycle Management covers all of these Direct applications, such as Product development and improvement. LCM could thus be called the initiator/trigger or 0th phase for making LCAs, but also the result-user/-executor or 5th phase of the LCA, which is indicated by the double arrow in Fig. 22.1. Life Cycle Management advocates taking a life cycle-wide view on business activities, and through this it can make the practitioner aware of two key N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1846, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 522, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "circumstances: First, no life cycle stage can be neglected in the decision-making, since activities in any life cycle stage of a product or system (and thus decisions on whether or not to conduct those activities) can influence the sustainability profile of that product or system. Second, managing with a life cycle perspective initiates and sustains an organisational learning process of identifying what these influences may be, whether they are desired or non-desired ones, and which indicators to focus on. LCM thus enables identifying options and prioritising actions to reach more sustainable ways of running businesses. In essence, Life Cycle Management deals with the managerial tasks related to practicing sustainable development in an organisation. It could thus also be referred \u201cDirect applications\u201d are LCM activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1847, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 531, "book_page": 523, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It could thus also be referred \u201cDirect applications\u201d are LCM activities. The bi-directional arrows indicate mutual influence: 1) The application context strongly influences the way the LCA is to be designed and conducted (not only in terms of Goal & Scope definition) and; 2) Methodological choices during the LCA can influence (i.e. support or reduce) the usefulness of LCA results for robust decision-making in the application context. Direct applications: \u2022 product development and improvement \u2022 strategic planning \u2022 public policy making \u2022 marketing \u2022 other Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Goal definition Fig. 22.1 The LCA framework of ISO 14040 augmented from an LCM perspective: key for successful support of LCM by LCA is that the LCA relates to the decision context of the direct application. Therefore, the direct application context could be called the initial 0th and/or 5th phase of an LCA (based on ISO 14040:2006) Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1848, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 531, "book_page": 523, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to as Sustainability Management\u2014and is in some organisations also referred to as such, or as Responsibility Management, CSR management (CSR = Corporate Social Responsibility) or similar. However, the term \u2018life cycle\u2019 in the title underlines Life Cycle Management\u2019s origins in the life cycle thinking (compare Sonnemann and Margni 2015, Chap. 2). Sonnemann and Margni (2015) also provide the below, all-embracing definition: \u201cLife Cycle Management (LCM) is a management concept applied in industrial and service sectors to improve products and services while enhancing the overall sustainability performance of business and its value chains. In this regard, Life Cycle Management is an opportunity to differentiate through sustainability performance on the market place, working with all departments of a company such as research and development, procurement, and marketing, and enhance the collaboration with stakeholders along a company\u2019s value chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1849, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 532, "book_page": 524, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCM is used beyond short-term business success and aims at long-term achievements minimizing environmental and socioeconomic burden while maximizing economic and social value.\u201d Since it is an overarching, cross-functional discipline, Life Cycle Management shares aim and focus with a number of other approaches and concepts, coming from the sustainability field, the managerial field and other fields. In practical application in the organisation, all such concepts are usually combined rather than pursued separately and exclusive to each other. Thus, applied Life Cycle Management often adds the aspect of sustainability to other more established management disciplines. An example is Supply Chain Management (SCM): Originally, this activity is about securing a required input flow of supply of raw materials and pre-manufactured goods, etc. into a manufacturing company with focus on the supplies being provided in time, and at required quality and cost", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1850, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 532, "book_page": 524, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "into a manufacturing company with focus on the supplies being provided in time, and at required quality and cost. LCM adds the sustainability angle on this activity, for instance in the form of making sure that in addition to the other requirements also specified work conditions at suppliers comply with company standards and/or in the form that emissions from in-flow logistics do not exceed certain emission values. Management approaches and tools, which LCM relates to in such a way, include e.g. \u2022 Product (life cycle) Data Management (PDM); \u2022 Sustainable Supply Chain Management (S-SCM); \u2022 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Corporate Responsibility (CR); \u2022 Environmental management (potentially according to ISO 14001, EMAS, etc.); \u2022 Environmental Health and Safety (EHS); \u2022 Compliance management; \u2022 Corporate governance; \u2022 Risk management. N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1851, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 532, "book_page": 524, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to avoid possible confusion, it is pointed out below in what ways LCM in this chapter\u2019s context differs from the above and other quite similar terms and approaches: \u2022 Product Life Cycle Management (PLM) is often used as covering product-related data management, as is Information Life Cycle Management and Product Data Management (PDM). LCM in the context of this chapter has a broader scope than such PLM/PDM, since it does not only focus on data management but on all life cycle activities in an organisation. \u2022 In some companies, Life Cycle Management is referred to as an activity starting after launch of a product, i.e. subsequently to product development. In this chapter however, LCM covers product portfolio management, product development, and after-launch/after-sales activities until end-of-life of individual products and entire product types on the market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1852, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 525, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 LCM in this chapter\u2019s context is not an activity that relates exclusively to the marketing life cycle (from product launch over market maturity until it is taken off the market). LCM rather relates to the physical life cycle(s) (cradle-to-grave) of a given palette of products that the organisation has a certain influence upon. \u2022 Life Cycle Management is also often referred to as an activity of Asset Management, e.g. for large infrastructural installations with relatively long life times. Again, LCM in the context of this chapter has a broader scope than just this management of use/after-sales and end-of-life. \u2022 Life Cycle Management also differs from environmental management systems and schemes, such as the European EMAS, the British BS7750 and the international ISO 14001, since these are designed for production (site) management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1853, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 525, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO 14001\u2014according to ISO, one of the most widely applied standards for environmental management\u2014in its 2015 revision now requires a view on life cycles of the produced products as well\u2014in addition to the production focus. This, in turn, exemplifies a tendency towards integrated approaches rather than to pursue several single-issue-focussed management systems in parallel. Instead of focusing on a certain part of the organisation or of the product life cycle, Life Cycle Management takes as a starting point an overarching perspective, and it thus influences\u2014and is influenced by\u2014many parts of the organisation (Fig. 22.2). It is important to note already here that there are internal and external factors influencing the accomplishment of the managerial tasks. This will be elaborated later in this chapter (Sect. 22.2). Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1854, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 525, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.1.2 Brief History of LCM\u2014Why Did It Arise? How Does It Evolve? Life Cycle Management is a relatively young concept, which came up only about three decades ago. This timing can be explained as a logic consequence of two factors: First, the need of practitioners to operationalise the, then, new concept of Sustainable Development. Since the life cycle concept had been known and applied already since the mid-1970s (e.g. for military asset procurement; see also Chap. 15 on Life Cycle Costing), dealing with sustainability matters in a life cycle perspective was an obvious path to go. Second, a number of environmental incidents and catastrophes happened during the 1970s and 1980s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1855, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 526, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Second, a number of environmental incidents and catastrophes happened during the 1970s and 1980s. Immense disasters for instance with chemicals in the cities of Bhopal and Seveso, with oil tankers such as Amoco Cadiz and Exxon Valdez, with nuclear power plants such as Three Mile Island and Chernobyl as well as the controversial end-of-life treatment of the off-shore oil storage buoy Brent Spar all filled much in the public debate as well as in public and corporate consciousness in those years\u2014and they were increasingly communicated through rising global news networks and environmental NGOs Management Distribution Sales & Marketing Procurement Production Product Development Life Cycle Management Life cycle-based environmental policy and product strategy Green distribution Green marketing Cleaner production Green procurement Design for Environment/ Ecodesign Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1856, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 526, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.2 Life Cycle Management as the central influencer and connector of different departments in an organisation and (shown on the circumference) examples of the outcome of its influence in each of those departments (based on UNEP 2007) N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1857, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 526, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Non-Governmental Organisations). Therefore, the question of dealing with these issues in a strategically feasible and desired way\u2014i.e. sustainably\u2014became evident for governments, businesses, and the upcoming environmental NGOs alike. A key initiator and driver for LCM discussion and development since 2002 is the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, which has issued a large number of publications, e.g. the LCM Guide (UNEP/SETAC 2007) and online material such as the LCM Navigator for SMEs (UNEP/SETAC 2008). The UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative has also been patron and sponsor for the bi-annual conference series on LCM that took place for the first time in 2001 in Copenhagen, Denmark. The LCM field is also promoted and elaborated by particular companies and, to a certain extent, also by business organisations and other NGOs, e.g. the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), through e.g. guidelines and models developed in their regime", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1858, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 527, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), through e.g. guidelines and models developed in their regime. Life Cycle Management is today an established discipline, albeit pursued under many different names (as explained in Sect. 22.1). Current trends in LCM include: 1. Interest in mainstreaming LCM, i.e. getting it better integrated in standard procedure of organisations in many contexts (Sonnemann and Margni 2015); 2. Using LCM in organisational capability and maturity development support (e.g. Swarr et al. 2015; Pigosso et al. 2013); 3. Improving data flow integration and exploitation, e.g. in relation to socio-technical trends such as Internet-of-Things (i.e. the interconnectedness of various products, other than computers, through the Internet), and Big Data (i.e. the tracking, storing and making-available of large amounts of data; in fact relating to \u2018PLM/PDM\u2019); 4. Implementing LCM coherently and in the long term in ever-changing organisations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1859, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 527, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the tracking, storing and making-available of large amounts of data; in fact relating to \u2018PLM/PDM\u2019); 4. Implementing LCM coherently and in the long term in ever-changing organisations. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agreed upon in the UN General Assembly in late 2015, are increasingly understood as managerial targets that also drive future developments [e.g. in the SDG Compass (GRI/UN Global Compact/WBCSD 2015)]; 5. Developing approaches to ensure companies\u2019 long-term survival, e.g. if their business offerings rely on non-renewable resources. 22.1.3 LCM as Integral Part of a Management System To manage means, in general, to have control of, to take care of and to make decisions about. The goal of Life Cycle Management is to contribute to sustainable development, through operationalising it in organisations. LCM does this through (1) requiring the practitioner to identify those sustainability matters that are relevant for the particular organisation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1860, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 527, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCM does this through (1) requiring the practitioner to identify those sustainability matters that are relevant for the particular organisation (e.g. via conduction of LCAs and other assessments), and (2) connecting these with possible managerial actions (i.e. for instance advising on who shall do what and when). The subsequent managerial actions of Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1861, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 527, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "monitoring/checking and potentially initiating corrective or alternative actions are part of LCM in the same way as they are part of managerial procedure in general. Similar to any other management concept, LCM can be integrated into a management system that the organisation may be using, and LCM can herein serve as a tool, e.g. for Sustainability Strategy Development. In its support of continuous improvement, LCM fits seamlessly together with widely applied management systems developed by ISO, such as ISO 9001 for Quality management and ISO 14001 for Environmental management, the latter having undergone a substantial revision in 2015, now emphasising its relevance not only in production contexts but also for product life cycle improvements, see ISO (2015). The particular managerial tasks of Life Cycle Management, mentioned in Sect. 22.1.1, can be distinguished into four types: 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1862, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 528, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The particular managerial tasks of Life Cycle Management, mentioned in Sect. 22.1.1, can be distinguished into four types: 1. Setting (measurable) targets\u2014for the entire organisation or for parts of it, as part of, for instance, a strategy development process, as well as creating the basis for execution and planning, so that targets can be reached; 2. Executing the plan; 3. Tracking execution and performance; and 4. Taking corrective actions or setting new targets\u2014depending on the performance. In shorter terms, this sequence is described as Plan, Do, Check, Act or just PDCA (UNEP/SETAC 2007; ISO 2015), and in the sense of continuous improvement, the four phases will be repeated cyclically for an infinite number of times (see Fig. 22.3), each time at a slightly higher level of sophistication. Such a standard managerial activity cycle is practiced in many organisations and is a backbone concept in many ISO standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1863, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 528, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.3), each time at a slightly higher level of sophistication. Such a standard managerial activity cycle is practiced in many organisations and is a backbone concept in many ISO standards. Life Cycle Management follows those same four phases but distinguishes itself particularly in what the first and second phase deal with, namely target-setting for above sustainability matters and creating structures so that sustainability targets can be reached. Plan Do Check Act Continuous improvement cycle Fig. 22.3 A generic PDCA cycle of continuous improvement, consisting of the four phases plan, do, check, and act, which are run through continuously in management concepts such as LCM (based on ISO work, e.g. ISO 2015) N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1864, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 528, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As a graphic representation of the different managerial factors\u2019 interconnectedness, Herrmann (2010) suggests an integrated model of LCM, the Total Life Cycle Management framework. It is developed to serve as a model defining relations with other management disciplines and as consistent frame-of-reference for LCM work and distinguishes two disciplines within Life Cycle Management: life cycle stage spanning management disciplines and life cycle stage related ones. Disciplines spanning over several life cycle stages in this framework are: \u2022 Social Life Cycle Evaluation; \u2022 Economic Life Cycle Evaluation; \u2022 Ecological Life Cycle Evaluation (i.e. Life Cycle Assessment); \u2022 Information and Knowledge Management; \u2022 Process Management. Disciplines focusing on a certain life cycle stage are \u2022 Product Management; \u2022 Production Management; \u2022 After-Sales Management; \u2022 End-of-life Management. The integrated model of Total Life Cycle Management is shown in Fig. 22.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1865, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 529, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The integrated model of Total Life Cycle Management is shown in Fig. 22.4. As pointed out earlier, Life Cycle Management is no step-by-step methodology, but rather a management concept with an underlying mindset of thinking in life cycles and holistic contexts. Integrating this mindset into everyday practice of the organisation is key for a successful implementation of Life Cycle Management. This integration involves many different stakeholders as elaborated in the next section. 22.2 Who is Involved in LCM? Stakeholders and Their LCM Activities The archetypical organisation applying Life Cycle Management is probably a company doing business with products of some kind (Note: The term \u2018products\u2019 in this chapter is generally understood as \u2018goods and/or services\u2019, but \u2018services\u2019 is sometimes mentioned for reasons of practical clarity). Such a company may or may not have, for instance, own product development activities, own production facilities, own logistics operations, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1866, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 529, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such a company may or may not have, for instance, own product development activities, own production facilities, own logistics operations, etc. However, it may just as well be a different type of organisation such as an NGO, e.g. a consumer organisation or environmental activists group, or it can be a governmental organisation (e.g. an Environmental Protection Agency). The key common characteristic is that the organisation exerts influence on life cycles of products and/or their surrounding systems through its decisions. Using an LCA term, this could be called influence on the \u2018processes\u2019 taking place during the life cycle. For any such organisation, and Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1867, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 529, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "that can be many, it may be meaningful to include Life Cycle Management in their management approach in order to exert the influence in a more structured, coordinated and informed way. As an example, for a company producing a certain type of windows and seeking the environmentally preferable solutions, the decision context can, for instance, consist in having to follow EU and national regulation on particularly their type of windows, or that for certain markets specific end-of-life regulation may be given which may even be contrary to end-of-life regulation on other markets. Life Cycle Management thus involves many stakeholders inside and outside the organisation with the organisation itself being a stakeholder too. All stakeholders have individual areas of influence; each can be a catalyst but also a potential unsurmountable obstacle for sustainability efforts, and each stakeholder may thus be able to substantially influence the success of such efforts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1868, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 530, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The separation of external and internal stakeholders in the following two sections is only generic and exemplary. Depending on the size of the organisation, the function of some stakeholders may be internal or external. In small companies, the function of a legal department may, for instance, be fulfilled by an external law firm, whereas in larger companies, this function will be represented by an in-house Fig. 22.4 A framework model for Life Cycle Management suggested by Herrmann (2010). This total Life Cycle Management model shows how sustainability as management philosophy can be unfolded in a consistent way in relation to management on different levels (normative, strategic, and operational level) and to the management objects (structures, activities, behaviour of/in the organisation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1869, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 530, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The model also shows, how the different levels and objects relate to life cycle stage-focused management disciplines (product, production, after-sales, end-of-life) and life cycle-spanning disciplines being information/knowledge management, social evaluation, economic evaluation, process management and\u2014environmental life cycle assessment (reproduced with permission from the author) N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1870, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 530, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "department. However, the point is that a stakeholder dealing with legal issues needs to be taken into account, since, e.g. legal issues may hinder the implementation of any concrete optional solution. Thus, the LCM manager has to integrate this factor when selecting optional paths for solutions. 22.2.1 External Stakeholders Seen from the perspective of an industrial company, there is a variety of external stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1871, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 531, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.2.1 External Stakeholders Seen from the perspective of an industrial company, there is a variety of external stakeholders. Three types of such external stakeholders can be separated as having a more or less direct influence on the way a company runs parts of its business and thus as having a more or less direct influence on activities and decisions made in the company: \u2022 Customers/Consumers\u2014being the key targets of company activities; \u2022 Governmental bodies and authorities in general\u2014setting legislative frames and regulatory requirements around the activities; \u2022 NGOs of various kinds characterised by not being formal governmental bodies or authorities and not being declared representatives of industry. This includes environmental organisations, standardisation bodies, think tanks and academia \u2014setting societal agendas, providing scientific insight and influencing company activities through de-facto standards (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1872, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 531, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a certain ISO standard may be a voluntary instrument, but can be a de-facto requirement for certain products and/or markets). Competitors could be considered a fourth one, but are here part of the stakeholder type Industry, incl supply chain since this is where competitors exert their indirect influence on activities of a given company. Similarly, other industrial companies could collectively be considered a fifth stakeholder, e.g. as in branch organisations, but they would not exert influence on the activities other than as covered by already mentioned types of stakeholders. Last but not least, shareholders are not described as distinct stakeholder because they do not exert direct or indirect influence on a company\u2019s business offering. Figure 22.5 shows these three stakeholders as well as a company/industry offering the product or service", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1873, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 531, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 22.5 shows these three stakeholders as well as a company/industry offering the product or service. The figure also indicates each stakeholder\u2019s direct or indirect influence on the product (or service), and thus their way of influencing the decision space of the company. Customer feedback on product performance, etc. is a very typical and direct source of influence on activities at companies, e.g. related to product design improvements. Authorities have a similar direct influence, e.g. via product-type-specific regulation (e.g. the European Directives and international trade requirements). NGOs, in contrast, have typically only indirect influence on products/designs but still potentially directly on the company itself (see note B in figure caption). Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1874, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 531, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the company for instance offers windows, a specific direct influence comes from international and national laws and regulations for buildings and from local authorities that the windows must comply with, and an incentive might come from potentially existing Green Public Procurement (GPP) schemes, as they exist, e.g. in Europe for some product types. The influences will differ depending on the different markets, i.e. regions, where the windows are intended to be sold. If the product shall be sold globally, obviously the number of influences (e.g. legal compliance requirements) increases highly. This means for Life Cycle Management work, that country/market-specific approaches may make sense, rather than trying to develop and apply one global approach. 22.2.2 Internal Stakeholders\u2014Departments in an Organisation Seen from a company perspective there are also a number of internal stakeholders, being the departments with their individual agendas and targets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1875, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 532, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Internal stakeholders can exert a great push and/or pull on the LCM function and the product/service offering of the company; and this can relate to all, both top management as well as workers in the production shop. A generic set of internal stakeholders includes the following ones (below and Fig. 22.6): Industry C (interests/ requirements) Industry B (interests/ requirements) Customers/ Consumers Industrial Company (incl. its global supply chain) Politicians/ Authorities (inter-/national) NGOs (e.g. ISO, Greenpeace) Product/ Service Fig. 22.5 The three generic types of external stakeholders influencing (directly or indirectly) the product/service business solution offered by a company: customers, politicians/authorities, and NGOs, as well as industry (incl. competitors and supply chain). Mutual relations indicated by arrows. Note A Investors and potential shareholders are not shown since they normally do not exert influence on the product/service solution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1876, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 532, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mutual relations indicated by arrows. Note A Investors and potential shareholders are not shown since they normally do not exert influence on the product/service solution. Note B Not all relations are indicated by arrows in order to keep simplicity in illustration, e.g. politicians/authorities\u2019 relation with NGOs N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1877, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 532, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Marketing \u2022 Research & Development (R&D) \u2022 Product development \u2022 Purchase \u2022 Production \u2022 Sales \u2022 Legal \u2022 Communication (to internal and external stakeholders) Typically, decision-making contexts have many elements, and the LCM manager can take the role of pulling these different elements together in order to create a broad basis for decision-making. Looking at the window case, it may be that the company identified a particular material combination as environmentally preferable. However, if the production department has, e.g. difficulties in producing larger quantities at same quality levels, and or the purchase department would not be able to secure large enough quantities of it, the material combination would not be a feasible solution anyway. The same goes without saying for cost issues, although these also depend on the applied cost calculation model and business model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1878, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 533, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The same goes without saying for cost issues, although these also depend on the applied cost calculation model and business model. Only when having such a broad, combined view of influencing factors, truly holistic business decisions can be made. The LCM function closely interacts with such classic functions, like purchase, and advocates sustainability-related matters in that function\u2019s decision context, e.g. a ban of sourcing of conflict minerals (i.e. minerals mined in conflict zones) or e.g. a design for easier disassembly. Communication Sales R&D Logistics Marketing Production Product Development Purchase Legal Product/ Service Internal players e.g. departments within company LCM relates to all! Industrial Company (incl. its global supply chain) Fig. 22.6 The generic types of internal stakeholders of industrial companies, mutual relations between them and their (direct or indirect) influence on how the product/service is designed and marketed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1879, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 533, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.6 The generic types of internal stakeholders of industrial companies, mutual relations between them and their (direct or indirect) influence on how the product/service is designed and marketed. LCM relates to all of them Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1880, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 533, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.3 How do LCA and LCM Relate to Each Other?\u2014The Key Role of LCA in LCM Augmenting the LCA framework of ISO 14040, Sect. 22.1 already introduced a relation between Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Management in a graphic way. The present section elaborates this relation further and points out the key role that LCA can play for practicing Life Cycle Management. On a framing note, it can be stated that Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Management have a lot in common, but also have some clear differences. Both build upon life cycle thinking, both are a basis for decision-making, both only make sense within defined system borders, and both consider activities today or in the near future and address potential effects that may occur in the far future (which require the practitioner to make assumptions and build scenarios)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1881, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 534, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, contrary to Life Cycle Assessment, LCM (usually) neither establishes concrete cause\u2013 effect chains\u2014and not at all in a quantitative way using algorithms and computer models\u2014nor does LCM employ the concept of impact categories, and midpoints and endpoints. Although, LCM can be practiced without employing LCA, and although LCA cannot support all decision-making in LCM (e.g. cost-related issues), the section shows that LCA offers support on two managerial key areas: status determination and target-setting. 22.3.1 LCA Provides Environmental Quantifications Needed for LCM A classic saying goes: \u201cWhat you cannot measure, you cannot manage!\u201d Environmental Life Cycle Assessment is a prominent tool that enables such measuring and performance tracking for managerial purposes. Using Life Cycle Assessment, a practitioner can, for example: \u2022 Determine in which environmental condition or state a given product system is, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1882, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 534, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Using Life Cycle Assessment, a practitioner can, for example: \u2022 Determine in which environmental condition or state a given product system is, e.g. a product on the market (shown as its contributions to a number of environmental impact categories) \u2022 Identify environmental hot spots in that system \u2022 Compare potential alternative solutions (e.g. new design suggestions) \u2022 Make scenario analyses and establish a ranking of such alternative scenarios. Conducting Life Cycle Assessments requires both thinking backwards in time and thinking forwards/ahead\u2014i.e. life cycle thinking. In addition, LCAs create outcomes in the form of insights and results, but also in the form of questions that arise along the way. The latter are dealt with through making assumptions on past and/or future conditions in the life cycle. However, LCA cannot provide suggestions for managerial actions that put such outcomes into practice within a decision N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1883, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 534, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "context. For instance, an LCA-based overview of impact potentials of different options may show one option as being preferable. However, by definition, the LCA cannot show, whether an environmentally preferable option, e.g. a certain engineering material for a window frame, would still be preferable, if other aspects were taken into account, e.g. the capability of a potential supplier to deliver that preferable material in the required quantity, quality, price and time frame. Exactly here, Life Cycle Management comes into play, since LCM can be used to integrate several aspects and related tools, including LCA, into one holistic, sustainability-oriented set of decision criteria (see Sect. 22.1.1). 22.3.2 Developing Key Performance Indicators for Application in LCM Once an organisation has determined its mission, identified all its stakeholders, and defined its goals, it needs a way to measure progress towards those goals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1884, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 535, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Assessment is a crucial tool to conduct and support such progress measurements, since results from LCAs can be used to define performance indicators, which are a standard means used in management processes. Indicators are typically aggregated indications of the state of a given system at a certain point in time and/or of the performance of a system over a given period of time. One can distinguish several types of indicators; e.g. leading (target-setting) versus lagging (monitoring) indicators, result indicators versus performance indicators, and key result indicators (KRIs) as well as key performance indicators (KPIs), see, e.g. Parmenter (2015). Irrespective of what type of indicator the Life Cycle Manager decides to use, LCA results can often crucially enrich such indicators or even entirely populate them, since they are quantitative by nature, thus LCA is a key tool in setting targets in LCM", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1885, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 535, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An example of an indicator in LCM may be energy requirement of a manufacturing process\u2014or of an entire production site (then often further specified as energy requirement per product produced, per year, per production line, etc.). This indicator can be populated using different units, for instance Mega Joules [MJ], kilowatt-hours [kWh] or other physical SI units. However, it could also be quantified in LCA-based units such as Global Warming Potential [kg CO2-eq]. This could then support a comparison with and/or addition to other activities of the organisation. Transport and logistics activities of the organisation would, for instance, typically be monitored in terms of kilometres [km] (and as with production indicators, typically be specified further, e.g. per product). In the LCA context, one would additionally track employed means of transport (i.e. road, air, rail, ship) and potentially a particular vehicle type (e.g. five ton-truck, container vessel, bulk freight train, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1886, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 535, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "road, air, rail, ship) and potentially a particular vehicle type (e.g. five ton-truck, container vessel, bulk freight train, etc.). Using LCA, the transport activities would be quantifiable in kilograms of CO2-eq as well, and a comparison with the above energy requirements of the production site or the entire organisation could be done \u2014made possible through LCA. Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1887, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 535, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Key aspects of managerial indicators are summarised below (compare, e.g. Gries and Restrepo 2011): \u2022 They help an organisation define and measure progress toward organisational goals \u2022 They are quantifiable metrics, agreed to beforehand, that reflect the critical success factors of an organisation \u2022 They differ depending on the organisation, e.g. \u2013 A company may have as one of its KPIs the percentage of its income that comes from return customers, or revenue from eco-labelled products \u2013 A school may focus its KPIs on graduation rates of its students \u2022 They must reflect the organisation\u2019s goals, must be key to its success/activities, and must be quantifiable/measurable (!) \u2022 They need to be defined, incl.: \u2013 instructions on how to calculate them, => different individuals must always reach the same KPI value when calculating a particular KPI with the same background data \u2013 a definition that does not change from year to year (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1888, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 536, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "long-term definition needed); \u2022 They can be used to set targets When developing KPIs for any application context, the following needs to be observed: \u2022 The landscape of data sources may be non-harmonised (e.g. not all source data may cover the same year, same location, etc.). This means: Observe \u2018data landscape\u2019 and availability of input data \u2022 KPI inflation\u2014Aim is not to measure what can be measured, but to measure what should be measured. This means: The fewer KPIs the better \u2022 Pseudo accuracy: since \u2018Bad data in\u2019 leads to \u2018bad data out\u2019, this means: Interpret the KPI values related to their underlying data quality In order to support the reader in developing KPIs genuinely meaningful for LCM work, and in reflection of current paradigm-setting developments in business and science, the remainder of this section deals with very concrete characteristics of environmental sustainability-relevant KPIs, points out problems and describes ways to address these", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1889, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 536, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Based on studying company reporting, one can distinguish two types of environmental sustainability-related KPIs seen today in many companies\u2019 communications: Intensity-based KPIs and company-wide KPIs, and e.g. (Bj\u00f8rn et al. 2016a) pointed out problems that both types have: \u2022 Intensity-based KPIs: \u2013 Examples: kg CO2-eq emitted per product or Emissions per $ of revenue N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1890, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 536, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main problems: \u2013 Performance depends largely on the chosen reference (e.g. last year\u2019s product model? Market average? Competitor\u2019s product?) \u2013 Total impact may still increase, if sales increase (which usually is a company target\u2014depending on business model) \u2022 Company-wide KPIs: \u2013 Example: kg CO2-eq emitted per year Main problem: \u2013 Misleading, for example if company is outsourcing and does not account for the outsourced activities One can argue that an additional problem of both KPI types is, that they do not indicate how much impact reduction\u2014or which concrete indicator value\u2014would be enough in order to reach sustainable levels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1891, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 537, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Organisations such as the WBCSD and the Science-Based Targets initiative (SBT)\u2014a collaboration established in 2014 between UN Global Compact, Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), World Resources Institute (WRI), and the World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF)\u2014have begun to address this missing link in suggesting methods to determine concrete targets for application in the company context. The SBTs relate to greenhouse gas emissions only, i.e. they only relate to this part of environmental sustainability, see e.g. www.sciencebasedtargets.org and Krabbe et al. (2015). An example for such a KPI is given below, incl. related problems: \u2022 Absolute-target-based KPIs \u2013 \u201cWe as company x will by year y reduce our global emissions to z tons CO2-eq per year\u201d. Problems with this absolute type of KPI are, however 1. When communicating such targets, the company is bound to them, since they are clear and trackable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1892, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 537, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Problems with this absolute type of KPI are, however 1. When communicating such targets, the company is bound to them, since they are clear and trackable. This kind of lock-in is by many companies considered a risk and thus not pursued by many companies, even if they recognise Earth as a finite system in their reporting, compare, e.g. (Bj\u00f8rn et al. 2016a). 2. The challenge of defining targets for other environmental impact categories than Global Warming (i.e. for impact categories where there is no international agreement and/or where targets are per se more difficult to determine, e.g. for regional and local impact categories). The development of absolute KPIs is accelerated by the Two-degree-target agreed upon at the UN Climate Change summit COP21 in late 2015, where the global community committed to keeping greenhouse gas emissions at levels, so that average global temperature rise by the year 2050 stays well below 2 degrees centigrade above pre-industrial levels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1893, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 537, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It has also been shown, that such absolute indicators can be integrated into existing LCA methodology for other global impact Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1894, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 537, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "categories than Global Warming Potential, e.g. for Terrestrial Acidification (Bj\u00f8rn and Hauschild 2015; Bj\u00f8rn et al. 2016b). Ways of consistently breaking down high-level targets into targets for lower levels of decision-making are being suggested, e.g. by R\u00f6dger et al. (2016). In conclusion, the development of internationally agreed absolute indicator limits and their subsequent broad application cannot be seen to happen in the near future, but individual companies may adopt the principle and develop their own absolute indicators, as some companies already do. The above examples and issues show that KPI development requires overview, understanding and utmost care by the practitioner in order to produce meaningful KPIs, which can trustfully be used as the central management instrument they are. This is even more important when applied within LCM, since it can be considered an even more complex field than many other management fields", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1895, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 538, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is even more important when applied within LCM, since it can be considered an even more complex field than many other management fields. 22.4 How is LCM Applied in Practice? A Brief LCM Case Study Application of Life Cycle Management fundamentally incorporates that the practitioner makes choices before and during the application itself, rather than that she or he follows a predetermined procedure. The reason for this is that LCM is a management concept\u2014as explained earlier in this chapter\u2014and not a deterministic method or algorithm, with concrete steps or rules, that would lead to concrete, repeatable outputs, if triggered by same inputs. LCM application can be described as consisting of two elements: 1. Individually selecting one or several tools from the collection that may be called the \u2018LCM toolbox\u2019 (UNEP/SETAC 2007)\u2014and; 2. Doing this in the concrete context of the given organisation\u2014i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1896, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 538, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Individually selecting one or several tools from the collection that may be called the \u2018LCM toolbox\u2019 (UNEP/SETAC 2007)\u2014and; 2. Doing this in the concrete context of the given organisation\u2014i.e. in collaboration with different departments and under recognition of a variety of factors, such as the organisation\u2019s position in supply chains and the intended application field Thus, there is never a one-size-fits-all way of applying LCM. Rather, each organisation needs to determine for itself and for the concrete product or activity, which combination of tools they consider appropriate for managing life cycle matters of that product or activity. A typical starting point for applying LCM is product innovation and product development processes. From here, LCM activities often radiate back and forth to and from production and operations and to and from marketing and communications, especially sustainability reporting (see e.g. McAloone and Bey (2009))", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1897, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 538, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "McAloone and Bey (2009)). Taking the example of deciding among alternative materials for a new type of fa\u00e7ade window frames, an LCM practitioner may come into play in the following, diverse decision contexts: Starting point would probably be that the window company has decided which markets, i.e. global regions and/or countries, the new N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1898, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 538, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "type of windows (and frames) shall be sold in, and in which target quantities and at which target sales price. In parallel, the design engineering/R&D (Research & Development) department has probably determined a number of technically feasible materials (e.g. a metal, a type of wood, and a composite material\u2014plus maybe combinations of them). Although usually not practiced, the company might already here set a target environmental impact for the windows as LCM activity, and quantify this target in terms of a certain maximum Global Warming Potential the windows should not exceed (potentially further described, e.g. for modules of the window or for an annual production of all production sites or for one selected site, etc.). The target figure may be related to the window company\u2019s sustainability strategy and sustainability targets, which they may have published in their sustainability reporting. Supportive methods for such detailed target-setting are suggested, e.g. by R\u00f6dger et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1899, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 539, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Supportive methods for such detailed target-setting are suggested, e.g. by R\u00f6dger et al. (2016). Taking into account the different generic external and internal stakeholder types of customers, competitors, NGOs, governmental organisations as well as departments within the organisation (see Sect. 22.2), the company would check legal requirements and de-facto market requirements on the selected markets. This could refer to, e.g. legally banned materials or substances on that market for that type of product, but also to certain environmental labels and certifications that key competitors on that market have certified their products with. Or it could mean to apply for newly introduced, not yet widely applied labels that may represent a competitive edge on that market. Both, legislation and de-facto market requirements, are often quite different from country to country and especially from region to region, e.g. between Asia and North America", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1900, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 539, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Both, legislation and de-facto market requirements, are often quite different from country to country and especially from region to region, e.g. between Asia and North America. Obviously, if the chosen market is global this would require further decisions, e.g. whether or not to prioritise one label over others or to work towards certification against all labels on the global market, which of course has an impact on the cost of the product. Also, sustainability-related campaigns by NGOs, e.g. against specific labour practices or certain technologies, would be mapped as far as possible and analysed in terms of potential threats to sales of the product on the selected market(s). If a stakeholder campaign or similar activity is identified, decision options are either to ignore, to fight or to accept the respective stakeholder demand. An example of the latter is the following one from the paper and pulp industry: the global tissue paper producer Kimberly-Clark Corp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1901, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 539, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An example of the latter is the following one from the paper and pulp industry: the global tissue paper producer Kimberly-Clark Corp. and Greenpeace agreed in 2009 on a new fibre policy and on a regular review process, ending a several-years Greenpeace campaign\u2014an agreement to the benefit of all parties. Back to the window example: In parallel to related information becoming available for the LCM decision-maker, the window producer\u2019s R&D department may practice ecodesign in making life-spanning scenarios for the product and taking design actions with focus on selected life cycle stages. The developers may, for instance, design the windows for easy disassembly (focus: end-of-life stage of the windows\u2019 life cycle) or design them in a modular way, allowing to easily attach and exchange components such as blinds, motoric actuators, etc. or optimise insulation capabilities\u2014all this for the different materials under consideration (i.e. focus: use stage)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1902, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 539, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "or optimise insulation capabilities\u2014all this for the different materials under consideration (i.e. focus: use stage). At the same time, purchasers and designers could be supported in Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1903, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 539, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "choosing the exact material composition, e.g. the alloy of a metal and the supplier(s) selected to deliver raw materials and semi-manufactured goods (focus: materials stage and transportation stage). Furthermore, the production department as well as logistics and also service/after-sales departments could be drawn into the materials decision in order to, e.g. ensure manufacturability and secure availability, etc. (focus: manufacturing stage). Early in this process, the respective departments would also identify legal requirements on the target markets, such as safety norms, flammability norms and insulation capacity as well as potentially important voluntary requirements, which represent de-facto market requirements, such as certain environmental labels (e.g. certified wood, or eco-labels for the entire product). Last, but not least, a core department responsible for business model options\u2014 i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1904, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 540, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "certified wood, or eco-labels for the entire product). Last, but not least, a core department responsible for business model options\u2014 i.e. the board of management\u2014would be strongly involved, if a material choice should represent a strategic change, as for instance seen in the shift to aluminium used for car bodies which some automotive companies and suppliers have made. In the window case, this could be the shift to composite materials, requiring, e.g. entirely new production technologies and design options and constraints. In conjunction with potential regulative developments, e.g. as currently seen in Europe towards Circular Economy and the released action plan (EU Commission 2015), the window producer could consider a business model that incorporates take-back of their windows at their end-of-life\u2014an option which then would have to be analysed for its environmental and economic viability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1905, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 540, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.5 What Does LCM Require and Yield in an Organisation? Application and Integration of LCM Life Cycle Management costs time, requires learning curves at the different departments and\u2014in essence\u2014necessitates new thinking by all involved individuals. Such costs and obstacles often surface in many places and on many occasions, e.g. in the course of time-consuming data collection, life cycle modelling, communications, or when trying to determine, what in the particular company\u2019s context actually is meant with the term \u2018sustainability\u2019. However, although very difficult to pin-point and quantify, LCM also yields gains, e.g. in the form of increased knowledge about the organisation\u2019s own processes and life cycle chains, incl. better insight into conditions at suppliers, due to the \u2018total\u2019 overview. LCM may also reduce risk and increase opportunities, as well as improve the ability to respond early to new legislation and market trends in the field", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1906, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 540, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCM may also reduce risk and increase opportunities, as well as improve the ability to respond early to new legislation and market trends in the field. In that sense, LCM generally increases the resilience of the organisation that practices LCM, since it encourages taking both short-term, detailed views and long-term, helicopterperspective views on company activities. Sustainability matters are manifold and so are the organisations that work with them. LCM can, of course, be practiced in the multi-national corporation, in the N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1907, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 540, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "small or medium-sized enterprise, in the family-run company and in the one-person firm\u2014and this irrespective of where on the Planet they are located. Since LCM is a translator of sustainability matters into business practice, LCM itself needs to be manifold and highly adaptable (a bit comparable to a Swiss Army knife which integrates many tools and makes them available in one pocket-sized product), so that pursuing LCM can produce improvements of the sustainability matters for any organisation and in any department of that organisation. Due to this necessarily multifaceted character, Life Cycle Management may well be perceived as diffuse. However, LCM is the means to put sustainability approaches into practice, since no measurement and assessment tool (such as LCA) can tell by itself what its results are to be used for or, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1908, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 541, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, LCM is the means to put sustainability approaches into practice, since no measurement and assessment tool (such as LCA) can tell by itself what its results are to be used for or, e.g. what ranges of these results the organisation should deem desirable (beyond legal threshold values, if applicable, and also this context is not known to the tool). Thus, having tools available in an organisation is not enough (even if these tools should in fact be easy and effective to use, which is not always the case): It requires an overall management concept, such as LCM, to reach a coherent, holistic approach, practiced in the relevant parts of the organisation. Last, but not least, the long-term survival\u2014i.e. the long-term successful application\u2014is key for any sustainability-supporting approach. Thus, the integration and anchoring of LCM in the organisation are just as important as the applicability of the tools it comprises", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1909, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 541, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, the integration and anchoring of LCM in the organisation are just as important as the applicability of the tools it comprises. Addressing this key aspect, approaches to map and quantify organisational maturity and to build adapted capability have been developed and are increasingly in focus (as introduced in Sect. 22.1.2). LCM can be integrated in an organisation in two principle ways: via projects and/or via functions (plus via combinations of both). The way of choice depends on the type of organisation and on preferences of the organisation. In project-based organisations, typically companies that design, produce and sell one-of-a-kind products or small series, most prominently construction companies, LCM can be integrated into the Stage/Gate process that the projects usually are managed by", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1910, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 541, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Project managers and portfolio managers, in this case, need in to have a good understanding of the LCM concept and act as life cycle managers, unless a dedicated LCM specialist is included in the project team. This depends on the size of the project team and of the organisation behind, leading to the circumstance that often only larger teams and organisations have a dedicated LCM role in project teams\u2014 and this role can even be taken on by a consultant. In function-based organisations, typically mass-producing or batch-producing manufacturing companies (which our window company probably would be), and in combined structures, such as matrix organisations, Life Cycle Management can be integrated by establishing dedicated departments and/or appointing individuals and adapting set organisational processes, so that LCM aspects relevant in the particular company ultimately become integrated into day-to-day procedures", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1911, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 541, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In larger organisations, Life Cycle Management is typically not one outspoken activity or position, but it is in the vast majority of such companies embedded in Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1912, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 541, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and dealt with by several departments and under many titles, often two to three departments (typically a corporate one plus the production-environmental department plus, maybe, a product-related one, see Sect. 22.1.1), rather than by one department alone. Ultimate goal in both principal integration situations is, that all project members and all departments are aligned and that, eventually, the LCM function becomes obsolete and a self-running part of all other functions. In either way of integration, the definition of KPIs is key in order to be able to set targets and track performance (see Sect. 22.3.2), e.g. at departments. As explained earlier, any LCM approach is tailor-made in the course of finding the individually best-suited combination of tools that together represent the company-specific approach. Figure 22.7 shows an example of such a combined approach towards sustainability/LCM work at a company, integrating several elements. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1913, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 542, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 22.7 shows an example of such a combined approach towards sustainability/LCM work at a company, integrating several elements. Fig. 22.7 An example of an integrated approach (screen shot of an intranet page): The company Steelcase, globally providing office furniture and office space solutions, combined three elements/tools in their approach. Due to product type, material types, life cycles, markets and other factors, they chose to use both LCA, Materials Chemistry (i.e. cradle-to-cradle) and Reuse and recycling\u2014already in 2007\u2014and communicated this to internal and external stakeholders N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1914, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 542, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "22.6 Conclusions This chapter described Life Cycle Management and the different aspects it involves \u2014both from its contents and from its application and integration in organisations. Many examples relate to industrial companies but the principles are the same in municipalities and other organisations. In all contexts, Life Cycle Management has the below key characteristics: \u2022 LCM is no step-by-step methodology or one-size-fits-all approach but a management concept that can and needs to be adapted to any organisation\u2019s context, i.e. LCM is always tailored to the specific organisation. \u2022 LCM deals with the managerial tasks related to practicing sustainable development in an organisation\u2014it could thus also be referred to as Sustainability Management. \u2022 LCM requires collaboration between several departments within the organisation and with external stakeholders, such as supply chain partners", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1915, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 543, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 LCM requires collaboration between several departments within the organisation and with external stakeholders, such as supply chain partners. \u2022 As with any other management discipline, practicing LCM requires setting targets and tracking performance. Such targets and related performance indicators can be set based on relative terms but may also be set as absolute terms. Practicing LCM in a consistent way aims at ensuring that improvements in system performance can be achieved while also making sure that this does not lead to either sub-optimisations or burden shifting in the company/organisation as a whole and/or in the relevant life cycles. Bj\u00f8rn, A., Hauschild, M.Z.: Introducing carrying capacity based normalization in LCA: framework and development of references at midpoint level. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2015). doi:10.1007/ s11367-015-0899-2 Bj\u00f8rn, A., Bey, N., Georg, S., et al.: Is earth recognized as a finite system in corporate responsibility reporting? J. Clean. Prod", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1916, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 543, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2015). doi:10.1007/ s11367-015-0899-2 Bj\u00f8rn, A., Bey, N., Georg, S., et al.: Is earth recognized as a finite system in corporate responsibility reporting? J. Clean. Prod. (2016a). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.095 Bj\u00f8rn, A., Margni, M., Roy, P.O., et al.: A proposal to measure absolute environmental sustainability in life cycle assessment. Ecol. Indic. (2016b). doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.11.046 EU Commission.: COM(2015) 614 final, ANNEX to the COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION Closing the loop\u2014An EU action plan for the Circular Economy (2015) GRI/UN Global Compact/WBCSD.: SDG Compass\u2014UN Sustainable Development Goals Compass. www.sdgcompass.org (2015) Gries, B., Restrepo, J.: KPI measurement in engineering design\u2014a case study. In: International Conference on Engineering Design ICED11 (2011) Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., et al.: Life cycle assessment: past, present, and future. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 90\u201396 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1917, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 543, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 90\u201396 (2011). doi:10.1021/es101316v Herrmann, C.: Ganzheitliches life cycle management. (2010). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01421-5 ISO.: Environmental Management systems\u2014Requirements with Guidance for Use (ISO 14001:2015), 3rd ed. ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2015) Life Cycle Management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1918, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 543, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kloepffer, W.: State-of-the-art in life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) life cycle sustainability assessment of products. Int. J. LCA 13, 89\u201395 (2008). doi:10.1065/lca2008. 02.376 Krabbe, O., Linthorst, G., Blok, K., et al.: Aligning corporate greenhouse-gas emissions targets with climate goals. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 1057\u20131060 (2015). doi:10.1038/nclimate2770 Linkov, I., Seager, T.P.: Coupling multi-criteria decision analysis, life-cycle assessment, and risk assessment for emerging threats. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 5068\u20135074 (2011). doi:10.1021/ es100959q McAloone, T.C., Bey, N.: Environmental improvement through product development\u2014a guide (DTU\u2019s eco-design webpages www.ecodesign.dtu.dk) (2009) Parmenter, D.: Key Performance Indicators: Developing, Implementing, and Using Winning KPIs, 3rd edn. Wiley, Hoboken (2015) Pigosso, D.C.A., Rozenfeld, H., McAloone, T.C.: Ecodesign maturity model: a management framework to support ecodesign implementation into manufacturing companies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1919, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 544, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Wiley, Hoboken (2015) Pigosso, D.C.A., Rozenfeld, H., McAloone, T.C.: Ecodesign maturity model: a management framework to support ecodesign implementation into manufacturing companies. J. Clean. Prod. 59, 160\u2013173 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.040 Prado, V,, Rogers, K,, Seager, T.P.: Integration of MCDA tools in valuation of comparative life cycle assessment. In: Life Cycle Assessment Handbook: A Guide for Environmentally Sustainable Products. (2012). doi:10.1002/9781118528372.ch19 R\u00f6dger, J.-M., Bey, N., Alting, L.: The Sustainability Cone\u2014a holistic framework to integrate sustainability thinking into manufacturing. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. (2016). doi:10.1016/j. cirp.2016.04.033 Sonnemann, G., Margni, M., et al.: Life cycle management. LCA Compend\u2014Complete World Life Cycle Assess. (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7221-1 Swarr, T.E., Asselin, A.-C., i Canals, L.M., et al.: Building organizational capability for life cycle management. In: Sonnemann, G., Margni, M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1920, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 544, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7221-1 Swarr, T.E., Asselin, A.-C., i Canals, L.M., et al.: Building organizational capability for life cycle management. In: Sonnemann, G., Margni, M. (eds.) Life Cycle Management, pp. 239\u2013256 (2015) UNEP/SETAC: Life cycle management: a business guide to sustainability. UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Paris (France) (2007) UNEP/SETAC: LCM navigator for SMEs. www.lifecycleinitiative.org/LCM_navigator/index_c. html (2008) Author Biography Niki Bey mechanical engineer and expert in applied life cycle thinking in organisations. Works since the late 1990s with Ecodesign, Sustainable manufacturing, Product/Service Systems, Life Cycle Management and Sustainability strategy development in consultancy and academia across many industrial sectors with focus on integration of approaches in real life applications. N. Bey", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1921, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "22 Life Cycle Management", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 544, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA Tim C. McAloone and Daniela C.A. Pigosso Abstract Ecodesign is a proactive product development approach that integrates environmental considerations into the early stages of the product development process so to improve the environmental performance of products. In this chapter, the ecodesign concept will be discussed, in terms of its implementation into manufacturing companies. Existing methods and tools for ecodesign implementation will be described, focusing on a multifaceted approach to environmental improvement through product development. Additionally, the use of LCA in an ecodesign implementation context will be further described in terms of the challenges and opportunities, together with the discussion of a selection of simplified LCA tools. Finally, a seven-step approach for ecodesign implementation which has been applied by several companies will be described", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1922, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finally, a seven-step approach for ecodesign implementation which has been applied by several companies will be described. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Define ecodesign and understand its importance in the context of sustainability. \u2022 Understand the extensive variety of ecodesign methods and tools. \u2022 Understand the main challenges of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) implementation in the context of ecodesign. \u2022 Understand how to communicate LCA results within an ecodesign activity. \u2022 Explain simplified LCA approaches for implementation into ecodesign programmes. \u2022 Understand how to measure progress and set goals for ecodesign implementation. \u2022 Carry out a seven-step approach for ecodesign implementation into companies. T.C. McAloone (&) \u0001 D.C.A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1923, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Understand how to measure progress and set goals for ecodesign implementation. \u2022 Carry out a seven-step approach for ecodesign implementation into companies. T.C. McAloone (&) \u0001 D.C.A. Pigosso Section of Engineering Design and Product Development, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: tmca@dtu.dk \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_23", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1924, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 545, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23.1 Introduction to Ecodesign There are many reasons for the environmental problems we experience in the world. Massive population growth and an increase in relative wealth (and thus growing consumerism) on a global level are two significant contributors to the strain on our fragile ecosystem. Manufactured products are essential for the wealth of society and for our desired quality of life. However, our growing consumption of products lies directly or indirectly at the root of a great deal of the pollution and depletion of resources that the consumerist society causes (Commission of European Communities 2001). Environmental impacts are caused by every product in some way or another, from the extraction of raw materials, through their production and use, to the management and final disposal of waste (Baumann et al. 2002)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1925, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 546, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2002). Regardless of the nature, size and time of occurrence of environmental impacts for a product, the vast majority of environmental impacts are actually decided already in the very early phases of product development. In fact it is estimated that approximately 80% of a product\u2019s environmental performance1 is fixed during the early phases of the product development process (McAloone and Bey 2011). It is during product development that materials, technologies and the product\u2019s lifetime are decided. The product developer has thus a great influence on the product\u2019s life cycle and therefore also on the later occurring environmental impacts and on the environmental performance of the products. For this reason, it is important that the product developer integrates environmental considerations carefully and systematically into the product development activity (McAloone and Bey 2011). This integration of environmental considerations into product development is called ecodesign", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1926, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 546, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This integration of environmental considerations into product development is called ecodesign. Ecodesign is a proactive approach to environmental management during product development, with the aim of integrating environmental considerations into the product development process. The goal is to minimise environmental impacts throughout the product\u2019s life cycle, without compromising other essential criteria such as performance, functionality, aesthetics, quality and cost (Johansson 2002; van Weenen 1995). Ecodesign requires a balanced view of the whole product life cycle, focusing attention on the reduction of the major environmental impacts of the product, throughout its lifetime", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1927, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 546, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecodesign requires a balanced view of the whole product life cycle, focusing attention on the reduction of the major environmental impacts of the product, throughout its lifetime. Ecodesign calls on the knowledge and competencies of many disciplines in the product development process, as considerations about materials, processes, logistics, recyclability\u2014and many more\u2014are likely to arise as potential contributors to an improved environmental profile of the product design in hand (Brones and Carvalho 2015). The involvement of many functions and professions in this process gives rise to multiple viewpoints and increases the likelihood for optimal solutions (McAloone and Bey 2011). 1The environmental performance of a product can be determined by the sum of all the environmental impacts it causes during its lifetime (Nielsen and Wenzel 2002). T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1928, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 546, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Taking a systematic approach to understanding where and why a product has environmental impacts in its lifetime can lead to competitive advantages for the company. It has been demonstrated, for instance, that environmental thinking in product development leads to efficient products, which are both economically viable to produce, cheaper to operate and maintain, and more robust during their lifetimes (de Caluwe 2004; Eagan and Finster 2001). Designing products with improved environmental performance is a necessary action for industries to ensure both competitive and environmental advantages (Bey et al. 2013). The systematic incorporation of environmental considerations during the product development process (i.e. ecodesign implementation) is not an easy task, especially in the early stages, which are characterised by greater degrees of design freedom, but also limited information about the product and its pending manufacturing processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1929, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 547, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Over the past couple of decades, several approaches and methodologies have been developed to support manufacturing companies to integrate ecodesign into their product development processes (Baumann et al. 2002; Pigosso et al. 2014). For ecodesign to be successful, activity at three main levels of the company is required: \u2022 Strategic (or managerial), to set the goals and expectations throughout the whole organisation; \u2022 Tactical, to schedule and prioritise the good intentions of management; and \u2022 Operational, to deploy ecodesign methods and tools directly, within product development projects. Strategic approaches are related to the integration of ecodesign into the strategic decision-making and business processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1930, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 547, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Strategic approaches are related to the integration of ecodesign into the strategic decision-making and business processes. Some examples of activities carried out in the context of a strategic ecodesign implementation include: definition of environmental targets for the product portfolio; deployment of responsibilities across different hierarchical levels; development of a communication strategy to customers and stakeholders; development of strategic competences in the organisation; etc. In other words, strategic-level ecodesign implementation creates the foundation, the goals and the resources in the organisation for the ecodesign process to be a success (Pigosso et al. 2013a, b). At the tactical level of the company, the task is to ensure that the goals, strategies, and visions of the strategic management group are prioritised and organised in a way that they can be integrated into the product development process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1931, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 547, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This activity is very important, as without it, no decisions can be made to ensure a systematic approach to ecodesign. It is at this level that: (1) candidate ecodesign projects are chosen, (2) methods and tools are prioritised and integrated into the product development process and (3) the product development process is generally updated to include environmental considerations. It is also here that ecodesign implementation roadmaps are made and deployed (Pigosso et al. 2013a, b). The actual development of products with improved environmental performance takes place during the so-called operational ecodesign implementation, which starts Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1932, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 547, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in the early phases of the product development process, where the greatest improvement opportunities lie. Identifying the desired environmental performance of products, the environmental hotspots (environmental aspects and life cycle stages that have the highest environmental impact), developing alternative product concepts based on ecodesign guidelines, selecting concepts to be further developed based on their environmental performance, etc., are some examples of activities carried out in the operational implementation of ecodesign. The ambition for ecodesign implementation is often correlated to the main internal and external drivers of the company for ecodesign implementation. Usually, companies that are applying ecodesign due to a legislative compliance driver (e.g. compliance with European directives) have a lower ambition when compared to companies that are implementing ecodesign due to an internal strategic driver (e.g. to a sustainability strategy or organisational values)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1933, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 548, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to a sustainability strategy or organisational values). Companies that are implementing ecodesign due to customer requirements, for example, usually begin the ecodesign implementation with a limited ambition, which is subsequently expanded as the companies learn the other business benefits linked to ecodesign implementation. 23.2 Ecodesign Methods and Tools Since the establishment of ecodesign as a product development practice and as a research object for scientists, several ecodesign methods and tools have been developed\u2014both by academics and in industry. Currently, more than 150 ecodesign methods and tools exist (Pigosso et al. 2014), and the number continues to grow. The methods and tools that exist have various goals and focuses, such as \u201cevaluate environmental impacts\u201d, \u201creveal potential trade-offs\u201d (Byggeth and Hochschorner 2006) and \u201cfacilitate the choice between different aspects\u201d (Baumann et al. 2002; Byggeth and Hochschorner 2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1934, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 548, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2002; Byggeth and Hochschorner 2006). In this section, we provide an overview of a selection of existing ecodesign methods and tools. Ecodesign methods and tools are defined as any systematic means for the management and implementation of ecodesign at an operational level. Ecodesign methods and tools are usually applied in the early phases of the product development process (Fig. 23.1), where the largest improvement opportunities lie. Fig. 23.1 One way to depict the product development process (Andreasen and Hein 1987) T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1935, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 548, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As mentioned earlier, a large amount of the environmental impacts of a product\u2019s life cycle are determined in the early phases of its development (McAloone and Bey 2011). According to their main purpose, the ecodesign methods and tools can be classified into three main groups (Pigosso et al. 2011a, b): \u2022 Prescriptive: Present generic guidelines (from a pre-established set of best practices to minimise the environmental impacts); \u2022 Comparative: Compare the performance of different products, concepts or design alternatives for a given product; \u2022 Analytical: Identify improvement potentials by means of an assessment of the most relevant environmental aspects. A few examples of ecodesign methods and tools, classified according to the product development phase (Fig. 23.1) and type of tool (prescriptive, comparative and analytical), are presented in Table 23.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1936, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 549, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23.1) and type of tool (prescriptive, comparative and analytical), are presented in Table 23.1. Most of the existing ecodesign methods and tools are focused on the early stages of product development, mainly in the \u201cproduct principle\u201d and \u201cproduct design\u201d phases. Furthermore, there is a tendency to the use of analytical tools rather than to comparative and prescriptive ones. The ecodesign methods and tools presented in Table 23.1 are further described in Table 23.2, with an indication of references, where more information can be obtained. 23.3 LCA and Ecodesign In this section we explore in some more depth, how LCA can be used in an ecodesign context, to support the development of products with improved environmental performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1937, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 549, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23.3 LCA and Ecodesign In this section we explore in some more depth, how LCA can be used in an ecodesign context, to support the development of products with improved environmental performance. Table 23.1 Examples of ecodesign methods and tools (all are cited in Tables 23.2 and 23.3) Analytical Comparative Prescriptive Recognition of need Eco-QFD STRETCH (Strategic environmental challenge) Investigation of need Eco-roadmap EcoBenchmarking Product principle Eco-function matrix LiDs wheel Ten golden rules Product design LCA Environmental effect analysis (EEA) DfE matrix MECO matrix EcoDesign pilot Production preparation \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Execution EcoValue Eco communication matrix Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1938, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 549, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 23.2 Description of presented ecodesign methods and tools Method/tool Description Eco-QFD (quality function deployment) (Ernzer et al. 2005) Supports the transfer of market insights to the product\u2019s requirements list. In this method, the environmental demands are acquired from an expert team instead of directly from the customer. It allows the product developer to focus on the internal (product properties) and not the external environmental parameters (e.g. generating energy, waste treatment) STRETCH (strategic environmental challenge) (Cramer and Stevels 1997; Stevels 2007) Focuses on assessing improvements in the most promising environmental opportunities throughout the product life cycle. Considers product business units and market strategies, in addition to potential changes in environmental pressure exerted by external stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1939, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 550, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Considers product business units and market strategies, in addition to potential changes in environmental pressure exerted by external stakeholders. It consists of five steps: (1) Identify the major forces that influence business strategy, (2) Develop scenarios that the company can adopt based on core strengths and develop a list of potential marketing strategies for the product. (3) Specify opportunities for environmental improvements for each scenario. (4) Select the environmental challenges that will lead to substantial improvements in the environmental performance of products. (5) Address the selected environmental challenges Eco-roadmap (Donnelly et al. 2006a, b) Concise graphical tool that captures short- and long-term environmental drivers (legislation [enacted and future] and customer requirements) in one document. The eco-roadmap contains the actual product-relevant legislation and customer requirements in the scope of sustainable and environmentally compliant product design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1940, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 550, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The eco-roadmap contains the actual product-relevant legislation and customer requirements in the scope of sustainable and environmentally compliant product design. The eco-roadmap also highlights draft legislation, emerging customer requirements, and industry trends for future sustainable and environmentally compliant product features EcoBenchmarking (Boks and Diehl 2005; Boks and Stevels 2003; Wever et al. 2005, 2007) Supports organisations to understand and develop a critical attitude towards their own products, to create awareness about environmental issues in and outside a company, and thus to find environmental improvement options for their products that are feasible for implementation. The method is based on 10 steps with specific goals and questions to be answered and can be adjusted in two ways (light vs. extended; information vs. physical) depending on the context and needs Eco-function matrix (Lagerstedt et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1941, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 550, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "extended; information vs. physical) depending on the context and needs Eco-function matrix (Lagerstedt et al. 2003) A communication platform for functional priorities and environmental impacts is established by combining the Environmental Profile and Functional Profile of the product. The functional profile describes and evaluates properties, areas and activities that are associated with the functionality of the product and its commercial viability. The Environmental Profile identifies the characteristics of the products that are correlated with the generation of environmental impacts. It can be applied at different stages of product development, according to the degree of specification and detailing of Environmental and Functional Profile (continued) T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1942, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 550, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 23.2 (continued) Method/tool Description EcoStrategy wheel (Knight and Jenkins 2009) Contains eight strategies (function optimisation, reducing the impact on the use stage, reducing the use of materials, choosing the right materials, optimisation of lifetime, production optimisation, optimisation of treatment of end of life, improved distribution) to environmentally improve products and is based on knowledge of the team members. Strategies are used as a checklist and are sources of inspiration to support meetings using brainstorming techniques Ten golden rules (Luttropp and Lagerstedt 2006) Consists of a summary of several guidelines and manuals used by companies from various sectors, with recommendations of environmental strategies. It can be used to improve the environmental performance of the concept of a product or to compare various alternative concepts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1943, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 551, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can be used to improve the environmental performance of the concept of a product or to compare various alternative concepts. In order to be used by a particular company, it must first be transformed and customised according to the characteristics of the company and its developed products Life cycle assessment (LCA) (Bhander et al. 2003) Quantifies environmental impacts of the whole life cycle of goods and services. It involves all successive stages of a product system, ranging from extraction of raw materials and energy required in manufacturing, use and distribution until the final disposition of the product, which may include recycling of materials and components, and other ways of post-consumption treatments Environmental effect analysis (EEA) (Lindahl 1999, 2000) Qualitative dialogue process with a starting point in the use of available experiences and environmental requirements from stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1944, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 551, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The tool was developed to assist product development teams in quick and effective assessment of environmental issues, clarifying their goals and objectives, and toward fulfilling them in real product development efforts. The basic principle is to list all activities considered to have significant environmental influence, and for each activity judge the quantity and seriousness of each aspect, as well as to suggest ways for making improvements that will reduce the impacts of the proposed product DfE (design for environment) matrix (Eagan and Finster 2001) The matrix raises questions about the environmental impacts of a product through 100 issues that allocate a wide range of environmental and design issues and provides a semi-quantitative analysis of the product design alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1945, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 551, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The totals for each life cycle stage (pre-manufacturing, manufacturing, packaging and distribution, use and maintenance, end-of-life) and environmental impacts indicate improvement areas in terms of the environmental attributes of a product throughout its life cycle. The total score of the matrix is a relative measure of environmental product attributes and complements the economic parameters of customer value and manufacturability that should also be evaluated (continued) Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1946, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 551, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 23.2 (continued) Method/tool Description MECO matrix (Hochschorner and Finnveden 2003; Wenzel et al. 1997) Estimates the environmental impact of each life cycle stage (raw material, manufacturing, use, disposal and transport) and is performed by estimating the amount of material (M), energy (E), chemical (C) and other materials (O) used in the product life cycle. All input and output flows must be considered for a category in relation to a time base according to the functional unit of product and the stage of the life cycle chosen EcoDesign pilot (Wimmer et al. 2005) Once the environmental strategies are selected for the improvement of an existing product, different design rules and guidelines guide the designer during the design process. To improve the environmental performance, each product requires specific measures depending on its environmental impact at different stages of its life cycle (extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, use and disposal)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1947, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 552, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A good set of measures of the design rules and guidelines can be found in the EcoDesign PILOT software EcoValue (Gheorghe and Ishii 2007; Jones et al. 2001; Kengo et al. 2001; Pascual and Stevels 2005, 2006) Ecovalue is defined as the ratio between a monetary amount (price) and the environmental load over the life cycle of the product/service concerned. Ecovalue acknowledges market diversity, where consumers value different attributes in products. For this purpose, the criteria used to set priorities rely on market composition, consumption power, and a product\u2019s environmental load. Units used include retail price in monetary units and a product\u2019s environmental load, expressed in millipoints (mPt) Eco communication matrix (Stevels 2001) Supports the development of the marketing and communication strategies. Most of the data necessary for completing the matrix are derived from the earlier phases of the project (benchmarking, ecodesign matrix, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1948, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 552, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most of the data necessary for completing the matrix are derived from the earlier phases of the project (benchmarking, ecodesign matrix, etc.). Comparisons can be made between products of different generations and/or of competing products. The rows of the matrix correspond to energy consumption, materials, packaging and transportation, substances, durability/recyclability, manufacturing and life cycle perspective. The columns of the matrix correspond to the company internal benefits, benefit to clients/customers and benefits to stakeholders and society. Each of these benefits are divided into tangible, intangible and emotion perception T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1949, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 552, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA is one of the most well-known methods that can support ecodesign implementation (Brezet et al. 1999; Cappelli and Delogu 2006; Hunkeler and Vanakari 2000; Munoz et al. 2006). It provides a quantification of environmental aspects and impacts across the product life cycle and supports the between concepts and design options. LCA involves all successive stages of a product life cycle, ranging from extraction of raw materials through the environmental impacts of manufacturing, distribution and use of the product, all the way until its final disposal, which may include subsequent activities such as recycling of materials and components, plus other ways of treating post-consumption (Azapagic and Clift 1999). LCA has gained broad acceptance in industry as a trustworthy method to quantify the environmental aspects and potential impacts of the life cycle of products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1950, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 553, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA has gained broad acceptance in industry as a trustworthy method to quantify the environmental aspects and potential impacts of the life cycle of products. The LCA methodological framework is defined by ISO 14040 and 14044 standards (ISO 2006a, b), which describe the minimum requirements for its correct use and performance. The holistic systems perspective, which is applied in LCA, enables the company to disclose the \u2018problem shifting\u2019 which occurs when solutions to environmental problems at one place in a product\u2019s life cycle create new problems elsewhere in the life cycle (Jeswiet and Hauschild 2005). 23.3.1 LCA Challenges It is important to understand the challenges and limitations of LCA in the context of ecodesign, in order to be able to use the two approaches to product environmental improvement. Many authors have written about the challenges of LCA within ecodesign (Alting et al. 2007; Keoleian et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1951, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 553, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Many authors have written about the challenges of LCA within ecodesign (Alting et al. 2007; Keoleian et al. 1994; Portney 1993), which can be expressed in five main areas, as described in the following. The first challenge relates to the dilemma of opportunity (and cost) versus knowledge (and numbers). In the early phases of the product development process, the cost of making a design decision is very low and the window of opportunity to affect ecodesign improvements and integrate environmentally enhancing features into the product is the largest (Bhander et al. 2003; Keoleian et al. 1994). However, by nature of this early phase of the project, it is here where we know the absolute least about our product, thus rendering it very difficult to quantify the contents of related processes for the manufacture of a product that has not yet even been fully conceptualised (Bhamra et al. 1999; Tchertchian et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1952, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 553, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1999; Tchertchian et al. 2013). The later in the product development process one waits, the more quantitative the data one has to model in an LCA, yet the smaller the window of opportunity to affect any changes\u2014and the higher the cost of doing so. A number of tools and guidelines exist, to bridge this opportunity-knowledge gap, but it remains a limitation. One obvious action is to perform an LCA on a previous product or a competitor\u2019s product, as there is almost always some product on the market with similar functionality and ingredients to the product we are designing. Challenge number two relates to the required knowledge and competencies of the product developer (Portney 1993). LCA is in itself a detailed and highly specialised Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1953, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 553, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "approach, belonging to a strong scientific knowledge domain (Ny et al. 2006). Ecodesign, within the context of product development, is usually dominated by well-trained, highly skilled and well-practiced designers and engineers, with competencies in the systematic design and development of products and systems (Diehl 2005; Hesselbach and Herrmann 2003). In other words, LCA is a highly analytical (natural science dominated) activity and ecodesign is a highly synthesis-oriented (technical, engineering) activity. LCA has two important places in a manufacturing company: (i) the environmental, health & safety (EH&S) function of the organisation, where reporting and high-level (maybe product family) assessments are carried out; and (ii) in the product development department, where the knowledge of products, processes, ecosystems and use scenarios provide important guidance for ecodesign", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1954, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 554, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The challenge is always, how to ensure the right level of LCA knowledge in the mind of the product developer and/or how to compensate for the lack of LCA knowledge through a combination of bridging tools (Poudelet et al. 2012; Tchertchian et al. 2013), plus the pairing of LCA specialists with product development specialists. The solution to this challenge lies in strategic management recognition, paired with a tactical management prioritisation. The third challenge with LCA in the ecodesign activity relates to completely new products, where we cannot rely on previous product releases or competitors\u2019 products, to create some form of benchmark for the ecodesign effort in especially the early phases of product development (Trappey et al. 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1955, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 554, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011). Completely new products are more of a marginal case, when compared to incrementally innovated products, but there are still examples that need environmental attention (e.g., electronic products, many clean-tech products, nano-based products, etc.). In such product development cases, LCA tends to play a lagging, rather than a leading role (Poudelet et al. 2012). Challenge number four relates mostly to the misconception of the scope and merits of LCA. LCA is an analysis method\u2014a very well developed and accepted one at that. Challenges arise when the company expects great product development and ecodesign advances, based alone on the results of an LCA (Brezet et al. 1999; Russo et al. 2014). It is not possible to \u201canalyse oneself to a better product\u201d, i.e. to improve a product solely based on an analysis of its environmental performance, and therefore LCA should not be deployed as the only method to ecodesign improvement for a project", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1956, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 554, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to improve a product solely based on an analysis of its environmental performance, and therefore LCA should not be deployed as the only method to ecodesign improvement for a project. Instead, one should pair the analysis activity with the task of synthesis (product development), as the methods and tools exist in abundance, to support the good ecodesign process afterwards. The fifth and final noteworthy challenge that LCA as a scientific field faces lies in the claims from \u201ccompeting approaches\u201d. A popular claim within the current Cradle to Cradle (C2C) approach is that LCA belongs to the realm of eco-efficiency, which is a reductionist and limiting agenda, whereas C2C belongs to an agenda of positivism, growth and innovation (Hauschild 2015; McDonough and Braungart 2010; Rossi et al. 2006; see Chap. 25). Whilst the mental model created by this claim is compelling and easy to understand, it is not necessarily entirely useful", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1957, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 554, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2006; see Chap. 25). Whilst the mental model created by this claim is compelling and easy to understand, it is not necessarily entirely useful. Ecodesign, LCA, C2C and a number of other approaches to enhancing T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1958, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 554, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "environmental performance of products, can easily be used interchangeably and must respect each other\u2019s basic philosophies and scientific bases, if they really are to be deployed with successful environmental improvement to follow (Bakker et al. 2010; Bj\u00f8rn and Hauschild 2011; Reay et al. 2011). 23.3.2 Using and Communicating LCA for Ecodesign in the Organisation Referring again to the two key areas of a company in which LCA plays a role, namely the EH&S department and the product development department, it may be that the company has LCA information, data and results available, but the question is, how to access these data and what to use them for (Miettinen and H\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen 1997). If a full LCA has been carried out, the final improvement assessment phase ought to point to areas of ecodesign priority for a particular product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1959, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 555, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If a full LCA has been carried out, the final improvement assessment phase ought to point to areas of ecodesign priority for a particular product. However, it may be that only the inventory analysis and impact assessments have been carried out, which will pose difficulties for the ecodesign activity within the company, to directly use the data (Poudelet et al. 2012). The age and the scope of existing LCA studies in the company will also dictate their usefulness for the ecodesign process, but nevertheless, key focus areas should be possible to derive from the LCA activity (Chang et al. 2014). Importantly also, the existence of LCA studies inside the company indicates that some previous attention has been given to the environmental improvement of products and processes in the organisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1960, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 555, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Importantly also, the existence of LCA studies inside the company indicates that some previous attention has been given to the environmental improvement of products and processes in the organisation. Tracing the people, the projects and the types of data gathered and analysed will give a good idea of the intentions of the company with respect to ecodesign improvements and give good starting points for future activities. Especially understanding the goals and scope for existing LCA studies in the company is important, as it will uncover some details regarding the existing (or maybe earlier) environmental strategy of the company. Identifying existing LCA results is one important task, and communicating these across the organisation is another", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1961, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 555, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Identifying existing LCA results is one important task, and communicating these across the organisation is another. Understanding how to interpret and communicate LCA results is very important, in order to ensure that both management and product development professionals understand how to make further improvements based on the results calculated (Tingstr\u00f6m and Karlsson 2006). There are a number of ways in which an LCA can be reported, and for the sake of ecodesign, it is important to choose a presentation of LCA studies in a way that supports the product development task. In other words, a presentation of environmental impact categories (global warming potential, air pollution, solid waste, etc.) is probably less useful for a product developer than presenting a more detailed model of the actual product or system (down to component level), showing comparative analyses, maybe with aggregated calculations (person equivalents, eco-points, energy, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1962, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 555, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It may also be sufficient to carry out a faster but less detailed screening LCA to support the Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1963, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 555, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ecodesign task, as opposed to a much more trustworthy but also relatively time-consuming full product LCA (Simon et al. 2000). 23.3.3 Simplified Approaches Aimed At Integrating LCA Into Ecodesign The practical use of environmental LCA methods and software tools in industry has revealed the need for simplification for product development projects. Hence, streamlined life cycle assessment methods have been derived from experience with the complex full methods (Jeswiet and Hauschild 2005). Simplified LCA, also known as Streamlined LCA, has emerged over the years, as an efficient way to evaluate the environmental attributes of a product, process, or service life cycle. The aim of simplifying LCA is to provide essentially the same type of results as a detailed LCA, i.e. covering the whole life cycle, but in a superficial way (e.g. using qualitative and/or quantitative generic data), followed by a simplified assessment, thus reducing significantly the expenses and time expended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1964, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 556, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using qualitative and/or quantitative generic data), followed by a simplified assessment, thus reducing significantly the expenses and time expended. Simplified LCA should still include all relevant aspects, but good explanations (e.g. company guidelines, materials negative lists or materials black lists, preferred mode of transportation) can to some extent replace resource-demanding data collection and treatment. The assessment should focus on the most important environmental aspects and/or potential environmental impacts and/or stages of the life cycle and/or phases of the LCA and give a thorough assessment of the reliability of the results (Zackrisson et al. 2008). Full-scale LCA is traditionally quantitative. However, it is recognised that where quantification is not possible (for reasons of time, cost or data availability, for example), qualitative aspects can\u2014and should\u2014be taken into account (Heijungs et al. 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1965, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 556, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010). Simplified-LCA (S-LCA) is not meant to be a rigorous quantitative determination, but rather a tool for identifying environmental \u201chot spots\u201d and highlighting key opportunities for effecting environmental improvements. It is not complicated to apply quantitative and detailed LCAs to simple products, such as packaging, since they consist of few components or types of material, where information on most of the commonly used materials is available (and, if necessary, it is quick and easy to collect). For more complicated products, such as, e.g. televisions, a complete LCA may prove to be very resource-demanding and at the same time somewhat imprecise, due to the number of possible processes, materials, suppliers, etc., being very high and varied. Furthermore, the database on \u201cnot so common\u201d materials is limited so for these cases, S-LCAs are more helpful, especially in the early stages of product development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1966, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 556, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, the database on \u201cnot so common\u201d materials is limited so for these cases, S-LCAs are more helpful, especially in the early stages of product development. In the case of improvements in already existing product systems, the use of (full) LCA may become easier, once data from a reference system can be used (with a well-known life cycle). T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1967, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 556, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Streamlined approaches and other ecodesign methods and tools, such as design checklists and matrices, are essential to support ecodesign implementation in the early design phases. The practical use of these tools in product development depends on the nature and complexity of the product system (e.g. new vs. established), the product development cycle (time-to-market constraints), availability of technical and financial resources, and the design approach (integrated vs. serial). These factors influence the role and scope of LCA in an ecodesign process. Effective communication and evaluation of environmental information and the integration of this information with cost, performance, cultural and legal criteria will also be critical to the success of design initiatives based on the life cycle framework. Some examples of simplified LCA methods and tools are presented in Table 23.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1968, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 557, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Some examples of simplified LCA methods and tools are presented in Table 23.3. These methods and tools present a life cycle perspective and provide an analysis or comparison of the environmental impacts associated to a product, using or providing qualitative or semi-quantitative data. In order to avoid repetition, the simplified LCA methods and tools presented in Table 23.2 [STRETCH (Strategic Environmental Challenge), and MECO matrix)] are not replicated in Table 23.3. Table 23.3 Simplified LCA methods/tools (Pigosso et al. 2011a, b) Ecodesign method/tool Summary Criteria for assessment Approach Design abacus (Bhamra and Lofthouse 2007) Used to rate a product on social, economic and environmental areas, in both the analysis and planning of a design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1969, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 557, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It helps you identify design goals, compare many design variables and compare different product designs across the product life cycle Defined by the user (example: energy, material, usability, cost, life span, end of life) Qualitative Eco-compass technique (Sun et al. 2003) Used to evaluate the environmental impact of an existing product. Combining the cost and benefit, a product\u2019s life locus tree can be built up and the environmental impact of a product is assessed on the performance of process and life stages of a product using these eight indices Mass intensity, energy intensity, health and environmental potential risk, revalorisation, resource conversation, and service extension Semi-quantitative ECODESIGN checklist method (ECM) (Wimmer 1999) Points out purposefully redesign tasks in order to increase the environmental performance of a product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1970, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 557, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Based on a holistic view of the product in three analysis levels (part-, function-, Usability of product (customer\u2019s needs oriented), low energy consuming Semi-quantitative (continued) Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1971, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 557, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 23.3 (continued) Ecodesign method/tool Summary Criteria for assessment Approach and product level) the method shows clearly, where the weak points of a product are and how to realize reuse, recycling of parts, where to integrate, omit or create functions and where to reduce consumption or increase efficiency, usability of the whole product product (use stage), low resource consumption and avoiding waste (manufacturing stage),durable product, reuse of product-parts, recycling of product-materials Ecodesign web (Bhamra and Lofthouse 2007) Provides a quick way of helping designers to identify which areas of the product should be focused on to improve its environmental performance. It works by comparing seven design areas with each other to identify a \u201cbetter than\u201d/\u201cworse than\u201d output Materials selection, materials usage, distribution, product use, optimal life, end of life Qualitative Environmental design strategy matrix (EDSM) (Lagerstedt et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1972, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 558, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2003) Identifies some design strategies based on characteristics of products at the different life cycle stages Life cycle length, energy consumption, resource consumption, material requirement, configuration and disposal route Qualitative Green design advisor (GDA) (Ferrendier et al. 2002) Provides a direction of improvement, as well as the design features with the highest improvement potential and shows the weak points, as well as good design features. Additional design guidelines exist; however, there are no automatically generated design alternatives Number of materials, mass, recycled content, recyclability, toxicity, energy use, time for disassembly, disposal cost Semi-quantitative Green design tool (Kassahun et al. 1995) Based on analysing \u201ctop level greenness attributes\u201d of a product, providing to the designer an overview of the environmental status of product design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1973, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 558, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1995) Based on analysing \u201ctop level greenness attributes\u201d of a product, providing to the designer an overview of the environmental status of product design. It can be applied using the basic concept of the product Reusability, label, internal joints, material variety, material identification, recycled content, chemical usage, additives, surface Semi-quantitative (continued) T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1974, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 558, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23.4 Creating Goals and Measuring Progress with Ecodesign Whether it be LCA-driven/supported or not, any ecodesign process is best supported if a set of measurable goals and performance indicators are established for the activity. These are a fundamental element of any successful ecodesign activity, as they can provide an early warning to prevent environmental damage (Issa et al. 2013). The use of environmental performance indicators (EPIs) to monitor product performance is often identified as one of the successful factors for effective ecodesign implementation, as such indicators can help to pinpoint improvement opportunities and prevent environmental damage through the product under development (Fiksel et al. 1998; Herva et al. 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1975, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 559, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1998; Herva et al. 2011). Most methods and tools to measure the environmental performance of products, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), still present high complexity and large data Table 23.3 (continued) Ecodesign method/tool Summary Criteria for assessment Approach finishes, external joints and hazards level of material MET matrix (Byggeth and Hochschorner 2006b) Aims to find the most important environmental problems during the life cycle of a product, which can be used to define different strategies for improvement. The environmental problems should be classified into the categories Material cycle, energy use, toxic emissions Qualitative or quantitative The environmentally responsible product assessment matrix (ERPA) (Hochschorner and Finnveden 2003) The central feature of ERPA assessment is a 5 \u0003 5 matrix. One dimension is the life cycle stages and the other is environmental concerns", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1976, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 559, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "One dimension is the life cycle stages and the other is environmental concerns. The method can be used to evaluate products, processes, facilities, services or infrastructure. Each element of the matrix is assigned a rating from 0 (highest impact) to 4 (lowest impact), according to a checklist. The rating is based on the seriousness but also on whether possibilities of reducing impacts have been utilized or not Materials choice, energy use, solid residues, liquid residues and gaseous residues Semi-quantitative Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1977, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 559, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "requirements to the ecodesign activity (Hur et al. 2005), providing results that can be classified as lagging EPIs. Lagging EPIs measure the product\u2019s impacts on the environment, as a final result of a process. In contrast to lagging EPIs, leading EPIs aim to produce simpler measures of environmental aspects that can inspire effective actions towards improving products\u2019 environmental performance. Environmental aspects are defined as elements of the organisation\u2019s activities, products or services that interact with the environment. In this context, the use of leading product-related EPIs can be seen as a simpler and faster quantitative approach to ensure performance measurement and improvement during the product development process (Bovea and Perez-Belis 2012). Databases of leading product-related EPIs exist, in some cases including accompanying guides, with the aim of supporting companies to select the most relevant EPIs, based on the developed products and their strategies (see e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1978, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 560, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Issa et al. 2015). 23.5 Carrying Out Ecodesign, Step by Step Many approaches and processes are advocated and published, proposing a process of ecodesign (Bhamra et al. 1999; Brones and Carvalho 2015; Herva et al. 2012; Kengpol and Boonkanit 2011; Luttropp and Lagerstedt 2006; Pigosso et al. 2013a, b; Poole et al. 1999; Rio et al. 2013), and in at least a large company setting, the absolute most important route to success is to integrate ecodesign decisions and considerations into the established product development process for the company (Pigosso et al. 2013a, b). However, a generic process of decision-making and ecodesign implementation can be derived from the various ways and processes suggested. One such approach has been published by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), as the result of a sponsored campaign by the Danish Environmental Protection Agency and the Confederation of Danish Industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1979, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 560, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The approach, named Environmental Improvement through Product Development: A Guide (McAloone and Bey 2011), describes seven generic steps towards ecodesign implementation, and is created based on a detailed analysis of other existing approaches, plus a number of trial implementations in industry. The following gives a summary of this approach, which steps the user through an analytical point of departure, through a creative-synthesis ecodesign approach, before considering how to implement the proposed ecodesign changes in the organisation on a more permanent basis. Examples of the application of each one of the proposed steps can be found in the guide. T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1980, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 560, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23.5.1 Environmental Improvement Through Product Development: A Seven-Step Approach The following seven steps guide the user through a solution-oriented process, towards environmental improvement. The seven generic steps are meant to provide a simple and inspiring way of approaching ecodesign, by isolating the task from the ordinary product development tasks in the company, the idea being to gain focus in the product development team, about the \u201cideal ecodesign approach\u201d in a workshop setting. The approach attempts to create space for innovation by focusing solely on environmental issues. At the end of the approach, it is the intention that the practitioner considers how to integrate the seven steps into their own organisation\u2019s product development process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1981, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 561, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the end of the approach, it is the intention that the practitioner considers how to integrate the seven steps into their own organisation\u2019s product development process. The approach is constructed with a focus on: \u2022 Gaining an overview of a current product\u2019s environmental problems; \u2022 Providing insight into important details concerning the product\u2019s environmental impacts, its use and its users; \u2022 Creating solutions and concepts that lead to environmental improvements; and \u2022 Creating foresighted proposals for the creation of an environmental strategy for product development. The approach is designed as a chain of exercises that ought to be completed from start to finish, in the order that the steps are presented. The approach charts an eco-redesign process, so as to ensure that there is an established benchmark product beforehand; it therefore requires that a product is chosen in advance as the object for environmental improvement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1982, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 561, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The product can be either an already marketed product, which will serve as a reference product, or a product that is currently under development. The first case is the simplest, as it is easier to identify data about the product\u2019s life cycle. The first six steps of the seven-step approach isolate the environmental task and focus on identifying environmental problems. Subsequently improvement proposals are created. Step 7 provides a framework for an action plan and the basis for systematic integration of the proposed environmental improvements into the product development process. See Fig. 23.2. Step 1: Describe the use context As the very first exercise, it is important to reach a common understanding of the product and its value contribution under use. This provides a common starting point for discussions about the environmental product improvement possibilities for the product, for use later in the process, when the creation of product alternatives is in focus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1983, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 561, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is important that the alternatives created meet the same requirements for the customer. Redundant product attributes should be considered as waste, both from an environmental and a customer perspective. Step 1 is intended to reach a Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1984, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 561, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "description of the product\u2019s functionality to the user. This description provides the benchmark for all subsequent decisions and can also be used when, for example, alternative concepts shall be compared. The description of the use context is achieved by answering the following questions: \u2022 \u201cWhat should the product be used for?\u201d which leads to a description of the basic task that the product must carry out for the user. \u2022 \u201cWhat does the product do?\u201d which allows for a description of the product\u2019s functionality, including the technological principle and the features that the product must possess in order to deliver the service to the user. \u2022 \u201c... For whom?\u201d leads to a description of the main user or user group. \u2022 \u201c... How long?\u201d and \u201c... how often?\u201d lead to a definition of the time frames in which the product must operate. \u2022 \u201c... Where in the world?\u201d leads to a definition of the geographical area in which the product must operate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1985, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 562, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "how often?\u201d lead to a definition of the time frames in which the product must operate. \u2022 \u201c... Where in the world?\u201d leads to a definition of the geographical area in which the product must operate. The responses to the above questions lead to a clear description of the product in the form of the value contribution that the product delivers to the user, or in other words, the product\u2019s functional unit. Step 2: Create an overview of the environmental impacts In this step, the aim is to create an overview of the product\u2019s life cycle and all significant environmental impacts that may occur throughout the life cycle of the product. A product life cycle typically consists of five main stages: Fig. 23.2 Seven-step approach to ecodesign, as described by McAloone and Bey (2011) T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1986, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 562, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Materials covers materials extraction and manufacturing (e.g. the manufacture of plastic granules from crude oil) and semi-finished products (e.g. steel profiles from iron ore), etc. \u2022 Manufacture includes the purchase of components, plus the manufacturing and assembly processes, both at suppliers and in in-house production facilities. \u2022 Transport covers the entire logistics chain, from suppliers to the end-user and beyond, including distribution activities by ships, trains, planes, trucks, vans and cars. \u2022 Use includes the actual usage and possible ancillary products that are necessary for the product to perform its function (e.g. paper filters for a coffee maker). The use stage also includes installation and possible maintenance activities. \u2022 Disposal includes reuse/recycling, incineration and landfill", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1987, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 563, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "paper filters for a coffee maker). The use stage also includes installation and possible maintenance activities. \u2022 Disposal includes reuse/recycling, incineration and landfill. The actual distribution of these disposal options depends on many factors, including regulatory requirements where the product is disposed of, who disposes of the product (an individual or a company), etc. It is obviously difficult to predict how the product will be disposed of, as this stage is typically far in the future. Depending on preference, one may choose to integrate the transport life cycle stage into all of the other product life stages, as transport is in itself the \u201cglue\u201d between each life cycle stage. However, many choose to specify and gather all transport activities into one stage for itself, so as to (i) remember to pay attention to transport\u2019s environmental impacts and (ii) highlight the transport activity\u2019s contribution to the overall environmental footprint of the product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1988, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 563, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 23.3 shows a picture of how one could organise the overview of environmental impacts by means of adding sticky notes to a schematic of the product life cycle. The advantage of this approach is that it is a simple way of granting access to all team members in the product development team, to come with their own proposals of environmental impacts. Step 3: Create your environmental profile and find root causes Having created an overview of the product\u2019s main life cycle stages and environmental impacts in Step 2, the idea of Step 3 is to begin to categorise the identified environmental impacts according to their type. Subsequently the possible causes for the environmental impacts\u2019 emergence should be noted, before beginning to gather data on the environmental impacts that can be quantified. The idea with this step is to create a more nuanced picture of the physical relationships that underpin each environmental focus area, than was created in Step Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1989, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 563, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The idea with this step is to create a more nuanced picture of the physical relationships that underpin each environmental focus area, than was created in Step Fig. 23.3 Identifying environmental impacts throughout the product\u2019s life cycle Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1990, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 563, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. A number of focus areas can then be prioritised, based on the team\u2019s consideration of the need for action. The already identified environmental impacts will now be organised into one of four categories: Materials, Energy, Chemicals or Other (Field et al. 1993; Wenzel et al. 1997; Hochschorner and Finnveden 2003): \u2022 Materials: This includes resource and disposal aspects of each life cycle stage, i.e. whether a material is based on a scarce resource, whether it can be easily recycled, or whether it must be landfilled, etc. Remember also to consider whether ancillary materials are used, particularly in the use stage, e.g. paper filters for coffee makers. \u2022 Energy: This includes energy sources and energy aspects in the product life cycle stages. There can, for example, be large differences in energy consumption for material processing, depending on whether one takes new or recycled raw materials into consideration. Remember also to consider component suppliers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1991, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 564, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Remember also to consider component suppliers. The transport and use-related energy consumption is also recorded under this category. \u2022 Chemicals: This includes chemical consumption and chemical-related emissions of each life cycle stage, such as toxic chemicals used in manufacture. \u2022 Other: In this category all other aspects are noted, that one has chosen to consider. For example, health and safety in own (or suppliers\u2019) manufacturing plants, aspects related to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), or general economic concerns. This categorisation of the environmental impacts is created in a so-called MECO matrix (Fig. 23.4). The reason for first carrying out Step 2 before this categorisation in Step 3, is that the MECO matrix can be limiting for the product developer, who feels compelled to fill in the matrix in a systematic manner, from the top left to the bottom right", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1992, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 564, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By inserting a Step 2 and simply identifying the environmental impacts at a more abstract life cycle stage level, the environmental impacts are in focus, rather than Fig. 23.4 MECO-matrix and product life r\u00e9sum\u00e9 with environmental impacts categorised T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1993, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 564, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "their MECO categories. Having carried out Step 2, the sticky notes created can be simply moved down from the life cycle arrows to the respective MECO categories. One will then see that it is fine to have empty MECO cells, which may not actually have environmental impacts for the particular product under consideration. Step 4: Sketch the stakeholder-network Classic environmental efforts in companies take their point of departure in a product or a technology, directing special attention towards the improvement of the product\u2019s life cycle performance. This approach (which is represented in Steps 1\u20133) is a useful way of identifying environmental focus areas for the product itself, if one assumes that the product is used in a specific way, and in a specific context", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1994, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 565, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A weakness of taking the product-technology approach in isolation, however, is that it is built on a large series of assumptions, about the use, the user, the product development activity, the supply chain and many other stakeholders connected directly or indirectly to the product. Step 4 of this approach therefore proposes that the product development team identifies the various stakeholders who are connected to a particular set of activities, within which the product plays a role. It is these stakeholders who experience \u201cvalue\u201d and \u201cgoodness\u201d from the product. Environmental impacts often occur in the exchanges between stakeholders, e.g. in negotiations along the supply chain and/or as a result of lack of overview of the roles and responsibilities in the product\u2019s so-called stakeholder-network", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1995, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 565, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in negotiations along the supply chain and/or as a result of lack of overview of the roles and responsibilities in the product\u2019s so-called stakeholder-network. A stakeholder-network consists of several types of stakeholders, for example the manufacturing company, a component supplier, an external designer, a freight forwarder, the authorities, customers, users, a disposal company and so on. Sketches of the stakeholder-network give an insight into which stakeholders are affected by certain environmental impacts. To clarify the relationships between stakeholders and the impacts that occur, one can outline information exchanges, material flows and the resulting environmental impacts. Step 5: Quantify the environmental impacts Many decisions about the product\u2019s environmental profile can be taken on the basis of experience, dialogue and scenario-building", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1996, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 565, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Step 5: Quantify the environmental impacts Many decisions about the product\u2019s environmental profile can be taken on the basis of experience, dialogue and scenario-building. At some stage, however, some of the judgments and choices in product development must be based on hard numbers and quantitative assessments. Step 5 in the seven-step approach is therefore focused on the quantification activity, of the environmental impacts, with the help of a quantitative life cycle assessment technique. The figures created in this exercise are used to carry out an internal comparison of product alternatives and visualisation of the orders of magnitude between the impacts of the product across their life cycle stages and alternative life cycles. A detailed overview of LCA tools and a discussion of the different types of LCA (full LCA, simplified LCA) have been given earlier in this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1997, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 565, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A detailed overview of LCA tools and a discussion of the different types of LCA (full LCA, simplified LCA) have been given earlier in this chapter. It is here where the LCA tools fit well into the ecodesign process, in order to provide overview and priority for ecodesign improvement action. Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1998, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 565, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As previously mentioned and exemplified, there are many possible methods and tools to choose from, when quantifying the environmental impacts of a product at this stage of the ecodesign process. Ultimately, the choice of method will depend on: \u2022 Who will apply the method: a product developer, an industrial designer or an environmental specialist; \u2022 How much one knows about the product at the time of the use of the method; \u2022 Whether one wishes to use a fully tailored computer tool, or whether a spreadsheet or pocket calculator would suffice. Common for all methods is that one must define the important environmental impacts in the product\u2019s life cycle, and model these within the framework of the chosen method. Some methods include data on materials and processes, which ease the quantification task, especially if the method is software-based. Figure 23.5 shows an example of the outcome of the quantification task. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 1999, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 566, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 23.5 shows an example of the outcome of the quantification task. Fig. 23.5 Example of screening LCA exercise, to highlight key environmental focus areas during ecodesign T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2000, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 566, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Step 6: Create environmental concepts Step 6 of the ecodesign process described here is concerned with creating environmentally superior alternatives to those identified in Step 5, through the process of conceptualisation. This step is probably the closest to the normal product development and conceptualisation activity of all the seven steps described here. There are various tools available to aid this task: \u2022 Approaches which are generic for any conceptualisation process, such as brainstorming, brainwriting, sketching, etc. \u2022 The company may have checklists and negative lists (of materials, processes, chemicals), which prompt environmental thinking. \u2022 Creation of future scenarios (e.g. \u201cOutline the world\u2019s least energy-consuming house, which can be realised in the year 2020\u201d) in order to make a leap forward and perhaps find radical environmental concepts to back-cast from", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2001, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 567, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cOutline the world\u2019s least energy-consuming house, which can be realised in the year 2020\u201d) in order to make a leap forward and perhaps find radical environmental concepts to back-cast from. \u2022 The deployment of relevant environmental principles that can inspire and guide the environmental conceptualisation process. There are hundreds of environmental principles to choose from when carrying out ecodesign (Pigosso et al. 2014; Vezzoli and Manzini 2008). For the sake of providing a generic list of exemplar principles, the seven-step ecodesign guide proposes ten environmental principles. The principles are meant as a way of viewing the \u201cideal\u201d ecodesigned solution that the product developer could be expected to produce, if there were no other constraints in the product development process. The idea with these ten principles is to push the solution space for ecodesign to a large and creative space", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2002, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 567, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The idea with these ten principles is to push the solution space for ecodesign to a large and creative space. It is clear that not all ten principles will ever be possible to fulfil for any one design; for this reason the concepts that may arise from following any one of the principles could be called \u201cideal concepts\u201d. The subsequent task for the ecodesigner would be to reconcile the ideal concepts arising from following each of the ten principles in turn, into a set of consolidated ecodesign concepts that consider as many as possible of the ten principles. The ten environmental principles are as follows: \u2022 Reduce the material intensity of the product or service \u201cBy reducing the amount of material in the product, fewer material resources are required for manufacturing, the product requires less transport work, and there is less material to belandfilled or recycled. Attempt also to reduce the indirect material requirements, which are related to, e.g. the extraction of raw materials\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2003, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 567, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Attempt also to reduce the indirect material requirements, which are related to, e.g. the extraction of raw materials\u201d. \u2022 Reduce the energy intensity of the product or service \u201cAs energy supply today is not based on 100% renewable sources, and as fuels are often fossil, the consumption of energy typically leads to environmental loads that can be reduced by changing the design\u201d. \u2022 Reduce the dispersion of harmful substances through the product \u201cSubstances which in themselves are harmful, but which are used to achieve certain product characteristics\u2014e.g. brominated flame retardants\u2014can seep Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2004, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 567, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from the product out into nature and into the food chain, for instance by evaporation\u201d. \u2022 Increase the amount of recycled and recyclable materials in the product \u201cIt is a good idea to improve the possibility of recycling, for example by producing the product with few materials and by making them easily separable. At the same time, it is essential to apply increasing amounts of recycled materials in the product, since this will increase market demand for these materials\u201d. \u2022 Optimise the product\u2019s durability \u201cUnless the product has a very high environmental impact in the use stage, it is a good idea to make products that last for a long time, as this makes the production of new products for the same purpose unnecessary. At the same time, it is not useful to invest too much in the durability of products which are known to have a short use stage due to, for example, rapid technology obsolescence\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2005, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 568, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the same time, it is not useful to invest too much in the durability of products which are known to have a short use stage due to, for example, rapid technology obsolescence\u201d. \u2022 Incorporate environmental features into the product \u201cMake sure that the product is designed to reduce environmental loads, for instance by using standby functions, low-energy features or duplex features on printers\u201d. \u2022 Signal the product\u2019s environmental features through the physical design \u201cMake the product\u2019s environmental features visible to the user by, for example, placing the standby button on the front of the product or by setting the duplex mode as default in the printer driver settings\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2006, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 568, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Maximise the use of sustainable resources and supply chains \u201cIs there a link between recyclability of the product and use of recycled materials in the production? Do we know the origins of the materials and resources we use (with respect to both environmental and ethical standards)? Have we considered alternative materials on the merits of their environmental performance?\u201d \u2022 Optimise the product\u2019s performance \u201cIt is environmentally advantageous to combine several complementary functions in one product and to focus on the effectiveness of the product as a whole. The customer will evaluate the product\u2019s value, based on both its usability and its ability to efficiently meet a specific demand/desire. High perception of utility often leads to efficient use and increased durability of the product\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2007, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 568, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "High perception of utility often leads to efficient use and increased durability of the product\u201d. \u2022 Design the life cycle first and then the product \u201cBy thinking through all stages of the life cycle, one can achieve a very good understanding of the environmentally relevant properties the product must have, and these are then taken into account in the development process. Products which are developed on the basis of thorough knowledge of users\u2019 activities and needs have a better chance of achieving optimised life cycles and environmental profiles\u201d. A simple example of the use of the above ten environmental principles would be when trying to produce an ecodesigned office chair. Following the first environmental principle (reduce material intensity), the ecodesigner may arrive at an ideal T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2008, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 568, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product concept, where the chair had very few materials, and maybe even the same materials throughout. By following a subsequent environmental principle, (e.g. optimise the product\u2019s durability), the ecodesigner may arrive at an ideal concept, where the chair\u2019s dimensions and materials choices were much more voluminous and hardwaring than for the first principle. The task of product development in general is dependent on creating sub-concepts that some way or other come into conflict with each other, in their ideal states, before applying compromises and design decisions, to end up at a final solution. The same idea is intended here for the environmental principles, where the creation of the final solution should be a product of the best possible consolidated solution to the principles posed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2009, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 577, "book_page": 569, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The same idea is intended here for the environmental principles, where the creation of the final solution should be a product of the best possible consolidated solution to the principles posed. The office chair, in this example, would probably combine light-weight materials and smart structural designs, together with an easy maintenance (easy-wipe, sturdy, high scratch resistant) material choices, for as much of the chair\u2019s components as possible. Step 7: Develop an environmental strategy Steps 1\u20136 above describe an approach that isolates a product development team in an intensive ecodesign workshop-type activity. For environmental efforts, ideas and requirements to become rooted in the organisation, a strategy and prioritisation of efforts is required", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2010, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 577, "book_page": 569, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For environmental efforts, ideas and requirements to become rooted in the organisation, a strategy and prioritisation of efforts is required. Step 7 therefore prompts the product developer to reflect on the achievements gained in this activity, in order to consider which of the possible improvement proposals are worthy not just of the product currently being ecodesigned, but of being integrated generally into the company\u2019s product development process. Fig. 23.6 First attempt at ecodesign strategy Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2011, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 577, "book_page": 569, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The last task in this approach is therefore to decide on an environmental strategy, by using the product that has been the case of consideration for the first six steps in the approach, to attempt a generalisation of the environmental product development effort for the whole company. In the first instance this will have to be sketched out; later on it can be refined and made concrete, so that it can become a part of the company\u2019s strategic foundation and action plan. Figure 23.6 shows an example of an initial sketch of an ecodesign strategy for a company. The next task is to begin to put real numbers and improvement goals onto the strategy wheel, in order to create a set of concrete ecodesign improvement goals for the company for an agreed period. The grey area represents the current profile, and the green area represents the targets for the future. 23.6 Final Remarks This chapter has focused on the process of ecodesign in a company context", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2012, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 570, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The grey area represents the current profile, and the green area represents the targets for the future. 23.6 Final Remarks This chapter has focused on the process of ecodesign in a company context. It has paid particular attention to the role that LCA plays in the ecodesign activity, and where the interplay between LCA and ecodesign can be optimised, to create efficient and effective improvements to products, processes and systems. It can be seen that a careful and systematic approach to integrated analysis (LCA) and synthesis (ecodesign) is optimal in order to achieve environmentally enhanced solutions through the ecodesign activity. The chapter has discussed just a few examples of methods and tools, but has demonstrated through categorisation, that there are ways to support the product developer to choose the most suitable methods and tools according to the type of product, stage of the product development process and ambition of the product development team", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2013, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 570, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although, we have only scratched the surface of the many methods and tools that exist, there are several categorisations and collections of tools to be studied in literature (Pigosso et al. 2011a, 2014; Bovea and P\u00e9rez-Belis 2012). Finally, a generic ecodesign process has been described. This process was chosen for this chapter due to its simplicity, to its balancing of analysis and synthesis, and because it has been tested in industry. It is important to remember, however, that it is seldom in an established manufacturing company that one would have the luxury of being able to carry out such a dedicated ecodesign activity for every single product development project. This would probably not be the most efficient way of prioritising efforts in the company. Instead, the task of the strategic and tactical practitioners in any company ought to focus on the integration of ecodesign considerations into the company\u2019s existing product development process (Pigosso et al. 2013a, b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2014, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 570, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013a, b). When environmental enhancements are expected on the same level as cost saving achievements, quality enhancing design efforts and manufacturability considerations, we can be sure that ecodesign is truly integrated into the organisation\u2019s way of thinking about product development, business creation, and general purpose. T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2015, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 570, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter has had its primary focus on the activity of ecodesign, and not so much on the purpose. From one company to the next, the purpose/ambition for carrying out ecodesign may differ, whether it be to achieve a certain ecolabel, to adhere to a given legislation, to out-compete a competitor, or to achieve the ambitious goal of circular economy. Regardless of the purpose, the activity at the level of ecodesign remains the same. For simplicity\u2014and to be loyal to the field, this chapter has stuck to the discrete product as the object of ecodesign. In recent years, the ecodesign activity has broadened, from single products, through the ecodesign of more complex systems (Cluzel et al. 2012), through services or combined product/service-systems (Lindahl et al. 2014), and to ecodesign of communities and societies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2016, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 571, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012), through services or combined product/service-systems (Lindahl et al. 2014), and to ecodesign of communities and societies. For all of these newer ecodesign focus areas, the basic principles remain the same, namely focus on life cycle; attention to a healthy balance of analysis and synthesis; choice of most suitable methods and tools; and application of common product development good practice, in order to achieve promising results. The good news is that the vast majority of methods, tools and guidelines for ecodesign now exist. The large and exciting task remains in mastering how to deploy an ecodesign process that results in environmentally excellent improvements, which are also great successes on the marketplace! Alting, L., Hauschild, M., Wenzel, H.: Life Cycle Engineering and Management. In: Seliger, G. (ed.) Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, pp. 31\u201367", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2017, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 571, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Seliger, G. (ed.) Sustainability in Manufacturing: Recovery of Resources in Product and Material Cycles, pp. 31\u201367. Springer, Berlin (2007) Andreasen, M.M., Hein, L.: Integrated Product Development. Springer, Berlin (1987) Azapagic, A., Clift, R.: Life cycle assessment as a tool for improving process performance: a case study on boron products. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4, 133\u2013142 (1999) Bakker, C.A., Wever, R., Teoh, C., De Clercq, S.: Designing cradle-to-cradle products: a reality check. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 3, 2\u20138 (2010) Baumann, H., Boons, F., Bragd, A.: Mapping the green product development field: engineering, policy and business perspectives. J. Clean. Prod. 10, 409\u2013425 (2002). doi:10.1016/S0959-6526 (02)00015-X Bey, N., Hauschild, M.Z., McAloone, T.C.: Drivers and barriers for implementation of environmental strategies in manufacturing companies. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 62, 43\u201346 (2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2018, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 571, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 59, 160\u2013173 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.040 Poole, S., Simon, M., Sweatman, A, et al.: Integrating environmental decisions into the product development process: part 2 the later stages. In: Proceedings. EcoDesign\u201999: First International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 1999, pp. 334\u2013337. IEEE (1999) Portney, P.R.: The price is right making use of life cycle analysis. Issues Sci. Technol. 10(2), 69\u201375 (1993) Poudelet, V., Chayer, J.-A., Margni, M., et al.: A process-based approach to operationalize life cycle assessment through the development of an eco-design decision-support system. J. Clean. Prod. 33, 192\u2013201 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.04.005 T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2034, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 574, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Reay, S.D., Mccool, J.P., Withell, A.: Exploring the feasibility of cradle to cradle (product) design: perspectives from New Zealand scientists. J. Sustain. Dev. 4, 36\u201344 (2011) Rio, M., Reyes, T., Roucoules, L.: Toward proactive (eco)design process: modeling information transformations among designers activities. J. Clean. Prod. 39, 105\u2013116 (2013). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2012.07.061 Rossi, M., Charon, S., Wing, G., Ewell, J.: Design for the next generation incorporating cradle-to-cradle design into Herman Miller products. J. Ind. Ecol. 10, 193\u2013210 (2006). doi:10. 1162/jiec.2006.10.4.193 Russo, D., Rizzi, C., Montelisciani, G.: Inventive guidelines for a TRIZ-based eco-design matrix. J. Clean. Prod. 76, 95\u2013105 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.057 Simon, M., Poole, S., Sweatman, A., et al.: Environmental priorities in strategic product development. Bus. Strategy Environ. 9(6), 367\u2013377 (2000) Stevels, A.: Adventures in ecodesign of electronic products (1993\u20132007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2035, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 575, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bus. Strategy Environ. 9(6), 367\u2013377 (2000) Stevels, A.: Adventures in ecodesign of electronic products (1993\u20132007). Ipskamp, Enschede (2007) Stevels, A.: Application of EcoDesign: ten years of dynamic development. In: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, pp. 905\u2013915 (2001) Sun, J., Han, B., Ekwaro-Osire, S., Zhang, H.-C.: Design for environment: methodologies, tools, and implementation. J. Integr. Des. Process. Sci. Manuf. Des. 7, 59\u201375 (2003) Tchertchian, N., Yvars, P.-A., Millet, D.: Benefits and limits of a constraint satisfaction problem/life cycle assessment approach for the ecodesign of complex systems: a case applied to a hybrid passenger ferry. J. Clean. Prod. 42, 1\u201318 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.10.048 Tingstr\u00f6m, J., Karlsson, R.: The relationship between environmental analyses and the dialogue process in product development. J. Clean. Prod. 14, 1409\u20131419 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2036, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 575, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 14, 1409\u20131419 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro. 2005.11.012 Trappey, A.J.C., Ou, J.J.R., Lin, G.Y.P., Chen, M.-Y.: An eco- and inno-product design system applying integrated and intelligent qfde and triz methodology. J. Syst. Sci. Syst. Eng. 20, 443\u2013459 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11518-011-5176-8 van Weenen, J.: Towards sustainable product development. J. Clean. Prod. 3, 95\u2013100 (1995) Vezzoli, C., Manzini, E.: Design for Environmental Sustainability, 1st edn. Springer, London (2008) Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1997) Wever, R., Boks, C., van Es, H., Stevels, A.: Multiple environmental benchmarking data analysis and its implications for design: a case study on packaging. In: Fourth International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2005. Eco Design 2005, pp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2037, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 575, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Fourth International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2005. Eco Design 2005, pp. 799\u2013806 (2005) Wever, R., Boks, C., Marinelli, T., Stevels, A.: Increasing the benefits of product-level benchmarking for strategic eco-efficient decision making. Benchmarking Int. J. 14, 711\u2013727 (2007). doi:10.1108/14635770710834509 Wimmer, W., Pamminger, R., Stachura, M., Grab, R.: ECODESIGN in the electronics industry\u2014 achieving legal compliance with the EU-directives and environmentally improving products by using the new EEE-PILOT. In: Fourth International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2005. Eco Design 2005, pp. 671\u2013677 (2005) Wimmer, W.: The ECODESIGN Checklist Method : A Redesign Tool for Environmental Product Improvements. In: First International Symposium On Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 1999. Proceedings. EcoDesign\u201999, pp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2038, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 575, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: First International Symposium On Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 1999. Proceedings. EcoDesign\u201999, pp. 685\u2013688 (1999) Zackrisson, M., Rocha, C., Christiansen, K., Jarnehammar, A.: Stepwise environmental product declarations: ten SME case studies. J. Clean. Prod. 16, 1872\u20131886 (2008). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2008.01.001 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2039, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 575, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biographies Tim C. McAloone actively working into the fields of ecodesign, eco-innovation, product/service-systems and product development since the late 1990s, with a particular focus on innovation and sustainability strategies. Has led a series of research projects and innovation networks including industrialists, academics and other organisations. Daniela C.A. Pigosso has been working with ecodesign, eco-innovation sustainable design and product/service-systems since the late 2000s. Developed a maturity-based framework for ecodesign and sustainable design. Main interests are on the managerial integration of sustainability best practices into business and innovation processes. T.C. McAloone and D.C.A. Pigosso", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2040, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "23 Ecodesign Implementation and LCA", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 576, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 24 Environmental Labels and Declarations Jeppe Frydendal, Lisbeth Engel Hansen and Alexandra Bonou Abstract Based on the terminology and structure developed by the International Organization for Standardization, a description is given on the types of ecolabels that build on life cycle assessments. Focus is on type I labels that point out products and services with an overall environmental preferability within a specific product category. Type I labels include official labels set up by government and international institutions. Examples are given on operation of labelling schemes, development and focus area for criteria that must be met to obtain a label, effects on environment and legislation of labelling, the use of ecolabels in marketing, and the way ecolabels help build a market for \u201cgreener products\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2041, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 577, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Type III labels\u2014or Environmental Product Declarations\u2014are also briefly described with indicative examples from the building sector, a declaration for office furniture, and an introduction is given to the European Commission\u2019s programme for product\u2014and organisational environmental footprints. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to: \u2022 Explain the process of ecolabelling design and development \u2022 Know the main types of environmental labelling as they are standardised by ISO \u2022 Understand the purpose of ecolabels in communicating sustainability efforts \u2022 Explain the main challenges in using ecolabelling for decision support \u2022 Understand the extensive variety of environmental labelling schemes \u2022 Understand the purpose and the importance of harmonising ecolabelling schemes. J. Frydendal (&) \u0001 L.E. Hansen Danish Standards Foundation, G\u00f6teborg Plads 1, Nordhavn, Denmark e-mail: jf@ecolabel.dk A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2042, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 577, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Frydendal (&) \u0001 L.E. Hansen Danish Standards Foundation, G\u00f6teborg Plads 1, Nordhavn, Denmark e-mail: jf@ecolabel.dk A. Bonou Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_24", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2043, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 577, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.1 Environmental labels and declarations are a form of sustainability performance measure. They provide information about certain environmental aspects of a product or service to non-environmental experts. The intention is to inform and influence consumer and professional purchasers to take into account such concerns when choosing between products and services. By changing their consumption patterns in favour of environmentally friendlier options consumers and professional purchasers can thus contribute to more sustainable consumption and support the goal of sustainable development (see Chap. 5). Environmental labels have been developed since the 70s (first of them being the Blue Angel developed in 1978 by the German Federal Ministry of Interiors) due to a growing concern for the environment, both on government, business and consumer levels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2044, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 578, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "But they evolved mostly after the late 80s and particularly after the \u201992 UN conference on environment and development when the adoption of the Agenda 21 put the target of sustainable development in the political dialogue globally (UN 1992; UNOPS 2009). From a producer perspective, the growing environmental concern opened a new market opportunity and therefore the so-called \u201cgreen marketing\u201d emerged. This aimed to enhance company reputation to the consumers and show a responsible code of conduct by promoting products of presumable environmental superiority. To capitalise on environmentally friendlier practices companies used green claims, in many cases expressed in the form of some kind of product logo, declaration and labelling. In the beginning, there were no standards or guidelines for developing and using such labels, which means that there was no credibility or validation of the claims", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2045, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 578, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the beginning, there were no standards or guidelines for developing and using such labels, which means that there was no credibility or validation of the claims. Thus, there was a risk for distorting the market and confusing the consumers if not misleading them, which is commonly referred to as \u201cgreenwashing\u201d. To tackle this challenge and provide an objective basis for verifying a company\u2019s claims about its product\u2019s performance, standardisation initiatives took place. Most significant is the development of the ISO 14000 family, which started already in 1991. The family contains more than 20 standards which are designed to guide a voluntary environmental management system (IISD 1996; ISO 2009). Additionally, since the 1990s governments in many countries have been introducing national or regional programmes or schemes for environmental labels. Labelling programmes have also been initiated by private companies and non-governmental organisations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2046, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 578, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Labelling programmes have also been initiated by private companies and non-governmental organisations. The goal is to obtain environmental improvement by using market forces, and giving the consumers credible labels that point out products with a lower environmental burden. Despite the existing efforts, at the UN summit in 2002, 10 years after the adoption of Agenda 21, a need was identified on a global scale to \u201cdevelop and adopt, where appropriate, on a voluntary basis, effective, transparent, verifiable, non-misleading and non-discriminatory consumer information tools to provide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2047, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 578, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "information relating to sustainable consumption and production\u201d (UN 2002). Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to outline different types of such tools and to present the benefits from and the barriers for their implementation. 24.2 Types of Labels The private initiative \u201cthe Ecolabel Index\u201d (www.ecolabelindex.com) has listed more than 400 different labels from 199 countries and 25 industry sectors. Some of these deal with single environmental issues, for example in relation to carbon emissions or water consumption. Single-issue labels can be used by a variety of sectors, e.g. a forest management label can be used for various wood-containing products. Single issues can also be sector specific like the organic cotton labels used in the textile industry, window energy rating schemes used in the building sector, or the dolphin-safe label specifically for tuna products. Other labels deal with multiple environmental issues. Such is the case of the EU and the Nordic ecolabels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2048, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 579, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other labels deal with multiple environmental issues. Such is the case of the EU and the Nordic ecolabels. These can be attributed to a broad range of products (cosmetics, white goods, windows, etc.). Multiple-issue labels can also be sector specific as seen in the case of electronic or ecotourism specific labels. Regarding the organisations that administer the various labels there is regional variation and overlapping initiatives also occur. Taking the example of organic food, there are countries with comprehensive legislation and corresponding labelling such as the US, France, Canada, Denmark and Japan. EU has established related legislation and a label additionally to national schemes. In countries where a corresponding law is not in place, labelling is based on nonprofit organizations, private companies and others. Beyond the environmental considerations there are also labels dealing with other dimensions of sustainability (see Chap. 5) touching upon ethics and social issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2049, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 579, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Beyond the environmental considerations there are also labels dealing with other dimensions of sustainability (see Chap. 5) touching upon ethics and social issues. For example the Coalition for Consumer Information on Cosmetics deals with animal testing while other labels certify wild life protection and animal welfare. Regarding human relations there are labels certifying fair trade conduct, fair labour practices, abolishment of child labour, socially responsible investing, just to name some examples. While most labels are voluntary, in some cases, they can be mandatory. An example is the EU Energy label (regulated by the EU\u2019s Energy Labelling Directive) that shows the energy consumption efficiency of energy-related products such as white goods. Similar mandatory energy rating labels are found around the globe, e.g. in Australia and Singapore. Figure 24.1 from Rubik and Frankl (2005) gives an overview of the different labelling types", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2050, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 579, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Similar mandatory energy rating labels are found around the globe, e.g. in Australia and Singapore. Figure 24.1 from Rubik and Frankl (2005) gives an overview of the different labelling types. It also indicates that consumers are exposed to a large number of different labels that follow different sustainability principles and meet different criteria. This variety in characterising products can be difficult to understand in the purchase situation. This chapter refers only to labels that deal with environmental issues and that are voluntary. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2051, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 579, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.2.1 ISO-Definitions As discussed, to support voluntary initiatives the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) started a process of developing a set of rules and guidelines for different types of environmental labels. As part of the ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards, the ISO 14020 series defines three broad types of labels/declarations. Two of these (\u2018Type I\u2019 and \u2018Type III\u2019) are life cycle based as part of the definition, whereas the last (\u2018Type II\u2019) is not. Apart from these three types, ISO has also developed a general set of principles for labels that are neither of these types. Type I Environmental Labelling (ISO 14024) Type I environmental labels are defined as voluntary, multi-criteria-based and third party-verified labels that indicate an overall environmental preference in a life cycle perspective of a product or service within a specific product category (ISO 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2052, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 580, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This type of environmental label, or Ecolabel, is a tool to help the market stimulate continuous environmental improvements. All the label examples in Fig. 24.2 are Type I ecolabels. Fig. 24.1 Taxonomy of labels for communication of environmentally relevant information about products, adapted from Rubik and Frankl (2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2053, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 580, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Type II Self-declared Environmental Claims (ISO 14021) The overall objective of the ISO standard 14021 is to harmonise the use of self-declared environmental claims and thereby try to reduce the number of inaccurate and misleading claims (ISO 2016). However, it is important to keep in mind that many self-declared environmental claims do not follow the standard of ISO 14021 and some might also be in conflict with the marketing regulation. As all other marketing claims\u2014environmental claims are also regulated by e.g. the marketing legislation. Since they lack a foundation in LCA, the self-declared environmental claims will not be discussed further in this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2054, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 581, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the marketing legislation. Since they lack a foundation in LCA, the self-declared environmental claims will not be discussed further in this chapter. Type III Environmental Declarations (ISO 14025) Type III environmental declarations are quantified environmental data based on LCA (life cycle inventory data or impact assessment results) primarily intended for business-to-business communication for the purchaser to be able to compare the environmental performance of different products fulfilling the same function (ISO 2006a). This aim requires consistency between the studies underlying the declaration of the compared products, and the standard encourages harmonisation between different declaration schemes. 24.3 Ecolabels To clarify the terminology, ecolabels are thus a subset of environmental labels that identify environmental preferability of a given product or service compared to other products in the same product group", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2055, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 581, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is the purpose of the ISO 14024 standard to ensure more consistent consumer information and credibility by setting a number of minimum requirements that a Type I ecolabelling scheme has to fulfil: European Flower 1992- European Commission/Na\u019fonal competent bodies Nordic Swan 1989-Nordic Council of Ministers Blue Angel 1978- Government of Germany/independent bodies China Environmental Labelling 1993- Government of China Ecomark 1991- Government of India Austrian ecolabel 1991- Government of Austria EcoMark Japan 1989- Nonprofit/Government of Japan Good Environmental Choice Australia (GECA) 2000- Private non profit ECOLOGO (North America) 1988- for profit Fig. 24.2 Examples of type I ecolabels (name, year of establishment and management body) Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2056, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 581, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 It is based on the life cycle perspective; \u2022 It is multi-criteria based (not only looking at single environmental issues, such as climate change) \u2022 Environmental criteria are based on sound scientific and engineering principles. To ensure objectivity, a broad range of stakeholders is involved in the selection of criteria (e.g. government, consumers, industries, etc.); \u2022 It includes functional requirements (fitness for use) to ensure a sufficient quality of labelled products and services; \u2022 Criteria are time-limited and revised if the situation has changed (e.g. if new and better technologies have been introduced) to ensure that the criteria continuously support identification of the products that have an overall environmental preferability; \u2022 There is transparency in all stages of its operation and development, which, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2057, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 582, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "includes, but is not limited to, the following aspects: \u2013 Publicly available criteria, \u2013 Public hearing or hearing among interested parties of criteria, \u2013 Information about the funding sources for the programme development, \u2013 Public listing of all certified products and services; \u2022 It is accessible to all potential applicants; \u2022 It involves third-party certification; \u2022 There is compliance monitoring after the licence is awarded. Out of the more than 400 labels mentioned in the introduction, which include all sustainability related labels, the Global Ecolabelling Network (GEN) (www.globalecolabelling.net) has less than 30 members worldwide. GEN is a non-profit membership association for Type I ecolabelling organisations (including governmental, non-governmental, non-profit, etc.). Members include the organisations that award the most-used Type I labels in the world such as the ecolabels of the EU, Germany, China, India, North America, Brazil and Australia", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2058, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 582, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Members include the organisations that award the most-used Type I labels in the world such as the ecolabels of the EU, Germany, China, India, North America, Brazil and Australia. A more detailed example for the Nordic ecolabel is given in Box 24.1. Box 24.1 The Nordic Ecolabel\u2013\u2013The Official Ecolabel in the Nordic Countries The Nordic Ecolabel is the official Ecolabel of the Nordic countries but can be used and is recognised globally. It was initiated in 1989 by the Nordic Council of Ministers with the purpose of providing an environmental labelling scheme that would contribute to a sustainable consumption and production. The Nordic Ecolabel is a voluntary, positive ecolabelling of products and services and was also initiated as a practical tool for consumers to help them actively choose environmentally-sound products. The Nordic Ecolabel is an ISO 14024 type I ecolabel and Nordic Ecolabelling is a third-party verification body.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2059, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 582, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Nordic Ecolabel is well established and internationally recognised. Annual consumer surveys show that 90\u201395% of the consumers in the Nordic Countries recognise the Nordic Ecolabel. 24.3.1 Criteria for Type I Ecolabels Ecolabels ensure consistency with the two main principles of LCA presented in the introduction to this book (see Chap. 2): (i) the life cycle perspective and (ii) the multiple environmental issues. Life Cycle Perspective The publicly available criteria document should list all the requirements that a product or service has to fulfil to be awarded an ecolabel and these criteria should cover the life cycle. For the example of printed matter products, Box 24.2 shows a comparison between the criteria for a Type I ecolabelling scheme and a labelling scheme dealing with a single environmental issue\u2014sustainability of forestry. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2060, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 591, "book_page": 583, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Box 24.2 Two Types of Product Labelling for Printed Matter There is a large number of labels in the graphic industry used by companies to promote the products as environmentally friendly. Type I ecolabels and raw material labels claiming sustainable forestry are among the most common. The figure below illustrates the difference between the Nordic Ecolabel for printed matter products\u2014a Type I ecolabel and a raw material label focusing on sustainable forestry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2061, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 584, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life cycle stage of printed ma\u01a9er Type I ecolabel Raw material label requirements Raw materials \u2022 Sustainable forestry and/or recycled fibres in a high propor\u019fon of the paper used \u2022 Sustainable forestry and/or recycled fibres Pulp manufacturing \u2022 Chemical requirements \u2022 Consump\u019fon of energy - Paper produc\u019fon \u2022 Chemical requirements \u2022 Consump\u019fon of energy - Prin\u019fng \u2022 Prin\u019fng inks and other chemicals \u2022 %-waste/shredded paper \u2022 energy consump\u019fon - Finishing \u2022 Glue and coa\u019fng - Use \u2022 None directly, but the chemical requirements of the other stages will influence the chemical exposure of the user - Disposal/recycling \u2022 Design for recycling - Pulp manufacturing For a type I ecolabel, requirements are set for the environmental performance in all relevant stages of the life cycle whereas the raw material label only sets requirements for the forestry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2062, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 584, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Since the purpose of type I ecolabel, is to drive improvement of the environmental performance of products, the criteria should focus on points where the manufacturer\u2019s decision affects the environmental performance. This means that requirements will not have to be set for all stages of the life cycle as it may not be possible for the manufacturer to influence the whole life cycle. For example, it is not relevant to set requirements for consumer behaviour of an ecolabelled product, but it is possible to set requirements for the product that allow and encourage the consumer to ensure low impacts in the use and disposal stages. To take the example of an ecolabelled laundry machine, such requirements could include: \u2022 Low-temperature washing as standard programme; \u2022 High spinning as standard (relevant especially in countries where tumble drying is common); \u2022 Design for disassembly and recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2063, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 584, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Multiple Environmental Impact Categories Criteria for Type I ecolabelling also have to consider multiple environmental impact categories to prevent burden shifting from one impact to another which is a risk when there is single focus on one environmental impact category\u2014such as climate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2064, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 584, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "change (see Chap. 2). Different environmental impact categories are considered depending on their relevance for each product group. Taking the example of the European ecolabel for hand dishwashing detergents, the criteria aim at promoting products that have a reduced impact on aquatic ecosystems while for the case of paints and varnishes, there is special focus on volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (EC 2011a, 2014a). Note that different ecolabelling schemes use different classification schemes for product groups. If corresponding criteria have not been developed for a product group, the products within the group cannot be eligible for labelling or environmental claims (see also Sect. 24.3.4). For the EU ecolabel, every non-food and non-medical product marketed in the European economic market is entitled and various actors across the supply chain can apply (e.g. producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, importers)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2065, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 585, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "producers, manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers, importers). Labelling schemes can also be sector specific such as the Type I ecolabelling scheme operated by the nonprofit organization natureplus (www.natureplus.org), targeting building and accommodation with validity across the whole of Europe according to uniform criteria. The specifics of environmental criteria as well as technical and quality requirements also differ across ecolabelling schemes. For the example of hand-washing detergents, the EU ecolabel provides formulas for calculating the toxicity to aquatic organisms using as an indicator the Critical Dilution Volume for all substances while the Australian Standard Good Environment Choice for Australia (GECA) does not. The requirements and upper limits of substances allowed to be used can also differ. For the quoted example, EU thus excludes the use of formaldehyde while GECA has an upper limit of 0.1% by weight", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2066, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 585, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The requirements and upper limits of substances allowed to be used can also differ. For the quoted example, EU thus excludes the use of formaldehyde while GECA has an upper limit of 0.1% by weight. Additionally, the substances allowed to be used in the products can be regulated by different regulations (national and international standards), e.g. GECA requires that colourants in cleaning products are either compliant with certain EU regulation or are approved for use in foods by the Australian government standards (EC 2011a; GECA 2015). 24.3.2 Setting and Revising the Criteria When setting new criteria or revising existing criteria, a public consultation with key experts and relevant stakeholders is compulsory, which may take substantial amounts of time and resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2067, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 585, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the case of the European ecolabel, the preparatory work, which is the first step of the process, includes feasibility, environmental and market studies, improvement analysis and revision of existing life cycle assessment or implementation of new studies where necessary. Depending on the results, the criteria are drafted and iterated by the European Union Eco-labelling board. The outcome is circulated for approval among the relevant European Commission services. The process is then brought to a member state level where a vote is taken by national regulatory authorities (EC 2016a). Note that these decision Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2068, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 585, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "steps are subject to change and continuous improvement. Currently, from the start until the adoption of criteria through a Commission Decision, the process takes 2 years on average. For all ecolabelling schemes, the criteria have to be evaluated from time to time and if necessary revised (setting stricter requirements) to make sure that the requirements continuously favour the products on the market that have the best environmental performance and thus ensuring a continuous improvement incentive. Box 24.3 gives a comprehensive example of the criteria development cycle for a product group within Nordic Ecolabelling. Box 24.3 The Criteria Development Cycle for the Nordic Ecolabel The process of developing new criteria starts with a feasibility study in which the potential (see below) of labelling a product area is investigated looking at both environmental aspects and the market situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2069, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 586, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "During criteria development a set of criteria are developed and input from stakeholders (including a 2 months public consultation) are obtained. When the criteria have been adopted, companies can obtain a licence to use the ecolabel if they demonstrate compliance with the criteria. Before the criteria expire, an evaluation is performed and based on that the criteria are revised in a process similar to criteria development. When looking into the life cycle aspects of a given product group during the development of criteria, some of the tool used by Nordic Ecolabelling are the MECO-matrix (Wenzel et al. 1997), existing LCA knowledge, literature studies plus information and data collected from the industry. Nordic Ecolabelling has developed a tool called RPS that is used when evaluating the potential in developing ecolabel criteria for new product groups and when", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2070, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 586, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "setting up the specific requirements for a product group. RPS is an abbreviation for Relevance, Potential and Steerability. Relevance. As the overall goal of ecolabelling is to have a positive effect on sustainable consumption and production it makes sense that the product groups that are selected for ecolabelling have a high environmental relevance. Likewise, the specific requirements for a product group also have to have a high environmental relevance or a positive effect on product quality or health impacts. Potential. When selecting a new product group for ecolabelling, or when setting a specific requirement for a given product group, it is very important that it is not only environmentally relevant, but also that the products on the market differ so that the ecolabel can point to the better products. If all products on the market have the same environmental performance, there would be no potential for the ecolabel to make a positive impact. Steerability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2071, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 587, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If all products on the market have the same environmental performance, there would be no potential for the ecolabel to make a positive impact. Steerability. Relevance and potential is not enough when selecting a product group for ecolabelling. There also has to be an interest between the stakeholders of the product group to use ecolabels to increase the supply or demand for ecolabelled products. If no manufacturer is interested, the development of the criteria might be a waste of time as there will be no direct impact from ecolabelling if there are no ecolabelled products on the market. However, there might be some indirect effects as shown later in this chapter. The specific requirements within a product group also have to be steerable meaning that, e.g. it has to be possible for the licence holders to influence and to document and control the fulfilment of the criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2072, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 587, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "it has to be possible for the licence holders to influence and to document and control the fulfilment of the criteria. When revising the criteria an overlap will be ensured between criteria generations so that the existing licence holders have time to implement the changes needed to fulfil the new and stricter requirements and to go through the recertification process. After the public hearing, the criteria proposal is finalised and sent to the Nordic Ecolabelling Board who will decide whether to adopt the criteria. The Nordic Ecolabelling Board consists of the chairmen of the national ecolabelling boards that collaborate on the scheme and represent a wide range of stakeholders including NGOs, authorities, retailers and industry. In Denmark the national ecolabelling board is appointed by the Danish Minister of Environment. 24.3.3 The Certification Process The certification for a Type I ecolabel\u2014also referred to as licensing\u2014has to be carried out by an independent third party", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2073, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 587, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.3.3 The Certification Process The certification for a Type I ecolabel\u2014also referred to as licensing\u2014has to be carried out by an independent third party. In order to be awarded a licence the applicant must be in compliance with the general rules of the programme and the product must meet all product environmental criteria and functional requirements as defined in the publicly available criteria document. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2074, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 587, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In general, the process is that the applicant will collect all necessary documentation including documentation from suppliers and test laboratories and send it together with an application to the ecolabelling body running the programme that has to do the verification. After being awarded the licence, the licence holder is responsible for ensuring that the products continuously meet the ecolabel requirements and the ecolabelling body has to be informed about any changes in the product or manufacturing process that might influence the compliance. Typically, the licence lasts for 3\u20134 years. The licensing specifics depend on the ecolabelling scheme. Taking some examples from Fig. 24.1: For the EU ecolabel, licensing is managed in each country by a dedicated national independent organisation called \u2018Competent Body\u2019, typically anchored in the ministry of environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2075, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 588, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.1: For the EU ecolabel, licensing is managed in each country by a dedicated national independent organisation called \u2018Competent Body\u2019, typically anchored in the ministry of environment. The competent body assists with the application process, evaluates the application and decides on the award of the label (EC 2016b). In Australia GECA, a nonprofit organization, is responsible for the management of the scheme and setting the rules that detail the requirements and procedures for products to be certified. The fulfilment of requirements is verified through audits by third party conformity assessment bodies (CABs) which are required to comply with corresponding standards such as ISO/IEC 17065 (Conformity assessment\u2014Requirements for bodies certifying products, processes and services) and ISO/IEC Guide 28 (Guidance on a third-party certification system for products) (ISO 2004, 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2076, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 588, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The CABs need to be accredited by the government appointed accreditation body for Australia and New Zealand (GECA 2015). In China, it is a governmental body, the State Environmental Protection Agency, which issues the guide and requirements for accrediting the labelling and supervises the management and certification. The documentation is reviewed by a certification centre and the licensing process includes onsite inspection and sampling (CEPACEC 2016). Regarding the monitoring of continued compliance with the ecolabel criteria, testing is done through verified bodies. For example, in China testing is done by the adequate agency. In the EU it is done by qualified laboratories, preferably accredited under ISO 17025 (ISO 2005), or equivalent, that should be approved by the competent body. As for the monitoring, in EU it includes sampling from time to time, factory inspections and product tests", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2077, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 588, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As for the monitoring, in EU it includes sampling from time to time, factory inspections and product tests. A file of the test results and all relevant documentation needs to be kept and be available at all times. In China, annual inspections take place until the label expires. Box 24.4 describes the certification process in the Nordic Ecolabelling system. Box 24.4 Certification at Nordic Ecolabelling The Nordic Council of Ministers has set up requirements that Nordic Ecolabelling, besides the requirements of ISO 14024 for type I ecolabelling schemes, also needs to fulfil the ISO 17065 standard when it comes to the certification process. The standard includes, among other, requirements related to independence and the quality of the certification process.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2078, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 588, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Further, Ecolabelling Denmark is by law subject to the rules of the public administration act when it comes to the certification process. Before awarding a licence, Nordic Ecolabelling will be checking all submitted documentation for compliance with the requirements of the criteria. An evaluator will go through the documentation and make sure that all relevant documentation is present and shows compliance. A double check is performed by another staff member, that has not been involved in the checking before, and who also goes through the case to verify compliance. Before the licence is awarded, Nordic Ecolabelling will do an inspection visit at the production site to ensure that the situation is in line with the documentation sent. Inspection visits are performed all over the world where the production of ecolabelled products takes place. After certification, Nordic Ecolabelling has procedures for monitoring the continued compliance, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2079, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 589, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After certification, Nordic Ecolabelling has procedures for monitoring the continued compliance, e.g. by follow-up inspection visits, spot checks of ecolabelled products on the market and other types of follow-up evaluation during the validity of the licence. During the recertification/renewal process, the same certification process applies as for a new application\u2014including inspection visit at the production site. Inspection visit at a textile production site in Bangladesh 24.3.4 Ecolabels as a Marketing Tool Ecolabels are market-driven tools. By using the label in their marketing, manufacturers or suppliers can provide credible information showing that the product or service has a good environmental performance. Indeed, such an attribute is positively evaluated by consumers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2080, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 589, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Indeed, such an attribute is positively evaluated by consumers. Results from a pan-European survey showed that 95% of respondents considered environmental change to be an important issue while the majority is willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products/services (EC 2014b). Ecolabels can be a useful tools for promoting Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2081, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 589, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "environmental policies aiming to reward the environmentally best performing products and companies, such as those established by the European Commission (EC 2008, 2016c). Ecolabelling is further promoted as a marketing tool in emerging economies, e.g. for African products (UNEP 2016). Labels can be useful towards reaching the UN Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 12. Which is to \u2018ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns\u2019 (UN 2016). However, the proliferation of environmental claims and labels also has adverse marketing effects. Indicatively in the aforementioned European surveys, a decline in confidence in environmental claims was observed, from 52% in 2007 to 47% in 2011. This has led to guidelines for green claims developed by national authorities, self-regulatory bodies, and the private sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2082, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 590, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This has led to guidelines for green claims developed by national authorities, self-regulatory bodies, and the private sector. An example for Denmark is the Guidance from the Danish Consumer Ombudsman on the use of environmental and ethical claims in marketing (Danish Consumer Ombudsman 2016). This stipulates that it is not allowed to promote a product with general environmental claims such as \u201cenvironmentally friendly\u201d, \u201cenvironmentally correct\u201d, \u201cgentle on the environment\u201d, \u201cgreen\u201d, \u201cblue\u201d, \u201cmore environmentally friendly\u201d, \u201csmaller environmental footprint\u201d, \u201cbetter for the environment\u201d etc., unless being substantiated by a proven, significantly lower environmental burden compared to similar products. The Consumer Ombudsman further states that this would normally require that a complete product life cycle assessment has been carried out", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2083, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 590, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Consumer Ombudsman further states that this would normally require that a complete product life cycle assessment has been carried out. However, the use of such general environmental claims is justified if a product is awarded a license to use the ecolabel of an official ecolabel scheme, such as \u2018the Swan\u2019 from the Nordic Ecolabel or \u2018the Flower\u2019 from the European Union Ecolabel. The latter point indicates that official ecolabels have a unique status in the use as a marketing tool as they are assumed credible and not misleading. Criticism Even if ecolabels are a powerful marketing tool, there is also criticism from parts of the business sector. One objection is the fact that in most schemes a fee has to be paid for the verification process and the subsequent use of the label. It has been argued that this puts a financial burden on companies that are actually doing something beneficial for the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2084, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 590, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It has been argued that this puts a financial burden on companies that are actually doing something beneficial for the environment. However, the rationale behind the scheme is that consumers are actually willing to pay a little bit more for ecolabelled products, and in most cases the fee will not affect the final price for the consumer significantly. Another criticism from the business sector is that the criteria are set up in a way that obstructs innovation, because they are based on analysis of existing technologies focusing on their strengths and weaknesses. The criteria are, however, not prescribing the use of a specific technology but aim at minimizing consumption of resources and emissions to the environment. In cases where totally new technologies emerge during the validity period of a set of criteria, these might not fit totally to that new technology, but in cases like that a number of schemes have the possibility to change or adjust the criteria.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2085, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 590, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.3.5 Increasing the Demand for Green Products Using Ecolabels To ensure a maximum positive impact of an ecolabelling scheme, it is important to not only target suppliers of products, but also work with increasing the demand for ecolabelled products to create a pull effect in the market. Here there are three main target audiences\u2014all with a great potential for increasing the demand and thereby yielding environmental benefits from changing the consumption to more sustainable products and services: \u2022 Consumers; \u2022 Public procurement; \u2022 Procurement in private companies and organisations. Until recently, it has been difficult to realise the potential in public procurement at the European market because of EU regulation that did not allow the public authorities to set ecolabels as a requirement for procurement in tenders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2086, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 591, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, in the context of sustainable consumption and production, since 2008 EU has supported green public procurement initiatives, \u201ca process whereby public authorities seek to procure goods, services and works with a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle when compared to goods, services and works with the same primary function that would otherwise be procured\u201d (EC 2016d). A challenge for the public sector has been that purchasers might not have sufficient skills to set up environmental requirements in a tender. Even when they do, they might lack resources for defining relevant requirements, and for verifying the fulfilment by the tenderers. In this context, EU passed a new directive in 2014 on the coordination of procedures for the award of public works contracts, public supply contracts and public service contracts, which explicitly allows the use of ecolabels as a requirement (EC 2014c)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2087, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 591, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, the possibility to use official ecolabels in the tenders facilitates the implementation of relevant environmental requirements while saving resources. Additionally, the implementation of the directive in the national legislation of the EU member states may have a positive influence on the demand for ecolabelled products and services in the public sector in Europe. The Private sector does not have similar regulatory restrictions in demanding ecolabelled products. Yet, if companies (particularly the ones with large market share and considerable purchasing power) start demanding ecolabelled products and services, a significant difference can be made. Box 24.5 explains the example of a procurement network in the Nordic countries that successfully focuses on increasing demand for ecolabelled products and services in the private sector. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2088, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 591, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Box 24.5 Increasing the Demand for Ecolabelled Products Through a Professional Procurement Network Ecolabelling Denmark, like its sister organisations in the other Nordic countries, has established a procurement network to help increase the demand for ecolabelled products and services in the Danish market and thereby increase the environmental benefits of the official ecolabelling schemes using a market pull effect. The current members include\u2014among other\u2014financial companies and banks, insurance companies and consultants. The network has, for example achieved an increased supply of ecolabelled cleaning services by demanding ecolabelling from their suppliers and thereby established a more competitive market for ecolabelled cleaning services. Apart from cooperating on increased supply of ecolabelled goods and services, the members share experience with procurement of green products. Members of the network have to fulfil the following requirements: 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2089, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 592, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Members of the network have to fulfil the following requirements: 1. Have a publicly available purchasing policy in which it is clearly stated how environmental requirements are proactively used in tenders and other procurement situations. The use of the official ecolabels in procurement has to form an important part of the policy. 2. Comply with the principles of UN Global Compact and banks and investment companies further have to comply with the UN Principles for Responsible Investment. 3. Commit to report the purchase of ecolabelled products and services every year and with the reporting be able to document a significant improvement every year. The network has been very efficient in motivating the suppliers of the members in adapting to the ecolabelling requirements and applying for an ecolabel licence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2090, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 592, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The network has been very efficient in motivating the suppliers of the members in adapting to the ecolabelling requirements and applying for an ecolabel licence. 24.3.6 Positive Side Effects of Ecolabels Besides the direct effects, ecolabelling has also shown to have indirect effects with a positive influence on the environment (see Box 24.6 for the so-called rippling effect and Box 24.7 for the link to ecodesign and regulation). Some of these positive side effects are: \u2022 Some companies use ecolabelling criteria for benchmarking to get an idea on environmental improvement options\u2014and even though they do not necessarily take active part by applying for an ecolabel, they still might implement some improvements based on this.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2091, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 592, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 An increased demand by single consumers or companies can have a much wider impact than the \u2018few\u2019 products that they buy. When experiencing an increasing demand for ecolabelled products a manufacturer will often in response implement improvements in their standard products that is also supplied to the consumers not actively demanding ecolabels, and in that way their consumption inadvertently becomes more sustainable. \u2022 Ecolabelling criteria and ecolabelled products on the market can demonstrate that it is possible to provide greener products on the market, and ecolabelling can thereby be a driver for stricter environmental requirements in legislation. Box 24.6 The Rippling Effect of Ecolabelling Ecolabelled goods or services have a broad influence that goes beyond the reduction of environmental burdens due to a single purchase. This is because implementing ecolabelling requirements might cause a rippling effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2092, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 593, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is because implementing ecolabelling requirements might cause a rippling effect. For example, a demand for ecolabelled hotel services can lead to a demand for corresponding ecolabelled products and services such as laundering service. Consequently, there will be a demand for laundry detergents fulfilling the ecolabel requirements in every stage of the life cycle. This can bring environmentally improved products on the market and thus make them available not only for those who actively demand for them, but for a broader audience because the required product improvements are often implemented in the standard products. Further, when e.g. the leading company in a branch starts ecolabelling their products and services\u2014then other companies will follow and a wider range of the products on the market would be developed to meet the ecolabelling requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2093, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 593, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, what initially might start as a demand for ecolabelled hotel services could spread like ripples in the water with a higher influence on sustainable production and consumption. Industrial laundry Chemical supplier Hotel wider range of Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2094, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 593, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Box 24.7 Ecolabels as a Driver for Ecodesign and Stricter Mandatory Regulation Since 2008, according to the Danish legislation all fireplaces sold in Denmark cannot emit more than 10 g of particulate matter per kg of wood burned. In 2015, the limit value was reduced to 5 g/kg and from 2017 a maximum of 4 g/kg is allowed. Since the first criteria for fireplaces were adopted in 2001 and since the first licence was awarded in 2004, Nordic Ecolabelling has shown that it is possible to produce fireplaces with lower emissions than the legal limit and the continuously stricter ecolabelling requirements have been a driver for the development of cleaner fireplaces and demonstrated to the authorities that it is possible to set up a tighter regulation. Even with a stricter legislation enforced by the authorities, the Nordic Ecolabel will still be driving the development of fireplaces with lower emissions as the requirements of the ecolabel is also becoming stricter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2095, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 594, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hence, in 2015 new ecolabel requirements for emissions of particulate matter is 3 g/kg and by 2017 only 2 g/kg. On top of the strict requirements on emissions of particulate matter, the Nordic Ecolabel certainly also has numerous other requirements to ecolabelled fireplaces\u2014 e.g. the efficiency of the fireplace and requirements related to the production process and raw material sourcing. 24.4 Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) ISO Type III Environmental declarations, also referred to as \u201cenvironmental product declarations\u201d, are documents that transparently communicate environmental information and that can be used to compare the environmental performance of different products fulfilling the same function.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2096, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 594, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Worldwide, there is a number of different programme operators of Type III declaration schemes. The Global Environmental Declarations Network (GEDnet) is an international organisation of Type III environmental declaration bodies and practitioners with about 10 members (www.gednet.org)\u2014most of them responsible for different national declaration schemes. Nevertheless, there are more operators. One sector worth mentioning, where the use of environmental product declarations has especially increased globally is the one of building products. In Europe the reason is that EU regulation from 2011 includes a reference to the use of environmental declarations, which has increased the demand for them, stating that: \u201cFor the assessment of the sustainable use of resources and of the impact of construction works on the environment Environmental Product Declarations should be used when available\u201d (EC 2011b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2097, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 595, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As a response to the legislation EPD programme operators have come to cooperate and harmonise approaches. Indeed, the ECO Platform (www.ecoplatform.org) (see Box 24.8) was initiated by a group of EPD programme operators, LCA practitioners and European building sector branch organisations and aims to harmonise the different declaration schemes so that the resulting environmental declarations can be used in all European countries. This is in accordance with the original intention of the ISO 14025 standard for type III declaration schemes. The harmonisation within the sector is further supported by a European standard EN 15804 that provides core product category rules for type III environmental declarations for any construction product or service. Similarly in the US, where the LEED certification developed by the non-profit organisation US Green Building Council (USGBC), prevails", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2098, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 595, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Similarly in the US, where the LEED certification developed by the non-profit organisation US Green Building Council (USGBC), prevails. This includes a set of rating systems for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings, homes and neighbourhoods, and it is one of the most popular green building certification programmes used worldwide (EC-DG Energy 2014; LEED 2016). Box 24.8 ECO Platform\u2014Harmonising Environmental Declarations in the Building Sector \u201cThe objective of ECO Platform is the development of verified environmental information of construction products, in particular type III declarations called EPD (Environmental Product Declarations). The added value of EPD under the ECO Platform framework is the possibility to use these declarations in all European but also international markets. ECO Platform is not a programme operator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2099, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 595, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The added value of EPD under the ECO Platform framework is the possibility to use these declarations in all European but also international markets. ECO Platform is not a programme operator. It is a group of them together with LCA practitioners, industrial associations and other stakeholders working to guarantee a coherent framework for EPD\u201d. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2100, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 595, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.4.1 Product Category Rules (PCR) According to ISO 14025, an environmental declaration scheme has to develop PCRs for each product group where the scheme operates. These are meant to enable transparency and comparability between EPDs. The PCR will normally establish for example: \u2022 functional unit for the product area, \u2022 allocation rules, \u2022 system boundaries, \u2022 LCIA methods, \u2022 data sources. The development of PCR of a Type III environmental declaration scheme has three recommended steps according to the standard ISO 14025 (ISO 2006a): 1. Define the product category: 2. Collect and/or produce appropriate LCA; 3. PCR: Specify common goal and all relevant rules for product category LCA, predetermined parameters, rules on additional environmental information, requirements for reporting. Write instructions on how to produce the data required for the declaration. The development of a PCR requires consultation involving interested parties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2101, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 596, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Write instructions on how to produce the data required for the declaration. The development of a PCR requires consultation involving interested parties. Yet there is no global consensus for developing sound PCRs. Box 24.9 gives an example of a PCR developed by the Norwegian EPD Foundation. Box 24.9 Product Category Rules for Seating\u2014The Norwegian EPD Foundation The product category rules for seating for the Norwegian EDP system, e.g. defines the functional unit to use, what stages to include, the system boundary, data quality requirements and the calculation rules and impact categories that have to be applied. Functional unit: \u201cProduction of one unit of seating provided and maintained for a period of 15 years\u201d. The PCR indicates that secondary materials are included only as recycling processes and that electricity is included as national grid mix of either the country or the region where main energy-consuming processes take place", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2102, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 596, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is very different from the overall rules of the Danish pilot EPD scheme (www.MVD.dk) where a consequential approach is applied, stipulating the use of data for the marginal suppliers (see Chap. 8 for a discussion of the difference between consequential and attributional perspectives in LCA). Such differences in methodology can lead to large variations in the results of the declaration.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2103, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 596, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the Norwegian EPD system, a panel of stakeholders is involved in the development of the PCRs and the documents are sent out for consultation to ensure acceptance and transparency. After the consultation period, the technical committee (TC) of the programme operator decides on the final PCR for the product group. The TC of the Norwegian declaration scheme shall consist of no less than 5 LCA/EPD experts. Verification of Environmental Declarations Even though it is not an explicitly stated requirement of the ISO standard, most type III environmental declarations make use of third party verification to make sure that the LCA follows the product category rules and that the overall requirements of the declaration scheme is fulfilled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2104, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 597, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.4.2 Benefits and Drawbacks of Environmental Declarations The intention of Type III environmental declarations is to provide reliable, detailed information about the environmental performance in the life cycle of a given product or service to the decision maker in a purchasing situation. In this way, the purchaser can use it to choose products with a lower environmental burden. Thereby, as marketing tools, the environmental declarations can influence the shift to more sustainable products and yield a positive effect in the environment. Additionally, even if they are driven by marketing purposes, Type III declarations can, like Type I ecolabels, inspire product development changes with positive effects on the environment. For example, the information and knowledge gained from performing a life cycle assessment can spark new ideas for incremental product development to improve the environmental performance, leading to ecodesign initiatives (see Chap. 23)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2105, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 597, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "23). Suppliers of raw materials and intermediates can also supply their customers with cradle-to-gate data in the form of an environmental declaration, which makes it possible for manufacturers to enhance the accuracy of their LCAs. Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2106, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 597, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental declarations are seen by some companies as a possibility to provide much more detailed information about product improvements than the Type I label and it also supports further distinction between products that all have a Type I label. However, since it can be produced for all products\u2014no matter the relative environmental burden of the product within that product group, an environmental declaration, contrary to the ecolabel, is not an indicator of the overall environmental preferability. This means that a purchaser, whose expertise in interpreting environmental information is often limited, needs to make dubious choices, e.g. when buying a product with low climate change but high ecotoxicity impact potential. Also, in case of product comparisons, to make a meaningful decision, a purchaser would have to compare environmental declarations for two different products with the same functional unit covering the whole life cycle and the same impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2107, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 598, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, declarations are only available for a limited number of products and are not always consistent in their descriptions of technical and environmental information. Given the need for validation of environmental claims, there is thus a requirement for clear product rules. This requirement is set in various standards, i.e. except for the PCRs in ISO 14025 there are also the Product Rules in the GHG Protocol Product Life Cycle Accounting and Reporting Standard, and the Supplementary Requirements in PAS 2050. Other standards, such as BP X30 (France), SMRS (Sustainability Consortium), TS 0100 (Japan) and ISO 14067 on carbon footprint, also require the use of PCRs. The result is that various EPD programmes have been using any of the above standards to develop PCRs independently and without cross recognising other programmes. As Box 24.10 exemplifies, these reasons combined, make it difficult to use EPDs in practice. Consequentially, as discussed in Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2108, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 598, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As Box 24.10 exemplifies, these reasons combined, make it difficult to use EPDs in practice. Consequentially, as discussed in Sect. 24.5 there is a need for harmonisation in order to improve the validity of EPDs. Box 24.10 Environmental Declaration of Office Chairs\u2014Two Examples Steelcase was the first contract furniture company to offer environmental declarations to its customers on the international market. H\u00c5G, which today is part of Scandinavian Business Seating, has also been one of the pioneers within the use of environmental declarations. Both companies have chosen two different approaches as Steelcase is not following an established scheme of a programme operator, but instead uses external experts to review the LCA and declarations, whereas H\u00c5G uses the Norwegian EPD system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2109, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 598, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Even though both declarations seem to be for the same product type and for a 15-year use, it is not possible for a purchaser to compare the environmental performance based on the declarations, as they do not have identical impact categories. Furthermore, the allocation, calculation and data modelling rules differ which can have a significant influence on the result. Even for LCA experts this can be complicated, let alone the average procurer with limited LCA competence.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2110, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 598, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.5 The Need for Harmonisation The standardisation efforts have tackled the issue of legitimacy and credibility of environmental claims. Yet, the rising number of methods for measuring the environmental performance of products, services and organisations has been overwhelming. By 2010, for carbon emissions only, there were 62 leading initiatives and methods on product carbon footprinting and 80 on carbon reporting (EC 2016e). This trend seems to be continuing in the future since governments are more and more using LCA in voluntary or mandatory public policy initiatives (see also Chap. 18). Apart from the potential confusion on the market discussed in the introduction of this chapter, this proliferation of methods often leads to additional costs for cross border trading since companies might have to comply with requirements of schemes that have divergent methodological choices some of which are even left to the user to decide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2111, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 607, "book_page": 599, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Comparability is not established either because the methods are different or due to their inherent flexibilities. The situation is even more blurred when trying to measure environmental performance with time, since consistency of the corresponding methodological choices (e.g. year by year) would need to be guaranteed. There is therefore a need for aligning and harmonising the different EPD schemes to avoid distortion in the market, to ensure transparency, increase Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2112, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 607, "book_page": 599, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "comparability and avoid unfair competition. Benefits from doing so can be identified in relation to different stakeholders: \u2022 Consumers: Will gain by improved comparability and more informed decisions; \u2022 Companies: By ensuring both credibility and harmonisation, companies can make legitimate environmental claims and benchmark themselves within a certain sector or product category. This allows to also monitor their performance, to compare to their peers and therefore to better focus any improvement efforts. Aside the incremental changes, this can potentially lead to more radical innovations for strong improvements that may shift the reference environmental performance of the whole sector/product category. \u2022 Small Medium Enterprises (SME)s: SMEs increasingly have to provide inventory data as part of their communication about their products in global supply chains. They also have to comply with diverging schemes in order to compete with their multinational counterparts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2113, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 600, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They also have to comply with diverging schemes in order to compete with their multinational counterparts. Having a common methodological reference will thus facilitate them to reduce complexity and cost. \u2022 Investors: Along the same line, investors can better target their decisions by having a consistent reference to the sector and a common ground for assessing how companies perform. \u2022 Policy makers: These benefits also relate to governmental actors and policy makers. By knowing the environmental performance of stakeholder groups they can better identify gaps, allocate resources and incentivize consumption of reliably greener alternatives. They can apply this information in policies, e.g. by setting environmental limits for products or by linking economic instruments to environmental performance so that in the long term they can support the sustainable development goals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2114, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 600, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "by setting environmental limits for products or by linking economic instruments to environmental performance so that in the long term they can support the sustainable development goals. In practice, it is very difficult to use EPDs for comparisons of products, because a meaningful comparison requires that the declarations include all stages of the life cycle, use the same environmental indicators, and are based on LCAs with the same scope, methodology and data quality. This means that they should be based on the same Type III declaration scheme where a specific set of product category rules has been defined. Despite the challenges, there are more and more initiatives for criteria harmonisation. Such are the aforementioned for the building sector and the broad EU initiative discussed in Sect. 24.5.1. Across countries, there are several recognition arrangements occurring not only in Europe (see Sect. 24.3.4) but also in North America, Asia and elsewhere (DigitalEurope 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2115, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 600, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "24.5.1. Across countries, there are several recognition arrangements occurring not only in Europe (see Sect. 24.3.4) but also in North America, Asia and elsewhere (DigitalEurope 2015). 24.5.1 EU\u2019s Product and Organisational Environmental Footprints (PEF/OEF) In 2011, the European Commission started working on methodology harmonisation for Product Environmental Footprints (PEFs) and Organisational Environmental", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2116, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 600, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Footprints (OEFs) which are the EU Commission\u2019s term for the impact profiles resulting from LCAs, i.e. similar to Type III based environmental declarations for products or organisations (EC 2016f). Rather than suggesting a new approach, the idea was to build upon well-established, verified and broadly used methods, standards and guidelines, such as ISO 14040-44, ISO 14064, PAS 2050 and WRI/WBCSD GHG protocol (ISO 2006b, c; EC-JRC 2010; BSI 2011; WRI/WBCSD 2016). Two years later the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) and Organizational Environmental Footprint (OEF) Guides where released under the \u201cSingle Market for Green Products Initiative\u201d. The aim of these voluntary initiatives is to provide a common methodological basis and support a single metric for a single market. PEF relates to single products (i.e. goods or services) while OEF refers to an organisation comprising a well-defined portfolio of products and/or services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2117, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 601, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "PEF relates to single products (i.e. goods or services) while OEF refers to an organisation comprising a well-defined portfolio of products and/or services. The latter can be calculated using aggregated data (thus, it is not required to have individual PEFs and sum them up to get the OEF). Both apply common rules, which further allow to explore synergies between the organizational and product levels. PEF/OEF are life cycle based and cover 15 impact categories in the ILCD method (see Chap. 10). Still, in line with what was discussed in Sect. 24.3.1 the choice of impact categories to communicate could further be tailored to each product category and sector so that consumers can more easily grasp the information (EC 2016e). The release of the PEF/OEF guides was followed by a 3-year period (2013\u2013 2016) of testing and refining of the method on the basis of 26 selected pilot case studies within different sectors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2118, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 601, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The release of the PEF/OEF guides was followed by a 3-year period (2013\u2013 2016) of testing and refining of the method on the basis of 26 selected pilot case studies within different sectors. An additional intention is to complement them with product category and sector specific rules to facilitate streamlining of the LCA and ensure comparability between similar products and sectors. The pilot studies are also investigating strategies for communicating life cycle environmental performance to business partners, consumers and other company stakeholders. From a policy point of view, PEF/OEF are considered to strengthen existing product instruments such as Ecolabel, Green Public Procurement and Ecodesign. ISO Type I labels can also benefit since PEFs can consistently inform on the most relevant environmental impacts and life cycle stages. The possibility for benchmarking will additionally allow to refine existing labels based on market performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2119, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 601, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The possibility for benchmarking will additionally allow to refine existing labels based on market performance. PEF/OEF also have a place in the bigger framework of circular economy, which is the strategic vision for European economic development (EC 2015). Overall, regardless its European focus, the initiative has attracted global attention given the global nature of the economy, the importance of the European market and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Yet, such a broad harmonisation attempt does not come without challenges. Critics undermine the comprehensiveness of the approach, i.e. within the PEF framework one could still get different results for the same product, which jeopardises the principles of consistency and credibility. They also question the suitability of PEF for consumers, who would still lack the competences that would enable them to weigh different environmental impacts and their trade-offs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2120, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 601, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They also question the suitability of PEF for consumers, who would still lack the competences that would enable them to weigh different environmental impacts and their trade-offs. Additionally, the attempt to make the methodology more feasible may lead to lower accuracy and meaningfulness, e.g. PEF includes only selected parts of the spectra of Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2121, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 601, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "problems, which is not always sufficient. New developments take place both on product system modelling level, e.g. with consequential LCA, and on a LCIA level, e.g. with endpoint modelling. Once consensus is reached on such methodological choices, the PEF/OEF methodology will constantly need to be updated in order to keep up with methodological developments that improve the reliability of LCA results. Despite the drawbacks indicated, the PEF/OEF address the need for harmonisation and take a step towards it. Rather than redundant tools that add complexity, PEF and OEF are conceived and further refined as tools that act in synergy with existing schemes. BSI: PAS 2050:2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services (2011) CEPACEC: Certification scope and procedure for the environmental labelling products in China. In: China Environ. United Certif. Cent. http://www.sepacec.com/cecen/ (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2122, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 602, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: China Environ. United Certif. Cent. http://www.sepacec.com/cecen/ (2016). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 Danish Consumer Ombudsman: Environmental and ethical marketing claims. http://www. consumerombudsman.dk/Regulatory-framework/dcoguides/Environmental-and-ethical-marketing (2016). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 DigitalEurope: Ecolabels\u2014criteria harmonisation and recognition arrangements. http://www.digital europe.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?Command=Core_Download&Entry Id=951&PortalId=0&TabId=353 (2015) EC: Communication from the commission to the European parliament, the council, The European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions on the sustainable consumption and production and sustainable industrial policy action plan. Brussels (2008) EC: 2011/263/EU: Commission Decision of 28 April 2011 on establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the EU Ecolabel to detergents for dishwashers (notified under document C (2011) 2806). Off. J. Eur", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2123, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 602, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Off. J. Eur. Union 111, 22\u201333 (2011a) EC: Regulation (EU) no 305/2011 of the European parliament and of the council of 9 March 2011 laying down harmonised conditions for the marketing of construction products and repealing Council Directive 89/106/EEC. Off. J. Eur. Union 88, 5\u201343 (2011b) EC: 2014/312/EU: Commission Decision of 28 May 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the EU Ecolabel for indoor and outdoor paints and varnishes (notified under document C(2014) 3429). Off. J. Eur. Union 164, 45\u201373 (2014a) EC: Consumer Market Study on Environmental Claims for Non-Food Products. Brussels (2014b) EC: Directive 2014/24/EU of the European parliament and of the council of 26 February 2014 on public procurement and repealing directive 2004/18/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union 94:65\u2013242 (2014c) EC: Circular Economy Strategy. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/index_en.htm (2015) EC: EU Ecolabel criteria development and revision. In: EC-Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2124, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 602, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Eur. Union 94:65\u2013242 (2014c) EC: Circular Economy Strategy. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/index_en.htm (2015) EC: EU Ecolabel criteria development and revision. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/ecolabel/criteria-development-and-revision.html (2016a). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 EC: How to apply for EU Ecolabel. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ ecolabel/how-to-apply-for-eu-ecolabel.html (2016b). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 EC: Single market for green products initiative. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/eussd/smgp/index.htm (2016c). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 EC: Green public procurement. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/index_ en.htm (2016d). Accessed 30 Jun 2016", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2125, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 602, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EC: Questions about the product environmental footprint (Pef) and organisation environmental footprint (Oef) methods. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/ pdf/q_a.pdf (2016e). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 EC: Single market for green products-policy background. In: EC-Environment. http://ec.europa. eu/environment/eussd/smgp/policy_footprint.htm (2016f). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 EC-DG Energy: ENER/C3/2012-436\u2014market study for a voluntary common European Union certification scheme for the energy performance of non-residential buildings (2014) EC-JRC: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance, 1st edn. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010) GECA: Good Environmental Choice Australia-Certification Scheme Rules (version 15). New South Wales (2015) IISD: Global Green Standards-ISO 14000 and Sustainable Development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2126, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 603, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "New South Wales (2015) IISD: Global Green Standards-ISO 14000 and Sustainable Development. Manitoba (1996) ISO: ISO 14024:1999 Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Type I Environmental Labelling \u2014Principles and Procedures. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (1999) ISO: ISO/IEC Guide 28:2004 Conformity Assessment\u2014Guidance on a Third-Party Certification System for Products. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2004) ISO: ISO/IEC 17025:2005 General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2005) ISO: ISO 14025:2006 Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Type III Environmental Declarations \u2014Principles and Procedures. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2127, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 603, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006c) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014The ISO 14000 Family of International Standards. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2009) ISO: ISO/IEC 17065:2012 Conformity Assessment\u2014Requirements for Bodies Certifying Products, Processes and Services. ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2012) ISO: ISO 14021:2016 Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Self-Declared Environmental Claims (Type II Environmental Labelling). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2016) LEED: LEED. http://leed.usgbc.org/leed.html (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2128, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 603, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2016) LEED: LEED. http://leed.usgbc.org/leed.html (2016). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 Rubik, F., Frankl, P.: The Future of Eco-labelling: Making Environmental Product Information Systems Effective. Greenleaf Pub, Sheffield (2005) UN: Agenda 21: programme of action for sustainable development. In: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), p. 343. United Nations, Rio de Janerio (1992) UN: Johannesburg declaration on sustainable development and plan of implementation of the world summit on sustainable development: the final text of agreements negotiated by governments at the world summit on sustainable development. In: World Summit on Sustainable Development, and United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information, Johannesburg (2002) UN: Goal 12: ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. In: Sustain. Dev. Goals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2129, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 603, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "United Nations Department of Public Information, Johannesburg (2002) UN: Goal 12: ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. In: Sustain. Dev. Goals. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-production/ (2016). Accessed 30 Jun 2016 UNEP: Ecolabelling\u2014as a potential marketing tool for African products (an overview of opportunities and challenges). http://www.unep.org/roa/docs/pdf/Eco-labelling-Brochure.pdf (2016) UNOPS: A guide to environmental labels for procurement practitioners of the United Nations system (2009) Environmental Labels and Declarations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2130, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 603, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products, vol. 1. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Berlin (1997) WRI/WBCSD: Greenhouse gas protocol. http://www.ghgprotocol.org/ (2016). Accessed 30 Jun Author Biographies Jeppe Frydendal Working with LCA/LCM since late 1990s in industry, university, consultancy and ecolabelling. The focus and interest has always been to disseminate life cycle thinking to companies ensuring that they convert LCA knowledge to real life environmental improvements. Co-author of the UNEP Business Guide on Life Cycle Management. Lisbeth Engel Hansen Participated in some of the first Danish assessments of materials in a life cycle perspective. Has since the early 1990s been involved in development of life cycle based ecolabels both methodological and in practice, among other things as a board member of GEN. Participate in the development of the ISO standards on ecolabelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2131, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 604, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Participate in the development of the ISO standards on ecolabelling. Alexandra Bonou LCA expert and modeller focussing on ecodesign since 2009. Has worked on integrating life cycle thinking and environmental target setting in organisations of the private and public sector. Interested in life cycle management, product development, social life cycle assessment.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2132, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "24 Environmental Labels and Declarations", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 604, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA Anders Bj\u00f8rn and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract Cradle to Cradle (C2C) offers a positive vision of a future, where products are radically redesigned to be beneficial to humans and the environment. The idea is not to reduce negative impacts (as in LCA), but to increase positive impacts. This chapter presents the C2C concept and its relationship with the circular economy, the C2C certification and examples of C2C certified or inspired products and systems. This is followed by a comparison of C2C with eco-efficiency and LCA. Because of their important differences, we conclude that care should be taken when combing C2C and LCA, e.g. using LCA to evaluate products inspired by C2C. We then provide an in-depth analysis of the conflicts between C2C and LCA and offer solutions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2133, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 605, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "using LCA to evaluate products inspired by C2C. We then provide an in-depth analysis of the conflicts between C2C and LCA and offer solutions. Finally, we reflect upon how LCA practitioners can learn from C2C in terms of providing a vision of a sustainable future, creating a sense of urgency for change and communicating results in an inspiring way. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, one should be able to \u2022 Explain the Cradle to Cradle\u00ae (C2C\u00ae) concept and its three key principles,1 \u2022 Outline the C2C certification scheme, \u2022 Provide examples of C2C inspired or certified products, \u2022 Discuss similarities and differences, complementarities and conflicts between C2C and LCA. A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2134, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 605, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada 1Cradle to Cradle\u00ae and C2C\u00ae are trademarks of MBDC, LLC. Used with permission. \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_25", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2135, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 605, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.1 Background Imagine a world in which industry, yes, every factory and every building is as wasteful and as useful as a cherry tree in full bloom. A world, in which buildings \u2013 just like trees \u2013 use the sun\u2019s energy, produce nutrients and oxygen, provide living space for other creatures, cleanse water, purify the air and even change to adapt to the seasons. A world without environmental pollution or waste, where only products with materials that are beneficial to both man and the environment are manufactured. A world, in which materials are of such high value that they flow in specially designed material cycles. A world, in which humans can actually be pleased about the benefits their consumption has on the environment. A world, in which humans are freed from and no longer have to live under the restraints and limitations placed on them by always having to save, reduce and cut down on certain things for the sake of the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2136, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 606, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "That is exactly the kind of world that the Cradle to Cradle\u00ae design concept opens up to all of us. \u2013 Excerpt from Michael Braungart\u2019s Cradle to Cradle Vision (EPEA 2013) The words above do not resemble those of an ordinary engineering discipline. But then again, the Cradle to Cradle concept is by no means an ordinary engineering discipline. 25.1.1 History Cradle to Cradle\u00ae (C2C) is based upon the idea of imitating nature in the approach to sustainable product and system design. The first use of the term Cradle to Cradle is generally attributed to the Swiss architect Walter R. Stahel in the end of the 1980s (PLI 2013). The term originated as a reaction to the newly emerged idea of companies being responsible for their products and systems from \u201ccradle to grave\u201d. Stahel argued that the \u201ccradle to grave\u201d perspective was merely reinforcing the existing linear economical model and relied on end-of-pipe solutions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2137, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 606, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Stahel argued that the \u201ccradle to grave\u201d perspective was merely reinforcing the existing linear economical model and relied on end-of-pipe solutions. He argued that the really sustainable solution was to use durable goods in a loop from \u201ccradle back to cradle\u201d in a circular economy (PLI 2013). At the turn of the century, the German chemist Michael Braungart and US architect and designer William McDonough further developed the C2C concept and provided examples and guidance for its use in the design of products and system. In 2002 this work was compiled in the book \u201cC2C\u2014Remaking the way we make things\u201d (McDonough and Braungart 2002). A decade later \u201cThe Upcycle\u201d was published (McDonough and Braungart 2013). This sequel to the 2002 book clarifies the theoretical basis of C2C, addresses some common misconception and provides additional examples of how the concept can be applied to the design of products and systems at various scales. A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2138, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 606, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.1.2 Influence The C2C books have broad scopes and address a variety of topics, such as environmental science, product and system design, organizational theory and philosophy. The books are written in a visionary, provocative and popular style and have consequently reached an audience beyond the sole fields of civil engineering and product design. Apart from attracting a large numbers of readers, the C2C concept has had a number of concrete impacts on business, civil society and policy. The trademark C2C is owned by McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry (MBDC) located in North America and the Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency (EPEA), located in Hamburg has the license to use it. The C2C Product Innovation Institute (California) has the license to certify products according to the Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTMProduct standard, i.e. the C2C certification scheme", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2139, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 607, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The C2C Product Innovation Institute (California) has the license to certify products according to the Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTMProduct standard, i.e. the C2C certification scheme. These institutions have moreover trained consultancies around the world to assist companies in going in a C2C direction and/or complying with the certification requirements. This has resulted in a number of products and system designs based on the concept and C2C certified products (see Sect. 25.4). Some environmental NGOs are also praising the concept for its positive agenda and a few are even entirely dedicated to moving the world in a C2C direction, such as the Danish CradlePeople. Also, Cradle to Cradle has inspired the financially secure Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) to promote the idea of a Circular Economy, defined as a restorative or regenerative industrial system by intention and design (EMF 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2140, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 607, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This charity has since 2012 published a series of comprehensive reports and books with the overall aim of convincing business and policy-makers that a strategic transformation from a linear to a circular economy is not only possible, but also in their enlightened self-interest, as it can increase the wealth and resilience of companies and societies (e.g. EMF 2012, 2015a, b). Direct influences of Cradle to Cradle and Circular Economy on policy have initially been modest, but in 2015 the European Commission adopted an \u201cEU action plan for the Circular Economy\u201d (EC 2015a). The declared aims of this action plan is to \u201ccontribute to \u2018closing the loop\u2019 of product lifecycles through greater recycling and reuse, and bring benefits for both the environment and the economy\u201d (EC 2015b). The plan includes among other things common EU targets for recycling, economic incentives for producers of recyclable products and measures to stimulate industrial symbiosis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2141, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 607, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The plan includes among other things common EU targets for recycling, economic incentives for producers of recyclable products and measures to stimulate industrial symbiosis. 25.2 Key Principles of C2C C2C aims for positive impacts on the environment, including humans. To achieve this, three key design principles must be followed: Waste Equals Food, Use Current Solar Income and Celebrate Diversity. Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2142, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 607, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.2.1 Key Principle 1: Waste Equals Food According to the C2C concept, humans are not inherently harmful to the environment. Rather than considering environmental impacts as unwanted, but inevitable, consequences of human activities, they should be seen as symptoms of design failures. Waste, understood as a physical flow with no use for anyone and therefore no economic value, is such a symptom of design failure. Waste is a phenomenon unknown to nature in which materials are continuously cycled between different ecosystem species. The waste of one organism becomes food for another organism. Waste equals food. The very concept of waste should therefore be eliminated and the focus should instead be to design \u201chealthy emissions\u201d, meaning that the emissions that inevitably result from industrial processes should be engineered as resources to be taken up by other industrial processes or ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2143, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 608, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The focus should thus shift from trying to reduce the amounts of emissions to designing emissions with beneficial effects (either for organisms in nature or for other industrial processes). This applies to emissions occurring throughout the life cycle of a product and also to the product itself when it reaches its disposal stage. To ensure that such emissions can undergo recycling in continuous loops without loss of quality, materials should either be defined as technical or biological nutrients, see Fig. 25.1. The (short) definition of a biological nutrient is \u201ca product usable by defined living organisms to carry on life processes such as growth, cell division, synthesis of carbohydrates, energy management, and other complex functions\u201d (PII 2016). Analogously, a technical nutrient can (in short) be defined as \u201ca product capable of \u201cfeeding\u201d technical systems\u201d (PII 2016). Feeding may be in the form of dismantle and reuse, physical transformation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2144, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 608, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Feeding may be in the form of dismantle and reuse, physical transformation (e.g. plastic remoulding) and chemical transformation (e.g. plastic depolymerisation). It should be noted that materials in the technical cycle are therefore free to take part in any product, as long as they Fig. 25.1 The technical and biological nutrient cycles. Image Copyright\u00a9 MBDC, LLC. Used with permission A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2145, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 608, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "maintain their value. It is even encouraged to increase material value as they cycle from product to product. This process is termed \u2018upcycling\u2019, which is also the title of the recent C2C book (McDonough and Braungart 2013). Materials harmful to the environment or humans are accepted as technological nutrients in C2C if they fulfil the above definition and as long as they do not end up in the environment and as long as humans are not exposed to them. Some materials may qualify as biological nutrients, but also be able to take part in the technical nutrient cycle until a critical point, where their quality is too low to be of any value in the technical cycle. At this point, they should enter the biological cycle. For example, paper produced from wood can undergo recycling by pulping. This process, however, leads to the rejection of the fraction of the wood fibres that have become too short to be of use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2146, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 609, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, paper produced from wood can undergo recycling by pulping. This process, however, leads to the rejection of the fraction of the wood fibres that have become too short to be of use. When a wood fibre becomes too short due to pulping and no other industrial processes in the technical cycle can use it, it can no longer be characterised as a technical nutrient. Because wood fibres also qualify as biological nutrients the rejected wood fibres can therefore enter the biological cycle through, e.g. anaerobic digestion, composting or spreading of ashes following incineration, provided that they are not contaminated (see below) (MIE 2011). Products composed of biological nutrients, such as wood fibres in paper, are inherently degradable. They should therefore naturally be \u2018consumed\u2019 by the consumer, who may choose to nourish his or her garden soil with the biological nutrients contained in the worn out product (e.g. a piece of textile)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2147, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 609, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a piece of textile). By contrast, products composed of technical nutrients, are per definition not \u2018consumable\u2019. Their value to the user is the function they provide, not the materials they are composed of, which means that they may, potentially, be leased rather than sold to the users. Products composed of technical nutrients should thus take part in Product Service Systems (PSS). In PSS, users pay for services (such as the ability to watch television 500 h per year for 5 years) rather than products (a television). For the consumer this has the advantage that they are guaranteed the quality of the service (if the television malfunctions or breaks down, the supplier is obliged to fix it) and that they do not have to bother with disposing the product when it is no longer useful (e.g. taking an obsolete or broken television to the recycling centre). For the company engaging in PSS has the advantage that they maintain control over the materials embedded in the products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2148, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 609, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "taking an obsolete or broken television to the recycling centre). For the company engaging in PSS has the advantage that they maintain control over the materials embedded in the products. Products may thus be designed with durability in mind and for easy replacement of individual parts. Modular designs may also be advantageous since parts of redundant products may be fed into new products as resources. The potentials of PSS as driver of environmental improvements are obvious: It can ensure cleaner fractions of used products, to a higher extend designed for disassembly and ensure a higher recovery fraction than for non-PSS goods, where the continuous cycling of technical nutrients to a large extent relies on the good will of consumers. The distinction between the biological cycle and the technical cycle is also at the core of the circular economy, and so is the distinction between consumers and users", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2149, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 609, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The distinction between the biological cycle and the technical cycle is also at the core of the circular economy, and so is the distinction between consumers and users. A key message in the C2C concept is that biological and technical nutrients should not be mixed beyond easy separability, as this creates a risk of a product that Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2150, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 609, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "neither fits the biological nor the technical nutrient cycle. Such a product is termed a monstrous hybrid and can never truly be recycled and the result is a \u201cdowncycled\u201d product of lower quality and value (McDonough and Braungart 2002). Moreover, the separation of biological and technical nutrients in the recycling process is technically complicated and often requires high inputs of energy and chemicals, which may cause damage if emitted to the environment. The authors use ordinary cellulose-based office paper as an example of a monstrous hybrid, since it is composed of biological materials (cellulose fibres) as well as technical materials (e.g. coating agents, dyes and inks). Therefore, it can neither be part of the biological cycle (the chemicals are persistent and possibly toxic to the environment) nor the technical cycle, at least not indefinitely (cellulose fibres are shortened during the pulping process)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2151, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 610, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Attempts to recycle ordinary office paper thus inevitably results in downcycling. Recycled office paper has a lower functionality than virgin office paper. To compensate for the mix of biological and technical nutrients its recycling process requires additional input of virgin wood fibres and chemicals for bleaching and de-inking the pulp, which are emitted from the recycling plant causing damage to the environment. 25.2.2 Key Principle 2: Use Current Solar Income The second key principle dictates that the energy required to fuel a continuous-loop C2C society must all originate from \u201ccurrent solar income,\u201d defined as photovoltaic, geothermal, wind, hydro, and biomass. All these energy sources are effects of solar radiation on Earth\u2019s surface (except geothermal energy, which originates from nuclear processes in the core of the Earth). The solar income must be \u2018current\u2019. Otherwise, fossil fuels would be permitted since they are \u2018old\u2019 solar income", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2152, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 610, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The solar income must be \u2018current\u2019. Otherwise, fossil fuels would be permitted since they are \u2018old\u2019 solar income. This key principle is inspired by nature since all processes occurring in nature are fuelled by current solar income. It is important to note that there are no quantitative restrictions on the amount of energy used throughout the life cycle of a C2C product or system. The quantity of energy used is considered irrelevant as long as the energy quality (i.e. energy source) meets the requirements of current solar income (McDonough and Braungart 2002). 25.2.3 Key Principle 3: Celebrate Diversity Avoiding one-size-fits-all designs is the main point of the last key principle. Products and systems should be designed with respect for local cultures, economies, and environments. Ecosystems differ with respect to structure, processes, function and the services they may offer to humans, depending on varying natural conditions (e.g. climatic and geologic) across the globe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2153, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 610, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ecosystems differ with respect to structure, processes, function and the services they may offer to humans, depending on varying natural conditions (e.g. climatic and geologic) across the globe. Similarly, the organisms populating A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2154, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 610, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the ecosystems each fulfil a specific task and biologists generally agree that a high diversity of species (biodiversity) lead to more robust or resilient systems. Consequently, products and systems designed by humans should: \u201cdraw information from and ultimately \u201cfit\u201d within local natural systems ... express an understanding of ecological relationships and enhance the local landscape where possible ... draw on local energy and material flows ... take into account both the distant effects of local actions and the local effects of distant actions\u201d (McDonough and Braungart 2002). The third key principle also encourages that one should \u2018become native\u2019 and realize one\u2019s role as a species among other species. Members of ecosystems are dependent on receiving, transforming and passing on nutrients to each other", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2155, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 611, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Members of ecosystems are dependent on receiving, transforming and passing on nutrients to each other. Therefore the aim should not be to reduce impacts on the environment, as suggested by the eco-efficiency concept, as this would result in isolation from other species (McDonough and Braungart 2002). Instead we should exchange nutrients with the environment and integrate it into our system designs (e.g. through the use of green roofs for storm water management and constructed wetlands for waste water treatment). On a more philosophical note, the authors advocate the abandonment of the mental image of \u2018mother nature\u2019, which we feel guilty about hurting. Instead nature should be perceived as a companion that we may learn from and support (Tobias 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2156, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 611, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Instead nature should be perceived as a companion that we may learn from and support (Tobias 2010). 25.2.4 The Cherry Tree Metaphor C2C proponents often use the metaphor of a cherry tree to sum up the three key principles: \u201cThousands of blossoms create fruit for birds, humans, and other animals, in order that one pit might eventually fall to the ground, take root, and grow...although the tree actually makes more of its \u201cproduct\u201d than it needs for its own success in an ecosystem, this abundance has evolved...to serve rich and varied purposes. In fact, the tree\u2019s fecundity nourishes just about everything around it\u201d. Rather than being eco-efficient the cherry tree is being eco-effective. C2C translates this into doing the right thing rather than doing the thing right. Thus, eco-effectiveness is focused on achieving the right goal, as opposed to eco-efficiency, which is focused on optimizing the means to achieving some predefined goal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2157, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 611, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thus, eco-effectiveness is focused on achieving the right goal, as opposed to eco-efficiency, which is focused on optimizing the means to achieving some predefined goal. 25.3 C2C Certification Program Since 2005, companies have been able to apply for a product-level C2C certification. The certification program was initially administered by MBDC in the US and by EPEA in Europe. Since 2010, the non-profit California based Cradle to Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2158, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 611, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cradle Products Innovation InstituteTMhas also been licensed to carry out certifications. The institute trains and certifies consultants around the world, who assist companies in complying with the certification requirements. 25.3.1 Certification Criteria The certification can be awarded to products at five levels; Basic, Bronze, Silver, Gold and Platinum, of which the criteria for Platinum are the most strict (PII 2016). It should be noted that not even a platinum awarded product guarantees a \u2018true\u2019 C2C product, i.e. one that fulfils all three key principles for all aspects. Rather, products awarded a certification should be seen as \u2018on the path\u2019 to C2C. The progressive nature of the certification also urges for stepwise product improvement from a lower to a higher certification level. The certification criteria cover five categories. For each category, a number of criteria must be met, depending on the level of certification", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2159, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 612, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The certification criteria cover five categories. For each category, a number of criteria must be met, depending on the level of certification. The overall certification level of the product is determined by the category with the lowest achievement level (PII 2017a), see example in Table 25.1. Below an illustrative selection of these criteria for version 3.1 of the certification program (PII 2016) is presented. Material Health The applicant must obtain an overview of all homogenous materials in the product and materials or substances present at a concentration of 100 ppm (parts per million) or higher must be reported (Bronze and above). Additionally, banned chemicals (e.g. some metals, flame retardants and phthalates) must be reported at any level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2160, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 612, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Additionally, banned chemicals (e.g. some metals, flame retardants and phthalates) must be reported at any level. After receiving the material list the certifying body evaluates all materials according to their human and environmental risk potentials and to the recyclability of each material and award a colour score (red, yellow, green, grey and banned) for each material following their classification methodology. The higher the certification level, the lower the allowed red and grey (unknown) material content in the product. In addition, Gold- and Platinum level applicants must also demonstrate compliance with Cradle to Cradle emissions standards. These define maximum Table 25.1 Example of C2C certification scorecard Certification criterion Basic Bronze Silver Gold Platinum Material health X Material reutilization X Renewable energy and carbon management X Water stewardship X Social fairness X Overall certification level X Based on PII (2017b) A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2161, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 612, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "values for the off-gassing of problematic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the product in its use stage. At platinum level process chemicals must also be assessed, among which no red chemicals are allowed. Material Reutilization The applicant must demonstrate that the product has successfully been designed as either a technical or a biological nutrient (or both if the materials are easily separable, thus avoiding the creating of a \u201cmonstrous hybrid\u201d). Furthermore, applicants must be in the process of developing a plan for end of life product recovery. At Gold-level a \u201cWell-defined nutrient management strategy\u201d must be in place and this plan must be implemented at Platinum level. A minimum nutrient reutilization score is required within each certification level. The score is a weighted average of the percentage of the product considered recyclable/compostable (weight of 2) and the percentage of recycled/rapidly renewable content (weight of 1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2162, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 613, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The score is a weighted average of the percentage of the product considered recyclable/compostable (weight of 2) and the percentage of recycled/rapidly renewable content (weight of 1). A material may be classified as recyclable based on its inherent qualities, independently of the existence of an infrastructure for its recovery. Renewable Energy and Carbon Management Applicants must supply information on the quantity and sources of electricity and on-site emissions used in the \u201cfinal manufacturing stage\u201d of the product. The industrial processes covered by the final manufacturing stage in the certification program varies across product categories, see PII (2015). For all levels, except Basic, an applicant is required to present a strategy for supplying the energy needed for the final manufacturing stage of a product through current solar income (photovoltaic, geothermal, wind, hydro, and biomass)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2163, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 613, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At Gold-level at least 50% of the energy required in final manufacturing must come from current solar income (5% for Silver and 100% for Platinum). Finally, for the Platinum level the embodied energy associated with the product from Cradle to Gate must come from current solar income. To increase the share of energy from current solar income, it is allowed to purchase specified renewable energy certificates documenting that the electricity used comes from renewable sources. Water Stewardship For all levels except Basic, a facility wide water-audit must be conducted, meaning that all water flows associated with product final manufacturing are fully characterized. For Silver and Gold levels, there are furthermore requirements to characterize and optimize product related chemicals in effluent to develop a strategy for supply-chain water issues for tier 1 suppliers. At Platinum level, all water leaving the final manufacturing facility must meet drinking water quality standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2164, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 613, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At Platinum level, all water leaving the final manufacturing facility must meet drinking water quality standards. Social Fairness For all levels, applications must perform a streamlined self-audit related to fundamental human rights and any identified issues must be addressed by management procedures. At Bronze level this self-audit must be more thorough and for Silver level and higher applicants must fulfil criteria related to social conditions at suppliers (e.g. through purchasing fair trade materials or FSC certified wood) or initiate local social projects. At platinum level a facility level audit must be completed by a Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2165, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 613, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "third party following internationally recognized standards (such as SA8000 or BCorp). A study of the application of the five certification criteria to an aluminium can, belonging to the technical cycle, found that the main learnings for the company manufacturing the cans were (Niero et al. 2016): \u2022 Material health: substances even at ppm level, often originating from additives giving the desired functional properties to the base material, have an impact on recyclability. \u2022 Material reutilization: ensuring recyclability, e.g. through a change in lacquer, is a prerequisite for achieving the volumes of recycled aluminium required for a high recycled content of new aluminium cans. \u2022 Renewable energy and carbon management, water stewardship and social fairness: these certification criteria require interventions at the company\u2019s (and to some extend suppliers\u2019) processes, rather than in the design of the aluminium can", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2166, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 614, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.3.2 Certified Products As of March 2017, 482 certifications were in place (PII 2017b). These cover more than 482 individual products, since more than one of a company\u2019s products may be covered by a single certification, if they are materially very similar (e.g. a series of textile products only differing in patterns and colours). The distribution between certification levels was: 3% Basic, 44% Bronze, 35% Silver, 18% Gold and 0.2% (one product) Platinum. The five largest product categories were Building Supply and Materials (177), Interior Design and Furniture (158) Home and Office Supply (44), Packaging and Paper (27) and Fashion and Textiles (21). It can be seen that the certifications cover both products of a business-to-business and business-to-consumer nature. 25.3.3 Comparison of Certification Program with Type 1 Eco-labels The term eco-label may cover a wide variety of schemes (see more in Chap. 24)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2167, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 614, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.3.3 Comparison of Certification Program with Type 1 Eco-labels The term eco-label may cover a wide variety of schemes (see more in Chap. 24). In Europe the most recognized and widespread labels belong to what ISO-14024 classifies as Type environmental labelling (ISO 1999): \u2018a voluntary, multiple-criteria based, third party program that awards a license which authorizes the use of environmental labels on products indicating overall environmental preferability of a product within a particular product category based on life cycle A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2168, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 614, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "considerations.\u2019 The Nordic swan and the EU flower are examples of Type 1 labels (NEL 2016). When comparing the C2C certification scheme with Type 1 labels, an obvious difference is that the C2C scheme applies uniform criteria across product categories, whereas Type 1 labels define specific criteria for each product category. The Nordic swan (Type 1) currently contains 56 product categories (e.g. copy and printing paper, cleaning products and computers) (NEL 2016). From a consumer perspective applying uniform criteria means that the same criteria apply for all C2C products (e.g. using 50% current solar income in final manufacturing for all Gold certified products), which makes the criteria easier to understand. However, it also means that products in product groups composed mainly of homogenous materials may relatively easily be granted a C2C certification and that the opposite may be true for other product groups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2169, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 615, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A C2C label guarantees that the company behind it has gone through the trouble of becoming certified (including the often demanding task of identifying all substances present above 100 ppm), but it does not guarantee that a product has a better environmental performance than its competitors within a given product group. In fact, many criteria, especially those at Basic level, are related to intentions rather than the actual performance of an existing product. By comparison, Type 1 labels are based on the LCA concept of the functional unit, which is used to define and distinguish between the many product categories. Therefore the performance of existing products is all that matters for Type 1 labels. Criteria for each Type 1 label product category are defined and continuously redefined so only a fraction (typically around one third) of the market is able to fulfil them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2170, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 615, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Criteria for each Type 1 label product category are defined and continuously redefined so only a fraction (typically around one third) of the market is able to fulfil them. Another important difference is that Type 1 labels are based on a life cycle perspective with eco-efficiency as its underlining concept. The C2C certification is also based on a life cycle perspective, but with a focus on the processes within the applying company and the end of life stage. Criteria related to upstream processes at suppliers are included only at the highest certification level (i.e. platinum). In addition, the C2C scheme has a strong focus on the chemical content of the product itself and how this may affect the users and the recyclability of the product. In comparison, Type 1 labels are typically more focused on the inputs and outputs of processes in the life cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2171, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 615, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In comparison, Type 1 labels are typically more focused on the inputs and outputs of processes in the life cycle. It should be noted that eco-efficiency and C2C concepts differs considerably with respect to their approach to a sustainable production (see Sect. 25.5). However, as noted in Sect. 25.3.1 C2C certified products are by no means ideal C2C products and in fact the scheme has many similarities with eco-efficiency based Type 1 labels, such as the Nordic swan, meaning that it is just as focused on doing \u201cless bad\u201d as it is on doing \u201cmore good\u201d. 25.4 Examples of C2C Products and Systems The C2C concepts and certification has inspired a number of products, systems and initiatives. This section presents six examples: three certified products, a C2C inspired system, a C2C-based product concept and a C2C inspired company Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2172, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 615, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "network. Note that the three certified product examples all have been on the market, but may not be so anymore (or may not have renewed certifications) at the time you read this, due to the dynamic nature of consumer products. 25.4.1 C2C Certified Technical Product: Returnity\u00a9 Upholstery Textile Returnity is an example of a C2C Gold certified series of upholstery products designed to fit into the technological cycle (PII 2017b). The textiles are manufactured by Austria based Backhausen and are reportedly 100% recyclable through a process of chemical hydrolysis, where the nylon polymers are broken down into monomers, which are then fed into the production of new nylon products. In this process downcycling is avoided as the resulting nylon monomers are neither reduced in quantity nor quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2173, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 616, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this process downcycling is avoided as the resulting nylon monomers are neither reduced in quantity nor quality. Backhausen has organized a take back system, so when the upholstery has reached the end of its useful life, the user may report it by email, after which the product is being transported from the user to the recycling facility. 25.4.2 C2C Certified Biological Product: Trigema\u00a9 Clothing Trigema is an example of a series of C2C Silver certified clothing products (t-shirts, trousers, pyjamas, etc.) designed to fit into the biological cycle (PII 2017b). Trigema is a German-based company, who has designed their certified series to be \u201ccompletely safe for humans and the environment\u201d. Trigema is made of organic cotton", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2174, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 616, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Trigema is a German-based company, who has designed their certified series to be \u201ccompletely safe for humans and the environment\u201d. Trigema is made of organic cotton. Little information is provided on how the product should be disposed of, but composting, anaerobic digestion and incineration with recovery of nutrients from ash are all in theory viable options that ensure that the biological nutrients (the cotton, dye, etc.) of the product returns to the soil. 25.4.3 C2C Certified Technical Product: TerraSkin\u00a9 Mineral Paper TerraSkin is an example of a series of C2C Silver certified mineral paper products designed to fit into the technological cycle (PII 2017b). The TerraSkin company mainly operates in the US and their factory is located in Asia. TerraSkin is composed of 75% CaCO3 powder from limestone and 25% high-density polyethylene (HDPE) binder. It is applied both as graphical paper and packaging paper and has A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2175, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 616, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "some qualitative advantages over cellulose based paper since it has a very smooth surface and is water and tear-resistant. Currently TerraSkin does not fulfil the first key principles of C2C. This is because no dedicated post-consumer waste management system exists. TerraSkin may be disposed of through plastic municipal collection schemes covering high-density polyethylene (HDPE), where it will be transformed to plastic lumber and consequently take part in, e.g. benches, roadside curps or playground equipment. This represents downcycling since the HDPE content in TerraSkin has acquired reduced functionality, quality and thus economic value. 25.4.4 C2C Inspired System: Ford Motor Company The C2C inspired initiatives at the Ford manufacturing site in Detroit, US, offer an example of how the C2C concept may be applied to large scale systems (MBDC 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2176, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 617, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After having operated for almost a century, the soils at the factory were heavily polluted and Ford was concerned about how to comply with stricter stormwater regulation related to the Rouge River that received water leaching from the soils. The solution was to use green spaces (lawns and green roofs) in combination with replacing impervious paving with porous paving for improved storm water filtration and retention. To reduce the problem of contaminated soil Ford has initiated a number of small scale phyto-remediation experiments, in which polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are taken up and broken down by plants. Finally, the installation of photovoltaic cells to cover part of the factory\u2019s electricity consumption has been proposed. Other than solving their initial purpose (stormwater retention and filtration, absorption and neutralization of pollutants) the initiatives have reportedly also lead to increased biodiversity at the factory grounds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2177, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 617, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.4.5 C2C Product Concept: Running Shoes for Rent Concept The last example is not an existing product, but a product concept presented in (McDonough and Braungart 2002). The concept illustrates how biological and technical nutrients may be integrated in the same product and provide different functions. In the running shoe concept, the sole should be composed of biological nutrients, with the aim of releasing beneficial nutrients to the environment with each footstep through abrasion. In contrast, the upper part of the shoe would be Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2178, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 617, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "composed of technical nutrients. This opens up for the possibilities of replacing the sole of the shoe as it wears down and even to lease the upper part of the shoes out in product service systems. 25.4.6 C2C Inspired Network of Companies: Carlsberg Circular Community The Carlsberg Circular Community is a cooperation platform launched in January 2014 featuring the brewing company Carlsberg and a selection of global partners (e.g. packaging suppliers) aiming to rethink the design and production of traditional packaging material. Inspired by the C2C design framework, the stated objectives of the Carlsberg Circular Community is: \u201cto rethink the design and production of packaging material and develop the next generation of packaging products that are optimized for recycling and reuse while retaining or improving their quality and value\u201d (Carlsberg Group 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2179, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 618, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The initiative aims both at modifying standard packaging to fulfil C2C certification criteria and at developing new packaging types, such as the Green Fiber Bottle, which is an idea of creating a beer bottle made from sustainably sourced wood fibres. 25.5 C2C Compared to Eco-efficiency and LCA As alluded to above, C2C has a very different approach to environmental sustainability than eco-efficiency and the related measurement tool LCA, although many similarities also exist. Table 25.2 summarizes the main characteristics of C2C, eco-efficiency and LCA. Table 25.2 shows that C2C, eco-efficiency and LCA have quite different characteristics. In a position paper on the \u2018Usability of Life Cycle Assessment for Cradle to Cradle purposes\u2019 the problem of combining the use of C2C and LCA is summarized as: \u2018Measuring a qualitative plan for creating a beneficial footprint by using a quantitative instrument designed to measure an existing environmentally damaging footprint\u2019 (MIE 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2180, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 618, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consequently, the position paper recommends that LCA is not used as a sole means to assess environmental impacts of C2C Certified products. Below we elaborate on some conflicts, and possible solutions, between C2C and LCA that one should be aware of when trying to combine the concepts. A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2181, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 618, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 25.2 Main characteristics of C2C, eco-efficiency and LCA Characteristic C2C Eco-efficiency LCA Aim To inspire the creation of products with a positive impact on humans and the environment To reduce negative environmental impacts per product, service or unit of GDP To systematically quantify all environmental impacts from life cycles of products and systems Targets Mainly industrial designers and CEOs Business (eco-efficiency was publicized by the World Business Counsel for Sustainable Development) (WBCSD 2000) Depend on the goal and scope definition. Often CSR department at companies Vision of sustainable society Follow the three key principles Large reductions in negative impacts per unit of GDP compared to today \u201cto a level at least in line with the Earth\u2019s estimated carrying capacity\u201d (WBCSD 2000) No explicit vision of society as a whole, since reducing impacts from the delivery of single functions is the basis of the method Absolute guidance for product development? Yes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2182, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 619, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Always follow the three key principles to the extent possible No. Achieving increases in eco-efficiency requires case-specific analysis No. Achieving increases in eco-efficiency requires case-specific analysis Life cycle approach and coverage of environmental issues The designer must carefully choose the material composition of a product to obey the three key principles and plan for the fate of the materials through multiply life cycles (\u201ccascades\u201d). No environmental issues are covered explicitly because no negative impacts are assumed to happen when the three key principles are followed A life cycle perspective is encouraged. The types of environmental impacts covered depend on the assessment tool and the case Designed to quantify impacts of product life cycles. The LCIA step aims to cover a comprehensive list of environmental issues (see Chap. 10). The goal and scope definition of an LCA determines which issues to include (see Chaps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2183, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 619, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The LCIA step aims to cover a comprehensive list of environmental issues (see Chap. 10). The goal and scope definition of an LCA determines which issues to include (see Chaps. 7 and 8) Includes the idea of positive environmental impacts? Yes Not explicitly. Reducing negative impacts is the focus Potentially (see Sect. 25.6.3) (continued) Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2184, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 619, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.6 Conflicts and Solutions When Combining C2C and LCA 25.6.1 C2C Prioritizes Qualitative Aspects\u2014LCA Measures Quantitative Aspects Eco-effectiveness is often presented as \u201cdoing the right thing\u201d, whereas eco-efficiency is \u201cdoing the thing right\u201d. In pursuing the right thing, C2C is Table 25.2 (continued) Characteristic C2C Eco-efficiency LCA Quantitative? Partly. However, qualitative aspects precede quantitative aspects. E.g. quantity of energy used is irrelevant when the right quality is obtained (current solar income). Quantities of emissions are also irrelevant as long as they are the right emissions (\u2018the right material, at the right place at the right time\u2019) Yes Yes Driver of innovation? The stated goal of C2C is to stimulate radical innovation (\u201cremaking the way we make things\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2185, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 620, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, not all C2C certified or inspired products appear to be radically innovative, perhaps because it is very difficult to follow the three key principles completely in today\u2019s world The idea of doing more with less environmental impact has been driving energy efficiency improvements for decades (e.g. LED lights) Depends on the goal and scope definition of an assessment. However, LCA is often applied to existing products on the market, since the LCI of a product not yet developed is often difficult to predict during the product\u2019s development Values intentions? Yes. Since C2C calls for radical redesign, defining a plan for such a process is valued, which is reflected in the certification system No. Only actual increases in eco-efficiency are valued Intentions are not valued by themselves, but a scenario analysis can be used to quantify the projected outcomes of intentions A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2186, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 620, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "primarily using a qualitative approach. Values and principles come before quantitative parameters. For example, the quantity of energy used throughout the life cycle of a product or system is irrelevant from a C2C perspective as long as the quality is right (current solar income). This approach is reflected in the C2C certification scheme where there is no restriction on the quantity of energy used throughout the life cycle. However, it should be noted that, despite of the second key principle, the certification allows for a share of the energy use originating from sources other than current solar income. Also, the energy related certification criteria only cover the \u201cfinal manufacturing stage\u201d (except for the platinum level, for which upstream processes are covered), which will often only account for a modest share of the total life cycle energy consumption, especially for products consuming energy in the use stage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2187, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 621, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This allowable fraction ranges from 0% at Platinum level to 95\u2013100% at Silver, Bronze and Basic levels (of which 82% of all products currently certified belongs to). Moreover, from a consequential LCA-perspective (see Sect. 8.5.3) purchasing renewable energy certificates (which is credited as using current solar income in the certification scheme) will only have a positive impact on the LCA results if the purchasing leads to an increase in the installation of renewable energy capacity (e.g. more solar cells and wind turbines). If this is not the case, the marginal energy sources are the same as if no certificate had been purchased and the purchasing of certificates should have no impacts on the LCA results. A C2C certified product may therefore, in theory, score relatively badly compared to a reference product in an LCA, because the certification scheme does not encourage energy efficiency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2188, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 621, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A C2C certified product may therefore, in theory, score relatively badly compared to a reference product in an LCA, because the certification scheme does not encourage energy efficiency. Another conflict between C2C and LCA arising due to the former\u2019s focus on quality is that the quantities of materials are not considered, as long as they are designed as technical or biological nutrients. This means that C2C does not (actively) support the idea of dematerialization, which may lead to relatively material-intensive products. This is not a problem per se, but if the energy to produce the products is not current solar income (see above) or if the infrastructure to ensure the recycling of the product (be that in the technical or biological cycle) is not in place (see Sect. 25.6.2) it may result in a relatively bad LCA performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2189, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 621, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.6.2) it may result in a relatively bad LCA performance. Finally, it can be argued that a focus on quantity of emissions and resource use is crucial in a world with a finite resource base and emission absorption capacity and a growing demand for goods and service. Section 25.6.4 will further explore these issues. 25.6.2 C2C Values Intentions\u2014LCA Values Measurable Outcomes When scrutinizing the C2C certification criteria it becomes clear that many of them, especially at the lower levels, relate exclusively to intentions. This is in line with Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2190, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 621, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "C2C being characterized as a qualitative plan (see Sect. 25.5). Hence, the Basic certification level can largely be achieved solely by a combination of documenting the existing characteristics of the product and stating intentions for improving it in the future. LCA does not value intentions. Therefore, a product that has obtained a C2C certification without having undergone any change in elementary flows of its life cycle in the process scores exactly the same in an LCA as the product assessed before being awarded the certification. On a more general note, designers wanting to design a product to fit into the technical cycle often face a paradox: When introducing their novel products to the market they cannot be sure that it will remain in the technical cycle due to the lack of recycling infrastructure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2191, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 622, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, if they decide to wait for such an infrastructure to be established before introducing their product, they may have to wait for a long time, because the construction of the infrastructure is often driven by demand in the form of products in need of new recycling technology. Consequently, the designer may choose to market the product, in spite of the lack of infrastructure, in hope that such an infrastructure will eventually be feasible to establish because of the volumes of the product that have entered the market and possibly other products fitting into the same infrastructure. In such cases, intentions of recycling the product may in time lead to its recycling. This can be captured in an LCA, depending on its goal and scope (Bj\u00f8rn and Hauschild 2013), but LCA results based on assumptions of a future recycling system are inevitably more uncertain than results based on modelling an existing system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2192, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 622, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.6.3 C2C Operates with Positive Environmental Impacts\u2014LCA Operates with Negative Environmental Impacts A central perception in C2C is that the environment can be \u201cbenefitted\u201d from the addition of nutrients. This is used as an argument to integrate nature into human designs instead of aiming to conserve nature through the separation of human and natural processes. LCA, on the other hand, separates the environment from the economy abstractly via its ecosphere/technosphere distinction. The ecosphere is composed of a number of environmental compartments that respond with a negative impact when concentrations of chemicals, or other indicators of the ecosystem state, are increased marginally as a result of the environmental exchanges of a product system. The technosphere may contain organisms of natural origin, but they are highly manipulated and hence not considered part of the environment. A pot plant is an example of this", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2193, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 622, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The technosphere may contain organisms of natural origin, but they are highly manipulated and hence not considered part of the environment. A pot plant is an example of this. The positive impacts on the quality of the pot plant soil from the addition of biological nutrients are not classified as benefits to nature in LCA, because the pot plant belongs to the technosphere. Instead, LCA can account for the negative environmental impacts that have been avoided if the biological nutrients added to the pot plant displace the use of synthetic fertilizer. This accounting A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2194, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 622, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "practice falls within the general scope of LCA of quantifying negative impacts on the environment (whether caused or avoided) with the aim of reducing these. One could argue that positive impacts on the ecosphere ought to be captured in LCA by spatially resolved characterization factors, which take into account that nutrients that end up in ecosystems that are naturally nutrient poor can increase the number of species and their populations within that ecosystem. However, because LCA aims to conserve natural conditions as much as possible, an increase in the number of species and their populations is generally not considered positive, at least not if it happens at the cost of a reduced number of original species, adapted to nutrient-poor conditions, and their populations. For example, the endpoint LCIA model of freshwater eutrophication adopted in the ReCiPe LCIA methodology (Huijbregts et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2195, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 623, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, the endpoint LCIA model of freshwater eutrophication adopted in the ReCiPe LCIA methodology (Huijbregts et al. 2015) derives the marginal damage from an increased phosphorous concentration from a set of monitoring data that excludes data from nutrient-poor locations (less than 0.1 mg phosphorous per litre freshwater). This exclusion is intentional as the authors \u201cdo not account for a potential overall increase in species richness due to an increase in P for oligotrophic situations\u201d (Struijs et al. 2010). Because of the conservation ethics underlying LCA any change in natural conditions, even if they result in more species and higher populations, are considered negative, because changes essentially lead to cultural landscapes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2196, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 623, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The conservation ethics can also be defended from a biodiversity perspective, because an increase in local species (and genomic) diversity through the addition of nutrients may come at the expense of a reduction in regional or global species (and genomic) diversity. The species thriving in a nutrient-poor environment may become threatened or go extinct, if the practice of adding nutrients happens at a large scale, which is the case in many regions of the world due to modern agriculture\u2019s reliance on synthetic fertilizer (Steffen et al. 2015). In some cases, LCA can actually handle genuine positive environmental impacts (not just reduced or avoided negative impacts). This applies when the function of the studied system(s) is to restore a previously manipulated piece of land or aquatic system (technosphere) to a natural state (ecosphere)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2197, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 623, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This applies when the function of the studied system(s) is to restore a previously manipulated piece of land or aquatic system (technosphere) to a natural state (ecosphere). For such a study, an example of a functional unit is \u201creintroducing 0.5 m of top soil and natural vegetation during no more than 5 year to 1 ha of eroded land\u201d. In this case, the result of the LCIA will still be expressed as negative impacts for a number of impact categories. It would then be up to the decision-makers to decide whether the ecological benefit of the functional unit outweighs the negative impacts quantified by the LCA of delivering the functional unit (e.g. from treating potential pollution at the site and from extracting and transporting top soil from another location). The above points mean that one must be very specific about the type of environment to be benefitted when trying to evaluate a C2C product using LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2198, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 623, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The above points mean that one must be very specific about the type of environment to be benefitted when trying to evaluate a C2C product using LCA. What exactly is meant by \u201cbenefit\u201d? Is the benefit intended on a manipulated environment that in LCA would be characterised as part of the technosphere? Is the benefit supposed to increase species diversity in naturally nutrient-poor environments? Can the benefit be considered an obligatory or positioning property, meaning that it may be captured by the functional unit of an LCA study (see Sect. 8.4)? Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2199, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 623, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.6.4 C2C is Positive Towards Material Growth: LCA is Not In line with C2C proponents not supporting the idea of dematerialization at the product scale, they also do not support it at the economic scale. Rather than decoupling negative environmental impacts from GDP, C2C advocate a \u201cpositive recoupling\u201d of the relationship between economy and ecology, which is argued to support future economic growth (Braungart et al. 2007). This stand can also be inferred from the 2002 book: \u201cThe key is not to make human industries and systems smaller, as efficiency advocates propound, but to design them to get bigger and better in a way that replenishes, restores and nourishes the rest of the world\u201d (McDonough and Braungart 2002). The C2C argument is that as long as resources are circulated within continuous loops, then the amounts of resources circulating and their rate of circulation does not need to be restricted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2200, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 624, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The C2C argument is that as long as resources are circulated within continuous loops, then the amounts of resources circulating and their rate of circulation does not need to be restricted. Also, when accepting the premise that the introduction of biological nutrients to the biological cycle is beneficial to the environment (see Sect. 25.6.3), then the introduction of even more biological nutrients are seen as even more beneficial. This obviously conflicts with the perspective in LCA that impact is proportional to the quantity of elementary flows, which increases with the increase of product flows and other flows that are internal to the technosphere. Currently this argument holds for all products, inspired by C2C or not, because societies generally do not respect the three key principles in C2C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2201, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 624, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Currently this argument holds for all products, inspired by C2C or not, because societies generally do not respect the three key principles in C2C. In other words, in today\u2019s world an increase in products inevitably results in an increase in consumption of renewable and non-renewable resources, CO2 emissions, and other emissions that occur due to the lack of closed material loops. Would increasing consumption, as argued by C2C proponents, then be unproblematic in a perfect C2C world, i.e. one with no violations of the three key principles? Probably not, when considering that economies having an increasing consumption historically have coincided with the accumulation of materials in societal stocks, such as buildings and infrastructure. This conclusion was also reached by the European Environmental Agency (EEA 2011) for the European economy as a whole: \u201ceven maximum recycling cannot cover all EU demand for resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2202, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 624, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This conclusion was also reached by the European Environmental Agency (EEA 2011) for the European economy as a whole: \u201ceven maximum recycling cannot cover all EU demand for resources. This is due to the accumulation of goods in a growing EU economy, for example in the construction sector, which acts as a long-term store for materials, making them unavailable for recycling for many years\u201d. So even if 100% recycling, i.e. no waste generation, is achieved in a materially growing economy, the accumulation of materials must be compensated by a supply of virgin resources, as illustrated in Fig. 25.2 (when disregarding the theoretical option of obtaining resource from other economies that are materially shrinking). This situation is fundamentally unsustainable because it will eventually lead to resource scarcity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2203, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 624, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This situation is fundamentally unsustainable because it will eventually lead to resource scarcity. This scarcity is further driven by the increasing need for minerals going into the renewable energy infrastructure (windmills, photovoltaic cells, transmission cables, etc.) needed to fuel increasing material throughputs (Kleijn and van der Voet 2010). A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2204, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 624, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A growing economy may also cause scarcity of renewable resources because the planet has a limited (short term and long term) capacity to produce biomaterials through photosynthesis (Running 2012). This became evident when increased use of biofuels from especially corn caused food prices to increase dramatically in 2007 thus resulting in food scarcity for the poorest (Partzsch and Hughes 2010). Moreover, biodiversity is generally lower in managed biological systems (agriculture, plantations, etc.) than in natural systems. An economy with a growing intake of biomaterials, therefore, threatens to reduce biodiversity. 25.7 Learnings from C2C to LCA Experts and Practitioners So far, mostly C2C\u2019s shortcomings have been addressed by scrutinizing the concept from the perspective of LCA. However, C2C does point out some thoughtprovoking weaknesses of LCA and the underlining concept of eco-efficiency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2205, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 625, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, C2C does point out some thoughtprovoking weaknesses of LCA and the underlining concept of eco-efficiency. These weaknesses and their potential solutions should, in the authors\u2019 opinions, be addressed by LCA experts and practitioners in their pursuit of a sustainable world. 25.7.1 Avoid Perfectly Optimized Wrong Systems First of all, eco-efficiency and LCA are more focused on the means to achieve sustainability than on how a sustainable future might actually look. The guiding principle is reductions of environmental impacts per functional unit, but the complex dynamics between the different functions making up a society is poorly captured in LCA and to a large extent excluded from the system boundaries of an assessment for pragmatic reasons. This may lead to what C2C proponents sarcastically terms \u201chighly optimized wrong systems\u201d. Such a situation arises when in the pursuit of eco-efficiency systems or technologies that are inherently unsustainable, are optimized", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2206, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 625, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such a situation arises when in the pursuit of eco-efficiency systems or technologies that are inherently unsustainable, are optimized. LCA generally tells you what is greener in today\u2019s non-ideal world, while C2C tells you what is green in Stock: 100Gt 100% Resource: 5Gt/year Stock: 105Gt 100% Stock: 110Gt 100% Resource: 5Gt/year Resource: 5Gt/year Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Fig. 25.2 Illustration of how resource input is required in a materially growing economy that recycles 100% of its resources Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2207, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 625, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "an ideal future. Often, both things cannot be pursued simultaneously. This is because an ideal future may never be realized if products and systems are optimized according to what is greener in today\u2019s non-ideal world, since this optimization of \u201cwrong systems\u201d could serve to lock societies into an unsustainable trajectory. Solid waste incineration is a good candidate of a \u201chighly optimized wrong systems\u201d. When optimizing the incineration process the efficiency of the flue gas cleaning and the conversion of the chemically stored energy in the waste into heat and electricity are increased. This increases the eco-efficiency of the system. However, for a large part of the solid waste fractions currently incinerated, the practice is inherently unsustainable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2208, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 626, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This increases the eco-efficiency of the system. However, for a large part of the solid waste fractions currently incinerated, the practice is inherently unsustainable. Non-renewable materials are lost (for instance petroleum-based plastics), decreased in quality due to contamination (for instance metals), or chemically transformed into a form where they can hardly be utilized (for instance the decrease in bioavailability of phosphorus (Thygesen et al. 2011)). Furthermore, investments in capacity for waste incineration necessitates that plants operate for several decades into the future. This decreases the incentive to install capacity for recycling, clearly conflicting with the aim within the circular economy concept of closing material loops. Moreover, state-of-the-art recycling technologies may perform worse in an LCA than state-of-the-art incineration, because more efforts have gone into the optimization of the latter than into the former", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2209, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 626, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, as noted above, recycling technologies may have the potential to become the environmentally preferable waste management option if given the chance to develop and mature. The scales may also tip to the favour of recycling due to the tendency of decreasing average environmental impacts per unit of energy consumption as a consequence of increasing shares of renewable energy in energy mixes of most nations. This means that, in time, environmental impacts associated with energy consumption in the recycling processes becomes smaller and, in parallel, the environmental impacts associated with average grid-electricity production and district heating that are superseded by energy production from waste incineration (in an attributional LCA) becomes smaller and less advantageous to replace. An idea for how to avoid the risk of perfectly optimized wrong systems is to embed a vision of a sustainable society, whether inspired by C2C or not, into the background system of a LCI model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2210, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 626, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An idea for how to avoid the risk of perfectly optimized wrong systems is to embed a vision of a sustainable society, whether inspired by C2C or not, into the background system of a LCI model. This would mean that background processes would reflect the vision of a sustainable society and thus reward product systems that are designed to fit such a vision. For example, the electricity mix could be composed of 100% renewable sources. Challenges of such a strategy are the choice among competing visions of sustainable societies and the translation of such visions to future models of the thousands of unit processes commonly made available in commercial LCI databases. For example, what modes of transport (private cars, busses, trains?) will exist in a sustainable future and how will these be fuelled (biofuels or electricity or hydrogen produced from renewable sources?)? These challenges are discussed in Chap. 21 on future-oriented LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2211, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 626, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21 on future-oriented LCA. In other cases it may be more appropriate to carry out a straightforward qualitative assessment, where a product system is evaluated based on the extent to which it fulfils a range of sustainability conditions (such as \u201cbeing completely based on renewable materials\u201d or \u201cnot relying on fossil fuels in use stage\u201d), as proposed by Ny et al. (2006) and de Pauw et al. (2015). A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2212, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 626, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "25.7.2 Improve LCI Modelling of Material Quality and Multiple Life Cycles In a life cycle inventory model, the fate of products and their material components in the technosphere is usually treated as an issue of multifunctionality (see Sect. 8.5). For example, a recycling facility provides the co-function (in addition to managing waste) of delivering recycled materials and this co-function is typically handled by performing system expansion or allocation (see Sect. 8.5.2). However, in doing so, it is difficult to capture the difference in quality between the original material and the material leaving the recycling facility (that may have been \u201cdowncycled\u201d). Typically, this quality issue is handled quantitatively in LCA by applying substitution factors, that take into account that a certain amount of virgin material is needed to make up for a loss in quality (e.g. a factor of 0.7 for paper recycling)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2213, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 627, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a factor of 0.7 for paper recycling). The problem with this approach is that the value of a recycled material depends on which new product the material will take part in. For example, a certain alloy composition of recycled aluminium may be seen as an advantage in one product and a disadvantage in another product. Also, current modelling practice of recycling processes typically does not account for subtle differences in material inputs to recycling or recycled materials (e.g. differences in alloy elements present and their concentrations), which can be decisive for the value of recycled materials in a new life cycle. To overcome these weaknesses, LCI modelling practice needs to improve the representation of a material\u2019s constituents, considering (1) intended heterogeneity (e.g. in the case of coating or metal alloys to improve functionality) and unintended heterogeneity (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2214, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 627, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in the case of coating or metal alloys to improve functionality) and unintended heterogeneity (e.g. a packaging material becoming \u201cpolluted\u201d with food during the use stage), (2) how heterogeneity affects material recyclability (for example, some plastic recycling processes cannot operate if impurities exceed a certain threshold), (3) the composition of recycled materials. It may also be feasible to consider multiple life cycles in the LCI modelling, which could be aligned with the C2C idea of planning for a \u201ccascade\u201d for a material (see Table 25.2). If doing so, the functional unit should cover all the functions that a material deliver to the planned life cycles, rather than the function on the first life cycle, as is currently common practice (Niero and Olsen 2016). 25.7.3 Avoid False Sense of Sustainability Progress LCA results are generally interpreted in a relative manner (see Chap. 2). That is, calculated impacts are compared with impacts from other human activities, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2215, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 627, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2). That is, calculated impacts are compared with impacts from other human activities, e.g. different products in a comparative assessment and/or background impacts (per person) in a reference year through the normalization stage of LCIA. Therefore, LCA results do not provide any information on the seriousness of an impact, understood as its size compared to the carrying capacity of affected ecosystems, i.e. Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2216, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 627, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "their capacity to generate resources and absorb pollution (Sayre 2008). If carrying capacities are exceeded, the structure and functions of ecosystems may fundamentally change, leading to the disappearance of species and loss of ecosystem services. Past increases in global consumption of products and services have resulted in the exceeding of several carrying capacities at various scales and this trend is projected to continue (WRI 2005; Steffen et al. 2015), as discussed in Chapt 5. This means that \u201cbetter\u201d at the product level is not necessarily \u201cgood enough\u201d. In other words, presenting individual products and services as \u201cgreen\u201d or \u201csustainable\u201d because they have an incrementally lower environmental impact than reference products and services may create a false sense of sustainability progress, and in some situations qualify as \u201cgreenwashing\u201d (UL 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2217, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 628, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "C2C does not contain the concept of carrying capacity, because C2C aims for positive impacts, rather than limiting negative impacts to levels that nature can cope with, and because calls for the integration of nature and societies. Yet, C2C\u2019s ambitious absolute guidance (the three key principles) encourages radical changes in the ways we produce and consume, creates a sense of urgency, and offers a positive vision of a sustainable future to aim for. This may serve as a wakeup call for some societal actors who have not previously been engaged in environmental issues. LCA practitioners can learn from the absolute perspective of C2C in the interpretation stage of many types of LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2218, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 628, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA practitioners can learn from the absolute perspective of C2C in the interpretation stage of many types of LCAs. In a comparative LCA it is important to note that \u201cbetter\u201d is not necessarily \u201cgood enough\u201d and to put the environmental impacts of the studied product system(s) into a wider sustainability framing, whether such a frame is based on C2C or the concept of carrying capacity, as integrated in normalization references (Bj\u00f8rn and Hauschild 2015). 25.7.4 Emphasize Positive Impacts and Opportunities When Communicating Results LCA informs decisions on how to reduce negative environmental impacts. As argued by C2C proponents the idea of doing less of something bad (two negative terms combined) may be psychologically demotivating. Doing more of something good sounds more appealing, which undoubtedly contributes to the wide interest in C2C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2219, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 628, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Doing more of something good sounds more appealing, which undoubtedly contributes to the wide interest in C2C. The idea of making an effort to create a \u201cdelightful diverse, safe, healthy and just world, with clean air, water, soil and power\u2014economically, equitably, ecologically and elegantly enjoyed\u201d is simply more inspiring than the old mantra of reducing negative ecological impacts, accompanied by terrifying images of drowning polar bears, suffocated fish and birds covered in oil. Can LCA practitioners adopt a positive framing of the need for sustainable development, while still being honest about the many unsustainable trends facing the world, the enormity of the challenge and the insufficiency of incremental improvements? We would have liked to answer this question by \u201cyes, of course!\u201d, but at this point we can only come up with a couple of fuzzy suggestions. A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2220, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 628, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Firstly, a closer connection between the functional unit of LCA and happiness can be created, as proposed by Hofstetter et al (2006). This can serve to motivate the task of maintaining or creating (the conditions for) happiness, while minimizing or completely abolishing the \u201cunhappiness\u201d imposed on other living creatures (human or not) by the provisioning of product systems. Perhaps more importantly, a closer connection between what is assessed in LCA and happiness can make stakeholders reflect upon whether a product system is really needed in the pursuit of happiness. Maybe another product system or activity fulfilling a completely different function and having a radically lower environmental impact can be just as good, or better, at creating the conditions for happiness? In the illustrative example of Hofstetter et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2221, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 629, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2006) it is proposed (hypothetically) that the activities of gardening and going to a weekend house on the country side might be equally good at creating conditions for happiness, even though they provide much different functions. The former activity obviously has a much lower environmental impact. Secondly, LCA may be framed within a larger struggle against business as usual. LCA can inform this struggle since it can show the gap between the required reductions in environmental impacts (e.g. to avoid exceeding carrying capacities) and the actual reductions taking place. The struggle against business as usual is also about social justice. During the last three decades political and economic systems have failed at reducing environmental impacts (most impacts have increased) and have increased income inequality within and between nations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2222, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 629, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, it could be motivating for LCA practitioners and their audience to position themselves as agents of change in the struggle for an environmentally sustainable and just world. In the words of Naomi Klein: \u201cWhat if global warming isn\u2019t only a crisis? What if it\u2019s the best chance we are ever gonna get to build a better world?\u201d (Klein 2014). Bj\u00f8rn, A., Hauschild, M.Z.: Absolute versus relative environmental sustainability. J. Ind. Ecol. 17, 321\u2013332 (2013). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00520.x Bj\u00f8rn, A., Hauschild, M.Z.: Introducing carrying capacity based normalization in LCA: framework and development of references at midpoint level. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1005\u20131018 (2015) Braungart, M., McDonough, W., Bollinger, A.: Cradle-to-cradle design: creating healthy emissions\u2014a strategy for eco-effective product and system design. J. Clean Prod. 15, 1337\u2013 1348 (2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2223, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 629, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean Prod. 15, 1337\u2013 1348 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.08.003 Carlsberg Group: Carlsber Group CSR Report 2014: Growing Responsibility Together (2015) de Pauw, I.C., Kandachar, P., Karana, E.: Assessing sustainability in nature-inspired design. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 8, 5\u201313 (2015). doi:10.1080/19397038.2014.977373 EC: Closing the loop\u2014an EU action plan for the Circular Economy. COM (2015) 614 final. European Commission (2015a) EC: Implementation of the Circular Economy Action Plan. European Commission (2015b). http:// ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/index_en.htm EEA: Earnings, jobs and innovation: The role of recycling in a green economy. EEA Report 8/2011. European Environment Agency. ISSN: 1725-9177. Copenhagen, Denmark (2011) Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2224, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 629, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EMF: Towards the Circular Economy Vol. 1: An Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Cowes (2012) EMF: Delivering the Circular Economy: a Toolkit for Policymakers. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Cowes (2015a) EMF: Towards a Circular Economy: Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Cowes (2015b) Hofstetter, P., Madjar, M., Ozawa, T.: Happiness and sustainable consumption\u2014psychological and physical rebound effects at work in a tool for sustainable design. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 105\u2013115 (2006) Huijbregts, M.A.J., Steinmann, Z.J.N., Elshout, P.M.F., et al.: ReCiPe2015: a life cycle impact assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level report I : characterisation factors (2015) ISO: ISO 14024:1999. Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Type I Environmental Labelling \u2014Principles and Procedures", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2225, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 630, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Type I Environmental Labelling \u2014Principles and Procedures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (1999) Kleijn, R., van der Voet, E.: Resource constraints in a hydrogen economy based on renewable energy sources: an exploration. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14, 2784\u20132795 (2010). doi:10. 1016/j.rser.2010.07.066 Klein, N.: This Changes Everything. Simon & Schuste, New York (2014) MBDC: The Making of the Next Industrial Revolution at Ford Motor Company. McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry, Charlottesville (2011) McDonough, W., Braungart, M.: Cradle to Cradle\u2014Remaking the Way We Make Things, 1st edn. North Point Press, New York (2002) McDonough, W., Braungart, M.: The Upcycle: Beyond Sustainability-Designing for Abundance. North Point Press, New York (2013) MIE: Usability of Life Cycle Assessment for Cradle to Cradle Purposes\u2014Position Paper. Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, Utrecht (2011) NEL: Product Groups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2226, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 630, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, Utrecht (2011) NEL: Product Groups. Nordic Ecolabelling (2016). http://www.nordic-ecolabel.org/criteria/ product-groups/?p=1 Niero, M., Olsen, S.I.: Circular economy: to be or not to be in a closed product loop? A Life Cycle Assessment of aluminium cans with inclusion of alloying elements. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 114, 18\u201331 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.06.023 Niero, M., Hauschild, M.Z., Hoffmeyer, S.B., Olsen, S.I.: Combining eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness for continuous loop beverage packaging systems: learnings from the Carlsberg Circular Community. J. Ind. Ecol. (in review) (2016) Ny, H., Macdonald, J.P., Broman, G., et al.: Sustainability constraints as system boundaries\u2014an approach to making life-cycle management strategic. J. Ind. Ecol. 10, 61\u201377 (2006) Partzsch, L., Hughes, S.: Food versus fuel: governance potential for water rivalry. Food Ethics (2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2227, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 630, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 10, 61\u201377 (2006) Partzsch, L., Hughes, S.: Food versus fuel: governance potential for water rivalry. Food Ethics (2010). doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5765-8_10 PII: Guidance for Applying the Final Manufacturing Stage Requirements in the Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM Product Standard, Versions 3.0 and 3.1 (2015) PII: Cradle to Cradle Certified(TM) Product Standard Version 3.1. Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute (2016) PII: Overall Product Scoring. In: Get Cradle to Cradle CertifiedTM. Cradle to Cradle Prod. Innov. Inst. (2017a). http://www.c2ccertified.org/get-certified/levels PII: Cradle to Cradle Certified Products Registry. In: Cradle to Cradle Prod. Innov. Inst. (2017b). http://www.c2ccertified.org/products/registry PLI: Cradle to Cradle. In: Prod. Inst. (2013). http://www.product-life.org/en/cradle-to-cradle Running, S.W.: A measurable planetary boundary for the biosphere. Science 337, 1458\u20131459 (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2228, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 630, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: Prod. Inst. (2013). http://www.product-life.org/en/cradle-to-cradle Running, S.W.: A measurable planetary boundary for the biosphere. Science 337, 1458\u20131459 (2012). doi:10.1126/science.1227620 Sayre, N.F.: The genesis, history, and limits of carrying capacity. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 98, 120\u2013134 (2008). doi:10.1080/00045600701734356 Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockstr\u00f6m, J., et al.: Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science (Washington D C) 347, 736 (2015). doi:10.1126/ science.1259855 A. Bj\u00f8rn and M.Z. Hauschild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2229, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 630, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Struijs, J., Beusen, A., Zwart, D., Huijbregts, M.: Characterization factors for inland water eutrophication at the damage level in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 59\u201364 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0232-z Thygesen, A.M., Wernberg, O., Skou, E., Sommer, S.G.: Effect of incineration temperature on phosphorus availability in bio-ash from manure. Environ. Technol. 32, 633\u2013638 (2011). doi:10.1080/09593330.2010.509355 Tobias, C.: Exclusive interview with Dr. Michael Braungart: Businesses should do more good, rather than less bad. In: eco-business.com\u2014Asia Pacific\u2019s Environ. Bus. community (2010). http://www.eco-business.com/news/2010/oct/25/businesses-should-do-more-good-rather-less-bad/ UL: The Sins of Greenwashing: Home and Family Edition. Underwriters Laboratories (2010) WBCSD: Eco-efficiency\u2014creating more value with less impact. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000) WRI: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2230, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 631, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000) WRI: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. Synthesis. Island Press, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC (2005) Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2231, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "25 Cradle to Cradle and LCA", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 631, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 26 LCA of Energy Systems Alexis Laurent, Nieves Espinosa and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract Energy systems are essential in the support of modern societies\u2019 activities, and can span a wide spectrum of electricity and heat generation systems and cooling systems. Along with their central role and large diversity, these systems have been demonstrated to cause serious impacts on human health, ecosystems and natural resources. Over the past two decades, energy systems have thus been the focus of more than 1000 LCA studies, with the aim to identify and reduce these impacts. This chapter addresses LCA applications to energy systems for generation of electricity and heat", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2232, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 640, "book_page": 633, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter addresses LCA applications to energy systems for generation of electricity and heat. The chapter gives insight into the LCA practice related to such systems, offering a critical review of (i) central methodological aspects, including the definition of the goals and scopes of the studies, their coverage of the system life cycle and the environmental impacts, and (ii) key findings of the studies, particularly aimed at identifying environmental hotspots and impact patterns across different energy sources. Based on this literature review recommendations and guidelines are issued to LCA practitioners on key methodological aspects that are important for a proper conduct of LCA studies of energy systems and thus ensuring the reliability of the LCA results provided to decision- and policy-makers. A. Laurent (&) \u0001 M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2233, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 640, "book_page": 633, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A. Laurent (&) \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet 424, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: alau@dtu.dk M.Z. Hauschild e-mail: mzha@dtu.dk N. Espinosa Department of Energy Conversion and Storage, Technical University of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej, 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark e-mail: nieves.espinosa@ec.europa.eu N. Espinosa Product Policy Bureau, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Inca Garcilaso, 3, 41092 Sevilla, Spain \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_26", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2234, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 640, "book_page": 633, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.1 Over the past decades, energy systems have increasingly received attention from stakeholders, including from high policy-makers, due to the combination of four major factors. Although different trends can be observed across countries, energy demand is expected to keep increasing worldwide, hence putting an increasing pressure on the supply side. The total primary energy supply, which amounted to 560 EJ globally in 2012, is thus expected to increase by 20\u201335% by 2040 (IEA 2015a). Conventional fossil resources are still anticipated to absorb that increase although depletion issues, in particular of conventional oil resources, have been widely acknowledged. As a result, initiatives to find alternative resources to fulfil the services that are currently relying on petroleum products have emerged (e.g. electric transportation to replace fossil-fuelled ones; see Chap. 27)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2235, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 634, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "electric transportation to replace fossil-fuelled ones; see Chap. 27). In parallel, the increasing risk of disruptions of oil and natural gas supplies have led nations to define strategies to ensure secured energy supply, including establishing of emergency oil stocks for short-term disruptions and/or long-term planning to transition to more renewable and local sources (IEA 2014). Finally, energy systems are the primary source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions responsible for climate change. Electricity and heat production alone were thus responsible for 25% of the total GHG emissions in the world in 2010 while transportation was reported to account for 14% (IPCC 2014). In that setting, the key role of energy systems as support for entire economies combined with the triple issues of fossil resource depletion, climate change and energy security has put them at the centre of the sustainability debate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2236, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 634, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The development and dissemination of renewable energy technologies, deployment of carbon capture and storage systems, fuel switching, continued use of nuclear power and gains in energy efficiency are mechanisms, which can help mitigate these issues and have therefore become the focus of most energy policies (IEA 2015b). Energy systems embody a wide range of systems and technologies and can be regarded as a \u201csupporting sector\u201d, i.e. a sector that feeds into all other application sectors, e.g. transportation, building sectors, industrial sectors, etc. In relation to life cycle assessment (LCA), it therefore means that energy systems can be considered relevant to nearly all LCA studies ever done until now. According to Chen et al. (2014) and Hou et al. (2015), between 1998 and 2013, approximately 7500 scientific articles and proceedings papers were published in the field of life cycle assessment and 1067 of them could be categorised within the subject \u201cEnergy and Fuels\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2237, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 634, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Simply taking the keywords \u201cenergy systems\u201d, \u201cenergy technologies\u201d, \u201cpower systems\u201d, \u201cpower plants\u201d, \u201celectricity systems\u201d, \u201cheat systems\u201d, combined with LCA leads to the non-exhaustive identification in Web of Science of 674 scientific articles published up to 2015, see Fig. 26.1. Matching the pattern observed by Chen et al. (2014) for all LCA-related publications, an exponential trend can be observed. Energy systems and technologies considered in this chapter are limited to the energy supply systems and can be categorised in two major groups: electricity and heat production systems and fuels for transportation. Further differentiation can be done depending on energy sources (e.g. coal, wind, nuclear power, etc.),", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2238, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 634, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technology types (e.g. concentrated solar power and photovoltaics for solar power), application types (e.g. electricity or heat only, or combined heat and power plants), or fuel types (e.g. trains running from electricity or diesel in railway transportation). Overall, these sub-categories and differentiations are not addressed exhaustively in this chapter, which is intended to remain overarching and generic to all energy systems. In addition, the present chapter is limited to only addressing LCA in relation to electricity and heat production systems and therefore does not cover fuels for transportation. For the latter, the reader is referred to Chap. 27, which addresses e-mobility and touches upon that topic in relation to road transportation, and Chap. 30, which specifically addresses biofuels. 26.2 Literature Review This section is intended to provide a non-exhaustive overview of research in the field of LCA applied to electricity and heat systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2239, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 635, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.2 Literature Review This section is intended to provide a non-exhaustive overview of research in the field of LCA applied to electricity and heat systems. It aims to provide an analysis of the key points of published LCA studies, addressing both methodological aspects and main findings. 26.2.1 Goal and Scope of the Studies LCA studies on electricity and heat systems can roughly be divided into two main categories, which differ by the scoping/scaling, complexity and overarching goals of the study: Number of scientific articles Fig. 26.1 Number of scientific articles addressing LCA and energy systems (non-exhaustive; total retrieved of 674 papers). Search made in ISI Web of Science using the keyword LCA combined with either \u201cenergy systems\u201d, \u201cenergy technologies\u201d, \u201cpower systems\u201d, \u201cpower plants\u201d, \u201celectricity systems\u201d or \u201cheat systems\u201d (Thomson Reuters, New York, NY). Exponential trend displayed in dotted line (r2 = 0.95) LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2240, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 635, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1. Studies assessing a specific energy technology/source/system at a power plant level (with possible inclusion of transport and distribution system) or sub-power plant level (e.g. specific component of the system). The goals of the study typically include weak-point analyses for eco-design, reporting/documentation of environmental performances of a newly developed technology, benchmarking against other technologies using the same or other energy sources (renewables and/or non-renewables). 2. Studies assessing energy systems in a context perspective, typically at mesoand large-scale. These studies relate the supply systems to context-dependent parameters, including the energy demand, types/settings of the application of the system, etc. They are primarily associated with goals oriented towards policy analysis or decision- and policy-making at urban, national or regional scales", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2241, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 636, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They are primarily associated with goals oriented towards policy analysis or decision- and policy-making at urban, national or regional scales. They include retrospective and foresight studies looking into national energy scenarios, penetration of renewables into electricity grid mixes, installation and deployment of micro-grids for buildings, etc. Most LCA studies made on energy systems are Category 1 studies, while the conductofCategory2studiesistypicallypost-2010.Over theyears,Category1studies have been commissioned and/or performed by electricity suppliers and researchers in academia for individual technologies, energy sources and national or regional grid mixes. The accumulated large pool of data can now be found in LCI databases, such as ecoinvent (Weidema et al. 2013), where hundreds of single processes, differentiated by energy sources, technologies and locations and typically defined as the supply of 1 KWh or 1 MJ, are available to LCA practitioners", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2242, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 636, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013), where hundreds of single processes, differentiated by energy sources, technologies and locations and typically defined as the supply of 1 KWh or 1 MJ, are available to LCA practitioners. A non-exhaustive glimpse of Category 1 studies is provided in Sect. 26.3.1 and in Table 26.4 (placed in Appendix); an overview of Category 2 studies is given in Table 26.1. The definitions of the scope of the studies vary significantly between the two categories of studies as well as within a same category. Most of the choices with regard to the scope definition are not harmonised and are often made by the LCA practitioners based on previous studies and/or reference guidelines, such as the ISO standards or the ILCD Handbook. An example is the choice of the LCI modelling framework, with studies relying on attributional modelling with use of allocation while others use consequential modelling (see Sect. 8.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2243, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 636, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An example is the choice of the LCI modelling framework, with studies relying on attributional modelling with use of allocation while others use consequential modelling (see Sect. 8.5). These choices are not always clearly justified in studies, in particular with respect to the goal of the study. Although not always transparently reported in the past studies, an important step in the scope definition is the elaboration of a properly defined functional unit (FU). Because Category 2 studies look at the energy system in relation to its context while Category 1 studies do not, different functional units can be observed. Two major types of functional units can be found in Category 1 studies: (i) FUs defined as the generation of 1 kWh or MJ of electricity/heat at power plant/heat unit, and (ii) FUs defined as the supply of xx kWh of electricity to the grid (thus including the energy transport and distribution systems)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2244, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 636, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These definitions are by far the most common and relate to studies looking at the output of the energy production system. Other types of functional units, with more focus on the fuel inputs to the system, can also", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2245, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 636, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.1 Examples of Category 2 studies i.e. systemic, context-driven studies Scale Functional unit Short description (incl. modelling) Reference Macro-scale (global); prospective (Not explicitly defined) Interpreted as the supply of electricity to match the global demand up to 2050 (demand fixed by different scenarios) \u2013 Assessment of environmental impacts associated with the BLUE Map scenario compared to the business as usual scenario, as defined by the International Energy Agency over the period 2007\u20132050 \u2013 Use of a hybrid LCA model combining multi-regional input\u2013 output model and process LCIs. Inclusion of a dynamic perspective (e.g. evolution of grid mixes over time, etc.) Hertwich et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2246, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 637, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2015) Macro-scale (global, regional, national); retrospective (Not explicitly defined) (i) Supply of electricity matching demand in each country in a given year (demand fixed by statistics for each country in each year); (ii) 1 kWh of electricity consumed in a given country in a given year \u2013 Retrospective assessment of environmental impacts from electricity generated in each country/region over the period 1980\u20132011 \u2013 Use of process LCI and historical statistics on electricity produced from different energy sources and technologies in each country/region Laurent and Espinosa (2015) Macro-scale (EU); prospective (Not explicitly defined) Interpreted as the supply of electricity matching the demand in the EU for the period 2005\u20132010 \u2013 Assessment of environmental impacts caused by each of two policy scenarios over 2005\u2013 2010: bioenergy policy and business as usual policy \u2013 Use of consequential LCA to capture impacts of the policy implementation, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2247, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 637, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "increase in biomass demand in non-EU countries Dandres et al. (2011) Macro-scale (EU); prospective (Not explicitly defined) Interpreted as the supply of electricity matching the demand in the EU in the year \u2013 Assessment of environmental impacts associated with 44 scenarios electricity supply in the EU in 2050 \u2013 Use of a hybrid LCA model combining multi-regional input\u2013 output model and process LCIs, incl. requirements for accommodating the variability of wind and solar power (e.g. storage) and changes in grid mixes for production processes Berril et al. (2016) (continued) LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2248, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 637, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.1 (continued) Scale Functional unit Short description (incl. modelling) Reference Macro-scale (Mexico); present perspective Total annual amount of electricity generated by public sector in 2006, i.e. 225,079 GWh \u2013 Assessment of environmental impacts of electricity generation in Mexico in 2006 \u2013 Process LCI data used Santoyo-Castelazo et al. (2011) Macro-scale (Estonia); prospective 1 MWh of grid electricity consumed in Estonia \u2013 Comparative assessment of 3 scenarios for 2020 (i.e. nuclear, oil shale, natural gas scenarios) compared to \u201ccurrent\u201d situation in 2002 \u2013 Correction of process LCI to adapt future scenarios Koskela et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2249, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 638, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "nuclear, oil shale, natural gas scenarios) compared to \u201ccurrent\u201d situation in 2002 \u2013 Correction of process LCI to adapt future scenarios Koskela et al. (2007) Macro-scale (Denmark); prospective 1 kWh of electricity consumed in Denmark \u2013 Comparative assessment of 2 scenarios for 2030 (2030-Green and business as usual) in Denmark compared to \u201ccurrent\u201d situation in 2010 \u2013 Consequential LCA to model possible future Danish power systems (future changes for power generation technologies included) Turconi et al. (2014) Macro-scale (United Arab Emirates); prospective Supply of 1 kWh of net electricity \u2013 Comparative assessment of a number of scenarios for 2020, 2030 and 2050 (planned policies, planned policies with carbon capture and storage systems after 2030, nuclear scenario, renewables scenario), also compared to \u201ccurrent\u201d situation in 2010 \u2013 Technologies foreseen in use in 2030 based on literature sources. Combination with process LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2250, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 638, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Combination with process LCI. Treyer and Bauer (2016) Meso-scale (Island of Koh Jig); present/ prospective Supply of 265 kWh of electricity per day to Koh Jig Island for 20 years (i.e. 1934.5 MWh) \u2013 Three alternative microgrid systems of electrification for the entire island of Koh Jig (1.2 km2) \u2013 Interpreted as attributional model with system expansion used for recovered materials only (not energy) Smith et al. (2015) Meso-scale (house); present Total power generation in one year \u2013 Comparisons of 9 different power generation systems to sustain energy requirements of a standalone mobile house in Turkey Sevencan and Ciftcioglu (2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2251, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 638, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "be found in literature, e.g. studies assessing different fuel inputs to a power plant and focusing on their different energy contents. With regard to Category 2 studies, the functional unit is often defined as the supply of an amount of energy based on the demand of the country, region or entity supported by the energy systems under study in a temporal perspective, i.e. past, present or future-oriented (see Table 26.1) illustrating the variety of Category 2 studies. As reported in Table 26.1, two main types of functional units are often used. They differ by the amount of energy, which defines the \u201cquantity\u201d aspect of the functional unit. This quantity may either match the total energy demand/consumption defined by the scenario(s) considered (e.g. Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016) or be normalised to the consumption of one kWh for all scenarios (e.g. Turconi et al. 2014). In the former, some practical challenges may arise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2252, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 639, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016) or be normalised to the consumption of one kWh for all scenarios (e.g. Turconi et al. 2014). In the former, some practical challenges may arise. In studies encompassing a wide scoping with several scenarios and sub-systems, the quantification of the functional unit may thus become difficult. For example, in Laurent and Espinosa (2015), the environmental impacts associated with the electricity generated in each country in the world for each year within the period 1980\u20132011 were assessed. It means that for national assessments, as many functional units as numbers of countries and numbers of years included in the study need to be quantitatively defined although the primary functions are the same, i.e. the supply/generation of electricity matching the demand in each country and each year. Similar issues can be observed in future-oriented studies, for example in Hertwich et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2253, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 639, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the supply/generation of electricity matching the demand in each country and each year. Similar issues can be observed in future-oriented studies, for example in Hertwich et al. (2015), where the potential environmental impacts of the BLUE map scenario (IEA 2015b) are compared against those of the business as usual scenario: each scenario entails different energy demands, which are accounted for in the analysis of the results to demonstrate the benefits of renewables in electricity supply systems. As indicated above, other studies, which have assessed future energy scenarios, have defined their functional units as one kWh of electricity consumed/generated (e.g. Turconi et al. 2014; Treyer and Bauer 2016). 26.2.2 Life Cycle Coverage One of the strengths of LCA is the adoption of a life cycle perspective (see Chap. 2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2254, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 639, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Turconi et al. 2014; Treyer and Bauer 2016). 26.2.2 Life Cycle Coverage One of the strengths of LCA is the adoption of a life cycle perspective (see Chap. 2). Including all the life cycle stages, from the raw materials extraction to the final disposal stage, is important to prevent environmental burden-shifting from one life cycle stage to another. For example, renewable energy technologies are often improperly flagged as \u201cgreen\u201d in different media. However, this denomination often only holds when they are considered solely in their use stage and mainly in relation to climate change impacts (see also Sect. 26.2.3). Renewables have important environmental impacts outside their use/operation stage, e.g. production (see Sect. 26.3.1). Therefore, when taking the whole life cycle of renewables-based energy systems, one may demonstrate that they are \u201cgreener\u201d than fossil-based energy systems, but they are not free of any environmental impacts. LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2255, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 639, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In LCA studies of energy systems, the life cycle has often been truncated, in particular with the disregard of the disposal stage and, to a lesser extent, of the use stage. Arvesen and Hertwich (2012) thus showed in a review of LCA studies of wind power (44 reviewed studies) that the manufacturing stage was the only life cycle stage common to all studies. Most studies were reported to consider the operation and maintenance of the wind power plants even though different assumptions we made. The end-of-life was either omitted or modelled using assumptions for the decommissioning and recovery of materials/energy. Likewise, in their review of LCA studies of thin-film photovoltaics (PV) systems, Chatzisideris et al. (2016) found that out of 46 studies, all addressed the production stage (incl. raw materials extraction) while only 29 (i.e. 63% of studies) and 11 (i.e. 24%) studies encompassed the use and disposal stages, respectively. As indicated in Sects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2256, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 640, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "raw materials extraction) while only 29 (i.e. 63% of studies) and 11 (i.e. 24%) studies encompassed the use and disposal stages, respectively. As indicated in Sects. 26.2.3 and 26.3.1, environmental impacts of renewable energy sources stem from the production of the different materials, infrastructure and equipment supporting the systems, e.g. PV modules and supporting infrastructure for photovoltaics (e.g. Espinosa et al. 2015), or components of wind turbines (e.g. Arvesen and Hertwich 2012). Important positive effects can arise in the total environmental burden of the systems when materials are recycled at the end-of-life of the systems, thus substituting the production of virgin materials, or when energy recovery accompanies incineration of materials, thus substituting the generation of heat and electricity from conventional, often fossil-based energy sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2257, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 640, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although inconsistencies and lack of transparency have been observed across studies addressing the disposal stage, most studies point out the high relevance of the disposal stage in the total environmental burden of the energy systems (e.g. Arvesen and Hertwich 2012; Espinosa et al. 2015). In addition, for some energy sources, specific environmental impacts are largest during their use/operations, e.g. water use impacts for hydropower (Pfister et al. 2011). These observations thus highlight the great risk of truncating the life cycle of the energy systems and only limiting it to the materials and production stages. Important biases may be associated with results of such narrowly scoped studies, for example if a study points out high impacts during the production of materials while overlooking that these materials end up being recycled with high efficiency in the disposal stage, thus reducing considerably their respective environmental impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2258, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 640, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.2.3 Impact Coverage Because of the strong focus of energy policies on mitigating climate change and maximising energy efficiency, a large majority of the LCA studies focusing on energy systems have limited their impact assessment to the sole quantification of life cycle GHG emissions (expressed in mass unit of CO2 equivalents) and energy demand (e.g. use of cumulative energy demand indicator, energy payback time). A number of reviews focusing on specific energy technologies or systems have identified and reported such patterns. Examples of such reviews include Schreiber", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2259, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 640, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "et al. (2012), who focused on electricity generation with use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems (15 studies), Arvesen and Hertwich (2012), who reviewed LCA studies of wind power (44 studies), and Chatzisideris et al. (2016), who assessed the body of LCA studies on thin-film photovoltaics (33 studies). In some situations, this simplification is a conscious choice made by the authors of the studies, who sometimes acknowledge the limitations of the study and recommend that other environmental impacts be considered (e.g. Burkhardt et al. 2012). Other situations show ambiguity as to whether the authors are aware that GHG emission accountings and energy demand assessments do not necessarily represent the total environment burden", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2260, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 641, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012). Other situations show ambiguity as to whether the authors are aware that GHG emission accountings and energy demand assessments do not necessarily represent the total environment burden. Such authors often use the terms \u201cenvironmental impacts\u201d, \u201clife cycle assessment\u201d, \u201cenvironmental LCA\u201d to refer to assessments or studies that only deal with life cycle GHG emission and/or energy demand accountings, and, more importantly, without making clear to the reader the distinction between them and the possible limitations to their conclusions (e.g. Sherwani et al. 2010; Chua et al. 2014). The inclusion of a limited number of environmental impacts may invalidate the support provided to decision-makers if one aims to assess the total environmental burden of a system or technology. Such situations can be the result of environmental burden-shifting from one impact category to another, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2261, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 641, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such situations can be the result of environmental burden-shifting from one impact category to another, i.e. if decisions directed to reducing one impact inadvertently lead to increase in others, which are overlooked in the assessment. Figure 26.2 illustrates this phenomenon at the level of individual energy sources by considering the switch from fossil fuels to renewables per kWh of electricity produced (updated from Laurent et al. 2012). When moving from fossil-based energy sources (in brown dots in Fig. 26.2) to renewables (coloured dots), reductions of 1\u20132 orders of magnitude in the climate change impacts (x-axes) are observed for a same electricity output. What is interesting is that other environmental impacts such as acidification and particulate matter (Fig. 26.2a, b) are being decreased at the same time because these stem from the same emission sources as for GHG emissions. However, for other environmental impacts, notably the toxicity-related impacts (Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2262, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 641, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, for other environmental impacts, notably the toxicity-related impacts (Fig. 26.2c) or non-renewable resource depletion (Fig. 26.2d), such trend may not be observed and while the climate change impacts are being reduced, these impacts may remain at the same level or even increase. This is for example suggested for wind power or solar power in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2263, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 641, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is for example suggested for wind power or solar power in Fig. 26.2c, d, where the human toxicity impacts and resource depletion impacts are, respectively, comparable and increased compared to those of electricity produced from natural gas or hard coal (due to larger emissions of heavy metals and use of rare metals through the life cycle of the energy systems).1 Therefore, a study only assessing climate change runs the risk to overlook these trends in other environmental impacts and provide recommendations to policy- and decision-makers that could either be further optimised, or worse, lead to 1Note that these results may also be sensitive to the selected LCIA methods (particularly for resource depletion, for which no widely accepted indicator exists) and to the LCI data present in ecoinvent database (differences in system boundaries of technologies; disregard of evolving technological level in renewable energy sources). LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2264, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 641, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "unsustainable pathways (Laurent et al. 2012). At the level of national electricity mixes, occurrences of environmental burden-shifting have been observed in the past. A prime example is the French grid mix, for which the switch from fossils to nuclear power after the oil crisis in the 70s has contributed to decrease the climate change impacts from the electricity sector by more than 60% between 1980 and 2011 (in spite of increased electricity demand) whereas other environmental impacts have increased in the same period, e.g. ca. 50% for freshwater ecotoxicity impacts and ca. 600% for ionising radiation (Laurent and Espinosa 2015). This calls for covering the whole spectrum of environmental impacts when performing life cycle assessments of energy systems. (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2265, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 642, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This calls for covering the whole spectrum of environmental impacts when performing life cycle assessments of energy systems. (a) (b) (c) (d) Fig. 26.2 Selected environmental impacts for electricity production plotted against climate change impacts: a Acidification, b particulate matter, c human toxicity\u2014cancer effects, d resource depletion (updated from Laurent et al. 2012). Black arrows reflect the trends when switching from fossils to renewable energy sources; they are marked for indicative purpose and disregard variations across energy sources. Logarithmic scales are used on both axes. Study performed using ecoinvent 3.1 LCI database and ILCD LCIA methodology in SimaPro LCA software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2266, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 642, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.3 Main Findings of Published LCA Studies 26.3.1 Analysis of Environmental Hotspots The life cycle of heat and electricity generation systems can be regarded as the inter-section of two life cycles: (i) the life cycle of the power plant unit, including the transmission and transport infrastructure and the equipment at the plant; and (ii) the life cycle of the fuels (see Fig. 26.3). The latter is irrelevant for systems relying on wind power, solar power, hydropower and geothermal power, for which the energy source is assumed directly available without additional processes than those already encompassed in the life cycle of the power plant itself. These are also energy sources for which no fuel combustion takes place", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2267, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 643, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These are also energy sources for which no fuel combustion takes place. LCA studies have demonstrated that two different patterns exist in the localization of the largest environmental impacts in the life cycles of heat and electricity generation systems, with a major distinction between systems based on fossils, biomass and nuclear power (i.e. where there is fuel combustion) and those relying on wind power, solar power, hydropower and geothermal power (i.e. where no fuel combustion occurs). Extraction of materials for power plant construction Construction of power plant Decommissioning and disposal of power plant Extraction of fuels Combustion of fuels Operation of power plant Life cycle of fuels Processing and distribution of fuels Life cycle of power plant Disposal of slags/spent fuels Life cycle of heat/electricity generation system Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2268, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 643, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.3 Life cycle of heat and electricity generation systems with intersecting life cycles of the power plant and the fuel required for the operations LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2269, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 643, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In that regard, the capital goods (e.g. power plant facilities, turbines, machineries, etc.) are a relevant part of the systems to address, in particular the extent to which they contribute to the overall environmental burden and their ability to be disregarded or not by practitioners. While capital goods are the main drivers of the impacts for hydropower, wind, solar and geothermal power (no fuel), and hence should not be disregarded for those systems, their contributions in other systems, e.g. fossil-based, is less obvious. Frischknecht et al. (2007) have thus demonstrated a dependency on the type of impact categories considered in the assessment. Generally, the non-toxicity impact categories, such as climate change, are negligibly affected by capital goods whereas toxicity-related impact categories and resource use and depletion impacts (e.g. metal depletion) are more sensitive to the inclusion of capital goods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2270, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 644, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "metal depletion) are more sensitive to the inclusion of capital goods. Capital goods may thus contribute to 94% and 85% to metal/mineral depletion and land use for coal-fired power plant systems, respectively (Frischknecht et al. 2007). For natural gas power plants, other impact categories may also be significantly affected by capital goods, e.g. if the natural gas supply in the assessed region relies on long-distance gas transport (Frischknecht et al. 2007). Assuming a full coverage of environmental impacts, these results therefore call for the systematic inclusion of capital goods when assessing energy systems. Note that these are included by default in many process-based LCI databases, e.g. ecoinvent 3 (Weidema et al. 2013). Other distinctions can also be observed within the two aforementioned categories of systems, but they are often limited to specific impact categories (e.g. water use or land use between wind and geothermal power) and are technology-dependent (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2271, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 644, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "water use or land use between wind and geothermal power) and are technology-dependent (e.g. reservoir-based vs. run-of-river hydropower). Table 26.2 provides an overview of the environmental hotspots per impact category and major energy source based on the generation of a kWh-unit of electricity. A summary per group of energy source is provided in the following subsections. 26.3.1.1 Coal-, Gas- and Oil-Based Systems With the exception of metal/mineral resource depletion indicators, which indicate distribution of impacts between the materials requirements for the power plant construction and those of the infrastructure for the mining activities, all impacts stem predominantly from the operation in the use stage of the power plants, in particular from the life cycle of the coal, gas or oil fuels", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2272, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 644, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Three major environmental hotspots can thus be identified: (i) the mining activities, which contribute to freshwater eutrophication and toxicity-related impacts through the resulting spoils, to water use, land use and fossils depletion categories through the use of these resources, and to metal depletion (i.e. mining infrastructure); (ii) the fuel combustion, which is a major contributor to all airborne-emission-driven impacts such as climate change, acidification, terrestrial and marine eutrophication, particulate matter or toxicity-related impacts; and (iii) the disposal of the heavy metals contained in the combustion slag and bottom ashes, which primarily contribute to toxicity-related impact categories.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2273, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 644, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.2 Location of environmental hotspots in heat and electricity generation systems per impact category for each energy source (colour coding differentiating the patterns) Impact categories Coal Nat", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2274, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 645, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "gas Oil Nuclear power Wind power Solar power Hydropower Geothermal Biomass Climate change U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Stratospheric ozone deple\u019fon U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) RP RP RP U U (RP) Acidifica\u019fon U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Terrestrial eutrophica\u019fon U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Freshwater eutrophica\u019fon U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Marine eutrophica\u019fon U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Photochemical ozone forma\u019fon U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Ionising radia\u019fon (human health) U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U (D) RP RP RP RP U (RP) Par\u019fculate ma\u01a9er U (U) U (U) U (U) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP/U) Human toxicity U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/D) RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/U (RP/U/D) /D Ecotoxicity U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/D) RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/U (RP/U/D) /D Water use U (RP) U (RP/U) U (RP/U) U (U) RP RP RP/U U U (RP) Land use U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U(RP) RP/U RP/U", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2275, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 645, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/U/ D) U (RP/D) RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/U (RP/U/D) /D Water use U (RP) U (RP/U) U (RP/U) U (U) RP RP RP/U U U (RP) Land use U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U(RP) RP/U RP/U RP/U RP/U U (RP/D) Fossils deple\u019fon U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) U (RP) RP RP RP RP U (RP) Metal/mineral resource deple\u019fon RP/U (RP) RP/U (RP) RP/U (RP) U (RP/D) RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/D RP/D Based on assessments of ecoinvent 3.1 energy production processes using ReCiPe and ILCD LCIA methodologies (Weidema et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2276, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 645, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013; Huijbregts et al. 2015; Hauschild et al. 2013). Sensitivity to long-term emissions for freshwater eutrophication and toxicity-related impacts was included in the identification of the hotspots (addition of life cycle stage hotspots when inclusion, if different picture from exclusion) For fossil-based, bio-based and nuclear power, the life cycle of the fuels is considered part of the use/operation stage of the power plants (see Fig. 26.3). The first letter code therefore indicates the position of the hotspots within the life cycle of the power plants; the letter code in the brackets further specifies the hotspots when stemming from the operations of the power plant by giving their positions within the life cycle of the fuel. Same designations are used to represent the different life cycle stages", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2277, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 645, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Same designations are used to represent the different life cycle stages. For the power plants: RP raw materials extraction and construction of power plants; U use/operation stage of the heat/electricity generation plant; D decommissioning/disposal of the plant. For the fuels: RP mining operations and/or resource production (e.g. biomass), refining and distribution, U fuel combustion; D slag or spent fuel disposal LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2278, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 645, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.3.1.2 Nuclear Power Systems All impacts are concentrated in the life cycle of the nuclear fuel (i.e. operation of the power plant). A large number of impacts, including climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical ozone formation, particulate matter, fossil depletion and land use primarily stem from the extraction and processing of the uranium, for which important energy supplies are needed (e.g. diesel for machineries, electricity/heat). The extraction of uranium also contributes to uranium resource depletion, typically accounted for in the metal depletion impact category. Toxicity-related impacts (dominated by long-term emissions of heavy metals) and freshwater eutrophication also arise from this process due to the disposal of the tailings and spoils from the mining activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2279, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 646, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The disposal of the spent nuclear fuel is a second important source of impacts, in particular for ionising radiation, for which it is the primary source, and for toxicity-related impacts and metal depletion, both resulting from the requirements of steel for the fuel conditioning (e.g. steel canisters, etc.). A third hotspot stems from the significant water requirements during the operations of the nuclear power plant, which dominate the water use impacts. 26.3.1.3 Biomass-Based Systems Environmental impacts of bioenergy systems are largely influenced by the type of fuel used, hence a majority of the impacts stemming from the operations of the plant and more specifically from the life cycle of the fuel. Impacts such as climate change, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical ozone formation, fossils depletion and particulate matter may stem from either the biofuel or biogas combustion itself or from the biomass production, i.e. from growing and harvesting (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2280, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 646, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from growing and harvesting (e.g. first generation biofuels; see Chap. 30 on biofuels and bioproducts). If the energy source is a bio-waste or residue not utilised elsewhere, processes associated with this waste stream should not be accounted for in the assessment, thus shifting the environmental impacts for these categories solely to the combustion processes (e.g. incineration, biogas plants). Because of the large variability across fuels, toxicity-related impacts can stem from any place in the life cycles of the power plants and the fuels. For example, if bio-waste is used as fuel and has no content of toxic elements, the hotspots will arise from the life cycle of the power plant itself, while the hotspots will lie in the production of the fuel if the fuel production is considered and requires high energy requirements and/or is associated with important direct emissions of toxic substances (e.g. pesticides in farming practices)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2281, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 646, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pesticides in farming practices). Likewise, for water use and land use, different fuels will have different hotspots. Water use impacts would typically be concentrated in the production of the biomass (if any is considered and if irrigation is applied). Land use impacts will also stem from the production of the fuels, which may also entail indirect land use impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2282, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 646, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(see Weiss et al. 2012). For further details on LCA applied to biomass systems, the reader is referred to Chap. 30. 26.3.1.4 Wind, Solar, Geothermal and Hydropower Systems All impacts but land use and water use impacts stem from the production of the power plant unit (incl. raw materials extraction). The exact sources of the impacts vary from one energy source to another as well as across technologies within a same energy source. The production of the raw materials and components of the power plant unit, such as PV modules (e.g. Si wafers), wind turbines (steel, composite materials) or dams (reinforced steel), are the primary causes to most impact categories including climate change, acidification, photochemical ozone formation, eutrophication, particulate matter, ionising radiation, water use and fossils depletion. These contributions are largely explained by the large energy requirements in these manufacturing processes, e.g. steel production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2283, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 647, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These contributions are largely explained by the large energy requirements in these manufacturing processes, e.g. steel production. With respect to freshwater eutrophication and toxicity-related impact categories, the sulfidic tailings and spoils from mining activities contribute significantly to the impacts due to emissions of heavy metals and phosphorous compounds. For human toxicity and ecotoxicity, the disposal of the scrap metals (e.g. steel, copper) is also an important contributor, notably for renewable technologies like solar power or wind power. These disposal processes, along with the metal extraction processes at the beginning of the life cycle, contribute to metal depletion, which can be influenced by the presence of recycling. Water use impacts show different hotspots depending on the energy source and technology in use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2284, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 647, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water use impacts show different hotspots depending on the energy source and technology in use. Water requirements in the production of the components for wind and solar power plants as well as for run-of-river hydropower plants drive the impacts for these energy sources, while reservoir-based hydropower and geothermal power plants concentrate the water use impacts during their operations. Same dependencies can also be observed for land use, which typically can stem from either the mining operations (e.g. photovoltaics, run-of-river hydropower) or the installation sites and the associated distribution network (e.g. wind farms, reservoir-based hydropower, geothermal power). 26.3.2 Key Findings Because of the large number of LCA studies on energy systems, providing a comprehensive analysis of their findings can easily become a laborious exercise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2285, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 647, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.3.2 Key Findings Because of the large number of LCA studies on energy systems, providing a comprehensive analysis of their findings can easily become a laborious exercise. Instead, Table 26.4 in Appendix provides an overview of main findings of LCA studies assessing different energy technologies, including environmental performances, environmental hotspots, etc. For further details, the reader is referred to the references provided in Table 26.4; several of them are reviews performed on LCAs of specific energy sources or technologies. Figure 26.4 additionally provides an LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2286, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 647, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "illustration of the variations of results for selected impact categories across fossil-based and renewable energy sources and technologies. 26.3.2.1 Technology Dependence As reflected in Fig. 26.4, there is a strong dependence of the impact results on the type of technologies, even within a same energy source. Two parameters are particularly important in the differentiation of the technologies and their resulting impacts: the existence of cleaning technologies and the conversion efficiencies of the plant (Turconi et al. 2013). Existence of cleaning technologies has been shown to potentially yield significant reductions in impacts, e.g. use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems for reducing climate change for coal and natural gas power plants (see Fig. 26.4) or cleaning of the coal prior to combustion to reduce downstream emissions and associated environmental impacts (see Ryberg et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2287, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 648, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.4) or cleaning of the coal prior to combustion to reduce downstream emissions and associated environmental impacts (see Ryberg et al. 2015). However, it is important to note that these cleaning technologies often target one or few specific impact categories (e.g. CCS systems to reduce climate change impacts), and may thus lead to burden-shifting from those targeted impact categories to other environmental problems. See for example the changes in the impact results for particulate matter between systems with and systems without CSS systems for coal and natural gas in Fig. 26.4. While climate change impacts are significantly reduced by the implementation of CCS systems, these impacts tend to increase. This reinforces the need to encompass a full impact coverage. The power plant conversion efficiencies are another influential source of differentiated impact results across technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2288, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 648, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This reinforces the need to encompass a full impact coverage. The power plant conversion efficiencies are another influential source of differentiated impact results across technologies. They are calculated as the ratio between the useful energy output (as electricity and/or heat) and the energy input. Power plant efficiencies typically range within 30\u201345% for coal and natural gas (conventional), 90% for hydropower, 30\u201350% for wind turbines, 5\u201320% for solar cells (large variations between technologies), etc. These efficiencies are constrained by theoretical maximums determined by thermodynamics laws (i.e. Carnot\u2019s efficiency law). However, improvement of these efficiencies, particularly for thermal power sources (coal, gas, oil), can be made by introducing energy recovery systems that will increase that theoretical maximum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2289, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 648, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, improvement of these efficiencies, particularly for thermal power sources (coal, gas, oil), can be made by introducing energy recovery systems that will increase that theoretical maximum. This is for example the case when implementing combined cycles, where the waste heat from the first cycle is used through additional cycles to recover more energy (e.g. in gas power plants). Co-generation of heat and power can also significantly increase these efficiencies, for example in utilising the waste heat from the power plants to district heating purposes. Such co-generation systems can then result in efficiencies above 90%. 26.3.2.2 Performances Across Energy Sources Most studies include comparisons of heat or electricity produced from different energy sources, e.g. to position the analysed system(s) relative to the currently applied system with respect to environmental impacts. Trends vary considerably", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2290, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 648, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "depending on the technology assessed (see above) and the assumptions made in the assessment (e.g. modelling and coverage of life cycle and impacts; see Sects. 26.2.2 and 26.2.3). Higher shares of renewables and nuclear power in energy systems are typically associated with lower environmental impacts for several impact categories, including climate change and eutrophication (e.g. Hertwich et al. 2015; Laurent and Espinosa 2015). Other impact categories show less conclusive results, e.g. toxicity-related impacts, land use impacts and water use impacts, e.g. land use and water use impacts from hydropower reported as larger than those of fossilsbased power generation (e.g. Hellweg and Mila \u00ec Canals 2014; Hertwich et al. Fig. 26.4 Ranges of impact results for climate change and particulate matter impacts for different energy sources and technologies (extracted from Hertwich et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2291, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 656, "book_page": 649, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fig. 26.4 Ranges of impact results for climate change and particulate matter impacts for different energy sources and technologies (extracted from Hertwich et al. 2015). CCS CO2 capture and storage, CdTe cadmium telluride, CIGS: copper indium gallium selenide, IGCC integrated gasification combined cycle coal-fired power plant, NGCC natural gas combined cycle power plant, Offshore gravity offshore wind power with gravity-based foundation, Offshore steel offshore wind power with steel-based foundation, Reservoir 2 type of hydropower reservoirs used as a higher estimate, SCPC supercritical pulverized coal-fired power plant LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2292, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 656, "book_page": 649, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). Metal depletion is often reported to be an impact category where renewables perform worse than fossil-based systems (Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016; Laurent et al. 2012). Overall, at a global scale, two patterns seem to characterise the use of electricity generation technologies in current electricity supply systems, with developing economies having relied on energy policies ineffectively targeting environmental problems, thus resulting in \u201cdirtier grid mixes\u201d, while developed economies, which progressively integrate higher shares of renewables, move towards \u201ccleaner grid mixes\u201d (Laurent and Espinosa 2015). With respect to renewables, wind power often emerges as the renewable technology with the lowest overall environmental impact (Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016; Astrubali et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2293, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 657, "book_page": 650, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With respect to renewables, wind power often emerges as the renewable technology with the lowest overall environmental impact (Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016; Astrubali et al. 2015). For example, although including a large variability in the impact results, solar power is reported to lead to higher impacts than wind power per unit of electricity produced due to large impacts stemming from material production and a lower ability to generate electricity over the same period of time (Hertwich et al. 2015; Berril et al. 2016). In the assessment of renewables, two alternative, noteworthy indicators have often been used as criteria for assessing system performances: the energy payback time (EPBT) and the energy return on investment (EROI). The EPBT is defined as the time (typically in years) for a system to compensate for the use of energy for its production, installation and end-of-life, and start producing more energy than what has been invested through its life cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2294, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 657, "book_page": 650, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, if a system has a lifetime of 20 years and its EPBT was found to be 3 years, it means that \u201cfree energy\u201d is produced for 17 years. The EROI is defined as the amount of usable energy supplied by a system in its lifetime over the energy required to produce, implement and dispose of it, which is equal to the EPBT, and is dimensionless (e.g. 20:3 in the example above). EROI ratios below one are not considered viable technologies on the market. PV technologies are currently associated with EPBT of 1\u20134.1 years, with cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) technologies showing lowest EPBTs, and EROI of 8.7\u201334.2 (Bhandari et al. 2015). Albeit outdated to some extent, wind power technologies typically show EPBT of few months to 1\u20132 years with typical ERIO of 8\u201340 among recent studies (Davidsson et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2295, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 657, "book_page": 650, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). Albeit outdated to some extent, wind power technologies typically show EPBT of few months to 1\u20132 years with typical ERIO of 8\u201340 among recent studies (Davidsson et al. 2012). Such figures are comparable to the performances of some fossil-based energy sources, such as natural gas and oil, for which ERIO are decreasing due to lower availability of the resources (increasing amount of energy spent to recover oil or natural gas). 26.4 Specific Methodological Issues From the published LCA studies of energy systems a number of issues can be identified. They relate to either influential methodological choices or assumptions on which no consensus currently exists, or to inconsistencies or malpractice observed in studies (most of them being noted in Sect. 26.2). This section, therefore, builds on Sect. 26.2 (and contains several cross-references to it) to focus on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2296, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 657, "book_page": 650, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "key issues that are central to the consistency and reliability of the assessment results, and it provides guidelines and recommendations to address them when performing LCA of energy systems. 26.4.1 General Issues The review performed in Sect. 26.2 highlighted a latent problem of transparency in the LCA studies on energy systems. Important methodological aspects and assumptions are often not sufficiently documented. In addition to compromising the reproducibility principle that each study should fulfill, it makes the results difficult to interpret and compare across studies. Examples of poorly reported aspects include the handling of multifunctional processes, e.g. use of system expansion, the data sourcing, the use of electricity mixes, which are not always specified, the accounting of energy used and produced, for which different methods can be used, the coverage of the life cycle inventories (e.g. materials required), the potentially missing impact pathways (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2297, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 651, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "materials required), the potentially missing impact pathways (e.g. no accounting of rare earth metals), or the assumptions made to model the disposal stage. Such lack of transparency is not a problem specific to LCA studies applied to energy systems (e.g. LCA of waste management systems, see Chap. 35). To remediate this issue, some review studies have provided guidance to ensure a better reporting and harmonisation in the LCA practice (e.g. Davidsson et al. 2012, for wind power; Frischknecht et al. 2016 for PV power systems). In general, LCA practitioners are strongly recommended to use Appendices (for reports) or Supporting Information (for scientific publications) to document clearly and transparently their data, methodological assumptions and modelling (see overall guidance in Methodological Chaps. 8 and 9 of this textbook). 26.4.2 Goal and Scope Definition Building on the review presented in Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2298, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 651, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8 and 9 of this textbook). 26.4.2 Goal and Scope Definition Building on the review presented in Sect. 26.2, four key aspects are addressed below for the goal and scope definition: (i) the definition of the functional unit, (ii) the scoping of the system boundaries, (iii) the selection of the impact categories and (iv) the LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes. 26.4.2.1 Functional Unit The functional unit must be defined as the primary service provided by the system, i.e. its \u201craison d\u2019\u00eatre\u201d. The role of the energy systems assessed in LCA studies typically consists in supplying electricity or heat to allow other activities to operate. As a consequence, for studies under Categories 1 and 2 (see Sect. 26.2.1), the functional LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2299, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 651, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "unit needs to be defined based on an energy output (whether it meets a known demand or not). An example of malpractice is the definition of functional units based on a specific area of PV modules in comparative studies of PV technologies. Such definitions prevent to account for different efficiencies of the compared PV module alternatives, and hence for their different electricity amounts generated from a same PV module area (see Box 8.1 in Chap. 8; case 1). It is therefore important to relate to the main function of the system when defining the functional unit. Defining an appropriate functional unit also contributes to ensure a comparability of alternatives or scenarios in the performed LCA studies. In studies with a demand-driven context that compare base-load with intermittent energy technologies, such as wind power or PV power systems, this can however be challenging due to the different \u201creliability of supply\u201d of the two systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2300, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 652, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can usually be eluded by modelling the intermittent source with a storage system (Gagnon et al. 2002) or by adding a compensating source whenever the intermittent source cannot supply electricity. Similar challenges arise when comparing electricity supply systems matching base-load electricity demand with those matching peak-load electricity demand (Turconi et al. 2013). In line with the review presented in Sect. 26.2, two categories of studies were identified from the published LCA studies applied to electricity and heat systems: (i) studies assessing specific energy technologies/sources/systems at a power plant or sub-power plant level, and (ii) studies, typically at meso- and large-scale, assessing energy systems in a context perspective (see details in Sect. 26.2.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2301, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 652, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.2.1). These call for different definitions of functional units, which are gathered from LCA practice; they are provided in Table 26.3, which provides recommendations for practitioners undertaking LCA of energy supply systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2302, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 652, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.3 Recommendations for defining functional units of energy systems (non-exhaustive list of situations) Type of situations/goal of studies Recommendations for FU definition Category 1 studies (power plant or sub-power plant level) Focus on fuel input comparisons (with disregard of energy output) Provision of xx MJ of fuel energy content (or primary energy) to power plant z Focus on supply of electricity and/or heat -\u201cGeneration of 1 kWh or MJ of electricity/heat at power plant/heat unit in country x\u201d (without transport and distribution system) -\u201cSupply of 1 kWh of electricity to the grid in country x\u201d (with transport and distribution system) Category 2 studies (context perspective; meso- and large-scale assessments) Investigation of how the environmental impacts of the grid mix will change/evolve Supply or consumption of 1 kWh of net electricity in country or region x Investigation of environmental impacts from whole electricity supply system over time (with consideration of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2303, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 652, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "change/evolve Supply or consumption of 1 kWh of net electricity in country or region x Investigation of environmental impacts from whole electricity supply system over time (with consideration of demand) Supply of electricity to match the global demand in country or region x in year y (quantified demand fixed by different scenarios)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2304, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 652, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As reflected in Table 26.3, a simplistic functional unit defined as the supply or consumption of a unit of electricity output (e.g. 1 kWh) is often appropriate to the case study. One important exception is, however, the assessment of meso- or large-scale systems taken in their context and with consideration of energy demands modelled as scenario analyses. With a simplistic definition of the functional unit as indicated above, such studies become limited to only address the question of how the environmental impacts of the grid mix will change. As indicated in Laurent and Espinosa (2015) with assessments of national electricity supply systems, a scenario A may show lower environmental impacts than a scenario B on a 1 kWh-basis (grid mix level) but a reversed tendency may be observed when accounting for the total demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2305, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 653, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The total demand may indeed differ between Scenario A and Scenario B because of different energy policies, which could for example influence the consumers\u2019 behaviour and their overall demand in different ways, lead to different efficiencies in the smart grid for matching the demand with the supply, integrate different measures for energy efficiencies, etc. A total demand, which ends up higher in Scenario A than in Scenario B, may therefore compensate the better performances of the grid mix in Scenario A, thus resulting in Scenario B being the most environmentally preferable. These observations can be linked to the differences between eco-efficiency (here: the grid mix having lower environmental impacts, but with no guarantee of overall reduction of environmental impacts at the societal level) and eco-effectiveness (here: the whole electricity supply system to support the total demand having lower impacts, thus ensuring lower environmental impacts at societal level)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2306, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 653, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 5 addresses these concepts in a more generic and detailed way. Consequently, in studies supporting policy analysis or policy-making, and where scenarios need to be assessed, it is important that the whole perspective, including not only the changes on the electricity grid mix but also the changes in the demand, be encompassed in the analysis of the results. And this is why the functional unit may have different quantities relating to the energy demands in its definition (since these vary from one system to another), while still maintaining comparability of the energy systems/scenario under study. 26.4.2.2 System Boundaries The life cycle of the energy systems should include both the life cycle of the power plants and that of the fuels, the latter being relevant for all energy sources but wind, solar, geothermal and hydropower sources due to the absence of fuel per se", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2307, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 653, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For hydropower and geothermal power sources, the use of water (which could be regarded as the fuel to some extent) and the associated impacts should, however, be carefully evaluated. For fossil-based and biomass-based systems, the life cycle of the fuel is important to include, as it is the main source of impacts (see Table 26.2). As a general rule, to avoid overlooking any potentially large impacts and possible burden-shifting, the practitioners are recommended to include the entire life cycle of electricity and heat generation systems. In practice, this can sometimes be challenging, for example in the inclusion of the power plant life cycle. Based on the LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2308, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 653, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "analysis in Table 26.2, practitioners are invited to consider the following guidance to scope the system boundaries of their electricity and heat generation systems, including as a minimum: 1. The life cycle of the fuels for all fossil-based, nuclear-based and biomass-based systems. The life cycle of power plants (excluding the operation stage, thus mainly consisting of the plant construction and decommissioning) typically shows minor contributions to most environmental impacts associated with the supply of heat and electricity (see Sect. 26.3.1). 2. The life cycle of the power plants and equipment for renewable energy systems. Environmental impacts typically stem from the production stage and possible crediting can be gained through the disposal stage, which thus should not be dismissed. Note that these rules are general, non-exhaustive and are not technology-specific: the practitioner shall still adopt a case-by-case approach before ruling out part of the energy system life cycles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2309, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 654, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that these rules are general, non-exhaustive and are not technology-specific: the practitioner shall still adopt a case-by-case approach before ruling out part of the energy system life cycles. Although Table 26.2, which shows environmental hotspots per life cycle stage and per energy technology, may be used as a screening step, the practitioners should assess any possible exceptions to these patterns in relation to their systems under study. For example, in situations (1), for biomass-based energy systems relying on waste, little impacts may be credited to the waste generation itself (e.g. zero-burden assumption), possibly making the life cycle of the power plants non-negligible in the total environmental burden: in such cases, the life cycle of the power plants should be comprehensively covered. The addition of carbon capture and storage system to fossil-fuelled power plants is another example, where the practitioners should also look into the life cycle of the power plants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2310, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 654, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The addition of carbon capture and storage system to fossil-fuelled power plants is another example, where the practitioners should also look into the life cycle of the power plants. 26.4.2.3 Selection of Impact Coverage As reflected in the review of the impact coverage in Sects. 26.2.3 and 26.3.1, to avoid burden-shifting from one impact category to another, all impact categories are relevant for inclusion when assessing electricity and heat generation systems. In particular, practitioners should put emphasis on consistently including toxicity-related and resource-use-based impact categories in addition to the non-toxicity-related impact categories, such as climate change, acidification or eutrophication. Toxicity-related impacts associated with renewables-based electricity production have been shown to potentially remain at the same level as those related to fossil-based electricity production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2311, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 654, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Toxicity-related impacts associated with renewables-based electricity production have been shown to potentially remain at the same level as those related to fossil-based electricity production. A sole focus on climate change can thus be deceiving if one aims to assess the total environmental burden. Resource use indicators often turn out to be highly relevant for renewable energy sources, e.g. water use for hydropower, metal depletion for wind and solar power, land use for bioenergy systems, hydropower and wind power, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2312, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 654, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.4.2.4 LCI Modelling Framework and Handling of Multifunctional Processes The ILCD guidelines being only recently available, a limited number of studies have performed LCAs on energy systems while attempting to follow these guidelines. The LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes have thus often been limited to choosing between the attributional and consequential modelling and in the selection of materials and energy mixes used in system expansion. In practice, energy systems do not differ from other systems when it comes to define the LCI modelling framework and the respective handling of multifunctional processes. Examples of multifunctionality in energy systems typically include the co-generation of heat and electricity or the recycling of materials, which can affect the production stage (recycled materials used for construction/production of power plants, e.g. wind turbines) and the disposal stage (materials sent to recycling, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2313, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 655, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "wind turbines) and the disposal stage (materials sent to recycling, e.g. PV module components, batteries, etc.). To address those, the detailed methodological guidance provided in Chap. 8 is therefore sufficient; the steps can be summarised as follows: \u2022 In line with the identified decision context situations (i.e. A, B, C1, C2) in the goal definition, decide which of consequential or attributional modelling framework should be adopted. \u2022 Characterise the multifunctional processes, for which subdivision, system expansion or allocation is required. \u2022 In cases of system expansion: identify which processes should be used. \u2022 In cases of allocation: identify, determine and describe the allocation key(s) used. The detailed documentation of the processes used for system expansion or of the allocation key(s) should be reported in the LCI analysis section. Procedures and guidelines to do so are given in Chap. 9, to which the reader is referred for details", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2314, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 655, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Procedures and guidelines to do so are given in Chap. 9, to which the reader is referred for details. In the following Section, details are specifically provided to address allocation of energy co-generation processes and marginal energy mixes in system expansion cases, with a particular focus on the marginal technologies, respectively. 26.4.3 Inventory Analysis and System Modelling The data collection and the building of the modelling generally do not differ from that of other systems, and guidance from Chap. 9 can thus be followed for performing the LCA phase. Our aspects are, however, emphasised in below sections, as they require attention from LCA practitioners in specific situations: (i) the LCI data availability to match the temporal, technological and spatial representativeness; (ii) the allocation principles for electricity and heat co-generation processes; (iii) the identification and modelling of marginal energy technologies; and (iv) the LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2315, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 655, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "comprehensive scoping of the sensitivity analyses. Other aspects of relevance are the use of IO modelling, which are increasingly used for large-scale assessments of energy systems, and the modelling of indirect land use change, particularly relevant for bio-based systems; the reader is referred to Chaps. 14 and 30, respectively, which specifically address these issues. 26.4.3.1 LCI Data Availability with Temporal, Technological and Spatial Requirements As indicated in Chaps. 8 and 9, the data collected in the LCI phase should match to the best possible extent the required data representativeness indicated in the scope definition. This aspect, which can be relatively simple for some product systems, can be challenging for some energy systems, for example when performing future-oriented studies or when assessing emerging technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2316, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 656, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Below are a number of points that should be considered along with guidance to address them, wherever applicable: \u2022 Systems with a time-oriented perspective: the temporal and technological representativeness must be carefully addressed, e.g. in studies comparing different scenarios and different technologies in the future. Besides the definition of scenarios, LCA practitioners should ensure that the collected LCI data integrate a prospective dimension, e.g. including future technology developments, future evolutions of the market and future practices (e.g. in waste management). A typical example is the consideration of electricity mixes in consistency with the time period imposed by the scenarios analysed in the study. Evolutions of these mixes over time should thus be considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2317, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 656, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Evolutions of these mixes over time should thus be considered. Even more relevant in future-oriented modelling than in conventional case studies, it is important to document any assumptions or choices that make the modelling diverge from the data representativeness requirements as such discrepancies often can significantly influence the conclusions (and should thus be tested in sensitivity analysis). Future-oriented LCA is further discussed in Chap. 21. \u2022 Systems with spatial variation: the spatial representativeness should be addressed, e.g. in studies with specific locations. Energy systems are strongly countryor region-specific, e.g. electricity grid mixes can vary considerably from one country to another. The modelling of energy systems should capture these geographical specificities with sufficient accuracy. LCI processes for electricity grid mixes are typically the best covered in available LCI databases, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2318, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 656, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCI processes for electricity grid mixes are typically the best covered in available LCI databases, e.g. 50 countries differentiated in ecoinvent v.3 database (Treyer and Bauer 2013, 2014). If LCI processes are not readily available, LCA practitioners should either create processes or adapt existing ones to match the local or regional conditions (e.g. adapting the electricity grid mix in an ecoinvent process for a given country). As indicated in Chap. 8, the geographical, temporal and technological representativeness are intertwined and it is likely that the two above aspects/sets of recommendations will apply to the same study, e.g. studies assessing the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2319, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 656, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "deployment of a new energy technology on the market, including a comparison with existing ones. 26.4.3.2 Allocation of Electricity and Heat Co-generation Processes In the case of allocation, energy indicators could be needed to perform allocation of co-generation processes. Three approaches may be selected: (i) allocation of all impacts to one of the output, electricity or heat, assuming that it is the main purpose of the process, (ii) allocation based on the energy content, assuming that a MJ of electricity is equal to a MJ of heat, thus using the respective electricity and heat outputs to derive the allocation key, and (iii) allocation based on the energy quality, recognising the higher quality of electricity over heat, for example in using exergy of the electricity and heat outputs as a basis for the allocation key (Fruergaard et al. 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2320, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 657, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009). Exergy indicates the extent of the energy that can be converted to work: while electricity has an exergy factor of 1, heat has a variable exergy factor typically around 0.15\u20130.20 depending on the temperature of the delivered heat and the temperature of the surroundings (Fruergaard et al. 2009). Approach (i) is rare and requires to be well argued by the practitioner if used. Approaches (ii) and (iii) are the most commonly applied approaches for allocation of energy processes. Note that allocation based on energy quality will associate most of the burden to electricity, while allocation based on energy content will shift most of the burden to heat production. 26.4.3.3 Modelling of Marginal Energy Technologies By definition, marginal data represent the technology or process actually affected by the changes (Weidema et al. 1999). The time perspective is important to consider when identifying that technology or process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2321, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 657, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1999). The time perspective is important to consider when identifying that technology or process. For example, if an increase in electricity demand in a country like Denmark that relies heavily on wind turbines for electricity generation occurs in an hour or day when wind blows, the marginal technology for electricity supply at that moment could be wind power (and may change later on if wind stops). This type of very short-term/instantaneous marginal is however not relevant in LCA studies, where aggregation over time is performed. Averages of marginal technologies would be more relevant to use, for example estimating that wind is the marginal technology for a cumulative two months of the year and other sources are marginal technologies for the remaining cumulative 10 months. This leads to the creation of mixes of marginal technologies. Such examples only consider short-term marginal technologies, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2322, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 657, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This leads to the creation of mixes of marginal technologies. Such examples only consider short-term marginal technologies, i.e. existing technologies capable to respond to a change in demand (no impact on capital investments). They should be distinguished from long-term marginal technologies, i.e. technologies for which the production capacities are impacted in a long-term perspective (e.- g. >10 years), like the closure of old coal-fired power plants or the installation of new wind turbines. LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2323, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 657, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For studies in decision context situation B, a mixed consequential/attributional modelling is required, with the use of system expansion for solving process multifunctionality. The processes impacted by structural changes in the background system should be modelled using mixes of long-term marginal processes while the others are modelled using short-term marginal or average processes (see Chap. 8). Difficulties arise in identifying and determining the mixes of long-term marginal processes, and important differences in the results might arise depending on what marginal technologies are assumed (e.g. renewables versus fossils-based energy sources). Although Chap. 9 provides some practical guidance to support LCA practitioners in that effort, to which the reader is referred, no consensus currently exists on ways to identify these mixes of long-term marginal technologies. This results in important uncertainties for processes that are included in nearly all LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2324, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 658, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This results in important uncertainties for processes that are included in nearly all LCAs. With respect to energy processes, if these are decisive for the outcome of the study, the use of explorative scenarios is typically recommended to model several possible mixes of long-term marginal technologies (e.g. Schmidt et al. 2011; M\u00fcnster et al. 2013). LCA practitioners should include these as part of their sensitivity analyses, which will thus enable them to assess and understand the range of potential environmental consequences associated with the implementation of their analysed systems. 26.4.3.4 Importance of Sensitivity Analysis As part of the LCI analysis phase, practitioners need to prepare the basis for uncertainty and sensitivity analyses (see Chap. 9). This can be regarded as a scoping and identification of key parameters that need to be varied in the assessments. This identification is an iterative process, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2325, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 658, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9). This can be regarded as a scoping and identification of key parameters that need to be varied in the assessments. This identification is an iterative process, e.g. going back and forth with the LCIA phase and the results obtained to pinpoint the processes and associated key parameters that are influential on the results. With respect to energy systems, there is a case dependency on which parameters to include. As for any LCA studies, the identification of major modelling assumptions, such as the identification of mixes of long-term marginal technologies or the inclusion of indirect land use change effects, should systematically lead to sensitivity analyses. Additional sensitivity analyses may also stem from the large application of LCA to emerging technologies and/or to systems taken in a prospective dimension (e.g. future-oriented assessments). These types of studies are associated with large uncertainties due to the use of scenarios and the inadequacy of data (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2326, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 658, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "future-oriented assessments). These types of studies are associated with large uncertainties due to the use of scenarios and the inadequacy of data (e.g. lab-scale data for an emerging energy technology to represent a fully deployed system in the future) or, worse, the lack of it (data not yet generated). Such situations call for sensitivity analyses to address the temporal dimension and inherent uncertainties in the modelling. Practitioners are therefore recommended to develop explorative scenarios based on all key parameters pertaining to the evolution of the technologies or systems in time. Examples of such parameters include the efficiencies of the plants, the lifetime of the infrastructure, the type and performances of disposal routes (e.g. recycling), the emission factors, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2327, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 658, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.5 Conclusions This chapter provides a glimpse at how LCA has been applied to energy systems and technologies in the past two decades and what learnings can be gained from the large body of LCA studies. The review provided herein is not intended to be exhaustive because of the large extent and diversity of energy systems. Nevertheless, it brings sufficient insights to realise that the application of some key methodological steps could be improved. For example, a comprehensive coverage of the system life cycle (e.g. including the often-overlooked disposal or decommissioning stage) and of all relevant environmental impacts (e.g. not just addressing climate change or energy-related questions) should be better ensured in future studies. Life cycle assessment is still a relatively young field and the methodology is constantly being improved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2328, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 659, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life cycle assessment is still a relatively young field and the methodology is constantly being improved. In that respect, several methodological aspects relevant to assessments of energy systems need to be further developed and accepted within the LCA community. Some of them relate to the LCI or system modelling, e.g. the inclusion of indirect land use change for bio-based systems or methodologies to consistently identify mixes of long-term marginal technologies. Others relate to LCIA and are not necessarily specific to energy systems, like for example the assessment of climate change impacts in a dynamic perspective (e.g. relevant to use of carbon capture and storage systems). The inclusion of the temporal perspective in LCA studies of energy systems is particularly relevant as many policy makers currently define and/or fine-tune energy pathways for the future decades (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2329, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 659, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IEA 2014), and require foresight assessments that can anticipate the impacts in the future from current and forthcoming energy technologies. Frameworks for consistently conducting such foresight LCA studies still need to be developed (Laurent and Espinosa 2015). This development can also be expected to run in parallel to a continued increase in the application of LCA to large-scale energy systems, such as electricity supply systems at urban, national or regional scales, and thus efficiently and effectively support high-level energy policy-makers. Appendix See Table 26.4. LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2330, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 659, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.4 Non-exhaustive overview of LCA studies assessing the different energy technologies/sources Energy sources/technology focus Main findings Hard coal and lignite Direct combustion, gasification combustion, flue gas cleaning, physical/chemical cleaning process, carbon capture and storage technologies \u2013 Emissions in combustion processes and supporting processes (e.g. demineralization of fuels) drive the impacts, with process efficiency and types of technology (e.g. direct combustion vs. gasification combustion, inclusion of cleaning processes, etc.) as key factors (e.g. Gagnon et al. 2002; Turconi et al. 2013; May and Brennan 2003; Ryberg et al. 2015; Masanet et al. 2013). Fuel supply chain contributes to a lesser extent, with contributions depending on plant settings, e.g. existence of flue gas cleaning system, and fuel type, e.g. sulphur content, metal content (Dones et al. 2005) \u2013 Important emission reductions can be achieved (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2331, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 660, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "existence of flue gas cleaning system, and fuel type, e.g. sulphur content, metal content (Dones et al. 2005) \u2013 Important emission reductions can be achieved (e.g. on old power plants) via cleaning of the fuels although environmental trade-offs exist between the added impacts from cleaning processes and the resulting saved impacts (e.g. Nomura et al. 2001; Ryberg et al. 2015). This also induces shift of impacts from the combustion processes to the cleaning processes or to other parts of the life cycle (e.g. fuel supply chain) \u2013 The review/meta-analysis by Schreiber et al. (2012) showed that the three carbon capture and storage technologies (post-combustion, oxyfuel, pre-combustion) lead to the expected reductions in climate change impacts but to increases in many other environmental impacts regardless of capture technology, time horizon and fuel type (coal, lignite or natural gas)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2332, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 660, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Three influential parameters are the (i) power plant efficiency and the added energy requirements from capture process, (ii) the CO2 capture efficiency and purity, (iii) the fossil fuel origin and composition (Schreiber et al. 2012) Natural gas Single-cycle or combined cycle turbines \u2013 The majority of the literature has a narrow scope on CO2 emissions and NOx and SO2, to a lesser extent \u2013 Emissions of greenhouse gases dominated by use stage, but with significant contributions also from the fuel provision due to fugitive emissions of methane and energy requirements in gas extraction and transportation (Gagnon et al. 2002; Dones et al. 2005; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 For use of carbon capture and storage technologies, see above row on hard coal and lignite (Schreiber et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2333, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 660, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2002; Dones et al. 2005; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 For use of carbon capture and storage technologies, see above row on hard coal and lignite (Schreiber et al. 2012) Shale gas Combined cycle gas turbines \u2013 Albeit with large uncertainties and variability in the impact results, depending on assumptions and types of technology in use, impact results from various studies suggest that shale gas seems comparable to conventional gas for climate change, with ranges of with a range of 416\u2013730 g CO2-eq/kWh. Taking the study by Stamford and Azapagic (2014) on electricity in UK from shale gas produced by fracking, it ranges within 412\u20131102 g CO2-eq/kWh, thus in the lower end of fossil fuels but in the higher end of the renewables (see also Fig. 26.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2334, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 660, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26.4). Toxicity impacts are found to be higher than for conventional gas (Stamford and Azapagic 2014) \u2013 Differences of impacts with other energy sources are due to assumptions regarding fugitive emissions during shale gas extraction and due to differences in the recoverable resources (Stamford and Azapagic 2014) (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2335, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 660, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.4 (continued) Energy sources/technology focus Main findings Oil Fuel oil cycle \u2013 Emissions (e.g. GHG, NOx) mainly stem from the use/operations of the power plant. Like-for coal, fuel supply chain contributes to a lesser extent, with contributions depending on plant settings, e.g. existence of flue gas cleaning system, and fuel type, e.g. sulphur content, metal content (Dones et al. 2005) \u2013 Energy utilisation efficiencies are an additional influential parameter, inducing variations in the impact results, e.g. base-load power plants with efficiencies up to 58% (ca. 530 g CO2-eq/kWh) versus peak-load power plants with efficiencies of 30\u201340% (ca. 750\u2013900 g CO2-eq/kWh) (Turconi et al. 2013) Nuclear energy Closed/open fuel cycles, pressurized/boiling water reactors \u2013 Large focus on GHG and little focus on other environmental impacts (Turconi et al. 2013; Poinssot et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2336, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 661, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013) Nuclear energy Closed/open fuel cycles, pressurized/boiling water reactors \u2013 Large focus on GHG and little focus on other environmental impacts (Turconi et al. 2013; Poinssot et al. 2015a, b) \u2013 Nuclear energy production is the most important activity source, which contributes to the impact category ionising radiation in LCA studies \u2013 Uranium extraction and enrichment processes are the drivers for most environmental impacts, i.e. >70% (Poinssot et al. 2015a, b; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 Large variability in emission factors (and resulting impacts) depending on the type of technology and the assessment approaches, incl. assumptions on uranium extraction and enrichment processes and handling of nuclear waste (Warner et al. 2012; Turconi et al. 2013). For climate change, such variations of up to one order of magnitude were observed in studies (Turconi et al. 2013; Masanet et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2337, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 661, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012; Turconi et al. 2013). For climate change, such variations of up to one order of magnitude were observed in studies (Turconi et al. 2013; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 Ecodesign initiatives should focus on optimising nuclear fuel cycle, reduce impacts at mining of uranium, and improving the recycling of uranium and plutonium from spent fuel (Poinssot et al. 2015a, b; Masanet et al. 2013) Wind power On-shore, off-shore (less common \u2013 Important focus on emissions and/or energy accounting, e.g. EPBT (e.g. Wang and Sun 2012; Dolan and Heath 2012; Schleisner 2000) \u2013 Manufacturing of the wind turbines is the only life cycle stage that is common to all LCA studies (Arvesen and Hertwich 2012). Other stages are omitted in some studies \u2013 On-shore and offshore turbines can have similar emission factors because larger emissions during the construction phase of offshore turbines can be compensated by their higher efficiency during use (Turconi et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2338, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 661, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013) \u2013 The environmental impact of wind technologies is concentrated mainly in the manufacturing stage and to a smaller extent in the disposal stage but is at a minimum in the operational/use stage. Impact per generated power is strongly influenced by the operating lifetime, quality of wind resource, conversion efficiency and size of the wind turbines (Masanet et al. 2013; Caduff et al. 2012) (continued) LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2339, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 661, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.4 (continued) Energy sources/technology focus Main findings \u2013 Three major components mainly contribute to the overall environmental impacts: rotor (due to fibre glass), tower (incl. foundation; due to reinforced steel) and nacelle (due to energy-requiring fibre glass and use of copper in different electrical components) (Martinez et al. 2009; DONG Energy 2008) \u2013 Disposal stage can contribute to significant decreases of impacts when recycling of valuable materials replaces production of virgin materials (Martinez et al. 2009; Weinzettel et al. 2009) Solar power\u2014Photovoltaics technologies e.g. crystalline silicon (Si) photovoltaics (PV), cadmium telluride PV, copper indium gallium diselenide PV, organic PV, perovskites, etc. \u2013 Large body of studies assessing PV technologies (see reviews\u2014total of over 400 studies\u2014by Hsu et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2012; Gerbinet et al. 2014; Sherwani et al. 2010; Chatzisideris et al. 2016). Large focus on climate change and energy indicators, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2340, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 662, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012; Kim et al. 2012; Gerbinet et al. 2014; Sherwani et al. 2010; Chatzisideris et al. 2016). Large focus on climate change and energy indicators, e.g. EPBT and EROI \u2013 Large variability in the results due to differences in methodological choices (e.g. system boundaries) and to types/specificities of systems assessed, e.g. source of electricity used in manufacturing, solar panel typology, climatic conditions, irradiation (Sherwani et al. 2010; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 For Si-PV technology, impacts stem mainly from the manufacturing stage due to the energy requirements in the upstream processes, e.g. production of Si and PV wafers. Gains in energy efficiencies are foreseen, e.g. as already observed with Si ingot growth by the Czochralsky process (Frankl et al. 2006) \u2013 Balance of system (BOS) components, e.g. inverters, insulators, supporting structure, have largely been omitted in past studies and only recently have started to be included in LCA studies (Gerbinet et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2341, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 662, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "inverters, insulators, supporting structure, have largely been omitted in past studies and only recently have started to be included in LCA studies (Gerbinet et al. 2014; Espinosa et al. 2015). Results suggest that their impacts are not negligible (e.g. Espinosa et al. 2015; Gerbinet et al. 2014) \u2013 In organic photovoltaics, silver used as electrode is overall the largest source of impacts (e.g. toxicity-related impacts, metal depletion), thus calling for establishing efficient recovery systems in the disposal stage (Espinosa et al. 2015) \u2013 Disposal stage/end-of-life of the materials has been largely omitted in past LCA studies (e.g. see reviews of Gerbinet et al. 2014; Chatzisideris et al. 2016). Recycling the material in PV modules is already economically viable, mainly for concentrated and large-scale applications. Projections are that between 80 and 96% of the glass, ethylene vinyl acetate, and metals (tellurium, selenium, lead) will be recycled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2342, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 662, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Projections are that between 80 and 96% of the glass, ethylene vinyl acetate, and metals (tellurium, selenium, lead) will be recycled. Other metals, such as cadmium, tellurium (Te), tin, nickel, aluminium and copper, should be saved or they can be recycled by other methods (IPCC 2012). Recycling of materials has been demonstrated to be influential on the impact results in some LCA studies (e.g. Espinosa et al. 2015) Solar power\u2014Concentrated solar power technologies \u2013 Studies have primarily focused on parabolic trough and tower technologies, and to a lesser extent on parabolic dish \u2013 Overall, studies have a strong focus on climate change and energy indicators, with little consideration of other environmental impacts (e.g. land use) (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2343, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 662, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 26.4 (continued) Energy sources/technology focus Main findings e.g. solar towers, parabolic trough, dish Stirling (i.e. parabolic dish), linear Fresnel reflectors \u2013 For parabolic trough plants, the solar field was reported to be a main driver of impacts, primarily stemming from the manufacturing stage due to the steel, molten salt and synthetic oil requirements (e.g. Burkhardt et al. 2011; Ehtiwesh et al. 2016). The storage system was reported to have a relatively lower contribution to environmental impacts. While Burkhardt et al. (2011) report a significant contribution from the power plant unit, Ehtiwesh et al. (2016) found a negligible influence. Differences in the methodologies considered and in the assumptions made may explain these discrepancies, and more comprehensive studies are needed \u2013 Studies have suggested that the electrical efficiency is important for the environmental performances of the systems, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2344, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 663, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "fewer mirrors for a same electrical output yielding lower impacts (e.g. land use, etc.) (e.g. Viebahn et al. 2008) Hydropower Reservoir-type, run-of-river (both small and large scale) \u2013 Materials manufacturing and construction of plants are important drivers of the impacts, e.g. cement, reinforced steel, electric equipment and energy used in construction activities. Remoteness of hydropower plants increasing contribution from construction and transportation stages and decreasing transmission efficiencies (Suwanit and Gheewala 2011; De Miranda and da Silva 2010; Masanet et al. 2013) \u2013 Differentiation of impacts between run-of-river and reservoir technologies due to important aspects, e.g. CH4 emissions from anaerobic degradation of biological materials in reservoirs for climate change; evaporative losses of water for water use in reservoirs; large stagnant water areas in reservoirs causing eutrophication, land use and human toxicity impacts (Masanet et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2345, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 663, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). Large influence of these aspects on the impact results, thus leading to large variations in the impact results in the literature as a consequence of different assumptions (Masanet et al. 2013; Suwanit and Gheewala 2011) \u2013 Strong focus on climate change and energy indicators (CED, EPBT). Other impacts addressed to a lesser extent, with less consideration for land use, water use and toxicity-related impacts \u2013 None of the retrieved studies made quantitative considerations regarding the secondary utilisation of water (drinking, irrigation or navigation purposes) Geothermal power Hydrothermal resources producing hot water and/or steam \u2013 Few LCA studies on geothermal power plants (Bayer et al. 2013), coupled with high degree of technology- and site-specificity of the case studies, e.g. Italy (Buonocore et al. 2015; Bravi and Basosi 2014) or Germany (Frick et al. 2010; Lacirignola and Blanc 2013), make it difficult to generalise (Bayer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2346, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 663, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Italy (Buonocore et al. 2015; Bravi and Basosi 2014) or Germany (Frick et al. 2010; Lacirignola and Blanc 2013), make it difficult to generalise (Bayer et al. 2013) \u2013 The assessment of toxicity-related impacts, e.g. from heavy metals, have not been sufficiently addressed in past studies to discuss their potential relevance in geothermal power generation (Bayer et al. 2013) \u2013 Strong influence of quality of geothermal source, maturity of the plant, conversion efficiency, etc. Bioenergy See Sect. 26.3.1, Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman (2011) and the extensive discussion in Chap. 30 LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2347, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 663, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Renew. Energy 80, 85\u2013100 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.renene.2015.01.003 Stamford, L., Azapagic, A.: Life cycle environmental impacts of UK shale gas. Appl. Energy 134, 506\u2013518 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.08.063 Suwanit, W., Gheewala, S.H.: Life cycle assessment of mini-hydropower plants in Thailand. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16(9), 849\u2013858 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0311-9 Treyer, K., Bauer, C.: Life cycle inventories of electricity generation and power supply in version 3 of the ecoinvent database\u2014part I: electricity generation. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0665-2 Treyer, K., Bauer, C.: Life cycle inventories of electricity generation and power supply in version 3 of the ecoinvent database\u2014part II: electricity markets. J. Life Cycle Assess, Int (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0694-x Treyer, K., Bauer, C.: The environmental footprint of UAE\u2019s electricity sector: combining life cycle assessment and scenario modeling. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2365, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 667, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0694-x Treyer, K., Bauer, C.: The environmental footprint of UAE\u2019s electricity sector: combining life cycle assessment and scenario modeling. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 55, 1234\u20131247 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.016 Turconi, R., Boldrin, A., Astrup, T.: Life cycle assessment (LCA) of electricity generation technologies: overview, comparability and limitations. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 28, 555\u2013 565 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.013 Turconi, R., Tonini, D., Nielsen, C.F.B., Simonsen, C.G., Astrup, T.: Environmental impacts of future low-carbon electricity systems: detailed life cycle assessment of a Danish case study. Appl. Energy 132, 66\u201373 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.078 Viebahn, P., Kronshage, S., Trieb, F., Lechon, Y.: Final Report on Technical Data, Costs, and Life Cycle Inventories of Solar Thermal Power Plants. Deliverable no. 12.2\u2014RS 1a for EU FP6 project \u201cNew Energy Externalities Developments for Sustainability\u201d (NEEDS)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2366, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 667, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Deliverable no. 12.2\u2014RS 1a for EU FP6 project \u201cNew Energy Externalities Developments for Sustainability\u201d (NEEDS). Project no. 502687 (2008) Wang, Y., Sun, T.: Life cycle assessment of CO2 emissions from wind power plants: methodology and case studies. Renew. Energy 43, 30\u201336 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.renene.2011.12.017 Weidema, B., Frees, N., Nielsen, A.-M.: Marginal production technologies for life cycle inventories. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4(1), 48\u201356 (1999). doi:10.1007/BF02979395 LCA of Energy Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2367, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 667, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Weidema, B.P., Bauer, C., Hischier, R., Mutel. C., Nemecek. T., Reinhard. J., Vadenbo. C.O., Wernet. G.: Overview and methodology. Data Quality Guideline for the Ecoinvent Database Version 3. Ecoinvent Report 1(v3). The ecoinvent Centre, St. Gallen, CH (2013) Weinzettel, J., Reenaas, M., Solli, C., Hertwich, E.G.: Life cycle assessment of a floating offshore wind turbine. Renew. Energy 34(3), 742\u2013747 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.004 Weiss, M., Haufe, J., Carus, M., Brand\u00e3o, M., Bringezu, S., Hermann, B., Patel, M.K.: A review of the environmental impacts of biobased materials. J. Ind. Ecol. 16, S169\u2013S181 (2012). doi:10. 1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00468.x Author Biographies Alexis Laurent Working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2368, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 668, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Nieves Espinosa Background in industrial engineering with experience on LCA since 2008, with a focus on ecodesign of selected energy technologies such as organic photovoltaics, and other energy related products and processes. Special attention is given to the implementation and integration of these technologies with a policy oriented perspective. Michael Z. Hauschild Involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2369, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "26 LCA of Energy Systems", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 668, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 27 LCA of Electromobility Felipe Cerdas, Patricia Egede and Christoph Herrmann Abstract Private transportation is increasingly responsible for a significant share of GHG emissions. In this context, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered to be a key technology to reduce the environmental impact caused by the mobility sector. While EVs do offer an opportunity to decrease the production of greenhouse gases radically by avoiding the generation of tailpipe emissions, different technological challenges must be overcome. On the one side, the production of the battery system is of significant importance as it is reckoned to be responsible for around 40\u201350% of the total CO2-eq. emissions of the vehicle\u2019s manufacturing stage. Moreover, the additional requirements for metals like copper and aluminium for the battery system as well as rare earth metals for the production of electric motors might lead to shifting the problem to other life cycle stages or areas of impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2370, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 669, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the other side, the source of the energy used to power an EV has an ultimate influence on the environmental impact caused during the vehicle\u2019s use stage. The life cycle assessment methodology is normally used to measure the environmental impact of electric vehicles and to identify potential problem shifting. In this chapter, we present an overview of the application of the methodology within the electric mobility sector. 27.1 27.1.1 Current Context Transportation poses great challenges for the sustainability agendas of countries worldwide. As reported in the latest climate change report by the IPCC, by 2010 direct anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transportation F. Cerdas (&) \u0001 P. Egede \u0001 C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2371, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 669, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As reported in the latest climate change report by the IPCC, by 2010 direct anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transportation F. Cerdas (&) \u0001 P. Egede \u0001 C. Herrmann Chair of Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering, Institute for Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universit\u00e4t Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19b, Brunswick, Germany e-mail: juan.cerdas-marin@tu-braunschweig.de \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_27", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2372, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 669, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sector increased from 2.8 Gt CO2-eq. in 1970 to 7.08 Gt CO2-eq. (Sims et al. 2014). In that year, this sector contributed to up to 23% of the total energy related CO2 emissions (Sims et al. 2014). In addition, individual transportation ownership is projected to grow up to 2 billion vehicles by 2050 (IEA 2009) reaching rates of 12 Gt CO2-eq./year (Sims et al. 2014). The transition towards a more sustainable individual transportation urges for radical changes regarding transportation means, fuel consumption and resulting GHG emissions. In this regard, different strategies have emerged worldwide, including: \u2022 The development of alternative fuels (e.g. biofuels see Chap. 30). \u2022 The reduction of driving distances by facilitating other modes of commuting, improving public transportation or its accessibility, promoting car sharing programs, among many others. \u2022 The optimisation of existing technologies (or the development of new ones) to increase the vehicle\u2019s energy efficiency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2373, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 670, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 The optimisation of existing technologies (or the development of new ones) to increase the vehicle\u2019s energy efficiency. For instance, by improving the efficiency of the drive train. \u2022 The reduction of the vehicle\u2019s weight by substituting materials and implementing new design concepts or modern production technologies (e.g. 3D printing). \u2022 The development of alternative powertrains such as electric vehicles together with increased production of renewable energy. Regarding the latter, electric vehicles (EVs1) are seen by many countries as a promising technology to achieve significant reductions of GHG emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2374, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 670, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Regarding the latter, electric vehicles (EVs1) are seen by many countries as a promising technology to achieve significant reductions of GHG emissions. In Germany, for example, the national electric mobility plan disclosed a set of ambitious objectives which among others include the mass scale production of lithium-ion batteries, as well as the production of battery and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (BEV and PHEV) to ultimately place 1 million electric vehicles on the country\u2019s roads by 2020 (German Federal Government 2009). Moreover, in countries like Sweden and the United States, market sales shares of EVs reached in 2014 over 1%2 (OECD/IEA 2015). The successful penetration of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the automotive market depends on three key factors, i.e. costs, customer satisfaction and engineering performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2375, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 670, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The successful penetration of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the automotive market depends on three key factors, i.e. costs, customer satisfaction and engineering performance. In this regard, the environmental impact of an EV [or its potential reduction when compared to a conventional vehicle (CV3)] plays an important role towards its market acceptance and is one of the main reasons for their development in the first place. As they do not produce tailpipe emissions, EVs are believed to radically decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Yet, tailpipe emissions are only one aspect of 1We use the term EV to refer to battery electric vehicles (BEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV). 2In Norway, the EV market share represents more than 12% and in the Netherlands more than 3%. 3In this chapter, we refer as conventional vehicles to vehicles powered with an internal combustion engine.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2376, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 670, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the analysis. The question of whether driving an EV is better than driving a conventional one from an environmental stand point, demands a more comprehensive analysis. 27.1.2 Technical Context of Electric Vehicles The term electric vehicle EV refers to a vehicle that is fully or partially powered by electricity supplied by an electrochemical or electrostatic energy storage system and fully or partially propelled by an electric motor (Guzzella and Sciarretta 2005). In this chapter, we classify electric vehicles into battery electric vehicles (BEV) and hybrid electric vehicles4 (HEV). According to the degree of hybridisation, HEVs can be classified as mild and full HEVs. Figure 27.1 shows the configuration of the aforementioned types of EV and the respective flow and type of energy. EVs mostly use lithium-ion batteries the capacity of which varies depending on its size (see Fig. 27.1) and permanent magnet synchronous motors as traction motors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2377, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 671, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EVs mostly use lithium-ion batteries the capacity of which varies depending on its size (see Fig. 27.1) and permanent magnet synchronous motors as traction motors. BEVs rely completely on electricity from the grid. Broadly speaking, this electrical energy is converted by an electric motor into mechanical energy that is ultimately transmitted to the wheels. While its electrical range is larger than that of the other types of EVs, BEV depends almost completely on an on-board battery whose charging can take hours and thereby restrict its autonomy. Vehicles like the Nissan Leaf, the BMWi3 and the Tesla model S are some examples of mass produced BEV. HEVs, in turn, depend on two different energy sources: fuel and electricity generated during regenerative breaking. Three types of HEV are distinguished according to how the energy flows between the vehicle\u2019s components. These include parallel HEV5 (represented in Fig. 27.1), series HEV6 and combined series\u2013parallel HEV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2378, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 671, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These include parallel HEV5 (represented in Fig. 27.1), series HEV6 and combined series\u2013parallel HEV. Roughly, in an HEV the internal combustion engine (ICE) converts the fuel\u2019s chemical energy into mechanical energy, whereas the battery is charged internally through the energy produced by the electric motor/generator. Examples of mass produced hybrid vehicles are the Toyota Prius, the Ford Fusion and the VW Jetta hybrid. Plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) are a type of HEV that can be plugged-in to be recharged from the electricity grid, providing the vehicle with an all-electric range 4The term \u201chybrid vehicle\u201d is used to distinguish a car that combines an engine and an electric motor/generator (Guzzella and Sciarretta 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2379, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 671, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5Parallel HEV: The energy flow follows two parallel routes: (i) The fuel tank feeds the internal combustion engine (ICE) which delivers mechanical energy to the wheels, (ii) the battery delivers electrical energy to an electric motor which delivers mechanical energy to the wheels. 6Series HEV: The energy flow follows a single route. The fuel tank feeds an ICE that is couple to a generator. The generator charges the battery which provides electrical energy to an electric motor. The electric motor delivers mechanical energy to the wheels. LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2380, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 671, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "that is usually enough for a daily urban utilisation.7 In the case of a PHEV, the ICE works as a range extender. Examples of mass produced PHEVs are the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i8. A more detailed description of the EV\u2019s main components that should be considered for an LCA is presented in Sect. 27.2.2. For more general information regarding technical characteristics of electric vehicles, their components and their well to wheel (WTW\u2014see Fig. 27.2) energy efficiency, we refer the reader to the work of Helmers and Marx (2012) and Yong et al. (2015). 27.1.3 Role of LCA in the (Electric) Mobility Sector Imagine for example that we are interested in comparing the environmental impact of driving 100 km at a fixed speed, with a Land Rover Discovery V6 against a Suzuki Alto 1.1 both conventional gasoline-engine-driven vehicles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2381, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 672, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This example is naturally very trivial one could easily argue that the heavier the car is, the more energy is required to move it, and therefore the larger its fuel consumption and thus its carbon footprint. The environmental impact of a CV is driven by how much fuel is used and how efficiently it is combusted during its operation. In this sense, a common practice is to compare the potential environmental benefits of two or more fuel combustion technologies by framing the study on a well to wheel (WTW) approach. As represented in Fig. 27.2, the WTW analysis is focused on assessing the life cycle environmental impact of the energy carrier used to power a vehicle (e.g. liquid fuel, natural gas, hydrogen and electricity). This approach is usually divided into well to tank (WTT) and tank to wheel (TTW) analysis. WTT analysis examines the upstream supply chain of an energy carrier, namely all the different conversion and distribution steps necessary to deliver energy to the vehicle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2382, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 672, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "WTT analysis examines the upstream supply chain of an energy carrier, namely all the different conversion and distribution steps necessary to deliver energy to the vehicle. A TTW approach, contemplates exclusively the Fig. 27.1 Technical characteristics of electric vehicles 7In the eLCAr guidelines, daily commuting in an urban environment is characterised by 40 km of driving range and a max speed of 160 km/h.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2383, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 672, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "efficiency with which the energy is converted by the engine and transmitted to the wheels. Here, the results are expressed in terms of the amount of tailpipe emissions per delivered traction or distance driven. The example becomes less trivial if the analysis focuses on evaluating the impact associated with those strategies developed to reduce fuel consumption (e.g. through reducing the weight of the car) and tailpipe emissions (e.g. through developing alternative drive trains or non-fossil fuels). While the adoption of alternative lighter materials for the production of automotive components leads to a reduction of the overall vehicle\u2019s weight, the environmental consequences of such a measure require an analysis made with both eyes opened. Compared to aluminium, a steering wheel made of magnesium can present GHG emission savings in the production stage if the magnesium is produced through an electrolysis process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2384, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 673, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Compared to aluminium, a steering wheel made of magnesium can present GHG emission savings in the production stage if the magnesium is produced through an electrolysis process. When compared to an average magnesium Pidgeon process, the GHG emissions can be up to four times higher which leads to increase in GHG life cycle emissions (Ehrenberger 2013). Accordingly, if we consider the life cycle of the vehicle in our example, a measure to reduce weight through integrating magnesium intensively in the vehicle components may lead to an increase of the life cycle emissions. In the case of an EV, the environmental trade-offs between materials, components, vehicle characteristics and specific factors influencing each of the life cycle stages are more complex to identify and to analyse. To illustrate this case, consider the generic break-even analysis represented in Fig. 27.3. The graphic is divided in three parts including EV production, EV use stage and EV end-of-life as shown", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2385, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 673, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To illustrate this case, consider the generic break-even analysis represented in Fig. 27.3. The graphic is divided in three parts including EV production, EV use stage and EV end-of-life as shown. Suppose now that we want to compare the environmental burden of driving a battery electric vehicle (BEV) against a CV. Disregarding the nature of the impact represented in the figure, before having driven Fig. 27.2 Different perspectives for the environmental burden of vehicles. Adapted from Nordel\u00f6f et al. (2014) LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2386, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 673, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the first kilometre both cars are already responsible of a certain amount of impact U (Uev for the EV and Ucv for the conventional vehicle). The environmental burden of the production stage of an EV is estimated to be larger than that of the conventional vehicle due mainly to the impact caused during the production of the battery pack. Generally, a battery pack contains large amounts of aluminium and copper required as current collectors in the cells, as well as large quantities of other important metals that are necessary for the production of the electrode active materials (e.g. nickel, cobalt, manganese and lithium among many others) whose upstream supply chain in some cases includes significant mining processes characterised by being very energy- and SO2 emission-intensive and in some cases producing significant amounts of toxic emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2387, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 674, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, for the specific case of a BEV, the battery can represent up to 30% of the total vehicle\u2019s weight, a fact that has repercussions in the energy consumption of the vehicle in the use stage. As both vehicles enter operation (see EV use stage in Fig. 27.3), their environmental impact is driven mainly by the fuel or energy demand. Given fixed conditions for the comparison (e.g. acceleration, speed, number of passengers, vehicle characteristics and driver behaviour), both vehicles are subject to basically the same nature of forces acting on them. Broadly speaking, these forces lead to a mechanical energy demand, mostly driven by the vehicle\u2019s weight that must be supplied to the vehicle\u2019s wheels. The slope of the curves m represents the impact produced per kilometre driven", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2388, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 674, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The slope of the curves m represents the impact produced per kilometre driven. It is determined by (a) the total energy consumed by the vehicle including energy losses due to powertrain inefficiencies and the energy consumed by non-propulsion-related components; and (b) the impact produced due to maintenance and service. On a TTW perspective, not only is the conversion of energy and its transmission to the wheels much more efficient in a BEV, but also this process produces no tailpipe emissions at all. Nevertheless, from a WTW perspective, the environmental burden of both vehicle types will be different as the impact depends on the source (or mix of sources) of the energy carrier delivered to power the vehicle. In this regard, Fig. 27.3 presents three hypothetic scenarios for the vehicles under comparison: (BEV-1) EV powered with a moderate fossil energy mix, (BEV-2) EV powered with a large share of fossils within the energy mix and (BEV-3) EV powered with a low CO2-eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2389, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 674, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "intensity energy mix. Important to notice here is that the sooner the EV breaks even, the larger is the potential reduction of its environmental burden in a life cycle perspective. The right side of Fig. 27.3 (EV EoL) represents the end-of-life stage. The potential future reuse and/or remanufacture of components as well as the production of secondary material from spent automotive parts, implies the possibility of earning environmental credits which ultimately help reducing the overall life cycle impact. As seen, the environmental impact of an EV can be influenced by many different factors making the range of results varying greatly from one scenario to another. LCA offers in this regard a straightforward methodology that not only enables a fair comparison between technologies, but also helps identify the many different", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2390, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 674, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "environmental trade-offs that can rise out of design strategies and transport policies. In short, LCA in the field of (electric)-mobility can be used to give well-grounded answers to the challenges: \u2022 Comparisons between different types of EVs and CVs; \u2022 The effect of the energy mix used to power vehicles; \u2022 The effect of driving behaviour and local climate conditions (ambient temperature); \u2022 The evaluation of weight reduction strategies; \u2022 The analysis of the contribution of the traction battery to the overall environmental impact of an EV; \u2022 The analysis of end-of-life scenarios mainly regarding the treatment of main components, especially batteries, electric motors and car body. 27.2 LCA of Electric Vehicles: Specific Methodological Issues In this section, we introduce the reader to the application of LCA within the (electric)\u2014mobility sector. To begin, a general overview of the application of the LCA methodology in the (electric)-mobility field is presented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2391, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 675, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To begin, a general overview of the application of the LCA methodology in the (electric)-mobility field is presented. Particularly, this section discusses issues of goal definition and problem scoping (see more about goal and scope definition in Chaps. 7 and 8) and gives a brief overview on data collection for the three major life cycle stages. Fig. 27.3 Representation of a break-even analysis for the environmental burden of EVs (BEV-1, BEV-2 and BEV-3 represent electricity grid mixes causing moderate, high and low emissions of GHGs, respectively) LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2392, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 675, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.2.1 General Methodological Issues EVs exist in several segments and configurations, each of which is composed by a specific set of components. These components are all responsible of a share of the total vehicle\u2019s environmental impact as they: (i) need to be produced, assembled and eventually disposed or recovered, (ii) may add additional weight to the vehicle which ultimately means energy consumption; and (iii) may affect the energy conversion efficiency thus increasing energy demand. In addition, due to the physical and technical interdependencies between components, a modification in one of them can lead to important changes in terms of design and/or performance in other components of the vehicle. This situation is particularly important to consider when defining the boundaries of the system and the modelling approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2393, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 676, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This situation is particularly important to consider when defining the boundaries of the system and the modelling approach. 27.2.1.1 Definition of the Goal for the LCA of EVs A comprehensive statement of the goal of the study may prevent an increase in the complexity of the analysis and reduce the degree of variability of the results (Nordel\u00f6f et al. 2014). Defining clearly and unambiguously the intended application of the expected results and the purpose of the study helps in general to identify and to describe the system that will best represent the product system. For example, if the study is intended to make assertive comparisons about the environmental impact caused by driving an EV a certain distance using different types of batteries, the scope and inventory analysis of the study should explicitly contain information regarding battery characteristics, its energy density, weight and the potential interdependencies between components", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2394, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 676, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reason for carrying out the study and the decision context also play an important role for the further definition of the product system and its boundaries. If an LCA aims to provide support during a decision making process, it is essential to consider all the potential effects of that specific decision. In this regard, framing the study within a decision context is important as it helps to define methodological and quality needs. In line with the eLCAr guidelines (Del Duce et al. 2013) and the ILCD (European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability 2010), an LCA in the field of (electric)-mobility can be set in a situation context A (micro-level, product or process-related decision support) or B (meso-level and macro-level, strategic (\u201cpolicy\u201d) decision support). Both contexts address potential consequences of a certain decision; however, the extent and nature are very different from each other (see more about decision context in Sect. 8.5.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2395, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 676, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Both contexts address potential consequences of a certain decision; however, the extent and nature are very different from each other (see more about decision context in Sect. 8.5.4). These differences should be taken into account as they imply drastic changes regarding the way in which the involved supply chains are modelled. In general, an LCA intended to analyse short-term effects would most probably be best represented by situation A. This is for example the case where an LCA is performed on an operational level (e.g. comparison of two different brands of electric vehicles,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2396, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 676, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "introduction of a new vehicle model or technology) and its modelling is based on current supply chains. As there is a possibility that the market share of EVs strongly increases in the mid-term, large-scale consequences might occur on structures of adjacent systems linked to the product system being assessed. Some examples that can be identified in this regard are: i. the required infrastructure, ii. the production of electricity to meet the additional demand, iii. the rise of new material supply such as rare earth metals, lithium, copper and aluminium among other. An LCA that aims to address these circumstances is to be set in a situation context B. Comprehensive examples of goal and scope definition for the specific case of an electric vehicle are presented in the eLCAr guidelines. 27.2.1.2 Product System and System Boundary In this section, we focus the analysis on a situation type A. The principal activities to be considered for an LCA of an EV are shown in Fig. 27.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2397, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 677, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.2.1.2 Product System and System Boundary In this section, we focus the analysis on a situation type A. The principal activities to be considered for an LCA of an EV are shown in Fig. 27.4. These can be grouped in four different stages: (i) The production of components which in turn comprises background activities located in the upstream supply chain (e.g. mining processes, production of materials and transportation among others). Although the battery is technically part of the drive train, we consider the battery system as an extra component", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2398, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 677, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mining processes, production of materials and transportation among others). Although the battery is technically part of the drive train, we consider the battery system as an extra component. In that way, the component production activities are distributed in: (a) production of drive train, (b) battery and (c) car body; (ii) the vehicle assembly stage including, for example, the respective energy consumption, materials waste, painting processes and their emissions; (iii) the vehicle\u2019s use stage including charging patterns and driving behaviours, effect of local climate, production and distribution of energy, maintenance and service activities, and charging and road infrastructure; and (iv) the vehicle\u2019s end-of-life stage including credits for material and energy recovery from recycling, reuse and remanufacturing activities. Notice that the boundaries are presented in a very general form", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2399, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 677, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Notice that the boundaries are presented in a very general form. The actual system boundary should be described by tracking down the supply chain of the product system defined. 27.2.1.3 Functional Unit and Reference Flow Finding an equivalent functionality for the comparison of EVs and conventional vehicles with an LCA can be very challenging. While the function can be expressed as a unit of service provided by the respective vehicle (e.g. a journey from point A to point B), it might be necessary to take a more descriptive approach so as to enable a fairer comparison and an easier interpretation of the results. A more comprehensive picture of the systems being compared can be characterised by addressing questions such as how often, for how long, how well (or efficiently), under which conditions, among others", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2400, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 677, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As previously discussed, all the components of an EV have an influence on the energy demand during the use stage, which is mainly due to the weight added to the LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2401, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 677, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "vehicle, but could also be related to issues of mechanical, electrical, thermal and electrochemical efficiency. This interdependency forces the LCA practitioner to consider a whole-vehicle perspective to approximate a description of an equivalent functionality. EVs increase this complexity. On the one side, its efficiency is governed by properties such as ratio of discharge, energy density, number of cycles and by how the battery is used, but to add complexity, these properties differ from one battery system to another depending on both materials and production processes. On the other side, the mass added by the battery is responsible for a significant portion of the vehicle\u2019s energy demand during the use stage. After overcoming this challenge, the vehicles under comparison are comprehensively defined in size and technical properties, and then a description of the conditions under which the vehicle is used should be given", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2402, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 685, "book_page": 678, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is particularly important for the case in which an LCA intends to compare an EV against a CV. As EVs have limited autonomy in terms of driving range and charging times compared to CVs, the functional unit should make reference to the type of application. These autonomy limitations are not relevant if the study aims to compare daily urban transportation as the technical requirements can easily be satisfied by the technologies being analysed. If instead the focus lies on analysing an average vehicle use, these mentioned limitations should be considered by for instance including a rented car or the use of public transportation to model the (long-)distance that the EV is not able to complete (Del Duce et al. 2013). Another important aspect to consider is the variation of the overall vehicle efficiency from one to another driving cycle, which makes the LCA only valid for the driving cycle (or its mix) considered for the comparison. In brief, as described in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2403, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 685, "book_page": 678, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In brief, as described in Fig. 27.4 Generic representation of the product system for the LCA of an EV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2404, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 685, "book_page": 678, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the eLCAr guidelines, the definition of the functional unit for an LCA in the field of (electric)-mobility can be formulated by describing parameters such as: \u2022 Properties of the vehicle and/or its key components: vehicle class, weight, range per charge, lifetime, number of passengers per ride, maximum number of passengers among others. \u2022 Interaction between the vehicle and its components and how this influences the unit of service. \u2022 Location, time, geography, driving cycles, weather, etc. 27.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis in LCA of EV While the definition of the goal and the respective decision context selected might limit the system to be studied, the analysis could take different focuses. For example, we may be interested in comparing the impact of two different battery configurations for a specific BEV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2405, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 679, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, we may be interested in comparing the impact of two different battery configurations for a specific BEV. Although the battery of an EV could be modelled to a high extent independently from the vehicle, its weight might influence design considerations in other components that might end up adding more weight to the vehicle. This situation can lead to an increase of the upstream material supply chain and of course to more energy demand during the use stage of the vehicle. In such a system, disregarding the fact that the focus of the analysis lies on the battery system, the peripheral components affected shall be considered in the foreground system. The interdependency matrix presented in the eLCAr guidelines8 provides an overview of the most common interactions between components that might be taken into account. In this regard, the eLCAr guidelines distinguish two frequent situations in which an LCA may be focused", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2406, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 679, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this regard, the eLCAr guidelines distinguish two frequent situations in which an LCA may be focused. On the one hand, an LCA may be set to analyse one component. If the interaction between the component and the rest of the vehicle does not have a significant effect, the LCA can be restricted to the life cycle of that specific component placing it in the foreground system. If the component has an interaction with another vehicle component, then the foreground system of the LCA should include the entire vehicle, however, the level of detail of the analysis is not necessarily the same as for the component under study. On the other hand, the focus of the LCA may be on the complete vehicle, and in this case the foreground system should always include the whole vehicle. A third situation can occur when, for example, the focus of the study lies in one of the product\u2019s life cycle stages. For instance, if the LCA aims to analyse the driving behaviours, geographic effects (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2407, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 679, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For instance, if the LCA aims to analyse the driving behaviours, geographic effects (i.e. climate, energy mixes, etc.) or business 8The interdependency matrix introduced in the eLCAr guidelines includes information on how one specific component might influence other components in an EV. These interdependencies are based on different assumptions including vehicle and driving characteristics. The interdependency matrix is available online. LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2408, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 679, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "models (e.g. car sharing or fleet application for example), the study might place the EV as being part of the background system. Once the foreground system is defined, the analysis focuses on identifying the data to be collected. We restrict this section to the description of the data collection process for the vehicle production stage, the estimation of the energy consumption during the use stage and the identification of unit processes to be modelled in the end-of-life. 27.2.2.1 Data Collection for the Vehicle Production Stage A generic data collection plan for the vehicle production stage is presented in Fig. 27.5. The figure presents a simplification of the components to be considered as well as the processes and materials associated. Notice that the foreground system for the production stage of an EV is divided into production of components and vehicle assembly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2409, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 680, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Notice that the foreground system for the production stage of an EV is divided into production of components and vehicle assembly. As recommended by the eLCAr guidelines, the production of each of the components in the foreground system should be subdivided into unit processes, which can be described as an independent operation and ultimately characterised in terms of their exchanges with the background system and the environment. In this regard, Fig. 27.5 includes a list of the most representative manufacturing processes used within the automotive industry as well as the main components that are recommended to be included. Three groups of components are in focus: the glider, the drive train and the battery. Data collection in this field can be very exhaustive and time consuming. The eLCAr guidelines provide a rather general set of recommendations and only Fig. 27.5 Data collection plan for the production stage of EV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2410, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 680, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "aim at pointing out the main issues to be addressed. In general, many LCAs done in the automotive industry are based on data modelled with the GREET model (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions and Energy use in Transportation model) (Burnham et al. 2006). The GREET model is an open source software originally created to evaluate vehicles on a WTW perspective. The current version includes a vehicle-cycle model, which contains information about the production and end-of-life stages of automotive components including alternative drive trains. Furthermore, a common practice when modelling life cycle inventories of electric vehicles is to adapt or convert data from conventional vehicles (e.g. by replacing fuel tank with battery, combustion and exhaust systems with charging and power electronic systems). In this regard, the LCI of the VW Golf (Schweimer and Levin 2000) has often been adapted and extrapolated for research purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2411, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 681, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this regard, the LCI of the VW Golf (Schweimer and Levin 2000) has often been adapted and extrapolated for research purposes. Moreover, detailed LCI for electric vehicles can be found in the research of Zackrisson et al. (2010), Hawkins et al. (2013) and Notter et al. (2010). In addition, a few studies have published LCIs for the production of specific components. For example, the research by Majeau-Bettez et al. (2011), Ellingsen et al. (2014), Zackrisson et al. (2010) and Dunn et al. (2015) present detailed inventories for the production of traction batteries and research from Sullivan et al. (2013) offer models for the estimation of materials and energy used during the vehicles manufacturing and assembly stage. 27.2.2.2 Energy Consumption During the EV\u2019s Use Stage The environmental impact of EVs during their use stage is influenced by different elements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2412, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 681, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.2.2.2 Energy Consumption During the EV\u2019s Use Stage The environmental impact of EVs during their use stage is influenced by different elements. Although the consideration of factors such as the charging and road infrastructure is also recommended, this section focuses on the estimation of the energy demand of the vehicle during its use (i.e. TTW in Fig. 27.2). For more information regarding the potential impact due to maintenance services and the generation of non-exhaust emissions, we refer the reader to the works of Del Duce et al. (2014) and Simons (2013). The energy demanded by an EV to be included in an LCA can be measured or estimated. It can be divided into mechanical energy demand (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2413, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 681, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2014) and Simons (2013). The energy demanded by an EV to be included in an LCA can be measured or estimated. It can be divided into mechanical energy demand (i.e. the energy required to drive the vehicle from A to B), consumption of auxiliary devices, consumption due to air conditioning and heating requirements inside the vehicle, energy losses in the battery when the vehicle stays on standstill and the extra consumption of the battery due to charging losses. The mechanical energy demand9 of driving a vehicle over a certain distance is defined by the specific speed profile (v) of the trajectory and the power at the wheel 9The development of this section is based on the work done by Hofer (2014) and Guzzella and Sciarretta (2005). LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2414, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 681, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Pw) at every instant of the journey. Pw can be calculated by estimating the conservative and dissipative forces acting on a vehicle (Fig. 27.6). The sum of all these forces is called traction force or force at the wheel (Fw) and is defined as: Fw 1\u20444 Fa \u00fe Fr \u00fe Fg \u00fe Fk \u00f027:1\u00de Following, Pw can be defined as: Pw 1\u20444 Fw \u0001 v \u00f027:2\u00de Notice that Pw can be positive (i.e. the drive train needs to deliver torque to the wheels to propel the vehicle), negative (during braking) or zero (e.g. during coasting or when the vehicle is stopped). The mechanical energy demand can therefore be calculated by integrating Pw along a specific driving cycle.10 The research from Hofer (2014) includes an estimation of the contribution of specific forces to the total mechanical energy demand of a vehicle for different driving cycles. Notice in Fig. 27.7 how for the same vehicle not only the total mechanical energy demand varies along the different driving cycles, but also the contribution of the different forces", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2415, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 689, "book_page": 682, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Notice in Fig. 27.7 how for the same vehicle not only the total mechanical energy demand varies along the different driving cycles, but also the contribution of the different forces. The electric passenger car transport and vehicle dataset developed for the ecoinvent v3 dataset (Del Duce et al. 2014) followed a similar approach. The energy consumption in the dataset is calculated based on the NEDC driving cycle with a power train efficiency of 70% and by increasing the efficiency by 5% for the parts where an urban-driving condition was modelled (i.e. therefore considering regenerative braking). The consumption of auxiliaries was estimated by Del Duce et al. (2014) assuming an average speed of 50 km/h and nominal powers of 3 kW 10A driving cycle is a description of a vehicle journey. It is usually represented by the variation of the speed against time on a specific road topography", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2416, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 689, "book_page": 682, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is usually represented by the variation of the speed against time on a specific road topography. Driving cycles are developed by executive/legislative bodies from different countries in order to standardise the measurement of the emissions produced and the consumption of fuel of a vehicle after a determined distance. Depending on the nature of speed changes (i.e. abrupt, gradual), driving cycles are divided into transient and steady state driving cycles. Transient driving cycles are those in which the speed changes constantly during the cycle. Examples of transient driving cycles are the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and the Worldwide harmonised Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP). The NEDC is supposed to represent the average usage of a passenger car in Europe and is composed of four urban cycles and one highway cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2417, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 689, "book_page": 682, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The NEDC is supposed to represent the average usage of a passenger car in Europe and is composed of four urban cycles and one highway cycle. The WLTP is still under development but is based on statistical driving conditions from the EU, Japan, Korea, India and the US and is expected to replace the NEDC in the near future. Steady-state driving cycles basically represent a constant sequence of speed over time. For more information on driving cycles refer to Mock et al. (2013) and Barlow et al. (2009).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2418, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 689, "book_page": 682, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for heating, 0.6 kW for air conditioning and 0.5 kW for auxiliaries (i.e. radio, lights and so on). For every 100 km, a total of 2 kWh for the heating system and 0.4 kWh for the cooling system11 were calculated. From a WTT perspective, the energy mix dataset to be selected for the analysis will have a strong impact and shall therefore be carefully considered. Depending on the energy chosen mix, its contribution to the final results will vary among impact categories ranging from being negligible (e.g. when supplying energy from photovoltaic panels) to being the dominant hotspot (e.g. for the case of energy mixes with high shares of energy from coal power plants). Moreover, this mix can change in composition during the day or between seasons. In addition, as some regions are Fig. 27.7 Contributions to Pw for the NEDC and WLTP driving cycles. From Hofer (2014) Fig. 27.6 Forces acting on a vehicle in movement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2419, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 690, "book_page": 683, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, as some regions are Fig. 27.7 Contributions to Pw for the NEDC and WLTP driving cycles. From Hofer (2014) Fig. 27.6 Forces acting on a vehicle in movement. Based on Guzzella and Sciarretta (2005) 11A more detailed approach for the estimation of the energy demand from auxiliaries and air conditioning systems can be found on the research from Egede (2016). More detailed calculations regarding energy losses on the battery system due to charging inefficiencies and to the discharging mechanisms while idling can be found in Del Duce et al. (2013). LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2420, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 690, "book_page": 683, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "interconnected, selecting energy mix datasets for specific places (e.g. countries) might mislead the interpretation of results. As recommended in the eLCAr guidelines, to enhance comparability the studies within the European Union should include in the analysis the European mix (EU-27). 27.2.2.3 Processes to Be Considered During the End-of-Life Stage of an EV As recommended by the eLCAr guidelines, all the relevant processing steps involved after the use stage of an EV should be considered. First, the vehicle must be partly disassembled. This involves the treatment of specific hazardous materials (e.g. fluids, airbags, etc.) according to local regulations. Further components are recovered to be either recycled, remanufactured or disposed. Of particular importance is the processing of the E-Motor and the battery system. Depending on the condition of the E-Motor, the motor can be remanufactured and therefore brought to a like-new condition to be reused", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2421, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 691, "book_page": 684, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depending on the condition of the E-Motor, the motor can be remanufactured and therefore brought to a like-new condition to be reused. In this case, its life cycle should also be considered as it may be shorter than the motor\u2019s first cycle. If remanufacturing is not possible, the E-motor should be disassembled and its most important parts should be reused. Major processes for the treatment of the electric motor include the recycling of metals and the recovery of the permanent magnets and rare earth metals. The end-of-life treatment of the traction battery should be considered within the system boundary. Modelling the recycling processes of a traction battery is difficult as they, being an emerging technology, are currently strongly under development. In other words, the LCA practitioner will have to deal with modelling a process that, partially or completely, does not exist", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2422, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 691, "book_page": 684, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, the LCA practitioner will have to deal with modelling a process that, partially or completely, does not exist. Nevertheless, as the topic of battery recycling becomes increasingly relevant due to environmental, economic and political reasons, future recovery of important metals such as aluminium, copper, nickel and cobalt is expected to contribute to the overall life cycle impact of an EV. Current available research on battery recycling has identified several possible processing steps such as: battery dismantling down to the cell level and further processing of the cells. Since the battery dismantling process is mainly composed of mechanical steps, identifying the subprocesses and the material to be recovered is simple. However, the treatment of the cells might take several directions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2423, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 691, "book_page": 684, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, the treatment of the cells might take several directions (e.g. hydrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical processes) each of which involves technology-specific processes and thus differing from each other in terms of nature and amount of material recovered, processing costs (important to considered as it could indicate future market trends) and environmental impact.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2424, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 691, "book_page": 684, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.3 Environmental Impact of EVs While this field is still young, there is a relatively large amount of research trying to describe specifically the what, how and where of the interaction of electric vehicles and the environment. In the recent years, numerous LCA studies have been published not only in academic journals but also as environmental certifications from car manufacturers. Yet, results vary strongly between publications and benchmarking the results is a challenging exercise as most of the research available failed to express unambiguously the scope of the study and there are often inconsistencies in the application of the methodology. Moreover, lack of data and use of rough assumptions regarding energy consumption during the use stage, life time of the battery and inconsistencies on the selection of electricity mixes are common issues within the current research on LCA for EVs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2425, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 692, "book_page": 685, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nevertheless, a few studies have provided very transparent life cycle inventories providing a more comprehensive understanding of the potential environmental impacts of electric vehicles.12 27.3.1 EVs Versus Conventional Vehicles In this section, we make reference to the study done by Hawkins et al. (2013). Although the inventory is mostly based on secondary data sources, it is perhaps (and to our knowledge) the most complete and transparent inventory of an EV that is currently publicly available. Their research compares the environmental impact produced by driving 1 km in a conventional vehicle (diesel or gasoline) against an EV. It includes the modelling of a generic glider adapted to meet the specific configuration of each technology under study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2426, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 692, "book_page": 685, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It includes the modelling of a generic glider adapted to meet the specific configuration of each technology under study. Their inventory considers the production of the glider, drive train and the battery and comprises around 140 vehicle subcomponents.13 For the case of the EV, the researchers compared the impact of two different battery chemistries, namely Li-FePO4 and Li-NCM, and analysed the use of three different energy mixes. The energy consumption during the use stage was estimated based on the NEDC driving cycle. Based on data from manufacturers, they assumed a consumption of 0.63 MJ/km for the EV and 68 ml/km and 53.5 ml/km for the gasoline and the diesel vehicle, respectively. For this study, the authors assumed a vehicle lifetime of 150,000 km. The global warming potential (GWP) impact for each specific case was spread over the total life cycle and the results are shown in Fig. 27.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2427, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 692, "book_page": 685, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The global warming potential (GWP) impact for each specific case was spread over the total life cycle and the results are shown in Fig. 27.8. In general, the largest contributor to the environmental impact of the six scenarios was found to be the use stage. 12For a comprehensive state of the research, we refer the reader to the literature reviews done by Hawkins et al. (2012) and Nordel\u00f6f et al. (2014). 13The complete LCI can be accessed online. LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2428, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 692, "book_page": 685, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the case in which the European energy mix is used there is a general reduction in the life cycle CO2-eq. emissions from EVs in comparison to the conventional ones. Under this condition, the difference on the GWP impact between the different battery cell chemistries is due only to the production stage. As seen in the figure, when EVs are powered with coal-based electricity, their life cycle CO2eq. emissions present increments of around 17\u201327% compared to gasoline and diesel, respectively. The production stage also presents several interesting differences. The production of a conventionalvehicle was found to emit around half of the GHG emissions that are emitted during the production of an EV. The study reported that a GWP impact of around 13 tonne CO2-eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2429, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 693, "book_page": 686, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The study reported that a GWP impact of around 13 tonne CO2-eq. is produced during the production of an EV, 35\u201341% of which is caused by the production of the traction battery.14 In addition, the cooling system required by the battery system is identified to contribute around 18% of the total CO2-eq. from the production of an EV. Results for the other environmental impact categories are shown normalised to the scenario with the highest impact for each impact category in Fig. 27.9. Several points are worth noticing from these results. First, the impact categories terrestrial acidification (TAP) and particulate matter formation (PMFP) behave very similarly in the EV and the conventional vehicle. As argued, the portion of hard coal and lignite used for the generation of the European electricity mix prevents the EVs to perform better than their conventional counterpart and therefore reduction in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2430, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 693, "book_page": 686, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.8 Comparison of the life cycle GWP of a CV and an EV as function of the distance driven 14We refer the reader to the research done by Ellingsen et al. (2014) as it includes a very comprehensive LCI for a battery system similar to the battery in the study from Hawkins et al. (2013). As estimated by the author, for a lifetime of 150 000 km the battery reaches a GWP impact of approximately 4.7 tonnes CO2-eq.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2431, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 693, "book_page": 686, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the life cycle TAP impacts can most probably be reached by powering EVs with electricity with lower sources of sulphur (e.g. natural gas). As expected, the category photochemical oxidation formation (POFP) impact of EVs is significantly lower than for conventional vehicles as this impact is predominantly related to combustion processes. Human toxicity potential (HTP) is identified as a potential problem shifting by the authors. In this category, EV presents increments of up to 290% compared to CV which is mainly due to the increase in the use of metals like copper and nickel. These materials are usually produced through mining activities which are characterised by producing important amounts of toxic refuses. Finally, fossil resource depletion potential (FDP) potentially decreases if the EV is powered with average European electricity, but as shown, the advantages are not determinant if the coal-intensive energy mixes are used instead", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2432, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 694, "book_page": 687, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.3.2 The Environmental Impact of a Lightweight Electric Vehicle Using lightweight materials is one common strategy to reduce the weight of CVs. Lightweight materials used in CVs aim to reduce the energy consumption and thereby the environmental impact in the use stage of the vehicle. The savings in the Fig. 27.9 Environmental impact of conventional and EV for different Impact Categories. Normalised from the absolute results LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2433, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 694, "book_page": 687, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "use stage have to outweigh the higher environmental impacts of the lightweight material in comparison to the reference material, which usually occur in the raw material acquisition, production and end-of-life stage. In EVs, lightweight materials can have the same effect. Different parameters determine how lightweight electric vehicles perform in comparison to reference EVs and CVs and when and if a break-even is reached. For the comparison of electric vehicles\u2014both lightweight and non-lightweight electric vehicles\u2014with CV, regional and use stage specific parameters are relevant. In both vehicle types, electricity or fuel is necessary to operate the air conditioning. However, in CV the excess heat from the engine is used to heat up the vehicle cabin. In EV, this is not possible because the electric motor is very efficient and generates almost no excess heat. Hence, heat has to be generated when needed, which requires the use of additional energy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2434, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 695, "book_page": 688, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In EV, this is not possible because the electric motor is very efficient and generates almost no excess heat. Hence, heat has to be generated when needed, which requires the use of additional energy. Therefore, the ambient temperature has a strong influence on the energy demand of the EV and only a minor influence on the fuel consumption of the CV. For the comparison of a lightweight EV with a reference EV, the electricity mix must be considered as well as material properties (e.g. the lightweight factor of the lightweight material in comparison to the reference material) and vehicle properties (e.g. the energy saving per kilometre for each reduced kilogramme). To cover all influencing parameters, the comparison of lightweight electric vehicles with CV and reference vehicles requires a systematic approach. First, a detailed system description of the vehicles and their use is necessary. Examples are the description of the daily and seasonal use pattern", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2435, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 695, "book_page": 688, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First, a detailed system description of the vehicles and their use is necessary. Examples are the description of the daily and seasonal use pattern. Then, the modelling of the interdependencies of the parameters like: the energy mix, the ambient temperature, the use pattern and the properties of the lightweight materials is required. Finally, an adequate visualisation of results simplifies the interpretation of results for both LCA and non-LCA experts. The visualisation of LCA results in form of a map is useful because the results of the comparative assertion of (lightweight) electric vehicles and conventional vehicles depend on the regional parameters electricity mix and ambient temperature. Figure 27.10 shows the LCA world map of the comparison of a gasoline CV and an EV with a lithium iron-phosphate (Li-FePO4) battery for the impact category climate change", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2436, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 695, "book_page": 688, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 27.10 shows the LCA world map of the comparison of a gasoline CV and an EV with a lithium iron-phosphate (Li-FePO4) battery for the impact category climate change. The use pattern represents a commuter using the vehicle in the morning and the afternoon (daily use) evenly throughout the year (seasonal use). Blue and green colours indicate that the CV is advantageous. Red, orange and yellow colours indicate that the EV performs better than the CV. Due to the consideration of the ambient temperature, the results vary within one country. For some countries like Spain, Argentina or Mexico no clear decision for or against one vehicle type can be given. When lightweight materials are used, the question arises if a break-even point x is reached during the lifetime of the vehicle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2437, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 695, "book_page": 688, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When lightweight materials are used, the question arises if a break-even point x is reached during the lifetime of the vehicle. Do the savings in the use stage outweigh the higher environmental impact of the lightweight material in the production and end-of-life stage (iP,lw and iE,lw) which exists in comparison to the environmental impact of the reference material (iP,ref and iE,ref)? This also depends on the lightweight factor of the lightweight material in comparison the reference", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2438, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 695, "book_page": 688, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "material (alw), the environmental impact of the electricity mix (ie) and the saving in energy consumption of the vehicle per kilometre for each reduced kilogramme (cerv). The following equation shows the calculation of this break-even point, X (distance driven in the vehicle): x 1\u20444 alw\u00f0iP;lw \u00fe iE;lw\u00de \u0003 \u00f0iP;ref \u00fe iE;ref\u00de cerv \u0004 ie 1 \u0003 alw \u00f0 \u00de \u00f027:3\u00de Displaying the break-even point in relation to the energy mix leads to the chart in Fig. 27.11. The chart immediately allows to see when the use of a specific lightweight material leads to a break-even for a given specific energy mix, identified by its GHG emission intensity (the example of Germany in indicated in the figure). It is important to note that often ranges are given for the environmental impact of a material. This leads to ranges in the results for the break-even point. In the given example, the range of material 1 is more narrow than the range of material 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2439, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 696, "book_page": 689, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This leads to ranges in the results for the break-even point. In the given example, the range of material 1 is more narrow than the range of material 2. As a result, in Germany a break-even for material 1 is achieved for a total driving distance between 100,000 and 240,000 km whereas the break-even for material 2 is reached between 110,000 and 340,000 km. Further information on the environmental assessment of lightweight electric vehicles can be found in Egede (2016). Fig. 27.10 LCA world map for the comparison of gasoline vehicle and electric vehicle with Li-FePO4 battery for the impact category climate change, world map created with R and r world map. Taken from Egede (2016) LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2440, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 696, "book_page": 689, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.4 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives The move towards a sustainable private transportation is challenging. There are many different strategies being conceived to achieve reduction in energy consumption and production of GHG emissions in the sector specifically. While it is true that the development and promotion of EVs could lead to cutting tailpipe GHG emissions, the actual environmental effect of such a measure needs a more comprehensive analysis. The LCA methodology, if applied transparently and unambiguously, offers the possibility of broadening the understanding of the consequences of a potential electrification of personal transportation. To close this chapter, we address issues of concern related to the technological sector analysed and the application of the methodology for its evaluation. The lack of methodological harmony is a central issue in the discussion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2441, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 697, "book_page": 690, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The lack of methodological harmony is a central issue in the discussion. One of the largest challenges to overcome towards understanding the environmental implications of EVs is the high level of inconsistency among undergoing research. While the eLCAr guidelines aimed at harmonising the application of the LCA methodology to obtain more accurate information, much of the research available still fails to give a proper definition of the system being analysed and its scope. Fig. 27.11 Break-even analysis of two different materials. Taken from Egede (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2442, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 697, "book_page": 690, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accordingly, benchmarking results among different studies reported in the literature is difficult due to aspects such as ambiguous setting of boundaries, variations in the product lifetime analysed and lack (or inexistence) of a functional equivalency to enable comparability between two or more vehicles analysed. In spite of the lack of consensus regarding the application the LCA methodology in this field, a common shared conclusion is that the source of the energy used to power the vehicle to a great extent defines its environmental impact. In other words, substantial improvements in several impact categories can be reached if EVs are powered with low impact energy sources and therefore, promoting the market penetration of EVs in regions where electricity comes mostly from fossil sources can mislead to an increase in the global GHG emissions from transportation. The production stage of an EV is estimated to be up to two times more environmentally intensive than a CV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2443, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 698, "book_page": 691, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The production stage of an EV is estimated to be up to two times more environmentally intensive than a CV. In particular, the battery system poses the biggest challenges. On the one side, current massively produced battery systems for mobility applications contain large amounts of metals whose mining processes are usually characterised by being very harmful on a local/regional level. In this regard, the analysis of significant changes in the material supply chain of batteries is needed. Considering the recycling of battery systems and the potential recovery of materials is important as this is estimated to minimise local environmental impacts and reduce the overall energy use and emissions of its production (Dunn et al. 2015). On the other side, there is a raising concern regarding the materials intended to be used for batteries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2444, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 698, "book_page": 691, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). On the other side, there is a raising concern regarding the materials intended to be used for batteries. As these differ abruptly regarding their state of development, most of these materials are difficult to screen and evaluate from an environmental standpoint as their behaviour on an industrial scale (massively produced) might be unpredictable. A more detailed consideration of the vehicle\u2019s production, and especially of the battery system, within the application of the LCA is essential as this could lead to identifying potential problem shifting issues. Barlow, T., Latham, S., Mccrae, I., Boulter, P.: A reference book of driving cycles for use in the measurement of road vehicle emissions. 280 (2009) Burnham, A., Wang, M., Wu, Y.: Development and applications of GREET 2.7\u2014the transportation vehicle-cycle model. Energy. 124 (2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2445, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 698, "book_page": 691, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "280 (2009) Burnham, A., Wang, M., Wu, Y.: Development and applications of GREET 2.7\u2014the transportation vehicle-cycle model. Energy. 124 (2006). doi:10.2172/898530 Del Duce, A., Egede, P., \u00d6hlschl\u00e4ger, G., Dettmer, T., Althaus, H.-J., B\u00fctler, T.S.E.: eLCAr\u2014 guidelines for the LCA of electric vehicles (2013) Del Duce, A., Gauch, M., Althaus, H.-J.: Electric passenger car transport and passenger car life cycle inventories in ecoinvent version 3. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367014-0792-4 Dunn, J.B., Gaines, L., Kelly, J.C., et al.: The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling\u2019s role in its reduction. Energy Environ. Sci. 8, 158\u2013168 (2015). doi:10.1039/C4EE03029J Egede, P.: Environmental Assessment of Lightweight Electric Vehicles, 1st edn. Springer International Publishing, Berlin (2016) LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2446, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 698, "book_page": 691, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ehrenberger, S.: Life Cycle Assessment of Magnesium Components in Vehicle Construction (2013) Ellingsen, L.A.-W.W., Majeau-Bettez, G., Singh, B., et al.: Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery vehicle pack. J. Ind. Ecol. 18, 113\u2013124 (2014). doi:10.1111/jiec.12072 European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook: Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). EUR 24710 EN (2010) German Federal Government: German Federal Government\u2019s National Electromobility Development Plan (2009) Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A.: Vehicle Propulsion Systems, 2nd edn. Springer, Berlin (2005) Hawkins, T.R., Gausen, O.M., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: Environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles\u2014a review. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 997\u20131014 (2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2447, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 699, "book_page": 692, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Springer, Berlin (2005) Hawkins, T.R., Gausen, O.M., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: Environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles\u2014a review. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 997\u20131014 (2012). doi:10.1007/s11367-0120440-9 Hawkins, T.R., Singh, B., Majeau-Bettez, G., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional and electric vehicles. J. Ind. Ecol. 17, 53\u201364 (2013). doi:10. 1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x Helmers, E., Marx, P.: Electric cars: technical characteristics and environmental impacts. Environ. Sci. Eur. 24, 14 (2012). doi:10.1186/2190-4715-24-14 Hofer, J.: Sustainability Assessment of Passenger Vehicles: Analysis of Past Trends and Future Impacts of Electric Powertrains. ETH Zurich (2014) IEA: Transport, Energy and CO2: Moving Toward Sustainability. Paris, France (2009) Majeau-Bettez, G., Hawkins, T.R., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: Life cycle environmental assessment of Li-Ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2448, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 699, "book_page": 692, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Supporting information. Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 1\u201351 (2011). doi:10.1021/es103607c Mock, P., German, J., Bandivadekar, A. et al.: From laboratory to road. 77 (2013) Nordel\u00f6f, A., Messagie, M., Tillman, A.M., et al.: Environmental impacts of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles-what can we learn from life cycle assessment? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0788-0 Notter, D.A., Gauch, M., Widmer, R., et al.: Contribution of li-ion batteries to the environmental impact of electric vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 6550\u20136556 (2010). doi:10.1021/ es903729a OECD/IEA: Global EV Outlook 2015 (2015) Schweimer, G.W., Levin, M.: Life cycle inventory for the Golf A4. Environ. Res. 1\u201340 (2000) Simons, A.: Road transport: new life cycle inventories for fossil-fuelled passenger cars and non-exhaust emissions in ecoinvent v3. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367013-0642-9.l Sims, R., Schaeffer, R., Creutzig, F., et al.: Transport", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2449, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 699, "book_page": 692, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367013-0642-9.l Sims, R., Schaeffer, R., Creutzig, F., et al.: Transport. In: Edenhofer, O., Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K., Adler, A., Baum, I., Brunner, S., Eickemeier, P., Kriemann, B., Savolainen, J., Schl\u00f6mer, S., von Stechow, C., Zwickel, T., Minx, J.C. (eds.) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 599\u2013670. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2014) Sullivan, J.L., Burnham, A., Wang, M.Q.: Model for the part manufacturing and vehicle assembly component of the vehicle life cycle inventory. J. Ind. Ecol. 17, 143\u2013153 (2013). doi:10.1111/j. 1530-9290.2012.00515.x Yong, J.Y., Ramachandaramurthy, V.K., Tan, K.M., Mithulananthan, N.: A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2450, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 699, "book_page": 692, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 49, 365\u2013385 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.130 Zackrisson, M., Avell\u00e1n, L., Orlenius, J.: Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles\u2014critical issues. J. Clean. Prod. 18, 1519\u20131529 (2010). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2010.06.004", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2451, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 699, "book_page": 692, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biographies Felipe Cerdas mechanical and environmental engineer involved in the application of the LCA in industry since 2009. His work has been focused on the lifecycle environmental and economic assessment of energy storage systems for electric vehicles. Interested in the application of LCA for the assessment of emerging technologies in early stages. Patricia Egede focus on the LCA of electric vehicles, particularly in fleet operations or with lightweight materials. Main interest in the differences of environmental impacts related to regional influencing factors and resulting visualization challenges, member of the European eLCAr project to adapt ILCD Handbook to electric vehicles. Christoph Herrmann has led national and international research projects in the context of sustainable manufacturing and life cycle engineering since 1997. Main interest is the further development of LCA as an engineering tool that drives innovation. LCA of Electromobility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2452, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "27 LCA of Electromobility", "pdf_page": 700, "book_page": 693, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment Benjamin Goldstein and Freja Nygaard Rasmussen Abstract How we design human settlements has a profound influence on society\u2019s environmental pressures. This chapter explores the current state of LCA applied to two scales of human settlements; individual buildings and the built environment, where the built environment is understood as a collection of autonomous buildings along with the infrastructure and human activity between those buildings. The application of LCA to buildings has seen growing interest in recent years, partly as a result of the increased application of environmental certification to buildings. General findings are that the use stage of the building tends to dominate environmental impacts, though as buildings become increasingly energy efficient, life cycle impacts shift towards other stages", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2453, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 701, "book_page": 695, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA of built environments has been a useful supplement to mass-based urban environmental assessments, highlighting the importance of embodied environmental impacts in imported goods and showing interesting trade-offs between dense urban living and the greater purchasing power of wealthy urbanites. LCAs of human settlements also face difficult challenges; the long use stage (often decades) introduces high uncertainty regarding the end-of-life stage; evolving electrical mixes throughout the use stage; gaps in consumption data at the city level. This chapter endeavours to elucidate the strengths, research needs and methodological shortcomings of LCA as applied to buildings and the built environment, showing that they can act as complimentary tools to help society\u2019s shift towards a sustainable future. B. Goldstein (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: bgol@dtu.dk F.N", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2454, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 701, "book_page": 695, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "B. Goldstein (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: bgol@dtu.dk F.N. Rasmussen Faculty of Engineering and Science, Danish Building Research Institute, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_28", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2455, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 701, "book_page": 695, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.1 Settlements are comprised of buildings along with the spaces and infrastructure between them, the design of which strongly influences the environmental performance of the overall system. A settlement is no mere assemblage of buildings, but an interplay of buildings, infrastructure, space, environment and institutions that help shape the behaviour of residents and visitors alike, and by proxy, their consumptive regimes and environmental impacts. In understanding the environmental pressures of how we construct the places we inhabit, research has focused on two units of analysis: the individual building and the built environment (assessments at the nation-state and planetary level notwithstanding). The building is an independent structure that provides shelter from the elements to facilitate one or multiple human activities (living, manufacturing, trading, etc.) The built environment is an umbrella term for the buildings, infrastructure and the human activity between buildings (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2456, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 702, "book_page": 696, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mobility, leisure, etc.), ranging from the rural to the urban, the latter of which will be the focus of discussion in this chapter since cities now house more than half of humanity and a much larger share of economic activity (Kennedy et al. 2015). Figure 28.1 illustrates the difference between the two systems. In terms of the scale of this resource use and environmental degradation, the contributions of buildings and the built environment to global totals are significant. According to UNEP\u2019s Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative, buildings account for 40% of global energy use, 38% of global greenhouse gas emissions and 40% of the solid waste streams in developed countries (UNEP 2012). When moving up to the city, the impacts are larger: an estimated 70% of greenhouse gas emissions and over 66% of global electricity use eminate from urban activites (Fragkias et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2457, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 702, "book_page": 696, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When moving up to the city, the impacts are larger: an estimated 70% of greenhouse gas emissions and over 66% of global electricity use eminate from urban activites (Fragkias et al. 2013). Cities are also the drivers of global material consumption, typically in a linear fashion, that pulls resources from their hinterlands and beyond for use within the city and then disposal outside the city, disrupting bio-geochemcial ecological cycles. Nutrient use is a salient example of this, whereby the nutrients incorporated in food are exhaust to local waterways through human waste, which has become the single largest source of nutrient emissions to surface waters globally since the 1940s (Mor\u00e9e et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2458, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 702, "book_page": 696, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). 28.1.1 Buildings and the Built Environment: Crucial Differences Of concern is that the environmental impacts from buildings and the built environment show little sign of abating: gross global energy and material consumption continue to grow for both the building sector and cities in lockstep with urbanisation and economic development. LCA has a role to play in informing future designs of buildings and urban environments during the transition towards a sustainable future, helping ensure that the benefits of economic growth do not B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2459, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 702, "book_page": 696, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "undermine global ecosystems functioning. LCAs of buildings and the built environment are not identical in methodology and have distinct framings of the systems they assess: 1. Scale: Building LCAs focus on a single building or building type and attempt to model this to a high degree of accuracy. Built environment LCAs model an agglomeration of buildings (neighbourhood, city, conurbation) and attempt to model this to a reasonable degree of accuracy. 2. Temporal Scope: Building LCAs focus on the entire lifetime of a building, typically decadal. LCAs of the built environment take a snapshot of the material, energy demands and waste generation of the study system over a short period, typically a calendar year. 3. LCI Method and Data: Building LCA strives for accuracy and concerns itself with minutia (exact masses and lifetimes of building components, precise construction techniques, etc.) preferably with buildings specific data. Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2460, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 703, "book_page": 697, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fig. 28.1 Juxtaposition of the built environment (top) and a single building (bottom) incorporated within the dense urban fabric LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2461, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 703, "book_page": 697, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Built environment LCAs are more interested in capturing general trends in a city\u2019s environmental loading (construction aggregates, metals, transport fuels, etc.) based off of coarser data sets (waste statistics, household consumption surveys, census data, etc.) 4. LCA Method: Building LCA is predominantly done using process-based LCA. Input\u2013output LCA is equally as popular as process-based LCA in assessing built environments. Table 28.1 provides a general overview of these methodological disparities. 28.1.2 Complimentary Methods to Inform the Design of Human Settlements The differences between the two applications of LCA do not stop at methods but also their strengths. A simple example illustrates this clearly. Imagine a new neighbourhood comprised of extremely energy efficient homes built at a great distance from areas of recreation, work and shopping, and that this neighborhood lacks viable public transit options, necessitating personal vehicle use for most errands", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2462, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 704, "book_page": 698, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Now imagine a dense city with reliable transit and nearby amenities that negate the need for significant automobile use, but that the building stock is comprised predominantly of old and energy-inefficient buildings in a continental clime (hot summers, cold winters). Which system would you guess is sustainable? An LCA of the buildings in both situations would identify the first situation as superior. But, if we scaled our assessment up to the built environment (both neighbourhoods), we would find that neither is preferable since both hypotheticals rely on large energy imports to the system that are very likely fossil fuel based (transport for the first, the latter for space conditioning)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2463, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 704, "book_page": 698, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 28.1 Rough outline of the differences between the application of LCA to buildings and the built environment Assessment type Scale assessed Temporal scope LCI components LCI data Building Single building or building type Building service life (decades) Materials, energy consumption patterns, water usage, construction methods, disposal technologies Site tailored Built environment Neighbourhood, city, conurbation Single year Major categories of consumption: construction aggregates, metals, plastics, food, wood, fuels (transport and heating), water, electricity, waste generation (solid, liquid and gas) Expenditure surveys, census data, waste statistics, industry reports B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2464, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 704, "book_page": 698, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This does not mean that the neighbourhood scale LCA is superior, since such an LCA would only be able to identify the major drivers of the impacts (transport and building energy), but is far too coarse to propose specific design interventions to rectify these sub-optimisations. Informing the design of sustainable human settlements requires a multifaceted LCA approach, leveraging both the detail-oriented building perspective and the broader built environment viewpoint. The goal of the chapter is to show how LCA can be applied to these complementary scales of the human settlement in order to help aid in the societal shift towards a sustainable future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2465, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 705, "book_page": 699, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The goal of the chapter is to show how LCA can be applied to these complementary scales of the human settlement in order to help aid in the societal shift towards a sustainable future. Both buildings and the built environment will be discussed in sequence to convey the methodological considerations when performing LCA on these systems, summarise major findings in the use of LCA on buildings and built environments, and finally impart the reader with the skills to differentiate between more and less rigorous applications of LCA to these systems. 28.2 LCA of Buildings Since the oil crises in the 1970s, a major concern within building design and operation has been to limit the need for operational energy and hence the need for oil-based heating and electricity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2466, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 705, "book_page": 699, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Increasing regulatory requirements on the energy performance of buildings has taken the building design to ever more complex levels where additional materials and technologies are used in order to reduce the energy consumed in operating the building and in servicing the needs of the users. This development of buildings towards increasingly complicated products coupled with the attribute of relatively long product service lives makes LCA an obvious part of the environmental evaluation of buildings. LCAs within the application area of buildings are mainly used to compare different choices of shape, design or material at a single building level. Either the comparison is made with the potential impacts of alternative design solutions or the results are evaluated against a benchmark performance of the specific type of building and use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2467, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 705, "book_page": 699, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Either the comparison is made with the potential impacts of alternative design solutions or the results are evaluated against a benchmark performance of the specific type of building and use. A more holistic LCA methodology applied to buildings has received increasing interest over the past decade, also following an increasing focus on life cycle thinking, development of building sustainability certification systems (e.g. BREEAM, DGNB) and the parallel development of standards and LCA methodology in general. For instance, the ISO/TC 59 SC 17 and the European CEN/TC 350 standards series on sustainability assessment of buildings and constructions provide harmonised approaches for structuring and evaluating environmental impacts of a building\u2019s life cycle. Even though harmonised approaches to structuring and calculating building LCAs exist, horizontal comparison of the environmental impacts of one building with those of another building is difficult", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2468, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 705, "book_page": 699, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Even though harmonised approaches to structuring and calculating building LCAs exist, horizontal comparison of the environmental impacts of one building with those of another building is difficult. This is due to the uniqueness of the service provided by each assessed building, reflecting a vast range of specific requirements including: LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2469, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 705, "book_page": 699, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Building type (e.g. office, multifamily residential) \u2022 Site and location specific requirements (e.g. relation to surrounding built environment) \u2022 Technical requirements (e.g. thermal transmittance of building envelope) \u2022 User/owner specific requirements (e.g. low maintenance, adaptability of design, aesthetics). Although most building LCAs are performed in the later stages of the design or even as the building is finished, there is a general agreement within the sector of the need for developing measures to include LCA-based decisions in the earlier stages of the building design. As opposed to the as-build accounting of impacts, intervention in the early design stage can change the actual physical design of the building in order to improve the environmental efficiency of the building", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2470, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 706, "book_page": 700, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, regardless of the temporal focal point for assessing the environmental sustainability of buildings, a range of subjects related to system boundaries and study set-up are still not harmonised in the building LCA practice. This is further explained in the following sections. 28.2.1 The Building Life Cycle Stages The life cycle stages of buildings are generally divided into three main stages of pre-use, use and after-use. Within these three main stages, additional substages as illustrated in Table 28.2 are often specified depending on the study. Table 28.2 Main life cycle stages and substages of these seen in building LCA studies Main life cycle stages Substages seen in building LCA studies Pre-use Extraction of raw materials Transport to manufacturing Manufacturing Transport to retailer Transport to building site Construction site activities Construction worker\u2019s transport Use Use (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2471, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 706, "book_page": 700, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "emissions from installed materials) Maintenance Repair Replacement Refurbishment Energy demand for building operation Use specific energy demand Water consumption After-use Demolition Waste processing Disposal Next product system/recycling potential B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2472, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 706, "book_page": 700, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use stage of the building spans the expected service life of the building, i.e. the assumed number of years in operation. In practice, but often without further justifications, 50\u201380 years is habitually used as reference study period in assessments, even though the physical structure of an average building has the potential to last longer. Still, 50\u201380 years is a substantial amount of time in which annual impacts from energy and material consumption are added to the total results of a building\u2019s LCA. Thus, the use stage has traditionally contributed considerably to the calculated life cycle impacts, for instance, by 95% primary energy consumption in a 2003 study of a Michigan university campus with a service life of 75 years (Scheuer et al. 2003). Correspondingly, in a 1996 study of a generic office building with a service life of 50 years, the use stage contributed with 80 and 90% of the life cycle energy in the locations Vancouver and Toronto, respectively (Cole and Kernan 1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2473, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 707, "book_page": 701, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, the continuous effort in reducing the operating energy in buildings has led to a change in the role of life cycle stages, subsystems and materials in LCAs of recent low-energy buildings, where embodied impacts then are gaining importance (Ramesh et al. 2010). An important consideration in the analyses of use stage impacts from energy consumption versus embodied impacts from building materials lies in the system boundaries set for each study. Specifically, whether the user-related electric requirement\u2014the plug load\u2014(for cooking, cleaning, entertainment etc.) is included or excluded. This share of electricity consumption may cause impacts of the same magnitude as the impacts from a low-energy building\u2019s operational energy consumption (heating, ventilation, etc.) and can thus be a prominent contributor to the overall potential impacts from a building", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2474, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 707, "book_page": 701, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.2.2 System Boundaries of the Building Life Cycle The system boundaries of a building life cycle are important to the assessment at two distinct levels: \u2022 The primary level is the boundary of the life cycle stages and substages included or excluded from the assessment, for instance; is the maintenance of the building components included? \u2022 The secondary level is the boundary of the life cycle inventories included or excluded within each assessed life cycle stage, for instance; is the detergent for the window cleaning included in the maintenance stage or is it only the biennial layer of paint? Although the boundaries at both levels should be established in accordance with the goal and scope of the assessment, simplifications without further explications can be seen in many case studies. LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2475, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 707, "book_page": 701, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.2.2.1 Next Product System: An Additional Life Cycle Stage? The influence on results of an additional life cycle stage within the scope can be seen in a study by Thormark (2002), where an\u2014at this point\u2014additional life cycle stage, the recycling potential, is evaluated in the context of low-energy row-houses with assumed service lives of 50 years. The recycling potential expresses how much of the embodied energy and natural resources used in a building or a building element could, through reuse or recycling, be made usable in the next product system after demolition of the building in which the materials were originally installed. What can be made usable in the next product system is then deducted from the impacts of the building system under scope. Results showed that 37\u201342% of the embodied energy could be recovered through recycling and that the recycling potential was about 15% of the total energy use during an assumed lifetime of 50 years (Thormark 2002)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2476, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 708, "book_page": 702, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Calculating the recycling potential is but one approach of several to deal with recyclable materials in the building system. Other approaches referred to in building LCA studies include the \u2018second allocation method\u2019, whereby the recycling of materials benefits the building profile only by a reduction in waste generation (Scheuer et al. 2003) or the \u2018cut-off approach\u2019 (see Frischknecht 2010) whereby the product system is cut off at the point in time where the recyclable items cease to be waste, i.e. when it regains a market value. Thus, the life cycle stages at the building after-life, the waste processing and the recycling of materials, are potentially influential to the LCA results obtained, although to a very varying degree depending on the allocation approaches used in the specific study (see more about allocation in Chap. 8)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2477, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 708, "book_page": 702, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8). 28.2.2.2 Simplifications of Life Cycle Stages and LCI Input A Swiss study by Kellenberger and Althaus (2009) explored the potential impacts of different building components and at different levels of simplifications often seen in building LCAs, both regarding life cycle stages and the inventoried materials used for the construction. Results showed that for all studied components the additional materials play an important role with up to 30% of the total impacts from a component. For heavier materials, the transport process had quite a high impact (>10% of total impact from component), but the installation process for the components and the cutting waste could be neglected as they influenced results to a minor degree. The above-mentioned study on simplifications furthermore confirms what is highlighted in several studies; that with the contemporary low-energy buildings there is no single element or life cycle stage certain to dominate the impact results of a building LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2478, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 708, "book_page": 702, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the contrary, different life cycle stages and material scopes can prove important at different variations of building design and geographical preconditions. Specific goal and scope definitions of a study can justify simplifications of life cycle stages and inventory, but it is important to be aware of B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2479, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 708, "book_page": 702, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "potentially misleading results if simplifications are conducted without further reasons in a building LCA study. 28.2.2.3 Scenario Evaluation The very long service life of buildings sets the studies apart from many other LCA applications. Because the use stage of the building is so long, the life cycle impacts from the use stage and the after-use stage are very much depending on the defined scenarios, e.g. for maintenance frequencies or the annual heating demand in the building. However, applying scenario testing as part of sensitivity analyses of studies is not that common within the field; the exception being scenarios for the technologies behind the energy provided for the use stage. In this regard, several studies can be found that evaluate the sensitivity of results to the geographical and technological scope of the electricity production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2480, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 709, "book_page": 703, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this regard, several studies can be found that evaluate the sensitivity of results to the geographical and technological scope of the electricity production. For instance, assessing a Norwegian building, the generated impact results will prove much different depending on whether the national mix (primarily hydro power), the Nordic mix (where nuclear- and coal-based CHP technologies influence to a larger degree) or the European mix (dominated by fossil fuel-based technologies) is used. A few studies also evaluate the temporal scope of the energy production, i.e. how will the technologies change in the course of the building service life? This is relevant because the annual energy used is assumed constant for the building service life of 50\u201380 years, but the technologies providing this annual input of energy cannot be static as the energy system in fact does change. Depending on the purpose of the building LCA study, there is thus reason in evaluating the dynamics of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2481, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 709, "book_page": 703, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depending on the purpose of the building LCA study, there is thus reason in evaluating the dynamics of the system. 28.2.2.4 Impact Categories Assessed An additional aspect of comprehensiveness lies within the scope of the impact categories assessed in the building LCAs (see more about impact assessment in Chap. 10). The prevailing focus on energy within the building sector is reflected in the early generation of environmental assessments of buildings, where the (primary) energy consumption is the single most used indicator (Khasree et al. 2009). The inherent connection between the materials used in the building construction and the capability of the installed materials to reduce the energy consumed, means that energy balances of buildings remains a prevalent topic of the sectoral LCAs. The exclusive focus on energy performance does not capture the full extent of resource uses and problematic emissions also generated by the building sector", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2482, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 709, "book_page": 703, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The exclusive focus on energy performance does not capture the full extent of resource uses and problematic emissions also generated by the building sector. Hence, a more complete set of indicators must be applied to ensure comprehensiveness of the assessment. Furthermore, as the energy consumed in the use stage of new building diminishes due to improved building envelopes, the embodied impacts of the buildings become apparent. Table 28.3 sums up a general picture of the assessed impacts categories found in building LCA studies. LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2483, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 709, "book_page": 703, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A study by Heinonen et al. (2016) also points to this relevant issue of lack of comprehensiveness in assessed impact categories. However, on a European scale at least, explanations can be found on this current state of the art of assessed impacts, namely in the fact that within the framework of the European standards for Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) of building materials (EN 15804), a predefined set of indicators is established. The set corresponds with the CML methodology plus additional resource use and waste generation categories. As building material EPDs form the basis of many building specific LCAs, this scope of impact categories from a material level is transferred to the building level. In this sense, the sectoral application and standards development affects the practice of conducted building LCAs, also at the scientific level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2484, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 710, "book_page": 704, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this sense, the sectoral application and standards development affects the practice of conducted building LCAs, also at the scientific level. 28.2.3 Notable Studies Having outlined the general areas of application related and methodological attention points of the building scale LCA, this section and Table 28.4 briefly introduce a range of notable studies highlighting selected aspects of relevance in the practice and development of building LCA. Methodological issues of building LCA highlighted in the studies in Table 28.4 concern the use of dynamic modelling of the important use stage of the building (see Collinge et al. 2013) as well as the previously mentioned significance of simplifications at system level, input level and indicator level. The two different modelling approaches of input\u2013output-based LCA (see Chap. 14) and process-based LCA modelling seem in general to be applied at the different levels of national building sector scale and single building scale, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2485, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 710, "book_page": 704, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14) and process-based LCA modelling seem in general to be applied at the different levels of national building sector scale and single building scale, respectively. N\u00e4ss\u00e9n et al. (2007) discusses difference in results from applying the two different approaches to the production stage of buildings. Future application of building scale LCA may well continue its importance in the post-construction evaluation of certified buildings although the application to early stage design (see Basbagill et al. 2012) remains an important area of development in order to identify environmentally preferable design solutions before construction takes place. Furthermore, incorporation of the financial and social aspects of building construction alongside the environmental assessment (Ostermeyer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2486, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 710, "book_page": 704, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, incorporation of the financial and social aspects of building construction alongside the environmental assessment (Ostermeyer et al. 2013) will have a profound relevance to the decision takers in the Table 28.3 Impact categories seen in building LCA studies Often included categories Less frequently included categories Rarely included categories Primary energy demand Global warming Acidification Eutrophication Photochemical ozone creation Ozone depletion Resource depletions Ionising radiation Toxicity (human/ecosystem) Land transformation Land occupations B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2487, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 710, "book_page": 704, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "construction process. This may hold true especially for the vast body of western post-war buildings ripe for refurbishment actions, because these existing buildings are already deeply defined within a site-specific social and economic context that needs to be taken into account when a change in design and functionality is regarded. Table 28.4 Selected building LCA studies highlighting different aspects of methodological and application issues Study Aspect Highlights N\u00e4ss\u00e9n et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2488, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 711, "book_page": 705, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 28.4 Selected building LCA studies highlighting different aspects of methodological and application issues Study Aspect Highlights N\u00e4ss\u00e9n et al. (2007) IO-LCA of buildings versus process-based LCA Energy use (GJ/m2) of relevant sectoral processes such as transport, construction activities and service sectors may be grossly underestimated in process-based LCA of buildings Kellenberger and Althaus (2009) Relevance of simplifications in LCA building components How typical simplifications of LCI and life cycle stages may have significant relevance to LCA results depending on component type Blengini and Di Carlo (2010) Significance of impacts from life cycle stages in a low-energy building How embodied impacts from the pre-use and maintenance of the building supersedes the operating energy in majority of assessed mid-point impact categories in a current low-energy building Basbagill et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2489, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 711, "book_page": 705, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2012) Application of LCA to early building design Introduces a method enabling designers to understand the relative global warming potential implications of building component decisions Collinge et al. (2013) Dynamic modelling Use stage scenario testing by dynamic modelling of characterisation factors and electricity mixes Ostermeyer et al. (2013) LCA coupled with life cycle costing (LCC) and social LCA (SLCA) in a refurbishment project The study introduces a Pareto-optimisation approach to refurbishment activities of residential buildings and highlights the need for further development of SLCA to be included as evaluation of the sustainability of building activities Heinonen et al. (2016) Simplifications of LCIA categories included in assessment Based on a case study: how only eight of 17 mid-point categories of the ReCiPe methodology correlates to the GWP which is oftentimes used in studies as the single environmental indicator LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2490, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 711, "book_page": 705, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.3 LCA of Built Environment The quest to understand the environmental impacts of cities was initially an inwardly focused effort to improve conditions for the working poor that had amassed in recently industrialised cities around the world in the nineteenth century. John Snow\u2019s study of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London linked the infectious disease to contaminated drinking water, providing partial impetuous for the study of water and waste flows in the city and the development of the city\u2019s modern sewage system and drinking water network (McLeod 2000). This type of urban self-assessment was championed by the reform-urbanism movement at the turn of the twentieth century, which fought the pernicious effects of poor air, water and waste management in cities, eventually formalising into the sanitisation standards and modern land-use planning enshrined in modern cities. It was not until the 1960s that the attention shifted from a public health focus to an environmental focus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2491, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 712, "book_page": 706, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It was not until the 1960s that the attention shifted from a public health focus to an environmental focus. In addition to the question, \u2018how is the environment in the city affecting the inhabitants?\u2019, researchers began to ask, \u2018how is the city, as a whole, interfering with the functioning of the environment?\u2019 Widely acknowledged as the first researcher to explicitly address this question was Abel Wolman\u2019s study \u2018The metabolism of cities\u2019 (1965). Wolman\u2019s study estimated the fluxes of materials and energy consumed by and the air pollution from an \u2018average\u2019 US city of one million inhabitants. This \u2018urban metabolism\u2019, measured as the material, energy and waste treatment demands of a city, is exactly synonymous with the LCI components considered as part of an LCA of the built environment that were introduced in Sect. 28.1.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2492, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 712, "book_page": 706, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.1.1. This part of the chapter will show how quantifying the primarily mass-based urban metabolism can be used as starting point of a full LCA of the built environment, contrast this with methodologies of LCAs of the built environment and highlight some of the recent developments in this field. 28.3.1 From Urban Metabolism to LCA of the Built Environment Kennedy et al. (2007) suggest a definition of urban metabolism as: \u2018the sum total of the technical and socioeconomic processes that occur in cities, resulting in growth, productionofenergy,andeliminationofwaste\u2019.SinceWolman\u2019s(1965)paper,thenumber of studies of various cities\u2019 urban metabolisms is in the dozens and could very well over 100 (Decker et al. 2000; Kennedy et al. 2007, 2010; Zhang 2013; Stewart et al. 2014). The majority of these studies have been undertaken in the past two decades and have been performed by researchers in the field of industrial ecology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2493, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 712, "book_page": 706, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007, 2010; Zhang 2013; Stewart et al. 2014). The majority of these studies have been undertaken in the past two decades and have been performed by researchers in the field of industrial ecology. Industrial ecology is itself a diverse research field of the environmental implications of socio-technical systems in general, and this wide scope is mirrored in different methodologies that have been employed to assess urban metabolism: ecological footprint, eMergy (energy memory), carbon footprint, material flow analysis (MFA), etc. B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2494, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 712, "book_page": 706, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is the MFA of urban metabolism that is most relevant to our discussion, since it yields results in terms of mass flows through the study area, which can be interpreted as an LCI of the built environment and readily fed into the LCA framework for environmental profiling. MFA of an urban metabolism is akin to a material balance of an urban system, with the exception that non-mass flows such as electricity are often included as well, with accounting almost invariably performed over the period of a year. Kennedy (2012) provided a formalised mathematical description of how MFA would ideally be applied to a built environment, accounting for fluxes of materials through the study area, material additions to stock and waste generation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2495, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 713, "book_page": 707, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Though no consensus exists regarding what types of flows need to be included in an MFA of a built environment to adequately characterise a city\u2019s environmental footprint, Table 28.5 outlines the material and energy flows to be accounted if one is to make a comprehensive assessment of the metabolic, as adopted from Kennedy and Hoornweg (2012). These material and energy flows seek parsimony between the need to be sensitive to current data limitations, whilst capturing important activities driving environmental impacts and resource consumption", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2496, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 713, "book_page": 707, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 28.5 Comprehensive list of material and energy flows that a holistic LCA of a built environment would account for Inflows Outflows Biomass (t and J) Waste emissions (t) Food Gases Wood Solid Fossil fuel (t and J) Wastewater Transport Heat (J) Space conditioning/industrial Substances (t) Electricity (kWh) Produced goods (t) Natural energy (J) Water (t) Stocks (inflows that do not exit system within assessment period) Drinking (surface and groundwater) Infrastructure/buildings (t) Precipitation Construction aggregates Substances (t) Metals E.g. salts, degreasers, etc. Wood Produced goods (t) Other materials Other (machinery, durable) (t) Production (inflows to technosphere generated within urban territory) Metals Biomass (t and J) Plastics Minerals (t) Other materials Energy (J) Substances (t) Typical units of measure are indicated in square brackets. Adopted from (Kennedy and Hoornweg 2012) LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2497, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 713, "book_page": 707, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is often the case that there is little information about the material flows in and out of a city, and it is thus rare to find a study that has this level of completeness in accounting a city\u2019s urban metabolism. It is far more likely for studies to cobble together disparate data sources to build an MFA inventory. This is typically done in two ways; bottom-up (or \u2018activity-based\u2019) using basic data on economic activity and demographics to estimate flows (e.g. number of housing construction starts in a year times the average amount of concrete in a house to estimate concrete demands of a city\u2019s construction sector) (Kennedy et al. 2007) or top-down using regional trade data to balance production, imports and exports to gauge a city\u2019s demand (Rosado et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2498, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 714, "book_page": 708, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007) or top-down using regional trade data to balance production, imports and exports to gauge a city\u2019s demand (Rosado et al. 2014). Moreover, many of the flows of key materials in terms of embodied environmental impacts and future resource scarcity (plastics, rare earth metals) are embedded within electronics and other consumer goods, for which data is scarce. In assessing the sustainability of the built environment, MFA has proven to be invaluable in exposing the extent to which cities continue to rely on unsustainable, non-renewable resource regimes to fuel their daily metabolism and growth. MFA studies have also illuminated one of the most pernicious aspects of modern cities; their linear metabolism that uses the urban hinterland and beyond as a source for both essential imports and waste assimilation, whilst recycling only marginal amounts of total inputs (Kalmykova et al.\u2019s 2012). Nonetheless, MFA is not without its shortcomings", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2499, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 714, "book_page": 708, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nonetheless, MFA is not without its shortcomings. Most salient is the limitation of using mass as a proxy for environmental impacts. An obvious example of this is the way that high \u2018biomass\u2019 flows in MFA studies are almost always considered sustainable, despite the fact that the food flows lumped into this biomass category are some of the largest drivers of land-use change, greenhouse gas emissions and threats to biodiversity at the global level. Next is that most MFA studies only estimate direct mass and energy demands of a city, eschewing the \u2018ecological rucksack\u2019 of indirect mass and embodied energy, which can account for more than 50% of a system\u2019s burdens (Goldstein et al. 2013), as shown in Fig. 28.2 which highlights the embodied mass and energy aspects of five different cities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2500, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 714, "book_page": 708, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013), as shown in Fig. 28.2 which highlights the embodied mass and energy aspects of five different cities. Lastly, when MFAs consider pollutant loading in terms of GHGs, they tend to include scope 1 (direct combustion within city limits) and scope 2 (imported electricity) impacts, ignoring the significant impacts embodied within imported goods. 28.3.2 Linking MFA to LCA Coupling MFA with LCA is a natural solution to the methodological shortcomings of MFA focused studies in order to provide a more holistic assessment of the environmental performance of built environments. LCA of the built environment only requires a change of perception, whereby the MFA is viewed as the LCI for the use stage of a city\u2019s annual demands (see Chap. 9). In this line of thinking, the MFA morphs into a crucial part of the process. With the MFA viewed in this B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2501, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 714, "book_page": 708, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "complimentary manner, it is easy to imagine building the other life cycle stages upand downstream of the use stage characterised by the MFA (LCI) of the built environment, which can then be modelled using traditional LCA methods. Impacts from consumption occurring within the city, such as fuel combustion or electricity, can also be modelled using the same principle; where the assessor\u2019s job is to identify the most representative processes and align them with the demands of the study region. Figure 28.3 illustrates this. Due to the durability of many of the goods consumed by cities, it is challenging to accurately model the end-of-life phase of these goods. Rosado et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2502, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 715, "book_page": 709, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 28.3 illustrates this. Due to the durability of many of the goods consumed by cities, it is challenging to accurately model the end-of-life phase of these goods. Rosado et al. (2014) developed a method to account for the lifetimes of goods imported into the Lisbon region, which could theoretically be employed in the framework described here, 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Mass Energy Mass Energy Mass Energy Mass Energy Mass Energy Embodied Direct Beijing Cape Town London Hong Kong Toronto Fig. 28.2 Relative importance of embodied mass and energy impacts in LCAs of five cities. The direct mass and energy represent what is traditionally captured in MFA studies. Note Beijing\u2019s lower embodied mass, a result of the frenetic construction activity in the city and the resulting concrete and aggregate flows. Source Goldstein et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2503, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 715, "book_page": 709, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note Beijing\u2019s lower embodied mass, a result of the frenetic construction activity in the city and the resulting concrete and aggregate flows. Source Goldstein et al. (2013) Resource Extrac\u019fon Processing and Manufacturing Typical UM Scope Use (annual UM) End-of-life Emission to environment Input to lifecycle stage Inter-stage transport Fig. 28.3 Fusing MFA with LCA: urban metabolism (UM) is taken as the use stage of the metabolic flows, with supporting upstream production and downstream waste management activities built around this. Source Goldstein et al. (2013) LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2504, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 715, "book_page": 709, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "but the proposed method can obviate the uncertainties in future recycling rates and evolving waste treatment technologies. To sidestep this issue, one could ignore the disposal phase of the durable goods used in the built environment and only include the impacts from waste treatment performed in the study region over the assessment period, though this has the double issue of underestimating impacts due to waste treatment in the future, whilst simultaneously ignoring the fact that many goods with substantial embodied impacts may be recycled at end of life (structural steel, aluminium, glass and maybe someday, precious metals in electronics). There is no right or wrong method here, but transparency in communicating the method chosen and its shortcomings is paramount. Another methodological consideration is that the level of detail of the MFA is normally very coarse", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2505, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 716, "book_page": 710, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another methodological consideration is that the level of detail of the MFA is normally very coarse. The LCI for the use stage typically consists of bulk categories of goods such as \u2018steel\u2019, \u2018aluminium\u2019 and \u2018wood\u2019, which the assessor then has to turn into a life cycle. This means that generic material production processes in an LCA database usually employed in modeling ignoring more detailed processes related to manufacturing of specific goods (forming, assembly, etc.). Moreover, transport is also difficult to come by, meaning that one is either left excluding it from the assessment, or using international trade data to make informed judgements about plausible sources of materials imported into a city", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2506, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 716, "book_page": 710, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Considering the uncertainties regarding specific types of goods consumed and sources of those goods, it might be defensible to omit these from assessments of the built environment, since assembly and transport are often not the dominant sources of environmental impacts in the life cycles of many products 28.3.2.1 The Functional Unit: What are We Actually Assessing? One essential aspect of the LCA is the functional unit (see Chap. 8 on scope definition for more information about the functional unit). In an LCA of the built environment, what are we assessing exactly? Because built environments do not perform any one function, and many of the functions performed are impossible to quantify (foster community, facilitate cultural exchange, build institutional capacity), developing a functional unit moves from a methodological necessity to an esoteric philosophical exercise in semantics, and has been largely avoided in urban scale LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2507, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 716, "book_page": 710, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Notwithstanding, since LCA is ostensibly to be used either for benchmarking or to decision-support between urban design alternatives, a common basis of assessment should be used to facilitate appraisals. This typically takes the form of taking gross impact potentials for the built environment and normalising these to the per-capita level, since this will at least show the environmental intensity of providing for the metabolic activities of the average denizen B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2508, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 716, "book_page": 710, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.3.3 Process-Based and Input\u2013Output LCA of the Built Environment Both process and input\u2013output (IO) LCA have been applied to the built environment, with IO methods figuring most prominently in urban LCA literature. For a detailed description of IO-LCA, the reader can refer to Chap. 14 of this book. Section 28.3.1 largely outlined what could be considered a process-based approach to assessing the built environment with LCA: determine the direct material demands of the study region and include the embodied impacts up- and downstream, as well as relevant impacts during the use stage. The reason that the process-based method has seen less application is that the general tenor amongst urban sustainability researchers has been that in order for LCAs of the built environments to be as complete as possible, an IO-LCA or hybrid-LCA approach should be employed (Chester et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2509, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 717, "book_page": 711, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012). This rationale is absolutely justified; if data for final demand is available, inputting this into the IO-LCA framework yields a more complete inventory and accounting of environmental impacts. Moreover, if multiregion-IO methodology is used, then trade interdependencies between the study region and other economies can be ascertained. Another advantage of the IO-LCA method is that it provides a true demand-side analysis of a built environment, accounting for the environmental burdens of the study area\u2019s final demands. Process-based assessment has the shortcoming of not allocating fuels and electricity used in the production of goods manufactured in the study region but ultimately exported to the final consumer, meaning that some of the burdens for these exported goods are incorrectly ascribed to the producing city. IO-LCA of the built environment faces numerous methodological challenges", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2510, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 717, "book_page": 711, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IO-LCA of the built environment faces numerous methodological challenges. Much like the process-based approach, data availability is a challenge, this time in terms of getting final consumption data (in terms of final expenditures) at the subnational level, which means that IO-LCAs of built environments are often built from scaled national-level data (consumer household expenditure surveys have been used in a US context to scale down to the sub-urban level). Moreover, the IO tables are also at the national level, ignoring the regional industry interdependencies, though advances in multi-scale IO models may be able to overcome this (Bachmann et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2511, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 717, "book_page": 711, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moreover, the IO tables are also at the national level, ignoring the regional industry interdependencies, though advances in multi-scale IO models may be able to overcome this (Bachmann et al. 2014). Though comprehensive in terms of value-chain coverage, the number of substances (*100) covered by IO-LCA are meagre in comparison to the process approach (over 1000), meaning that until now IO-LCA on the built environment has primarily focused on accounting GHGs (arguably meaning that these were not full multi-criteria LCAs as per ISO standards). Moreover, the IO-LCA method is not compatible with existing LCIA methods, missing out on the indicator sets and communicative power of these tools. IO-LCA is caught in a permanent present tense, whereby it models the impacts of present final-demands, ignoring life cycle stages beyond production and use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2512, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 717, "book_page": 711, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IO-LCA is caught in a permanent present tense, whereby it models the impacts of present final-demands, ignoring life cycle stages beyond production and use. The story is that process-based and IO-LCAs of the built environment are not incompatible, but have different strengths that the assessor should leverage depending on available data and study aims. Process-based LCA is best applied LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2513, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 717, "book_page": 711, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "when the benefits of the LCIA methodologies are wanted and/or detail beyond the level of the economic sector is wanted. IO is optimised for inventory completeness. 28.3.4 Opportunities and Challenges The application of LCA to the built environment is new and evolving, but there are already a number of exciting envisioned uses for this tool. Most obvious is the use of LCA as an environmental screening tool to identify weak-points in the environmental performance of a neighbourhood, city or conurbation, and as a benchmarking method to assess longitudinal environmental performance related to policy changes or growth in a study area. LCAs of the built environment have been able to identify important characteristics of relating the environmental impacts of a study region to the urban form, economic development, population dynamics and local climate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2514, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 718, "book_page": 712, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 28.6 shows the effects of various urban attributes on the environmental performance of the built environments, pinpointing where policy interventions might be best applied. LCA of the built environment can also be used for scenario analysis, testing out the environmental efficacy of urban design interventions (i.e. how would the environmental performance of a city change if large-scale food production were employed or if a certain type of built form was pursued?) or policies (how would GHG emissions change with implementation of a congestion charge?). LCA of the built environment also provides exciting opportunities to explore other aspects of their environmental performance. Nexus interactions are one such area, whereby single metabolic activities that drive environmental impacts on multiple fronts, and therefore, that driver acts at the nexus of the drivers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2515, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 718, "book_page": 712, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nexus interactions are one such area, whereby single metabolic activities that drive environmental impacts on multiple fronts, and therefore, that driver acts at the nexus of the drivers. Increase in private motor vehicle usage is one such metabolic driver that sits at the nexus of Table 28.6 Findings of LCA applied to the built environment Study region attribute Typical effect on urban environmental performance Low population density Impact potentials from mobility take on increased importance (Heinonen et al. 2011) Climate variability (hot summers, cold winters) Impacts from space conditioning take on increased importance (Goldstein et al. 2013) High population growth rate or economic development Impacts from capital formation (building and infrastructure construction) take on increased importance (Goldstein et al. 2013) Low population growth rate Impacts from household consumption takes on increased importance (Goldstein et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2516, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 718, "book_page": 712, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013) Low population growth rate Impacts from household consumption takes on increased importance (Goldstein et al. 2013) High disposable income Impacts from household consumption takes on increased importance (Heinonen et al. 2011) Compromised waste management system Local impacts take on increased relevance (Goldstein et al. 2013) B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2517, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 718, "book_page": 712, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "non-renewable resource use (fossil fuels and metals), GHG emissions (combustion) and the embodied impacts of construction aggregate use (new road construction). LCA can play a role in quantifying the collinearity of these impacts through urban design. Another interesting prospective use of LCA at the scale of the built environment is to quantify boundary effects at the border of a city or region, such as impacts from waste expelled into neighbouring geographic regions and fluxes across the system boundary (e.g. through traffic). LCA could predict the severity of environmental disruption from these types of boundary effects and highlight both the benefits and burdens of adjacent human settlements. Challenges also abound in the application of LCA to the built environment. Data shortcomings cannot be overstressed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2518, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 719, "book_page": 713, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Challenges also abound in the application of LCA to the built environment. Data shortcomings cannot be overstressed. Often environmental assessments at the scale of the built environment rely on data from other sources that are used as a proxy for material and energy demands at the neighbourhood, city or regional level. The use of \u2018big data\u2019 to develop more representative consumption profiles could increase the robustness of LCAs of the built environment, and provide finer scaled assessments in terms, both spatially and demographically. Another area of improvement would be the current \u2018black box\u2019 nature of LCA-based assessments, which ignores the way that interactions between subsystems within the built environment generate the study system\u2019s emergent metabolism. The \u2018black-box\u2019 perspective results in static models unable to capture non-linear behavior, reducing their predictive power", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2519, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 719, "book_page": 713, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The \u2018black-box\u2019 perspective results in static models unable to capture non-linear behavior, reducing their predictive power. Combining the environmental auditing power of LCA with other dynamic modelling tools such as system dynamics (Tam et al. 2014) in the urban realm would enhance the applicability of LCA in the urban realm and justify its place at the table when considering urban design or policy interventions. An emerging approach to the LCA of the built environment is \u2018territorial LCA\u2019; the application of LCA framework to mixed rural\u2013urban systems (Loiseau et al. 2014). The method is closely aligned with those of this chapter with the noteworthy divergence that the territorial LCA method focuses on land uses and programmes as a method for describing functional units, providing a new perspective to overcome the ambiguity or lack of functional unit in previous LCAs of the built environment. Loiseau et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2520, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 719, "book_page": 713, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Loiseau et al. have already applied this method to regions along the coastline of Southern France (2013, 2014), highlighting the method\u2019s potential applicability. 28.3.5 Notable Studies We will close the dedicated discussion of LCAs of the built environment with a concise list of studies that exemplify the methods we have discussed, explored ways to overcome current methodological challenges or pushed LCA of the built environment into new exciting directions. The list is not restricted strictly to LCAs, including MFA and carbon footprint studies as well since these can be readily incorporated within the LCA framework. Table 28.7 provides an overview of selected studies. In general, LCAs and MFAs of cities have shown strong links between urbanisation and increasing per-capita material flows (Kennedy et al. LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2521, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 719, "book_page": 713, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007), and as mentioned above, assessments of the built environment have related the metabolic profiles of cities to levels of economic development, city morphology, local climate and population dynamics (Goldstein et al. 2013). In terms of important methodological developments, Lenzen and Peters (2010) showed how multiregional IO-LCA can be applied at the scale of the urban household. Using a simpler, single region IO-LCA of Helsinki, Finland, Heinonen et al. (2011) demonstrated that dense living may reduce transport emission within the city, but increase consumption in other areas by affluent residents erased these benefits, highlighting the tension between urban morphology and wealth. Goldstein et al.\u2019s (2013) assessment of five cities was the first to apply a process-based approach and use the full suite of indicators available to LCA practitioners", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2522, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 720, "book_page": 714, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Goldstein et al.\u2019s (2013) assessment of five cities was the first to apply a process-based approach and use the full suite of indicators available to LCA practitioners. Figure 28.4 shows how local environmental improvement with economic development (particulate matter formation) can be juxtaposed with increasing environmental pressure in private consumption (agricultural land Table 28.7 Details of notable studies of urban environmental performance Study Method Highlights Lenzen and Peters (2010) Multiregion IO-LCA Applied a multiregion IO of GHGs to Sydney, Australia Hillman and Ramaswami (2010) Process-based LCA of GHGs of 8 US cities Identified 6 key cross urban boundary activities that can be used for expedited, yet complete, GHG accounting of cities and explore boundary effects (i.e. air travel) Heinonen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2523, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 720, "book_page": 714, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "air travel) Heinonen et al. (2011) IO-LCA of GHGs of Helsinki, Finland neighbourhoods Dense urban living reduces per capita transport emissions, but increased wealth of inhabitants ultimately results in higher overall consumption and carbon footprint Chen and Chen (2012) GHG accounting of Vienna, Austria Combined network analysis with GHG accounting to show interconnections between urban subsystems Goldstein et al. (2013) Process-based LCA of five cities using multiple indicators Application of hitherto unexplored indicators at the urban level (eutrophication, ecotoxicity), linking economic development and local environmental performance Tam et al. (2014) System dynamics MFA model of Shenzhen, China construction sector System dynamics approach to predict future C&D waste (legal and illegal) generation for different policy scenarios Rosado et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2524, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 720, "book_page": 714, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2014) MFA of Lisbon, Portugal Comprehensive trade statistics used to account for over 10,000 goods used in the city and included embodied mass within goods Kennedy et al. (2015) MFA of global megacities Identified links between urban morphology and electricity demands, and showed the super-linear scaling of urban metabolism and population B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2525, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 720, "book_page": 714, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "formation). Highlighting the utility of MFA as a means of LCI development, Rosado et al.\u2019s (2014) study of Lisbon, captured over 10,000 goods entering and exiting the urban system using trade statistic, while concurrently accounting for indirect mass flows embodied within those goods. Hillman and Ramaswami\u2019s (2010) GHG accounting of eight US cities laid down a solid methodology to account for the majority of GHG impacts and showed and explored the boundary effects of transport across municipal borders. Chen and Chen\u2019s (2012) paper illustrated how network analysis can be used to open up the urban \u2018black box\u2019, elucidating how material and energy fluxes between urban subsystems influence GHG emissions in Vienna. Tam et al. (2014) combined MFA with system dynamics to assess policy scenarios on C&D waste in Shenzhen, illustrating that focusing on a single aspect of a city\u2019s metabolism can yield detailed and relevant results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2526, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 721, "book_page": 715, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lastly, Kennedy et al.\u2019s (2015) MFA of the worlds megacities (population > 107) showed how environmental impacts scale super linearly with urbanisation, serving as a prescient reminder of the need to improve the environmental performance of the built environment as urbanization continues globally. 28.4 Methodological Challenges and Best Practice Having outlined the application of LCA to buildings and the built environment, it is prudent to end with a discussion of current methodological challenges related to this type of assessment. Data, LCI components, LCA method and other noteworthy methodological aspects are discussed in sequence, and are summarised in Table 28.8. 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 PMF (kg PM10/capita/year) ALO (m2/capita/year) Per capita GRP (2000 USD PPP) ALO PMF Beijing Cape Town Hong Kong London Toronto mg PM10 eq/unit GDP Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2527, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 721, "book_page": 715, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.4 Per-capita agricultural land occupation (ALO) as m2 year\u22121 and PMF as kg particulates <10 lm year\u22121 are shown on the left. Local air pollution issues in Beijing and Cape Town are disproportionately high relative to the amount of economic activity, particularly when the predicted impact per unit of economic activity is taken into account as shown on the right. Wealthier cities show a tendency to minimise air pollution while the exported environmental pressure of ALO increases with the wealth of the residents. Source Goldstein et al. (2013) LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2528, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 721, "book_page": 715, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.4.1 General Challenges Sensitivity testing of the scenarios applied in building LCAs remains an important issue in order to evaluate the potential impacts of a building. It is especially important due to the long service life of the building for a great deal of societal and technological changes can happen within the time frame of 50\u201380 years. Thus, the scenarios for the use stage and the end-of-life stage should preferably be tested to ensure some sort of likelihood of the obtained results. Such a particularly long time frame also comes with a difficulty of correctly interpreting the impact scores obtained. Due to the aggregation of emissions and their characterisation with time-integrated characterisation factors, emissions and resource extractions occurring at different moments in time during 50\u201380 years or more are represented as if they would take place simultaneously, and affecting the same (human) generation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2529, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 722, "book_page": 716, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For most product LCA applications, which will typically have time frames in the range of 10\u201330 years, this is not of particular importance, but needs to be considered in this context. An additional challenge to the practice of building LCAs is for the practitioners to harmonise, if not the inclusion then at least the description of the life cycle stages accounted for. For now, it often presents a challenge to compare results of different studies because of the opacity in the explanations of included life cycle stages and processes. Other methodological notes for LCA of the built environment include the static nature of the assessment and the black box perspective on the study system. Integration of LCA within the system dynamics framework or network analysis should be able to help overcome this, though work in this direction remains cursory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2530, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 722, "book_page": 716, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Integration of LCA within the system dynamics framework or network analysis should be able to help overcome this, though work in this direction remains cursory. Lastly, built environments are socio-technical systems, and it should always be kept in mind that the predominantly environmental assessment provided by LCA, though linked to the system\u2019s economic and social attributes, should always be balanced against the more detailed work of social scientists, economists and political scientists who look at equity, living conditions, crime, institutions, employment, artistic and cultural practices, psycho-geography, public health and a myriad of other important aspects of life in human settlements. This last sentiment is probably truer for LCA of the built environment than any other application of LCA. 28.4.2 Goal and Scope Like any LCA, looking at buildings and the built environment with this tool requires a decision between process and IO-LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2531, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 722, "book_page": 716, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.4.2 Goal and Scope Like any LCA, looking at buildings and the built environment with this tool requires a decision between process and IO-LCA. Both process and IO have their strengths; detail and completeness, respectively. Neither is preferred, though the process-based approach does have the advantage of better compatibility with the various LCIA methodologies and related indicator suites. Relatedly, as a rule, LCAs of the built environment should use multi-indicator assessments to minimise the risk of burden shifting between environmental issues, a practice that is difficult for B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2532, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 722, "book_page": 716, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 28.8 Overview of the challenges of applying LCA to buildings and built environments Building Built environment Shortcoming(s) Best practice Shortcoming(s) Best practice LCI data Lack of transparency in EPDs of building materials Applying generic data to assessments of early design and specific data for footprinting and accounting Local data typically absent for many metabolic activities Use local data or adjust proxy data to local conditions LCI components Simplifications are frequently performed in studies without estimations of the impacts they might be responsible of Including all inputs relevant to the purpose of the study Only selected metabolic activities covered Coarsely aggregated fluxes Embodied impacts in imported goods ignored Major environmental drivers (construction, mobility, building energy, food) represented Fluxes should also be as disaggregated as possible Imported goods should be included to avoid underestimations Goal and scope Energy use and global warming", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2533, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 723, "book_page": 717, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "building energy, food) represented Fluxes should also be as disaggregated as possible Imported goods should be included to avoid underestimations Goal and scope Energy use and global warming potential often the only evaluated categories Inclusion of a comprehensive set of impact categories to avoid burden shifting Single indicator assessment Defining functional unit Multi-indicator toolsets should be used to avoid burden shifting Transparency in functional unit definition General challenges Scenarios for use/EoL stage rarely evaluated as part of sensitivity testing Lack of transparency and lack of consistency in life cycle stages included in assessments Lack of transparency in EPDs of building materials When relevant according to the purpose, testing of the energy, maintenance/replacements and EoL scenarios Addressing all relevant life cycle stages in relation to the purpose", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2534, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 723, "book_page": 717, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Applying estimates for the stages where there is a lack of data. Describing thoroughly the processes involved in the included life cycle stages Applying generic data to assessments of early design and specific data for footprinting and accounting Static and black box models Social issues largely eschewed Combine LCA with system dynamics and/or network analysis Compliment assessment with work from social scientists, public health specialists and economists Current best practices are highlighted to give the reader a guideline for performing LCAs and appraise the work of others LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2535, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 723, "book_page": 717, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IO-LCA practitioners due to database limitations. In the future, best practice in this application area might consist of hybrid-IO-LCA that marries the best features of process and IO-LCA, though this has yet to see application. Lastly, there have been a number of GHG studies on the built environment that have focused on scope 1 (direct) and scope 2 (imported electricity) emissions (see some of the background data for the carbon disclosure project; www.cdp.net). This practice ignores GHGs embodied in imported goods and should be avoided since it can vastly underestimate the true carbon footprint related to a built environment\u2019s metabolism. 28.4.3 Inventory and Product System Modelling 28.4.3.1 Data Data used on building LCAs is seen at different levels of specificity, generic data describing average production impacts and product specific data relating to products from specific manufacturers (see Chap. 9 for more general information on Inventory and Product System Modelling in LCA)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2536, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 724, "book_page": 718, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9 for more general information on Inventory and Product System Modelling in LCA). Generic data on building materials is found in most general LCA databases, but are limited in the sense that they cover mainly industrial products; thus a range of, e.g. biomaterials and innovative materials cannot be found. A whole category of technical components is also underrepresented in current databases. The product specific data is widely promoted as generating the most correct results when assessing a specific building. However, as the product specific data is mainly marketed in the format of EPDs, there is often a lack of consistency and transparency across the different national EPD programmes and the product category rules they each use. This affects the system boundaries and allocation methods applied in the LCA calculations. For instance, different national EPD programmes will account differently the biogenic carbon storage possible in wood products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2537, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 724, "book_page": 718, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For instance, different national EPD programmes will account differently the biogenic carbon storage possible in wood products. An ongoing effort in harmonising EPD programmes and assessment methods (e.g. the European Product Environmental Footprint\u2014PEF) will increase the possibilities of using the EPDs for studies, although the format of the EPDs continues to be \u2018black box\u2019 oriented, meaning that only LCIA data and not LCI data is presented in order to protect property rights of the manufacturers. At the built environment level, a succinct lack of consumptive data at the subregional scale is a recurring theme, since trade statistics of goods/materials, food balances and household consumption surveys are normally performed at the national or regional level. Waste statistics, though normally available at the local level, are notoriously coarse in terms of disaggregating constituent flows within waste streams", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2538, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 724, "book_page": 718, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste statistics, though normally available at the local level, are notoriously coarse in terms of disaggregating constituent flows within waste streams. Activities, such as private automobile use are also normally procured through surveys that are at best generalisations of travel patterns. This does not mean that good data is not available at the level of the built environment, but many studies rely on data from larger regions as proxies for urban metabolic activities and use coarse local level data. Jones and Kammen (2014) have shown how publicly available consumer expenditure data can be used to map carbon footprints at the B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2539, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 724, "book_page": 718, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "neighborhood level, while commercial geo-demographic data has also been employed to move more granular assessments (Minx et al. 2013). Moreover, with the proliferation of so-called \u2018big data\u2019, rich data sets of real urban metabolic activities should become available to researchers in the future. Ideally, high quality, locally contextual data should be used (see Rosado et al. 2014), and this data should be disaggregated enough to capture important goods within metabolic activities (e.g. \u2018biomass\u2019 should be broken down into food and non-food, with the former preferably disaggregated further to meat, fruits, etc.). Where national or regional data are used as proxies, these should be made locally contextual using economic data to account for the disparity in purchasing power between the area to be assessed by LCA and the region covered by the data (this holds for process and IO-LCAs)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2540, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 725, "book_page": 719, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.4.3.2 LCI Components There is great disparity in the way building LCAs delimit the input flows of the system under scope; the main reason for this disparity probably being the different purposes of studies. If the purpose of the study is to assess the building within a specific certification framework, the completeness of the LCI may not be warranted as long as it aligns with the guidelines of the certification scheme. In this sense, it is important to keep in mind that certification-related assessment may not strive for the absolute accuracy of LCA results, rather it aims to place the building performance within a relative benchmark system developed for the certification scheme in question. For studies detached from these or similar relative performances, the basic LCA principle of comprehensiveness naturally applies (see more about inventory analysis in Chap. 9)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2541, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 725, "book_page": 719, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For studies detached from these or similar relative performances, the basic LCA principle of comprehensiveness naturally applies (see more about inventory analysis in Chap. 9). Transparency and exact descriptions of the materials and components included are paramount in the reporting, because even materials seemingly irrelevant to the results, for instance the fittings and fixtures, can affect certain impact categories. Thus, as no harmonised approach exists in the reporting of the LCI components, it can be difficult to interpret whether fittings may be included in the respective elements where they are installed, e.g. a wall, or if the fittings are not included in the study at all. LCI of the built environment is usually driven by data availability. There are numerous studies that have had to reduce their scope due to lack of quality data. Best practice would be to include all of the urban metabolic activities listed in Sect. 28.3.1, but this is an optimistic assertion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2542, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 725, "book_page": 719, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Best practice would be to include all of the urban metabolic activities listed in Sect. 28.3.1, but this is an optimistic assertion. One aspect to be cautious about is to ensure that the LCA broadly covers the major environmental drivers; construction, building energy, mobility and household goods (and sometimes water) to a reasonable extent, unless the assessment is explicitly focused on a particular aspect of a city\u2019s environmental performance (nutrients, mobility, etc.). As mentioned above, biomass should always be disaggregated. To simply lump all biomass together as a renewable resource since it is produced by the planets annual solar budget ignores the reality that the consumption of some food items, namely, meat and dairy, are some of the largest drivers of global environmental pressure. LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2543, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 725, "book_page": 719, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "28.5 Conclusion To perform an LCA of a human settlement is a complex exercise. What is a clear is that parsimony between the reductionist perspective of the autonomous building and the generality of the territory should be struck in order to address the multi-scalar sustainability challenges of the buildings and their agglomerations into the built environment. At the building scale, the environmental impacts during the use stage, as a rule, dominate, though environmental burdens shift to other life cycle stages with increased building operational efficiency. For the built environment, it is typically the mobility, space conditioning and nutritional needs of the residents that drive the majority of environmental impacts, with antagonism existing between lowering building energy use in new construction and increased transport energy from dispersed nature of these developments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2544, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 726, "book_page": 720, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Recent advances in LCA at the built environment have seen the application of IO-LCA, often at a multiregional level, and models that include dynamics of the subsystems that constitute a city. Next steps in the assessment of built environments will include harnessing novel data sources provided by ubiquitous computing (\u2018internet of things\u2019) to ameliorate data gaps and provide real time monitoring and feedback of urban environmental performance, and the use of network science and systems thinking to shed light on the inner workings of the urban \u2018black box\u2019. At building level, recent advances include the standardisation of LCA calculation procedures (Khasreen et al. 2009); although the harmonised studies following this have yet to be seen on a larger scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2545, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 726, "book_page": 720, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009); although the harmonised studies following this have yet to be seen on a larger scale. Further development of building LCA may be found within the area of early design stage interventions as well as more holistic approaches to evaluating the life cycle of not only new constructions but also existing constructions in relation to the social and economic preconditions. Bachmann, C., Roorda, M., Kennedy, C.: Developing a multi-scale multi-region input\u2013output model. Econ. Syst. Res. 27, 172\u2013193 (2014) Basbagill, J., Flager, F., Lepech, M., Fischer, M.: Application of life cycle assessment to early stage building design for reduced embodied environmental impacts. Build. Environ. 60, 81\u201392 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.11.009 Blengini, G.A., Di Carlo, T.: The changing role of life cycle phases, subsystems and materials in the LCA of low energy buildings. Energy Build. 42, 869\u2013880 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.enbuild", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2546, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 726, "book_page": 720, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Energy Build. 42, 869\u2013880 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.enbuild. 2009.12.009 Chen, S., Chen, B.: Network environ perspective for urban metabolism and carbon emissions: a case study of Vienna, Austria. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 4498\u20134506 (2012). doi:10.1021/ es204662k Chester, M., Pincetl, S., Allenby, B.: Avoiding unintended tradeoffs by integrating life-cycle impact assessment with urban metabolism. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 4, 451\u2013457 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2012.08.004 Cole, R.J., Kernan, P.C.: Life-cycle energy use in office buildings.pdf. Build. Environ. 31, 307\u2013 317 (1996). doi:10.1016/0360-1323(96)00017-0 B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2547, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 726, "book_page": 720, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Collinge, W.O., Landis, A.E., Jones, A.K., et al.: Dynamic life cycle assessment: framework and application to an institutional building. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 538\u2013552 (2013). doi:10. 1007/s11367-012-0528-2 Decker, E.H., Elliott, S., Smith, F.A., et al.: Energy and material flow through the urban ecosystem. Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 25, 685\u2013740 (2000). doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.25. 1.685 Fragkias, M., Lobo, J., Strumsky, D., Seto, K.C.: Does size matter? Scaling of CO2 emissions and U.S. Urban Areas. PLoS One 8, 1\u20138 (2013). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064727 Frischknecht, R.: LCI modelling approaches applied on recycling of materials in view of environmental sustainability, risk perception and eco-efficiency. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 666\u2013671 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0201-6 Goldstein, B., Birkved, M., Quitzau, M.-B., Hauschild, M.: Quantification of urban metabolism through coupling with the life cycle assessment framework: concept development and case study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2548, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 727, "book_page": 721, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 1\u201314 (2013). doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/035024 Heinonen, J., Kyr\u00f6, R., Junnila, S.: Dense downtown living more carbon intense due to higher consumption: a case study of Helsinki. Environ. Res. Lett. 6, 034034 (2011). doi:10.1088/ 1748-9326/6/3/034034 Heinonen, J., S\u00e4yn\u00e4joki, A., Junnonen, J.-M., et al.: Pre-use phase LCA of a multi-story residential building: can greenhouse gas emissions be used as a more general environmental performance indicator? Build. Environ. 95, 116\u2013125 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.09.006 Hillman, T., Ramaswami, A.: Greenhouse gas emissions footprints and energy use benchmarks for eight U.S. cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 1902\u20131910 (2010). doi:10.1021/es9024194 Jones, C., Kammen, D.M.: Spatial distribution of U.S. household carbon footprints reveals suburbanization undermines greenhouse gas benefits of urban population density. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 895\u2013902 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2549, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 727, "book_page": 721, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "household carbon footprints reveals suburbanization undermines greenhouse gas benefits of urban population density. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 895\u2013902 (2014). doi:10.1021/es4034364 Kalmykova, Y., Harder, R., Borgestedt, H., Svan\u00e4ng, I.: Pathways and management of phosphorus in urban areas. J. Ind. Ecol. 16, 928\u2013939 (2012). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00541.x Kellenberger, D., Althaus, H.-J.: Relevance of simplifications in LCA of building components. Build. Environ. 44, 818\u2013825 (2009). doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.06.002 Kennedy, C.: A mathematical description of urban metabolism. In: Michael, P., Weinstein, R., Eugene, T. (eds.) Sustainability Science: The Emerging Paradigm and the Urban Environment, pp. 275\u2013291. Springer, New York, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London (2012) Kennedy, C., Hoornweg, D.: Mainstreaming urban metabolism. J Ind Ecol. 16, 780\u2013782 (2012). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00548.x Kennedy, C., Cuddihy, J., Engel-yan, J.: The changing metabolism of cities. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2550, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 727, "book_page": 721, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J Ind Ecol. 16, 780\u2013782 (2012). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00548.x Kennedy, C., Cuddihy, J., Engel-yan, J.: The changing metabolism of cities. J. Ind. Ecol. 11, 43\u2013 59 (2007). doi:10.1162/jie.2007.1107 Kennedy, C., Pincetl, S., Bunje, P.: The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design. Environ. Pollut. (2010). doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.022 Kennedy, C.A., Stewart, I., Facchini, A., et al.: Energy and material flows of megacities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (2015). doi:10.1073/pnas.1504315112 Khasreen, M.M., Banfill, P.F.G., Menzies, G.F.: Life-cycle assessment and the environmental impact of buildings: a review. Sustainability 1, 674\u2013701 (2009). doi:10.3390/su1030674 Lenzen, M., Peters, G.M.: How city dwellers affect their resource Hinterland. J. Ind. Ecol. 14, 73\u2013 90 (2010). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2009.00190.x Loiseau, E., Roux, P., Junqua, G., et al.: Adapting the LCA framework to environmental assessment in land planning. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2551, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 727, "book_page": 721, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14, 73\u2013 90 (2010). doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2009.00190.x Loiseau, E., Roux, P., Junqua, G., et al.: Adapting the LCA framework to environmental assessment in land planning. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1533\u20131548 (2013). doi:10.1007/ s11367-013-0588-y Loiseau, E., Roux, P., Junqua, G., et al.: Implementation of an adapted LCA framework to environmental assessment of a territory: important learning points from a French Mediterranean case study. J. Clean. Prod. 80, 17\u201329 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05. Minx, J., Baiocchi, G., Wiedmann, T., Barrett, J., Creutzig, F., Feng, K., F\u00f6rster, M., Pichler, P.- P., Weisz, H., Hubacek, K.: Carbon footprints of cities and other human settlements in the UK. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 35039 (2013) doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/035039 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2552, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 727, "book_page": 721, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "McLeod, K.S.: Our sense of snow: the myth of John Snow in medical geography. Soc. Sci. Med. 50, 923\u2013935 (2000). doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00345-7 Mor\u00e9e, A.L., Beusen, A.H.W., Bouwman, A.F., Willems, W.J.: Exploring global nitrogen and phosphorus flows in urban wastes during the twentieth century. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 27, 836\u2013846 (2013). doi:10.1002/gbc.20072 N\u00e4ss\u00e9n, J., Holmberg, J., Wadeskog, A., Nyman, M.: Direct and indirect energy use and carbon emissions in the production phase of buildings: an input\u2013output analysis. Energy 32, 1593\u2013 1602 (2007). doi:10.1016/j.energy.2007.01.002 Ostermeyer, Y., Wallbaum, H., Reuter, F.: Multidimensional Pareto optimization as an approach for site-specific building refurbishment solutions applicable for life cycle sustainability assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1762\u20131779 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0548-6 Ramesh, T., Prakash, R., Shukla, K.K.: Life cycle energy analysis of buildings: an overview. Energy Build. 42, 1592\u20131600 (2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2553, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 728, "book_page": 722, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1762\u20131779 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0548-6 Ramesh, T., Prakash, R., Shukla, K.K.: Life cycle energy analysis of buildings: an overview. Energy Build. 42, 1592\u20131600 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.007 Rosado, L., Niza, S., Ferr\u00e3o, P.: A material flow accounting case study of the Lisbon metropolitan area using the urban metabolism analyst model. J. Ind. Ecol. (2014). doi:10.1111/jiec.12083 Scheuer, C., Keoleian, G.A., Reppe, P.: Life cycle energy and environmental performance of a new university building: modeling challenges and design implications. Energy Build. 35, 1049\u20131064 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(03)00066-5 Stewart, I., Kennedy, C., Facchini, A.: Metabolism of megacities: a review and synthesis of the literature (2014) Tam, V.W., Li, J., Cai, H.: System dynamic modeling on construction waste management in Shenzhen, China. Waste Manag. Res. (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2554, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 728, "book_page": 722, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste Manag. Res. (2014). doi:10.1177/0734242X14527636 Thormark, C.: A low energy building in a life cycle\u2014its embodied energy, energy need for operation and recycling potential. Build. Environ. 37, 429\u2013435 (2002). doi:10.1016/S03601323(01)00033-6 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Building design and construction: Forging resource efficiency and sustainable development. Sustainable buildings and climate initiative (2012) Wolman, A.: The metabolism of cities. Sci. Am. 213(3), 179\u2013190 (1965) Zhang, Y.: Urban metabolism: a review of research methodologies. Environ. Pollut. 178, 463\u2013473 (2013). doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.052 Author Biographies Benjamin Goldstein urban systems researcher with a focus on the environmental assessment of built environments. Interests include industrial ecology, political ecology and urban metabolism. Freja Nygaard Rasmussen works within the field of LCA methodology applied to building design and building materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2555, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 728, "book_page": 722, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Interests include industrial ecology, political ecology and urban metabolism. Freja Nygaard Rasmussen works within the field of LCA methodology applied to building design and building materials. Has contributed to national development of LCA tools and methodology for building certification systems. B. Goldstein and F.N. Rasmussen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2556, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "28 LCA of Buildings and the Built Environment", "pdf_page": 728, "book_page": 722, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 29 LCA of Food and Agriculture Teunis J. Dijkman, Claudine Basset-Mens, Assumpci\u00f3 Ant\u00f3n and Montserrat N\u00fa\u00f1ez Abstract This chapter deals with the application of Life Cycle Assessment to evaluate the environmental sustainability of agriculture and food processing. The life cycle of a food product is split into six stages: production and transportation of inputs to the farm, cultivation, processing, distribution, consumption and waste management. A large number of LCA studies focus on the two first stages in cradle-to-farm gate studies, as they are the stages where most impacts typically occur, due to animal husbandry and manure handling, production and use of fertilisers and the consumption of fuel to operate farm machinery. In the processing step, the raw agricultural product leaving the farm gate is converted to a food item that can be consumed by the user. Distribution includes transportation of the food product before and after processing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2557, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 729, "book_page": 723, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Distribution includes transportation of the food product before and after processing. In the consumption stage, environmental impacts arise due to storage, preparation and waste of the food. In the waste management stage, food waste can be handled using a number of technologies, such as landfilling, incineration, composting or digestion. A number of case studies are looked at here where the life cycles of typical food products (meat, cheese, bread, tomatoes, etc.), and an entire diet are discussed. Other case studies deal with what LCA can conclude on the differences between conventional and organic farming, and the perceived advantages of local food items. Finally, methodological issues in agricultural LCA are discussed: the choice of functional unit, setting the boundary T.J. Dijkman (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: tedi@dtu.dk C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2558, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 729, "book_page": 723, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Dijkman (&) Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: tedi@dtu.dk C. Basset-Mens CIRAD, UPR Hortsys, ELSA\u2014Research Group, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA B-103/C, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France A. Ant\u00f3n IRTA, Food and Agricultural Research Institute, Centre de Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain M. N\u00fa\u00f1ez Irstea, UMR ITAP, ELSA-LCA Research Group, 361 Rue Jean Fran\u00e7ois Breton, 34196 Montpellier, France \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_29", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2559, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 729, "book_page": 723, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "between technosphere and ecosphere, modelling flows of nutrients and pesticides, and the generally limited number of impact categories included in LCA studies. 29.1 Agricultural production systems have changed dramatically over the course of the past century. The introduction of the combustion engine around 1900 started the replacement of human labour with fossil energy. In 1910, the Haber\u2013Bosch process to bind nitrogen from air was commercialised. Synthetic fertilisers could now be produced on an industrial scale. In the decades after the Second World War synthetic pesticides became widely used, which together with improved plant breeding led to the so-called Green Revolution: a spectacular increase in yields worldwide, but especially in Asia and Latin America. More recently, techniques to alter the genetic material of crops have been applied to develop new plant varieties, such as herbicide-resistant maize. Especially in Europe this development has led to controversy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2560, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 730, "book_page": 724, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Especially in Europe this development has led to controversy. These developments do not mean that there are no challenges remaining for agriculture: the world population keeps growing. The global population increased from 1.65 billion in 1900 to 6 billion in 2000. In 50 more years, an additional 2 to 4.5 billion people will be added to the population (FAO 2012). Part of this growing population is becoming increasingly affluent. More affluence results in a higher demand for food in general\u2014a year-round supply of fruits and vegetables either imported off-season from distant countries or produced in artificialised production systems such as heated greenhouses\u2014for meat in particular. Part of this population, especially in poor countries, is also increasingly living in cities (50% in 2007 at the world scale, Kulikowski 2007), implying the import of food from rural areas and the development of urban farming", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2561, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 730, "book_page": 724, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Urban farming is showing a great potential for securing food supply, creating jobs and alleviating poverty in the Global South, but it can be accompanied by environmental and human health risks due to intensified and not always well-controlled practices. Today, food production is associated with major environmental problems. Rachel Carson\u2019s famous 1962 book Silent Spring addressed an important environmental problem: the effects of pesticide use on non-target animals, including humans. Later, focus shifted to issues such as eutrophication due to nutrient runoff. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by agriculture are high on the agenda today. For example, the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) estimates that livestock alone contributes 18% to the global GHG emissions and that 50% of the methane emitted into the atmosphere by human activity is due to crop and livestock production (FAO 2013). Another environmental problem is the disruption of the nitrogen cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2562, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 730, "book_page": 724, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another environmental problem is the disruption of the nitrogen cycle. Human extraction of nitrogen from air, mainly for fertiliser production, is larger than all natural processes extracting nitrogen from air. Subsequent application of the produced fertiliser results in extensive nitrogen emissions to surface water. Last, but not least, agriculture is the economic sector T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2563, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 730, "book_page": 724, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "with the largest requirements of water and land and the main driver of land use change, e.g. through the conversion of forests into agricultural land (FAO 2013). In order to gain insight into the environmental performance of agriculture and agricultural products, a considerable number of Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of these products have been carried out in recent years. Also, several initiatives encourage the environmental life cycle-based assessment of food products, such as the Envi Food protocol (Food SCP RT 2013), the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) pilots (European Commission 2016), and the well-established international LCA Food conference. This chapter focuses on the LCA of food products. Foods are here defined as products of plant or animal origin that provide macro and micro nutrients and energy to the human body. They can be either produced by a form of land-based agriculture and aquaculture or collected in the environment, such as seafood or fungi", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2564, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 731, "book_page": 725, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They can be either produced by a form of land-based agriculture and aquaculture or collected in the environment, such as seafood or fungi. The structure of the chapter is as follows. First, the life cycle of food products is presented and discussed. After that, a selection of LCA studies is reviewed, illustrating typical LCAs of food products and describing some relevant cases. Finally, the main results and methodological issues found in the case studies are summarised. 29.2 The Life Cycle of Agricultural Food Products Six stages can be distinguished in the life cycle of agricultural products, which are somewhat different from the usual stages in LCA (see Chap. 6). A large part of the agricultural LCAs carried out are cradle-to-farm gate studies (see Fig. 29.1), because of the importance of agricultural production, and because the agricultural stage often bears the largest environmental impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2565, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 731, "book_page": 725, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.1), because of the importance of agricultural production, and because the agricultural stage often bears the largest environmental impacts. 29.2.1 Production and Transportation of Inputs In most modern food systems, the first stage of the life cycle is the production and transportation of inputs, such as agrichemicals, machines, building elements, seeds and energy carriers such as fuel and electricity to the farm. The production of these inputs has a vast geographic scope and requires substantial transportation. Cradle-to-farm gate Farm inputs Agricultural stage Waste management Use Distribu\u019fon Produc\u019fon Fig. 29.1 The six stages in LCA of agricultural products LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2566, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 731, "book_page": 725, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Agrichemicals include pesticides and fertilisers. Pesticide is a general term covering all chemicals (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides or others) used to protect the farm product from different pests, diseases or undesired plant growth. Both the production of pesticides and of fertilisers contribute to environmental impact potentials on the site of their production. The manufacturing of both nitrogenous and phosphorous fertilisers requires substantial energy inputs: according to a 2004 estimate (Swaminathan and Sukalac 2004 as cited in IPCC 2007), the fertiliser industry consumes 1.2% of the total annual energy use, and contributes similarly to GHGs emissions, mainly carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides. Moreover, phosphorus is derived from phosphate rock, which is a non-renewable, overexploited resource whose reserves may be depleted in 50\u2013100 years (Cordell et al. 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2567, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 732, "book_page": 726, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moreover, phosphorus is derived from phosphate rock, which is a non-renewable, overexploited resource whose reserves may be depleted in 50\u2013100 years (Cordell et al. 2009). In animal husbandry, the production and transport of animal feed is associated with emissions of N2O and CO2, mainly caused by fertiliser production and fuel use. The production of capital goods, such as machinery, buildings for animals, greenhouses or glasshouses can have contrasted contributions to overall food impacts. Usually, farm equipment is used for a longer period of time, whilst an LCA study typically considers the production of a given mass of product, or the production from 1 ha of land, so the impacts of the production and disposal of the farm equipment would have to be allocated over different product systems. Consequently, the impacts of the equipment are often relatively small", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2568, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 732, "book_page": 726, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consequently, the impacts of the equipment are often relatively small. In some cases though, for example growing tomatoes in tunnel greenhouses, the production of the greenhouse may be an important source of environmental impacts as reported by Torrellas et al. (2012a). Previous studies have shown the importance of including agricultural capital goods in environmental assessments. In particular, for protected crops, structural components of unheated greenhouses may account for nearly 30% of the total impacts in environmental impact categories such as resource depletion and global warming (Ant\u00f3n et al. 2014). In accordance with ISO standards (ISO 2006a, b), in order to be accurate when assessing the environmental impact of products, infrastructure must be taken into account as capital goods are explicitly part of the production system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2569, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 732, "book_page": 726, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most guides recommend including capital goods in the assessment when they contribute more than 5% of the total impacts per impact category (EU-JRC 2010). 29.2.2 Agricultural Stage The second stage in the life cycle of food products is the agricultural stage. This stage starts at the origin of the food product, for example seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, water and energy in case of crops, and breeding of animals in case of meat or dairy products. In the agricultural stage, all these inputs are used to produce the food product. In this section, the most important processes are described. However, some LCA studies may include other processes than the ones listed here. T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2570, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 732, "book_page": 726, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.2.2.1 Application of Agrichemicals Aside from their beneficial effects on the crop growth and yield, application of agrichemicals results in emissions from the field and from the buildings in which animals are kept. Pesticides are mainly considered because of their toxic impacts on non-target species during or after application and bioaccumulation in harvested parts of the crops, potentially contributing to ecotoxicity and human toxicity impacts. Because pesticides are distributed over the agricultural field when used, the disposal stage is usually not included in LCAs. However, pesticide residues are present in packaging materials, in the sprayer and in the water used to clean the sprayer after application (van Zelm et al. 2014). Ideally, the disposal and subsequent fate of these residues should be included in LCA studies. Fertilisers are applied to supply nutrients to crops, mainly nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2571, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 733, "book_page": 727, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fertilisers are applied to supply nutrients to crops, mainly nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). Fertiliser consumption typically contributes to potential impacts due to field emissions into all environmental compartments: air, water and soil. More specifically, on-farm use of fertilisers results in emissions of ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) to air, contributing to impact categories such as acidification, climate change and eutrophication. In addition, emissions of N in the form of nitrate (NO3 \u2212), and of P in the form of phosphate (PO4 3\u2212) and particulate P through erosion, result in eutrophication of nearby water bodies and ultimately of the ocean and the sea. In LCIA practice, N emissions are considered to result in marine eutrophication, and P emissions result in eutrophication of freshwater bodies (see Chap. 10). Farming practice influences the emissions of pesticides and fertilisers to the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2572, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 733, "book_page": 727, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). Farming practice influences the emissions of pesticides and fertilisers to the environment. When performing an LCA study, the choice of agricultural data should reflect the goal and scope of the LCA study. The study might focus on either average practices, i.e. the agricultural practice that is most common among farmers, even if these are non-optimal practices, or innovative and alternative agricultural practices. Worst, best or alternative practices should only be modelled when primary data is present to document this behaviour, or when the LCA study aims to compare different practices (van Zelm et al 2014). 29.2.2.2 Animal Husbandry and Manure Management Apart from application of agrichemicals for forage production specified in the section above, enteric fermentation and manure handling are important contributors to impacts such as climate change, eutrophication and acidification. Enteric fermentation in the digestive tract of ruminants (cattle, sheep, goat) produces methane", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2573, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 733, "book_page": 727, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Enteric fermentation in the digestive tract of ruminants (cattle, sheep, goat) produces methane. This process is one of the major contributors to GHG emissions in LCAs of products from these animals. In a typical cradle-to-farm gate study, it will contribute approximately one-third of total climate change impacts. Excretion and manure handling from both ruminants and monogastric animals (pigs, chickens and other birds) result in direct emissions of CH4 and N2O. Manure can be applied as fertiliser, thus replacing synthetic fertilisers. Prior to application on the field, LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2574, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 733, "book_page": 727, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "manure can be treated mechanically, biologically or chemically. Ten Hoeve (2015) showed that all manure treatment technologies have inherent environmental advantages and disadvantages, and hence, the choice of technology depends on local policy preferences, costs and practicality. 29.2.2.3 Farming Operations Fuel is consumed during a number of on-farm operations. Ploughing is an especially energy-intensive activity because of the large volume of soil that needs to be moved. Other fuel-consuming activities are the application of fertiliser and pesticides, roughage production, harvesting, heating of greenhouses, transport of the product, etc. Because the fuel used on farms is normally from a fossil origin, these actions induce non-renewable resource use and climate change impacts. The use of machinery in farm operations negatively affects soil quality through compaction and erosion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2575, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 734, "book_page": 728, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use of machinery in farm operations negatively affects soil quality through compaction and erosion. Degraded soils are less productive and require extra inputs of fertilisers to maintain food production steady on the short term. In addition, soil ecological functions, such as buffering and filtering of toxic chemicals, water retention and soil-biota, are also affected. Hence, at the long term, unsustainable farming practices may lead to irreversible soil degradation. To maintain food production, land cover is transformed to accommodate new cropland areas, many times at the expense of natural vegetation. Today, croplands and pastures have become one of the largest biomes on the planet, occupying around 40% of the land surface (FAO 2011) and still expanding to feed the growing population", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2576, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 734, "book_page": 728, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Today, croplands and pastures have become one of the largest biomes on the planet, occupying around 40% of the land surface (FAO 2011) and still expanding to feed the growing population. 29.2.2.4 Irrigation Irrigated crops sustain 40% of the global food production (Abdullah 2006) and are responsible for around 70% of global water withdrawal taken from surface and ground water bodies (FAO 2014). Especially in arid countries (e.g. Australia, India, Spain) and for water-intensive-crops (e.g. almonds, rice) impacts derived from water consumption might be one of the main contributors to overall food production environmental impacts. Water leaving the farm is a vector of salts, toxic and nutrient-rich pollutants, potentially affecting aquifers and surface water bodies downstream. In many situations, water withdrawal is also responsible for a large use of non-renewable energy resources, with important associated environmental impacts, in order to transport the water to the field", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2577, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 734, "book_page": 728, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.2.3 Processing Processing is any step to convert the raw farm product into a (packaged) food item that will be preceded and followed by logistic phases further described below. T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2578, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 734, "book_page": 728, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There is a wide variety of processing steps that can be performed, some of which have been included in LCA studies. Both the types and importance of potential environmental impacts from food processing vary a lot in function of the food item considered, as showed in the selected case studies commented in Sect. 29.3. 29.2.4 Distribution All food life cycles include distribution stages dealing with (often refrigerated) transportation to the warehouse and to the retailer, sorting fruits, conditioning, packaging and cool storage for good maintenance of food properties. Together these processes can contribute a large share to the potential impacts of food products. These impacts are mostly related to the use of non-renewable energy, such as fuel use in transportation and electricity in cool storage. These distribution phases are particularly important in fresh products\u2019 life cycles such as fruits and vegetables", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2579, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 735, "book_page": 729, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These distribution phases are particularly important in fresh products\u2019 life cycles such as fruits and vegetables. In animal products\u2019 life cycle, where the contribution of the agricultural stage is large, the impacts from distribution will appear minor. In contrast, in fruit and vegetable products, the stage of refrigerated transport and storage can have a major contribution to the total impacts. This is particularly true for fruits and vegetables transported over long distances, especially when these are air-freighted (see Table 29.1). For instance, Sim et al. (2007) revealed that the transportation of French beans by airplane from Kenya to England constituted 95% of their overall impacts. The mode of transportation more than the distance itself will play a role. 29.2.5 Consumption The use stage of food mostly includes food transport from the retailer to the point of consumption as well as energy use for cooking and storing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2580, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 735, "book_page": 729, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.2.5 Consumption The use stage of food mostly includes food transport from the retailer to the point of consumption as well as energy use for cooking and storing. This stage might include, depending on the LCA case study, private households or restaurants and institutional kitchens (Sonesson et al. 2003). Most studies that have included the use stage conclude that its environmental impacts are related to food storage or preparation. In the complete life cycle of a food product; however, these steps usually are minor contributors to overall impacts in most categories (Schau and Fet 2008). Table 29.1 CO2-eq emissions per tkm (1 tonne transported over 1 km) for different modes of transport (Cristea et al. 2013) Mode of transport Emissions per tkm (g CO2-eq) Road Rail Ship 5\u201312 Air 475\u20131000 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2581, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 735, "book_page": 729, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An increasing part of meals are consumed in restaurants, institutional kitchens, caterers, etc. According to some studies, the variations in energy use for cooking between restaurants and institutional kitchens are large as are the variations between different dishes. Dishwashing, which is a direct effect of home cooking and eating, uses large and varying amounts of either cold or hot water. Hot water is an important contributor to a household\u2019s total energy use. An aspect that is currently finding its way into LCA practice is exposure of humans to pesticide residues in food during consumption, leading to human toxicity impacts. Even though most countries have regulations in place to limit human exposure to pesticides to levels considered safe, LCA practice aims to quantify any effects on humans, no matter how small these may be. With the release of the dynamiCROP model (Fantke et al. 2011) and USEtox 2.0 in 2015 (USEtox 2015), this pathway is covered in LCIA practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2582, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 736, "book_page": 730, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With the release of the dynamiCROP model (Fantke et al. 2011) and USEtox 2.0 in 2015 (USEtox 2015), this pathway is covered in LCIA practice. 29.2.6 Waste Management The disposal stage of a food product consists of both handling of food waste generated along the entire life cycle, and the treatment of human excretion resulting from food intake. An alternative not considered here is to allocate the impacts of waste handling to the life cycle stage where the waste arises. The food sector is wasteful. About one-third of all food produced in Europe for human consumption is lost or wasted before people consume it. For fruits and vegetables, this number may reach *45%. In general, 20% of food produced is wasted along the supply chain, from agricultural production (9%) to post-harvest handling and storage (4%), processing and packaging (5%) and distribution (3%). The consumer discards between 15 and 33% (Williams and Wikstr\u00f6m 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2583, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 736, "book_page": 730, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The consumer discards between 15 and 33% (Williams and Wikstr\u00f6m 2011). Reduction of food waste in the use stage has been shown to be an effective way to reduce food environmental impacts. Avoidance or at least reduction of waste must be the priority. Once waste is produced it is also a challenge to close loops of nutrients and other materials. The potential to extract valuable bio-chemicals or recover energy and nutrients from various waste streams is significant, namely the recovery of energy and nutrients through digestion and composting is one of the most common methods in the food sector (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2015). A number of studies have dealt with food waste handling, considering options such as landfilling, incineration, centralised and decentralised composting, digestion to produce biogas and conversion to animal feed. The results of the studies do not uniformly point in one direction and there also appear to be trade-offs between different impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2584, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 736, "book_page": 730, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The results of the studies do not uniformly point in one direction and there also appear to be trade-offs between different impact categories. For some impact categories, food waste and human excretion can result in substantial contributions to the impacts found. For example, various GHGs are emitted from wastewater treatment and subsequent sludge disposal. Depending on the wastewater treatment facility, emissions of N and P to surface water may T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2585, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 736, "book_page": 730, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "contribute to the eutrophication potential (see more on LCA of wastewater treatment in Chap. 34). 29.3 Selected LCA Studies on the Food Sector This section will start by describing a number of contrasted examples of LCAs of food products, followed by a number of case studies about various developments intended to lower the environmental cost of supplying food. This selection of LCA case studies does not aim at being exhaustive, but rather at illustrating the diversity of case studies. 29.3.1 Examples of Food Product LCAs Below, we describe a number of LCAs of different types of food products: meat, cheese, bread and tomato. The studies have been chosen based on representativeness of their outcomes among LCA studies for similar products, and inclusion of processes beyond the farm gate. This chapter closes with an LCA study of a full diet to give an overview of the relative magnitudes of impacts of different food items. 29.3.1.1 Meat Dalgaard et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2586, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 737, "book_page": 731, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This chapter closes with an LCA study of a full diet to give an overview of the relative magnitudes of impacts of different food items. 29.3.1.1 Meat Dalgaard et al. (2007) conducted an LCA of Danish pork exported to the United Kingdom to determine the environmental hotspots. The functional unit of the study was 1 kg of Danish pork (carcass weight) delivered at the port of Harwich. The system boundaries in this study included the pig farm, the slaughterhouse and the use and maintenance of transport infrastructure required to transport the pork to the UK. Because of the chosen consequential-LCA approach (see Chaps. 8 and 9), the feed products considered were limited to grain and soybean meal, which is the most competitive feedstock. Grain is mixed with soybean meal to achieve the optimal protein content in the feed. Manure and other by-products are considered as co-products of pork meat", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2587, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 737, "book_page": 731, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Grain is mixed with soybean meal to achieve the optimal protein content in the feed. Manure and other by-products are considered as co-products of pork meat. The manure is used as natural fertiliser or is anaerobically digested into biogas for district heating and electricity production. The animal by-products are used as feed or for energy purposes. For these by-products, a system expansion was done in which environmental impacts of synthetic fertiliser, fossil fuels, grain and soy for feed production were subtracted as avoided impacts. The study was limited to three environmental impact potentials: global warming, eutrophication and acidification. The impact assessment method used was EDIP97 with updated global warming characterisation factors for methane and nitrous LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2588, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 737, "book_page": 731, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "oxide. Normalisation and weighting steps, which are optional in LCA, were not done in this study. The results, summarised in Table 29.2, showed that the environmental hotspots were in the farm\u2019s input stage (i.e. production of grain and soybean meal used as forage). Approximately two-thirds of the global warming impact, which was 3.6 kg CO2-eq over the entire life cycle, was attributed to the production of farm inputs out of which 2 kg CO2-eq came from the production of grain. The authors did not specify where in the production of grain these impacts arise. The agricultural stage (mainly pig housing) contributes a further 0.9 kg CO2-eq due to methane emissions from manure. Meat processing in the slaughterhouse contributed about 5% of the global warming impacts, while transport to the UK contributed less than that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2589, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 738, "book_page": 732, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Meat processing in the slaughterhouse contributed about 5% of the global warming impacts, while transport to the UK contributed less than that. The use of manure as natural fertiliser resulted in a negative impact: although methane was emitted from manure, the avoided impacts from not producing synthetic fertiliser were greater. More than 99% of the eutrophication impacts were associated with grain production, manure application and ammonia emissions from pig housing: about 122 and 47 g NO3 \u2212-eq, respectively, out of 232 g NO3 \u2212-eq in total. The acidification impacts are also highest in the agricultural stage: ammonia emissions from pig housing contributed 53% and grain production contributed 38% to the total impact of 45 g SO2-eq. Based on their findings, the authors proposed to further reduce the protein consumption in pig feed by shifting from soy meal to grain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2590, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 738, "book_page": 732, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Based on their findings, the authors proposed to further reduce the protein consumption in pig feed by shifting from soy meal to grain. Reducing the protein content in feed will reduce nitrogen excretion and emissions from pig manure in the pig housing or when spread out on the field as manure. Moreover, as soy meal has a Table 29.2 Contribution of the life cycle stages to the overall impacts of 1 kg of pork, at UK port Process Global warming poten\u019fal Eutrophica\u019fon poten\u019fal Acidifica\u019fon poten\u019fal Photochem. ozone forma\u019fon Ozone deple\u019fon poten\u019fal Soybean meal Grain Pig housing Energy use in pig housing Manure applica\u019fon to field -6 Slaughterhouse -1 Transport a\u014cer slaughterhouse Total impact 3.6 kg CO2-eq 232 g NO3 -eq 45 g SO2-eq 1.3 g C2H4-eq 0.7 mg CFC11-eq \u2212 The contributions are expressed as percentages of total impact (%) (Dalgaard et al. 2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2591, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 738, "book_page": 732, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007). The total percentage does not sum up to 100% because contributions between 0 and 1 or \u22121% are all referred to as, respectively, 1 or \u22121% T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2592, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 738, "book_page": 732, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "higher global warming impact per kg than barley, the global warming impact will decrease as well when shifting to grain. Now, one can ask whether pork production is a good representative of meat production. Or, how would the picture look like when looking at LCAs of poultry and beef? De Vries and De Boer (2010) reviewed 16 cradle-to-farm gate LCA studies on livestock production in nonorganic farming systems in OECD-countries. They recalculated the results found in the reviewed papers to fit three functional units: kg of meat, kg of protein and kg daily intake. Here we will focus on their findings for the first functional unit. All impacts found were fully allocated to the edible part of the products. The impact potentials considered were fossil energy use, global warming, acidification, eutrophication and land use. Among all meat products, beef showed the greatest fossil energy use. Energy use results for pork and chicken production were in the same range (see Table 29.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2593, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 739, "book_page": 733, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Among all meat products, beef showed the greatest fossil energy use. Energy use results for pork and chicken production were in the same range (see Table 29.3). For global warming, the reviewers found the highest impacts for beef, followed by pork, then chicken. Global warming, energy use and land use impacts from beef were considerably higher than impacts from pork and chicken. Ruminants (beef) emit high amounts of methane that contribute to global warming impacts. Energy consumption is also greater for beef production than for pork and chicken production. In terms of land use, beef has greater feed requirements (i.e. feed conversion ratio, kg feed per kg meat), which means that a larger extension of land is needed, both as direct land use (pasture), and as indirect land use for forage production. Moreover, cows live longer and because most cows only have one calf per year a larger breeding stock is needed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2594, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 739, "book_page": 733, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moreover, cows live longer and because most cows only have one calf per year a larger breeding stock is needed. Regarding acidification and eutrophication, the variation within each type of meat was larger than the variation between the three types of meat. These variations were mainly attributed to differences in emissions of NH3 caused by different agricultural practices and climatic conditions. Concluding, chicken and pork meat at the farm gate show comparable impacts, while beef meat generally causes higher impacts. The internal variability of the impacts within each meat product was high, reflecting the variability of practices and environmental conditions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2595, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 739, "book_page": 733, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The internal variability of the impacts within each meat product was high, reflecting the variability of practices and environmental conditions. Table 29.3 Comparison of minimum and maximum environmental impact potentials per kg of chicken, pork and beef (De Vries and De Boer 2010) Livestock animal Energy use (MJ) Global warming (kg CO2-eq) Acidification (g SO2-eq) Eutrophication (g PO4 3\u2212-eq) Land use (m2) Chicken 15\u201329 3.7\u20136.9 0.062\u20130.29 0.004\u20130.079 8.1\u20139.9 Pork 18\u201334 3.9\u201310 0.043\u20130.74 0.032\u20130.17 8.9\u201312.1 Beef 34\u201352 14\u201332 0.11\u20130.90 0.063\u20130.33 27\u201349 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2596, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 739, "book_page": 733, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.3.1.2 Cheese A full LCA of a Swedish cheese was carried out by Berlin (2002). Though now relatively old, this study yielded conclusions that were confirmed by later studies. As a functional unit \u201c1 kg of \u00c4ngsg\u00e5rden semi-hard cheese wrapped in plastic\u201d was chosen. The product system included milk production at farm level, cheese production at dairy factory, retailing, household consumption and waste management. Data from 1 farm and 1 dairy, both in Southwest Sweden were used. In order to produce cheese, apart from milk, several other ingredients were used: rennet (enzymes from calves\u2019 stomach), calcium chloride, saltpetre, salt and water. Packaging material was made of plastic and cardboard. A number of cleaning agents in the dairy was also included. Capital goods such as buildings and equipment were excluded from the study. The impacts from the farm were allocated over the milk and meat produced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2597, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 740, "book_page": 734, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Capital goods such as buildings and equipment were excluded from the study. The impacts from the farm were allocated over the milk and meat produced. The dairy factory produced four different kinds of cheese as well as a range of other products. An economic criterion was used to allocate impact over the different co-products of the factory. The following impact potentials and flow indicators were considered: global warming potential, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical ozone formation, material and energy use. Ozone depletion and ecotoxicity were dealt with in a qualitative way. For this reason, these 2 impact categories will not be extensively discussed here. Impact assessment was stopped at the characterisation step. Hence no normalisation or weighting was done. Characterisation factors from different methods and guidelines were used to calculate impacts. The results are summarised in Table 29.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2598, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 740, "book_page": 734, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hence no normalisation or weighting was done. Characterisation factors from different methods and guidelines were used to calculate impacts. The results are summarised in Table 29.4. Almost 95% of global warming impacts were attributed to farming, with methane emissions from fermentation in the cow rumen being the most important impact source. N2O emissions from soil processes and fertiliser production also played a key role. The remaining 5% of the impacts were attributed to cheese Table 29.4 Results of the LCA of 1000 kg of Swedish semi-hard cheese (Berlin 2002) Life cycle stage Global warming (kg CO2-eq) Acidification (kg SO2-eq) Eutrophication (kg O2-eq) Photochemical ozone formation (kg C2H4-eq) Farm inputs and agricultural stage 2.4 Other inputs <1 3.3 <0.1 Processing <1 <0.1 Retail <0.1 <1 <0.1 Use <0.1 <1 <0.1 Waste management \u22122 <\u22120.1 <\u22121 <\u22120.1 Total 2.5 T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2599, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 740, "book_page": 734, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "production and retailing. Here, CO2 emissions from natural gas and fuel use caused the largest share of the global warming impact. Impacts from electricity use were low, because the Swedish electricity grid mix was used for modelling the product system. Since Sweden\u2019s electricity mix is largely made up of hydropower and nuclear power, GHG emissions from electricity production are low. Of the photochemical ozone formation impacts, in which only volatile organic compounds (VOC) were taken into account, 93% of the impact was attributed to farm emissions. As was the case for global warming impacts, the cow-produced methane was the main source of VOCs. The farming step in the life cycle of cheese was the source of more than 99% of the eutrophication and acidification impacts. These impacts were attributed to ammonia volatilisation from manure for both impact categories. Nitrate leaching from the soil was another important contributor to eutrophication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2600, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 741, "book_page": 735, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These impacts were attributed to ammonia volatilisation from manure for both impact categories. Nitrate leaching from the soil was another important contributor to eutrophication. We have seen that, in this study, the major contribution to the impact categories considered arose from the farm inputs and agricultural stage (i.e. the process of milk production). The cheese making process accounted for most of the remaining impacts. The study was published in 2002, but most of the data are from the mid to late 1990s. Despite the age of the study, the conclusion that most impacts of dairy products arise at the farm input stage and agricultural stage was also found in more recent LCAs. However, compared with newer studies, the share of these stages (93 to >99%) as found by Berlin (2002) is at the high end. For example, in their LCA study of the production of cheddar and mozzarella in the USA, Kim et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2601, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 741, "book_page": 735, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, in their LCA study of the production of cheddar and mozzarella in the USA, Kim et al. (2013) found that the farm inputs and agricultural stages (feed production and on-farm emissions) contributed to more than 60% in seven out of nine impact categories. For cumulative energy demand, marine and freshwater eutrophication and human toxicity, other steps such as manufacturing, retail and consumption were identified as hotspots. In other studies dealing with cheese production in the Netherlands (Van Middelaar et al. 2011), New Zealand (Basset-Mens et al. 2007), Spain (Gonz\u00e1lez-Garc\u00eda et al. 2013) and Serbia (Djekic et al. 2014), the agricultural stage was confirmed to be the most important environmental hotspot. In the distributive step the mode of transport more than the distance itself plays a role. In their study of New Zealand cheese exported to England, Basset-Mens et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2602, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 741, "book_page": 735, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the distributive step the mode of transport more than the distance itself plays a role. In their study of New Zealand cheese exported to England, Basset-Mens et al. (2007) found that the contribution of ship transport over more than 20,000 km from New Zealand port to England was lower than the contribution of truck and consumers\u2019 car transport together in all impact categories except acidification (Basset-Mens et al. 2007). These authors also found that the average sewage treatment in England for human excretion was the second main contributor for eutrophication (31%) after farm production. Comparing the Berlin (2002) study with newer studies raises two relevant points. Firstly, the limited number of impact potentials that were quantified shows that the field of LCA has seen a considerable methodological development in the last 15 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2603, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 741, "book_page": 735, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Firstly, the limited number of impact potentials that were quantified shows that the field of LCA has seen a considerable methodological development in the last 15 years. Secondly, the lack of data that led to the ozone depletion potential being discussed qualitatively in the study illustrates the data availability issue that LCA practitioners traditionally have to deal with. For example, the authors of the study described the locations where cooling equipment was used, as well as the LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2604, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 741, "book_page": 735, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "refrigerants used, but could not quantify the resulting environmental impacts because data about refrigerant leaking was not available at that time. 29.3.1.3 Bread One of the first studies of a whole food product was an LCA of bread production carried out by Andersson and Ohlsson (1999). The main aim of this study was to compare different scales of baking. A secondary goal was to identify environmental hotspots. This study was selected for this chapter to illustrate some typical pitfalls of LCA application, which often arise due to the complexity of the modelled systems in real life, data unavailability and lack of transparency of the modelling choices made. In cooperation with industrial partners from the bakery industry that provided data, the authors compared the environmental impacts of 1 kg of white bread ready for consumption at home produced in four different Swedish scenarios. Two of these were industrial bakeries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2605, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 742, "book_page": 736, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Two of these were industrial bakeries. The first produced bread distributed through the entire country, the second operated at a regional scale, the third a small local bakery, whilst the fourth corresponded to the baking of bread at home. Included in the system boundaries were the farm inputs, wheat cultivation, wheat milling and baking, production of packaging material, the household stage (freezing the bread), waste handling and transport. Capital goods were excluded and so were all other ingredients of the bread other than wheat. These ingredients were excluded because little variation was observed between the recipes. Unless the impacts of these ingredients were minor, which has not been tested, excluding them makes it hard to conclude on the environmental hotspots: an unknown part of the impacts are not quantified. The wholesale and retail steps were also excluded because they were expected to contribute little to the overall impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2606, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 742, "book_page": 736, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The wholesale and retail steps were also excluded because they were expected to contribute little to the overall impacts. Impacts from wheat cultivation and milling were allocated to wheat and flour, respectively. Allocation of the impacts of the bakeries was done differently. For the two industrial bakeries, allocation was done on basis of the mass of the products produced there. In contrast, economic allocation was used in the local bakery scenario. This option was chosen because data for the masses produced were not available. The impact categories and indicators included in the study were energy use, land use, global warming potential, eutrophication potential, acidification potential and photo-oxidant formation potential. No normalisation or weighting step was done. The results are presented in Table 29.5. We will not discuss the details of the results here, but summarise the main findings of the hotspot analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2607, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 742, "book_page": 736, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "No normalisation or weighting step was done. The results are presented in Table 29.5. We will not discuss the details of the results here, but summarise the main findings of the hotspot analysis. A hotspot was defined as a sub-system that contributes more than 20% to the impact in a given impact category or flow indicator. With the exception of primary energy use and photo-oxidant formation, the farm inputs and agriculture stages were hotspots in all of the impact categories for all scenarios. Eutrophication impacts were dominated by wheat cultivation. Transport was a large contributor to global warming and acidification potentials in the industrial bakery scenarios. In the bakeries using T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2608, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 742, "book_page": 736, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "natural gas or oil in their ovens, the baking process also was a hotspot for the global warming impacts. Food processing, i.e. ethanol released when baking bread, was the main hotspot for the photo-oxidant formation impacts, even though transport was also a hotspot in this impact category. Summarising, we see that in contrast to what was observed in the previous chapters, the agricultural stage is not the single dominating stage in this case study. The main aim of the authors was to compare different scales of bread production. It is, however, doubtful how useful the results were to study differences of scale, because of a number of methodological inconsistencies that a practitioner should try to avoid. First, the system boundaries were set in a way to include the consumers\u2019 transport to buy the bread, or the raw materials to bake the bread at home, except in the local bakery scenario. The authors claim that the local bakery is visited on foot or by car on the way home", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2609, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 743, "book_page": 737, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The authors claim that the local bakery is visited on foot or by car on the way home. As the transport by car hence does not add extra kilometres, the impacts were not accounted for, while the impacts due to the transportation could also have been allocated to both the travel back from work and the bread production. It is not clear from the study why this would not be the case when purchasing industrially produced bread at supermarket. Lack of transparency in modelling choices makes it difficult to identify if the systems compared are equal. Second, the allocation procedure is not done consistently: the impacts from the industrial bakery were allocated by mass, those from the local bakery economically. The authors justify the approach by mentioning that the fractions of impacts allocated to the bread were found to be similar for the industrial bakeries on one hand and the local bakery on the other hand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2610, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 743, "book_page": 737, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, this does not validate the approach: the similarity in outcomes may be accidental. A factor that further complicates the interpretation of the comparison relates to the differences between bakeries. One of the industrial bakeries used a natural gas oven while the local bakery had an oil-fuelled oven. In the second industrial bakery and the home baking scenarios, electric ovens were used. It is not clear from the Table 29.5 Summary of the results of the LCA of bread production Studied systems Primary energy (MJ) Global warming (kg CO2-eq) Acidifica\u019fon (mol H+) Eutrophica\u019fon (g O2) Photochem. oxidant forma\u019fon (g C2H4-eq) Industrial bakery 1 (na\u019fonal) 0.15 5.4 Industrial bakery 2 (regional) 0.1 3.2 Local bakery 0.1 2.6 Home baking (heat from electricity) 0.078 2.4 Home baking (heat from oil) 0.09 2.6 Functional unit 1 kg of white bread ready for consumption at home", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2611, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 743, "book_page": 737, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Electricity production from waste incineration is assumed to replace electricity produced from oil combustion (Andersson and Ohlsson 1999) LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2612, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 743, "book_page": 737, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "study whether or not the use of different fuels for the oven was related to the different scales of the bakeries. If not, this would mean that the systems compared were not equivalent regarding the goal set, i.e. compare different scales of baking. However, if the aim of the study had been to compare most common practices of baking at a given scale, the same definition of systems would have been fair to answer the question aimed. Summarising, when conducting an LCA it is important to act consistently and to design a model of a product system that suits the aim of the study. 29.3.1.4 Tomato As an example of an LCA of a vegetable product, we will discuss here the study on tomatoes produced in a greenhouse in Spain, carried out by Torrellas et al. (2012a). The study was carried out to investigate how the environmental performance of greenhouse tomatoes could be improved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2613, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 744, "book_page": 738, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2012a). The study was carried out to investigate how the environmental performance of greenhouse tomatoes could be improved. The functional unit of the study was 1 tonne of loose tomatoes at the farm gate, indicating that this study is a cradle-to-farm gate study. Included in the system boundaries were the manufacturing of greenhouse components, auxiliary equipment such as the irrigation and water collection systems and the substrates in which tomato plants are grown, products needed for greenhouse management such as fertilisers, pesticides, water and electricity, waste handling including transport to waste management from the site of the greenhouse. The environmental impacts were calculated for six categories and flow indicators: cumulative energy demand, abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming and photochemical oxidation. If we use the same definition of a hotspot here as in the last paragraph, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2614, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 744, "book_page": 738, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If we use the same definition of a hotspot here as in the last paragraph, i.e. a process or group of processes to which more than 20% of an impact can be attributed, then the results (see Fig. 29.2) showed that the structure of the greenhouse was a hotspot in all of the categories. The steel in the frame and the plastic of the cover were the main contributors. Auxiliary equipment represented a hotspot in all impact categories apart from eutrophication. For acidification, eutrophication and global warming, fertiliser production and application constituted a hotspot as well. A large part of the environmental impacts was associated with the greenhouse itself: for the impact categories abiotic depletion, acidification, photochemical oxidation and cumulative energy demand the sum of greenhouse structure and auxiliary equipment accounted for more than 75% of the total impacts. For eutrophication and global warming the percentages were 46 and 66%, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2615, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 744, "book_page": 738, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For eutrophication and global warming the percentages were 46 and 66%, respectively. Therefore, the impacts of the greenhouse were relatively high. Because the studied greenhouse was located in Spain, no heating was needed. Another study that assessed different geographical greenhouse tomato scenarios showed that the most important contributor was the greenhouse heating, highlighting the need to reduce energy consumption and use renewable energy sources where greenhouse heating is necessitated (Torrellas et al. 2012b). T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2616, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 744, "book_page": 738, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Since the study by Torrellas et al. (2012a) was a cradle-to-farm gate LCA, the role of transport in the life cycle of vegetables and fruit is not highlighted. Other work, for example the aforementioned study by Sim et al. (2007) on French beans flown from Kenya to England, showed that transportation may be determining for the environmental impacts of vegetables and fruit. The same was concluded by Mithraratne et al. (2010), who analysed the carbon footprint of a tray of kiwifruit produced in New Zealand and consumed in Europe. Here, shipping contributed to 44% of the footprint. 29.3.1.5 A Full Diet In the previous chapters various food items were discussed in isolation, with functional units of 1 kg (or 1 tonne) of the food item. Although this gives a good overview of the impacts of single food products, it provides little information about where environmental impacts arise in a diet. After all, humans usually do not consume identical amounts of different foods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2617, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 745, "book_page": 739, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After all, humans usually do not consume identical amounts of different foods. Therefore, we finish this chapter by reviewing a study by Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2010), who did a full LCA of an average Spanish diet. The functional unit of their study was given as \u2018the supply of food for a Spanish citizen in the year 2005\u2019. The authors included all processes needed to provide food to the consumer in the study: agriculture stage, processing of food, distribution, retailing, storage at home and preparation. Furthermore, the end of life of food was considered via food waste management and wastewater treatment of human excretion. Impact assessment was limited to global warming, acidification, eutrophication and primary energy use. The results, presented in Fig. 29.3, showed that food production, including agricultural and processing stages, represented the largest source of impacts in all categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2618, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 745, "book_page": 739, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The results, presented in Fig. 29.3, showed that food production, including agricultural and processing stages, represented the largest source of impacts in all categories. Meat and dairy alone made up 54% of the global 75% 100% 50% waste 0% 25% GW CED AD AA EU PO pes\u019fcides fer\u019flizers auxiliary equipment climate system structure Fig. 29.2 Results of the LCA of the production of 1 tonne cold greenhouse tomatoes. Adapted from Torrellas et al. (2012a) LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2619, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 745, "book_page": 739, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "warming potential. Wastewater treatment contributed 17% of the impact potential when including emission of biogenic CO2 while it was only 3% when excluding these emissions. These CO2 emissions can be excluded from the impact assessment, as they are formed from carbon that was taken up by the plant during its growth. Meat, dairy and beverages represented 60% of the eutrophication potential. Here, wastewater treatment was the second most important stage, contributing 17% to the total impact. Home storage and cooking, which was considered as one process, was the second contributor to the acidification potential, with a contribution of 12%. This process was also the second largest user of primary energy (22%). With regard to the percentages above, the authors mentioned that there was a fair level of uncertainty involved in the study. As an example, for some food products data were missing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2620, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 746, "book_page": 740, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With regard to the percentages above, the authors mentioned that there was a fair level of uncertainty involved in the study. As an example, for some food products data were missing. For other products the data used were collected for Danish rather than Spanish circumstances, following a consequential approach, instead of the attributional approach used by the authors. From the results it is clear that for a full diet, the agricultural stage and the production its inputs are the stages contributing most to the impacts. Among the different products, meat production was associated with the largest impacts in all of the four impact categories studied. Dairy and beverages were other considerable contributors to environmental impacts. The authors of this study did not discuss options to reduce the environmental impacts of diets. Other authors recommend exploring a reduction of food waste and Fig. 29.3 results for the LCA study of the average Spanish diet. Taken from Mu\u00f1oz et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2621, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 746, "book_page": 740, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other authors recommend exploring a reduction of food waste and Fig. 29.3 results for the LCA study of the average Spanish diet. Taken from Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2010) T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2622, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 746, "book_page": 740, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "switching to a (partly) vegetarian diet. In the study of the Spanish diet, the authors found that 23% of food purchased was discarded. This waste consisted of a smaller fraction of inedible parts of the food products, but the largest waste fraction were edible parts not consumed for one reason or another. Regarding switching to a diet containing less meat, Saxe and Jensen (2014) compared the environmental consequences of switching from an average Danish diet (ADD) to a New Nordic Diet (NND). In the NND, focus is on local ingredients, produced organically. In addition, the diet contains less meat, but more fish, wholegrain products, nuts, fruits, berries and vegetables than the average Danish diet. The NND was shown to reduce environmental impacts, but at the expense of increased cost for the consumer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2623, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 747, "book_page": 741, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The NND was shown to reduce environmental impacts, but at the expense of increased cost for the consumer. 29.3.2 Case Study: Conventional, Integrated and Organic Farming Most agricultural practices in Western countries are chemically intensive, aiming at maximising the production by using external inputs. This production mode is associated with environmental problems mostly due to nutrients and pesticides emissions to environmental compartments and decreased near farms. In order to reduce the environmental burdens of agriculture, new production methods have been introduced. Organic agriculture aims at producing while sustaining the health of soils and people and preserving biodiversity. In practice, this form of agriculture differs from conventional agriculture in the sense that it avoids the use of synthetic-agrochemical pesticides and mainly uses manure and compost as fertiliser", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2624, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 747, "book_page": 741, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In practice, this form of agriculture differs from conventional agriculture in the sense that it avoids the use of synthetic-agrochemical pesticides and mainly uses manure and compost as fertiliser. In organic milk farming, as discussed below, cows spend most of their time outside in order to stimulate their natural behaviour. Feed should consist of 60% of roughage, produced organically, preferentially on-farm. Another alternative is integrated farming. Based on the principles of integrated pest management, it aims to achieve optimal long-term results from both an environmental and economic point of view. Furthermore, pesticide application has to be targeted and limited, the soil has to be protected in winter and the crop rotation needs to be diversified. In this chapter, two comparative cases are discussed: organic and integrated farming in Switzerland, and organic and conventional milk production in the Netherlands. 29.3.2.1 Crop Production Nemecek et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2625, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 747, "book_page": 741, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.3.2.1 Crop Production Nemecek et al. (2011) compared the environmental impacts of conventional/ integrated and organic farming in Switzerland. Environmental impacts were reported as yearly averages calculated from 7-year crop rotations. The authors LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2626, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 747, "book_page": 741, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "identified three functions of agriculture, and defined functional units accordingly: land management, providing income to the farmer and production of food. The focus in this chapter will be on the first and third functions. In the land management function, the impacts are expressed per hectare per year. In the food production function, they are reported per kg dry matter or per MJ net energy content, depending on the food or feed product. The environmental impacts were assessed using the Swiss Agriculture Life Cycle Assessment (SALCA) framework. In this framework, the usual impact categories and flow indicators energy resources, global warming potential, ozone formation, eutrophication, acidification, terrestrial and aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity are considered along with biodiversity and soil quality. The results found for normal fertilisation levels are shown in Fig. 29.4. The results for biodiversity, not given in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2627, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 748, "book_page": 742, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The results found for normal fertilisation levels are shown in Fig. 29.4. The results for biodiversity, not given in Fig. 29.4, showed that biodiversity was higher in an organic farming system, mainly as a consequence of banning synthetic pesticides. The soil quality indicators did not vary much between the three systems. The results presented in Fig. 29.4 show that, when looking at the land management function, the potential impacts of organic farming were considerably less than those caused by conventional/integrated farming. However, the land required to produce the same amount of product was 25\u201330% higher for organic farming. For that reason, the differences between organic and conventional/integrated farming were smaller when looking at the results from the production function. Still, the authors showed a significantly lower impact for organic farming for most of the impact categories when looking at the impacts per kg dry matter, especially for toxicity impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2628, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 748, "book_page": 742, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Still, the authors showed a significantly lower impact for organic farming for most of the impact categories when looking at the impacts per kg dry matter, especially for toxicity impacts. The exceptions here were land use, which was higher for organic farming, and ozone formation, acidification and eutrophication, where the differences were not statistically significant. The large difference in toxicity-related impact categories was explained by the reduced use of pesticides in the organic farming systems. Not taken into account in the method applied was the use of copper as a fungicide in organic farming. Therefore, the toxicity impacts of organic farming have been underestimated. The reduction in energy demand and global warming potential in the organic farming systems was due to reduced use of mineral fertiliser in this type of farming", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2629, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 748, "book_page": 742, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reduction in energy demand and global warming potential in the organic farming systems was due to reduced use of mineral fertiliser in this type of farming. et 100) Land management func\u019fon (impacts per ha per year) Food produc\u019fon func\u019fon: impacts per kg dry ma\u01a9er a\u019fve (C/I set to 100 Rela\u019fve % BD BO C/I Fig. 29.4 Relative environmental impacts for crop rotations of three types of farming in Switzerland. Impacts for conventional/integrated farming set to 100% (reference system). Abbreviations BD bio-dynamic, BO bio-organic, C/I conventional/integrated T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2630, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 748, "book_page": 742, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition to calculating the impacts associated with crop rotations, the authors also looked at the impacts of individual crops in organic and integrated crop production. Here it was found that some organic products had higher environmental impacts in some categories than their conventional/integrated counterparts. This was partially explained by lower yields in organic farming. Based on this the authors stressed the importance of looking at product systems instead of looking at products in isolation. Summarising, depending on the selected function, the outcome is either that organic farming is the environmentally favourable option, or that the results are not conclusive to decide on the most environmentally friendly option for agriculture. 29.3.2.2 Milk Production Based on Dutch data from 2003, Thomassen et al. (2008) performed a comparative LCA of conventional and organic milk production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2631, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 749, "book_page": 743, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.3.2.2 Milk Production Based on Dutch data from 2003, Thomassen et al. (2008) performed a comparative LCA of conventional and organic milk production. This cradle-to-farm gate study used 1 kg of fat and protein corrected milk leaving the farm gate as the functional unit. The studied system included the on-farm processes and the inputs required on the farm: breeding of animals, production of feed concentrates, roughage and bedding material, transport of animal manure used as fertiliser. In addition, the conventional milk production also required pesticides and artificial fertilisers for feed and roughage production. The studied systems had a number of multifunctional processes, most notably the cow which produced not only milk, but also meat, calves and hides. In order to deal with these co-products, economic allocation was applied. The study considered five impact categories and flow indicators: land use, energy use, climate change, acidification and eutrophication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2632, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 749, "book_page": 743, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The study considered five impact categories and flow indicators: land use, energy use, climate change, acidification and eutrophication. Stratospheric ozone depletion was excluded because previous studies had shown that milk production does not produce significant ozone depletion impacts. Furthermore, human toxicity, terrestrial and aquatic ecotoxicity were excluded. The reason for this was the absence of data on pesticides and heavy metals used. The impacts obtained are summarised in Table 29.6. The difference in land use observed in Table 29.6 was mainly explained by the lower yields for feed production and a lower intensity of animals per hectare in the organic system. The difference in energy use is related to the absence of fertiliser and pesticide production in the organic system and the smaller use of concentrate in the feed mix", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2633, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 749, "book_page": 743, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The difference in energy use is related to the absence of fertiliser and pesticide production in the organic system and the smaller use of concentrate in the feed mix. Likewise, the production and use of concentrates and artificial fertiliser explained the higher eutrophication impacts in the conventional farming system. The small difference in acidification impacts may seem counterintuitive: the conventional system emitted more ammonia from manure storage and application, and fertiliser application per hectare. However, the animal intensity was much higher in the conventional system, leading to lower overall impacts when looking at mass of milk produced. The climate change impacts were similar for both systems. The organic system had higher on-farm impacts because of the higher number of LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2634, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 749, "book_page": 743, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "cows needed to produce the same volume of milk. In contrast, the off-farm emissions were higher in the conventional system, mainly due to the purchase of feed concentrates. Concentrates are feed products that contain a high density of digestible nutrients and are usually low in fibre content (FAO 1995). This case shows the importance of the perspective of the study, as reflected in the functional unit, on the outcome of the study. For example, taking the perspective of a farmer with a fixed land area at his disposal who wants to produce milk in a more sustainable way, switching from conventional to organic farming would probably result in lower environmental impacts. In this case, the functional unit will be area-related (e.g. hectare per year). However, the main motivation of a farmer usually is to maximise income for the agricultural production. Looking at how to minimise environmental impacts per currency unit might be more realistic from the farmer viewpoint", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2635, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 750, "book_page": 744, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Looking at how to minimise environmental impacts per currency unit might be more realistic from the farmer viewpoint. In that case, the functional unit will be income-related (e.g. \u20ac). As can be seen from Table 29.6, using the perspective of producing food, the functional unit chosen was kg of milk. The picture of which option is most favourable to the environment is not clear. In both the crop and the milk examples, results showed that neither conventional farming nor organic farming was a more environmentally favourable practice in all respects. LCA was powerful at identifying environmental hotspots and margins of improvement of the studied systems. Agriculture is multifunctional and LCA outcomes depend a lot on the agricultural function studied, especially when comparing systems with contrasted intensification levels. This conclusion is also found in studies conducted by other authors, such as Cederberg and Mattsson (2000), De Backer et al. (2009) and the review by Foster et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2636, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 750, "book_page": 744, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This conclusion is also found in studies conducted by other authors, such as Cederberg and Mattsson (2000), De Backer et al. (2009) and the review by Foster et al. (2006). In addition, based on a review of 34 agricultural LCAs, Meier et al. (2015) argue that many LCA studies do not sufficiently capture the differences between two production systems, for a number of reasons. The goal and scope definition does not differentiate the characteristics of the farming systems. The inventory data used for N and C flows from the field are based on models, often developed for modelling conventional farming, and do not represent actual circumstances. Finally, LCA studies apply LCIA indicators of all readily available impact categories. Other important categories for agriculture, such as land use impacts on biodiversity and soil quality, water use and (terrestrial) toxicity are currently the object of fast scientific development and will be normal practice in a few years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2637, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 750, "book_page": 744, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 29.6 Comparison of environmental impacts of conventional and organic milk production per kg of fat and protein corrected milk leaving the farm gate (Thomassen et al. 2008) Impact category Conventional system Organic system Land use (m2) 1.3 1.8 Energy use (MJ) 5.0 3.1 Eutrophication (kg NO3 \u2212-eq) 0.11 0.07 Acidification (g SO2-eq) 9.5 10.8 Climate change (kg CO2-eq) 1.4 1.5 T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2638, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 750, "book_page": 744, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "29.3.3 Case Study: \u2018Local\u2019 Food Consumers are increasingly aware of environmental problems connected to food production. Many food products are transported over long distances: air-freighted French beans from Kenya, apples from Chile or peas from Egypt can be found in European and North American supermarkets. The \u201cfood miles\u201d concept (defined in 1994 by Paxton as the distance food travels from producer to consumer) has become popular in the UK and USA and has led to increased interest in local food, which has been produced in close proximity of where it is consumed. Apart from questionable environmental benefits, local food is also associated with other values: taste, naturalness, local economy, to mention a few examples given by Edwards-Jones et al. (2008). These authors have analysed the interest in local food and food miles from an environmental and ethical point of view. Here we will focus on the environmental aspects that have been analysed using LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2639, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 751, "book_page": 745, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here we will focus on the environmental aspects that have been analysed using LCA. Transporting food products over large distances may appear as a waste of resources and an unnecessary cause of GHG emissions. Especially air transport causes high emissions per tonne kilometre. In order to have a measure of the distance over which food is transported the concept of \u2018food miles\u2019 is used. However, when looking from an LCA perspective, transport is only one of the stages in the life cycle of a food product where GHG and acidifying emissions occur. Apart from the distance, the transportation mode is of the utmost importance for the environmental impacts of the transportation phase. Moreover, for many field-grown crops the production of fertiliser has a large global warming impact potential, whilst in crops grown in greenhouses the use of electricity for heating and lighting can cause considerable impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2640, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 751, "book_page": 745, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, only looking at the transported distance is not sufficient to conclude on the environmental benefit of local food. To underline this, the authors give an example of an assessment of global warming potential for apples consumed in the UK, taking a life cycle perspective. Researchers from the UK had found that local production results in the lowest GHG emissions, whilst researchers from New Zealand found the opposite: apple production in New Zealand followed by transport to the UK results in the lowest global warming impacts. Therefore, there are two contrasting conclusions. Which one is right? The answer is, surprisingly, both. The two studies used different system boundaries. When looking at a full calendar year, and including the cold storage that is required to store the apples between harvest and consumption, it can be shown that apples from the UK are favourable in most parts of the year", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2641, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 751, "book_page": 745, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, when these apples have to be stored for a long time, importing freshly harvested apples from New Zealand is environmentally favourable. Similarly, it was found that, in terms of energy, it is more efficient to import off-season tomatoes from Spain to the UK, rather than growing the tomatoes locally in heated greenhouses (Smith et al. 2005). Unfortunately, in terms of water use impacts, the imported tomatoes have much greater impacts than their local counterpart (Payen et al. 2015). In addition, in the study about Danish pork meat exported to the UK, which was described in Sect. 29.3.1 the \u2018food miles\u2019 concept was criticised. The authors LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2642, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 751, "book_page": 745, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pointed out that the different transport steps contribute less than 1% to the overall global warming impacts. Hence looking at reducing these impacts, transport is not the place where significant reductions can be obtained. The authors of the pork study call the concept of food miles misleading. Food-miles can be concluded to be a simple social representation of a complex system that help people engage but it is not reliable as an indicator of the environmental impacts of a product system. 29.4 Methodological Issues In the previous sections, a number of Life Cycle Assessments of food and food products has been discussed. These studies showed that in the full life cycle of a food product, it is often the farm inputs and agricultural stages where most environmental impacts arise. Within these agricultural stages, a few trends can be observed. Firstly, global warming impacts can be attributed to animal husbandry or fertiliser production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2643, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 752, "book_page": 746, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Within these agricultural stages, a few trends can be observed. Firstly, global warming impacts can be attributed to animal husbandry or fertiliser production. Secondly, acidification and eutrophication impacts are associated with the production and use of fertiliser or animal manure. Finally, toxic impacts are related to pesticide use and are still seldom considered. The two papers described in the section about organic, integrated and conventional farming not only gave an indication of the differences in environmental impacts between these farming systems, they also illustrated the importance of considering land use in LCAs. The case studies on Swiss farming practices and local foods stressed the need to consider systems as a whole. Studying crops in isolation or only at a certain moment in time might lead to deceptive conclusions. Besides those, a number of other methodological issues relating to the environmental assessment of food and food production remain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2644, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 752, "book_page": 746, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Besides those, a number of other methodological issues relating to the environmental assessment of food and food production remain. First of all, the choice of the functional unit of a study has to reflect a product\u2019s function. As discussed in Sect. 29.3.2, some authors ascribe three functions to agriculture: land management, providing an income for farmers and production of food. The choice of the functional unit will depend on the goal and scope of the LCA study (see Chaps. 8 and 9). It will often be relevant to express the results by different functional units within the same study to give a fair picture of the compared systems, especially in the case of highly contrasted intensification levels. From a consumer\u2019s point of view, the primary function of food products is to provide sufficient energy and nutrients to the human body", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2645, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 752, "book_page": 746, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From a consumer\u2019s point of view, the primary function of food products is to provide sufficient energy and nutrients to the human body. Beyond the mass of food produced, research is therefore looking for more qualitative functional units, taking into account the food\u2019s nutritional value in a harmonised way. As an example, increasing yields of wheat may negatively affect the nutritional quality of the grains. It is therefore recommendable to clearly define the nutritional quality of a food product in the functional unit, especially in comparative LCA studies (Schau and Fet 2008). A second issue is the definition of the system boundaries (see Chap. 9). This discussion has two important aspects. The first aspect is setting the border between T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2646, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 752, "book_page": 746, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technosphere (the product system) and ecosphere (the natural environment). This border is essential in LCA, as only material and energy flows crossing it are considered inputs or outputs. Especially in LCAs of agricultural and food products this boundary might be hard to identify clearly, because in food production the technosphere is closely linked to the ecosphere. An example can be found in the emissions of pesticides to agricultural soil. It can be argued that these should be marked as emissions to the ecosphere because the pesticides might affect various forms of life in the soil: worms, beetles, which are not necessarily the target organisms for the pesticide. On the other hand, one can reason that the soil of a field is part of the technosphere, because it is manipulated by humans to an extent where it is incomparable to natural soils", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2647, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 753, "book_page": 747, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, one can reason that the soil of a field is part of the technosphere, because it is manipulated by humans to an extent where it is incomparable to natural soils. Setting the system boundaries is dependent on the goal and scope of the LCA study: it is not possible to objectively define one correct boundary setting that works for all agricultural LCAs (Dijkman 2014; Rosenbaum et al. 2015). For this reason, it is important to explicitly define the system boundaries in the goal and scope definition. Ideally, the boundaries between technosphere and ecosphere, and thus of LCI and LCIA for modelling the inflows and outflows, should be defined uniformly in order to produce a consistent LCA study. The second aspect of setting the system boundaries relates to the processes that are included in the study. Often, a cradle-to-farm gate study is done because it is assumed that most impacts arise at the agricultural stage or because the post-farm gate processes are identical", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2648, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 753, "book_page": 747, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Often, a cradle-to-farm gate study is done because it is assumed that most impacts arise at the agricultural stage or because the post-farm gate processes are identical. This might result in overlooking product losses during processing or consumption, while the reduction of food waste can contribute to lowering environmental impacts elsewhere in the life cycle. A third issue in the LCA of food products is the inclusion of the diversity of production systems. Most LCA studies in the past have relied on a very small number of farms, while agricultural production systems are generally very diverse due to the interaction between the farmers\u2019 skills and practices and their environment. In studies where the variability of systems has been explored, the variability of LCA results is larger within one production group than between the studied alternatives. This also leads to the question of uncertainty of LCA results, which is generally not evaluated (see Chap. 11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2649, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 753, "book_page": 747, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This also leads to the question of uncertainty of LCA results, which is generally not evaluated (see Chap. 11). As a fourth issue, the modelling of flows from the agricultural field can be improved. Meier et al. (2015) argued that the modelling of nutrients needs to be improved in LCA practice, because especially nitrogen flows are responsible for many environmental impacts from on-field processes. Many studies reviewed by Meier et al. (2015) did not calculate the N balance from the field. When the N balance was calculated, differences in the N surplus (defined by Meier et al. (2015) as the nitrogen potentially emitted to the environment via different pathways) between conventional and organic farming systems were not always reflected in differences in the eutrophication potentials calculated for both farming systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2650, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 753, "book_page": 747, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, because the N surplus is a measure of the amount of N that is available for leaching to surface water or other environmental compartments, differences in the eutrophication potential should be related to differences in the N surplus. Moreover, Meier et al. (2015) found that the N emissions exceeded the N surplus in four processes representing Swiss agriculture in the EcoInvent database. LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2651, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 753, "book_page": 747, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition, N emissions from manure, which are dependent on the excretion of N by livestock animals, are seldom adjusted for differences in the animals\u2019 dietary composition. Because the N balance of a field is dependent on many factors, such as the chemical or organic fertilisers used, the uptake into the crop and local soil and climate conditions, a simple model of the N balance of a field for the use in LCA is not available. The authors also stated the need for better modelling of flows of carbon from the field and manure. Apart from nutrient flows, modelling of pesticide flows can be improved. Databases with inventory data, such as ecoinvent (Ecoinvent Centre 2007) and the US LCI database (NREL 2003), often assume fixed emissions to one or two environmental compartments, independent of the pesticide applied, the application technology used, the climatic circumstances and the crop or soil onto which the pesticide is applied. Here, models such as PestLCI 2.0 (Dijkman et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2652, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 754, "book_page": 748, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here, models such as PestLCI 2.0 (Dijkman et al. 2012) and the forthcoming results of ongoing pesticide consensus work can be used to better represent the influence of chemical properties and local circumstances on pesticide emissions (Rosenbaum et al. 2015). A final issue in agricultural LCAs is the limited number of impact categories and flow indicators that are usually included: global warming, acidification, eutrophication, ozone depletion and energy use. Land use-related impacts are increasingly considered. This is an important impact category, because land is a scarce resource. Most land that is suitable for agriculture, is currently already in use as such. Moreover, considering land use may also help to illustrate the trade-offs of, e.g. organic farming: more land is required per unit of product, resulting in an expanded use of land for that product when switching to organic farming (under the assumption that the demand for the product remains unchanged)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2653, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 754, "book_page": 748, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This direct land use change in turn results in indirect land use change (iLUC) because the organic product displaces another product, which ultimately results in the conversion of grasslands or forest into agricultural land. At the same time, chemical pesticide use is avoided, and the nutritional quality of grains may be at optimum when grown below maximum yield levels. So, even though all farmers switching to organic farming would considerably reduce certain environmental impacts of agriculture such as toxicity impacts, the amount of food available may be reduced as well on the short term. Another impact category that is usually omitted in LCAs is toxicity (Meier et al. 2015). Because of neglecting toxicity, the effects of pesticide use are not well reflected in LCA results. Historically, toxicity was excluded because of the unavailability of emission data and impact assessment methods for these categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2654, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 754, "book_page": 748, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Historically, toxicity was excluded because of the unavailability of emission data and impact assessment methods for these categories. On the LCI side, models such as PestLCI 2.0 can now be applied to calculate pesticide emissions to air, surface water and groundwater (Dijkman et al. 2012). Likewise, in impact assessment, models such as USEtox (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) can be used to calculate toxicity impacts. However, LCI and LCIA models do not necessarily apply the same boundaries between ecosphere and technosphere, both in terms of time and space. In order to overcome this inconsistency, and to provide guidance to LCA practitioners about modelling pesticide emissions to the environment and their impacts in LCA, a series of international workshops has been T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2655, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 754, "book_page": 748, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "held in an effort to establish a global consensus. Rosenbaum et al. (2015) report the objectives of the effort and the recommendations of the first workshop. Finally, water use-related impacts are frequently omitted in LCA studies. Given the importance of water resources for economic activities in general and for food production in particular as well as for human and ecosystems health, this impact category has rapidly evolved in the last few years. Nowadays, operational methods based on regional water stress are available (e.g. Berger et al. 2014, Pfister and Bayer 2014) and the new AWARE consensus impact assessment method (WULCA 2016) to asses water deprivation impacts (see Sect. 10.15). Despite these developments, much work to improve environmental relevance of methods addressing the consequences of water use on the environment is ahead. Water use is also associated with other long lasting problems such as salinisation (Payen et al. 2016) and desertification (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2656, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 755, "book_page": 749, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water use is also associated with other long lasting problems such as salinisation (Payen et al. 2016) and desertification (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. 2010), included in a number of LCA pilot studies. Therefore, even though quite some steps have been made in the field of LCA of food products during the last 25 years, a number of challenges and methodological issues remain to be improved. 29.5 Applying LCA to Food Products in Southern Countries In a context of demographic increase, especially in cities, southern and generally poor countries are facing immense challenges in terms of food security, poverty reduction, food safety and environmental protection. In such contexts, global assessment tools such as LCA can help stakeholders in food supply chains focus, improve and develop the most promising technical alternatives and support the eco-design of livestock and cropping systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2657, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 755, "book_page": 749, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, the application of LCA to food products in southern countries is recent and associated to difficult and numerous challenges. All the previously mentioned methodological challenges are relevant, but in an even more critical way due to the extreme diversity of production systems (often including perennial crops) and practice, the data scarcity on production systems, the lack of knowledge and appropriate models for estimating the field fluxes and finally the predominance of environmental impacts for which no consensual methodology exists. This concerns all environmental impacts associated to the use of land and water, including aspects of biodiversity, water deprivation, soil quality and fertility, carbon balance and GHGs from soils, salinisation impacts, etc. This also concerns all toxicity impact categories which are complex and for which available inventory approaches are either not valid or difficult to implement due to data scarcity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2658, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 755, "book_page": 749, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This also concerns all toxicity impact categories which are complex and for which available inventory approaches are either not valid or difficult to implement due to data scarcity. Particularly important in these situations are also the social impacts associated to food supply chains for which ambitious research programmes are starting. Finally, caring for the environment in such subsistence economies where the priority is to feed the people, often appears as a luxury for wealthy people. Therefore, awareness-raising and education about eco-friendly practices, LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2659, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 755, "book_page": 749, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "human health risks and environmental sustainability are important priorities in association to more methodological studies to implement LCA in southern countries. Some research teams have started to implement LCA to food products in southern countries with examples on peri-urban tomato in the South of Benin (Perrin 2013), palm oil in Indonesia (Bessou et al. 2016), clementine in Morocco and mango in Brazil (Basset-Mens et al. 2016). 29.6 Conclusions We have seen that LCAs of food products can be divided into six stages: inputs production and transportation, agricultural stage, processing, distribution, use and waste management. A large number of LCA studies are cradle-to-farm gate studies, and include only the two first stages. As a consequence of production and flows of nutrients and pesticides from the field, as well as from livestock and manure handling, the agricultural stage is often found to be the major contributor to many impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2660, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 756, "book_page": 750, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This was illustrated in a number of case studies. Different impacts can arise in the food production stage. Environmental impacts from the use stage are often related to energy consumed in food storage and preparation. In the waste management stage, impacts arise due to food waste handling and treatment of human excretion. Throughout the life cycle of a food product, food waste is a major problem. The case study about conventional and organic farming showed that, depending on the choice of functional unit and the impact categories included in the assessment, LCA can be used to conclude in favour of both conventional and organic farming practices. The case study about local food showed that local food is not by definition more sustainable. Transport is not often the decisive factor when it comes to environmental impacts of food products, so the circumstances during production weigh more heavily in determining where and how locally produced food is more sustainable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2661, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 756, "book_page": 750, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Overall, the key strength of LCA lies in the identification of the hotspots and margins of improvement of each system. Despite methodological improvements, a number of challenges remain for agricultural LCA. Firstly, the functional unit is currently often defined on basis of mass produced, or production per unit of area, without considering the nutritional quality of the product. Secondly, setting the system boundary between technosphere and the ecosphere is difficult in those production systems showing a direct interface with nature. In the life cycle inventory, modelling of flows of nutrients, water, salt and pesticides can be improved in many studies. A challenge in the LCIA phase remains the limited number of impact categories included in most LCA studies. Moreover, some impact categories relevant for agriculture, such as land use-related impacts including soil quality aspects and biodiversity damage, remain to be further developed and operationalised. T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2662, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 756, "book_page": 750, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Abdullah, K.: Use of water and land for food security and environmental sustainability. Irrig. Drain. 55(3), 219\u2013222 (2006). doi:10.1002/ird.254 Andersson, K., Ohlsson, T.: Life Cycle Assessment of bread produced on different scales. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4(1), 25\u201340 (1999). doi:10.1007/bf02979392 Ant\u00f3n, A., Torrellas, M., Raya, V., Montero, J.I.: Modelling the amount of materials to improve inventory datasets of greenhouse infrastructures. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19(1), 29\u201341 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0607-z Basset-Mens, C., McLaren, S., Ledgard, S.: Exploring a comparative advantage for New Zealand cheese in terms of environmental performance. Presented at 5th international conference LCA in foods, Gothenburg, Sweden, 25\u201326 Apr 2007 (2007) Basset-Mens, C., Vanni\u00e8re, H., Grasselly, D., Heitz, H., Braun, A., Payen, S., Koch, P., Biard, Y.: Environmental impacts of imported and locally-grown fruits for the French market: a cradle-to-farm-gate LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2663, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 757, "book_page": 751, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fruits 71(2), 93\u2013104 (2016). doi:10.1051/fruits/2015050 Berger, M., Van der Ent, R., Eisner, S., Bach, V., Finkbeiner, M.: Water accounting and vulnerability evaluation (WAVE): considering atmospheric evaporation recycling and the risk of freshwater depletion in water footprinting. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48(8), 4521\u20134528 (2014). doi:10.1021/es404994t Berlin, J.: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Swedish semi-hard cheese. Int. Dairy J. 12(11), 939\u2013953 (2002). doi:10.1016/S0958-6946(02)00112-7 Bessou, C., Basset-Mens, C., Latunussa, C., V\u00e9lu, A., Heitz, H., Vanni\u00e8re, H., Caliman, J.-P.: Partial modelling of the perennial crop cycle misleads LCA results in two contrasted case studies. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21(3), 297\u2013310 (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-016-1030-z Cederberg, C., Mattsson, B.: Life Cycle Assessment of milk production: a comparison of conventional and organic farming. J. Clean. Prod. 8(1), 49\u201360 (2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2664, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 757, "book_page": 751, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Edwards-Jones, G., Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L.L., Hounsome, N., Truninger, M., Koerber, G., Hounsome, B., Cross, P., York, E.H., Hospido, A., Plassmann, K., Harris, I.M., Edwards, R.T., Day, G.A. S., Tomos, A.D., Cowell, S.J., Jones, D.L.: Testing the assertion that \u2018local food is best\u2019: the challenges of an evidence-based approach. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 19(5), 265\u2013274 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2008.01.008 Ellen MacArthur Foundation: Growth Within: A Circular Economy. Vision for a Competitive Europe. Retrieved 20 Apr 2016 from https://www.mckinsey.de/sites/mck_files/files/growth_ within_report_circular_economy_in_europe.pdf (2015) European Commission: The Environmental Footprint Pilots. Retrieved on 21 Apr 2016 from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/smgp/pef_pilots.htm (2016) Fantke, P., Juraske, R., Ant\u00f3n, A., Friedrich, R., Jolliet, O.: Dynamic multicrop model to characterize impacts of pesticides in food. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(20), 8842\u20138849 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2668, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 758, "book_page": 752, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome (2013) FAO: Water Withdrawal by Sector, Around 2007. Retrieved on 20 Apr 2016 from http://www.fao. org/nr/water/aquastat/tables/WorldData-Withdrawal_eng.pdf (2014) Food, S.C.P.R.T.: ENVIFOOD Protocol, Environmental Assessment of Food and Drink Protocol, European Food Sustainable Consumption and Production Round Table (SCP RT), Working Group 1. Food SCP Round Table, Brussels (2013) Foster, C., Green, K., Bleda, M., Dewick, P., Evans, B., Flynn, A., Mylan, J.: Environmental Impacts of Food Production and Consumption: Final Report to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Manchester Business School, Manchester (2006) Gonz\u00e1lez-Garc\u00eda, S., Hospido, A., Moreira, M.T.: Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of a Galician cheese: San Simon da Costa. J. Clean. Prod. 52, 253\u2013262 (2013). doi:10.1016/j", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2670, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 758, "book_page": 752, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 52, 253\u2013262 (2013). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2013.03.006 IPCC: Contribution of working group III to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2007) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework (ISO 14040). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) Kim, D., Thoma, G., Nutter, D., Milani, F., Ulrich, R., Norris, G.: Life Cycle Assessment of cheese and whey production in the USA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18(5), 1019\u20131035 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0553-9 Kulikowski, M.: Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban than Rural. North Carolina State University Newsroom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2671, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 758, "book_page": 752, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18(5), 1019\u20131035 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0553-9 Kulikowski, M.: Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban than Rural. North Carolina State University Newsroom. Retrieved on 26 Apr 2016 from http://news.ncsu.edu/releases/ 2007/may/104.html (2007) Meier, M.S., Stoessel, F., Jungbluth, N., Juraske, R., Schader, C., Stolze, M.: Environmental impacts of organic and conventional agricultural products: are the differences captured by life cycleassessment? J. Environ. Manag. 149, 193\u2013208 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.10.006 Mithraratne, N., Barber, A., McLaren, S.J.: Carbon footprinting for the kiwifruit supply chain: report on methodology and scoping study. Final report. Landcare Research, Auckland (2010) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L.L., Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba, A.R.: Life Cycle Assessment of the average Spanish diet including human excretion. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15(8), 794\u2013805 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-010-0188-z T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2672, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 758, "book_page": 752, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Nemecek, T., Debois, D., Huguenin-Elie, O., Gaillard, G.: Life Cycle Assessment of Swiss farming systems: I. Integrated and organic farming. Agric. Syst. 104(3), 217\u2013232 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2010.10.002 NREL: US LCI Database. Retrieved on 6 Sept 2013 from www.nrel.gov/ (2003) N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Civit, B., Mu\u00f1oz, P., Pablo Arena, A., Rieradevall, J., Anton, A.: Assessing potential desertification environmental impact in Life Cycle Assessment. Part 1: methodological aspects. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15(1), 67\u201378 (2010). doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0126-0 Paxton, A.: The food miles report: the dangers of long distance food transport. The SAFE Alliance, London (1994) Payen, S., Basset-Mens, C., Perret, S.R.: LCA of local and imported tomato: an energy and water trade-off. J. Clean. Prod. 87(15), 139\u2013148 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2673, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 759, "book_page": 753, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The SAFE Alliance, London (1994) Payen, S., Basset-Mens, C., Perret, S.R.: LCA of local and imported tomato: an energy and water trade-off. J. Clean. Prod. 87(15), 139\u2013148 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.007 Payen, S., Basset-Mens, C., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Follain, S., Gr\u00fcnberger, O., Marlet, S., Perret, S.R., Roux, P.: Salinisation impacts in Life Cycle Assessment: a review of challenges and options towards their consistent integration. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21(4), 577\u2013594 (2016). doi:10.1007/ s11367-016-1040-x Perrin, A.: Evaluation environnementale des syst\u00e8mes agricoles urbains en Afrique de l\u2019Ouest: implications de la diversit\u00e9 des pratiques et de la variabilit\u00e9 des \u00e9missions d\u2019azote dans l\u2019Analyse du Cycle de Vie de la tomate au B\u00e9nin. Ph.D. thesis. AgroParisTech- Sciences agronomiques et \u00e9cologiques, Paris (2013) Pfister, S., Bayer, P.: Monthly water stress: spatially and temporally explicit consumptive water footprint of global crop production. J. Clean. Prod", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2674, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 759, "book_page": 753, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 73, 52\u201362 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro. 2013.11.031 Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., Van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z.: USEtox: the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13(7), 532\u2013546 (2008). doi:10.1007/ s11367-008-0038-4 Rosenbaum, R.K., Ant\u00f3n, A., Bengoa, X., Bj\u00f8rn, A., Brain, R., Bulle, C., Cosme, N., Dijkman, T. J., Fantke, P., Felix, M., Geoghega, T.S., Gottesb\u00fcren, B., Hammer, C., Humbert, S., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Lewis, F., Maxime, D., Nemecek, T., Payet, J., R\u00e4s\u00e4nen, K., Roux, P., Schau, E.M., Sourisseau, S., Van Zelm, R., Von Streit, B., Wallman, M.: The Glasgow consensus on the delineation between pesticide emission inventory and impact assessment for LCA. Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2675, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 759, "book_page": 753, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20(6), 765\u2013776 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0871-1 Saxe, H., Jensen, J.D.: Does the environmental gain of switching to the healthy New Nordic Diet outweigh the increased consumer cost? J. Food Sci. Eng. 4(6), 291\u2013300 (2014). doi:10.17265/ 2159-5828/2014.06.004 Schau, E.M., Fet, A.M.: LCA studies of food products as background for environmental product declarations. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13(3), 255\u2013264 (2008). doi:10.1065/ica2007.12.372 Sim, S., Barry, M., Clift, R., Cowell, S.J.: The relative importance of transport in determining an appropriate sustainability strategy for food sourcing. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12(6), 422\u2013431 (2007). doi:10.1007/s11367-006-0259-3 Smith, A., Watkiss, P., Tweddle, G., McKinnon, A., Browne, M., Hunt, A., Treleven, C., Nash, C., Cross, S.: The validity of food miles as an indicator of Sustainable development. Final report prepared by AEA Technology Environment for DEFRA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2676, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 759, "book_page": 753, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Final report prepared by AEA Technology Environment for DEFRA. DEFRA, London (2005) Sonesson, U., Janestad, H., Raaholt, B.: Energy for preparation and storing of food\u2014models for calculation of energy use for cooking and cold storage in households. SIK-Rapport 709. The Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology, Gothenburg (2003) Swaminathan, B., Sukalac, K.E.: Technology transfer and mitigation of climate change: the fertilizer industry perspective. Presented at the IPCC Expert Meeting on Industrial Technology Development, Transfer and Diffusion, Tokyo, Japan, 21\u201323 Sept 2004 (2004) Ten Hoeve, M.: Environmental consequences of pig slurry treatment technologies: a life cycle perspective. Ph.D. thesis. University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen LCA of Food and Agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2677, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 759, "book_page": 753, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thomassen, M.A., Van Calker, K.J., Smits, M.C.J., Iepema, G.L., De Boer, I.J.M.: Life cycle assessment of conventional and organic milk production in the Netherlands. Agric. Syst. 96(1\u2013 3), 95\u2013107 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2007.06.001 Torrellas, M., Ant\u00f3n, A., L\u00f3pez, J.C., Jose Baeza, E., Perez Parra, J., Pere, M., Ignacio Montero, J.: LCA of a tomato crop in a multi-Tunnel greenhouse in Almeria. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17 (7), 863\u2013875 (2012a). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0409-8 Torrellas, M., Ant\u00f3n, A., Ruijs, M., Garc\u00eda Victoria, N., Stanghellini, C., Montero, J.I.: Environmental and economic assessment of protected crops in four European scenarios. J. Clean. Prod. 28, 45\u201355 (2012b). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.11.012 USEtox: USEtox 2.0 Official Launch. Retrieved on 12 Jan 2016 from http://www.usetox.org/ events/usetox-20-official-launch (2015) Van Middelaar, C.E., Berentsen, P.B.M., Dolman, M.A., De Boer, I.J.M.: Eco-efficiency in the production chain of Dutch semi-hard cheese", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2678, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 760, "book_page": 754, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Livest. Sci. 139(1\u20132), 91\u201399 (2011). doi:10.1016/ j.livsci.2011.03.013 Van Zelm, R., Larrey-Lassalle, P., Roux, P.: Bridging the gap between life cycle inventory and impact assessment for toxicological assessments of pesticides used in crop production. Chemosphere 100, 175\u2013181 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.11.037 Williams, H., Wikstr\u00f6m, F.: Environmental impact of packaging and food losses in a life cycle perspective: a comparative analysis of five food items. J. Clean. Prod. 19(1), 43\u201348 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.08.008 WULCA: The AWARE method. Retrieved on 21 Apr 2016 from http://wulca-waterlca.org/ project.html (2016) Author Biographies Teunis J. Dijkman has worked with method development in LCA since 2010, focusing on Life Cycle Inventory modelling. Interested in the boundary setting between technosphere and ecosphere for agrochemicals. Contributed to consensus building and model development for global pesticide emission quantification", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2679, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 760, "book_page": 754, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Interested in the boundary setting between technosphere and ecosphere for agrochemicals. Contributed to consensus building and model development for global pesticide emission quantification. Claudine Basset-Mens agronomist and LCA scientist since early 2000s, adapting LCA to agri-food chains (animal and crop production) in a wide range of situations and countries. Her main research interests relate to inclusion of agricultural systems diversity, modelling of field emissions, modelling of perennial crops within LCA and the inclusion of uncertainty. Assumpci\u00f3 Ant\u00f3n expert in the application of LCA methodology in agriculture since early 2000s. Final goal of her work focus on the environmental improvement of agricultural systems. Main interests are development of agricultural LCI and LCIA methods related to agricultural processes (agrochemical emissions, land use and water consumption)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2680, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 760, "book_page": 754, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main interests are development of agricultural LCI and LCIA methods related to agricultural processes (agrochemical emissions, land use and water consumption). Montse N\u00fa\u00f1ez environmental scientist with interest in LCA, agriculture, and modelling of environmental impacts from resource use in agricultural activities. Involved in development of LCIA methods to assess impacts of land use and water use since 2007. T.J. Dijkman et al.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2681, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "29 LCA of Food and Agriculture", "pdf_page": 760, "book_page": 754, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials Susanne Vedel Hjuler and Sune Balle Hansen Abstract Biofuels and biomaterials can today substitute many commodities produced from fossil resources, and the bio-based production is increasing worldwide. As fossil resources are limited, and the use of such resources is a major contributor to global warming and other environmental impacts, the potential of bio-products as substitutes for fossil-based products is receiving much attention. According to many LCA studies, bio-products are environmentally superior to fossil products in some life cycle impact categories, while the picture is often opposite in others. Bio-products is a highly diverse group of products and the environmental profile of bio-products relative to their fossil counterparts is case specific and to a high degree depending on the feedstock used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2682, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 761, "book_page": 755, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This illustrates the importance of conducting case specific LCAs for determining the environmental profile of bio-products relative to fossil ones, and emphasises the importance of including all relevant impact categories, in order to avoid problem shifting. 30.1 Many conventional petrochemical products, such as chemicals, polymers and fuels, can today be produced from biomass. There are multiple drivers for substitution of petrochemical products. One driver is that fossil resources are limited. Another driver is that fossil fuel consumption is a major contributor to global warming and to other important environmental impacts as well. Furthermore, biofuels and biomaterials (hereafter referred to together as bio-products) provide an option for basing production on more local feedstock, creating jobs and promoting reduced S.V. Hjuler \u0001 S.B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2683, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 761, "book_page": 755, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hjuler \u0001 S.B. Hansen Division of Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department for Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Produktionstorvet Building 424, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark S.V. Hjuler (&) Novozymes A/S, Krogsh\u00f8jvej 36, 2880 Bagsv\u00e6rd, Denmark e-mail: hjuler.susanne.vedel@gmail.com \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_30", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2684, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 761, "book_page": 755, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "dependence on fossil resources. Following this, the potential of bio-products as substitutes for fossil-based ones is high on the global political agenda, and the production worldwide is increasing. In 2003, 8\u201310% of the feedstock for the European chemical industry was biomass (Rothermel 2008), whereas the global share of bio-based chemicals was 2% in 2008 and is expected to be at least 22% by 2025, according to USDA (2008). For the global polymer production, the bio-based share has reached more than 8% (Carus et al. 2013). Approximately 2% of the global liquid fuel consumption was covered by biofuels in 2010 (EIA 2012). Direct substitution of some of the same fuels, chemicals and materials which are conventionally produced based on fossil resources is possible, but also the development of new materials and products with different properties is pursued", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2685, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 762, "book_page": 756, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Along with the growing demand for bio-products, there is an equally increasing need for awareness of the environmental performance of the bio-products relative to their petrochemical counterparts. The aim of this chapter is to provide a review of the state-of-the-art within LCAs on bio-products, as well as an introduction to methodology and methodological challenges and uncertainties in the field. Definitions and system boundary choices are introduced initially to illustrate the systems in question, after which general LCA results in the field are presented, followed by discussions of specific methodological issues and their potential implication for the assessment results. An important portion of this chapter is based on, and for some parts taken from, J\u00f8rgensen (2014) and further details on many of the discussed issues can be found there. 30.1.1 Definition of Bio-products Bio-products are products made from biomass feedstocks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2686, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 762, "book_page": 756, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.1.1 Definition of Bio-products Bio-products are products made from biomass feedstocks. The definition of biomass can vary among literature sources but one of the most comprehensive definitions can be found in directives from the European Union, e.g. the Renewable Energy Directive, EU-RED, (European Parliament 2009), stating that \u201cbiomass means the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and residues from biological origin from agriculture (including vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries including fisheries and aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste\u201d. Bio-products can also be defined in opposition to fossil products, made from e.g. oil or natural gas. Both fossil- and bio-based products come from biomass but the key difference is that in the case of fossil products, this biomass went through fossilisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2687, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 762, "book_page": 756, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "oil or natural gas. Both fossil- and bio-based products come from biomass but the key difference is that in the case of fossil products, this biomass went through fossilisation. Fossil resources have been formed from ancient biomass during millions of years of geological processing and storage. The carbon present in these resources was thus removed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis many millions of years ago and is no longer a part of the present day natural carbon cycle balance. This carbon is termed \u2018fossil carbon\u2019 (European Commission 2010). S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2688, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 762, "book_page": 756, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the contrary, bio-products are based either completely or partly on biomass feedstock, in the form of plants or biogenic residues/waste (Weiss et al. 2012). As plants take up and store CO2 from the atmosphere during their growth through photosynthesis, carbon exchanges between biomass, including bio-products, and the atmosphere are part of the present-day natural carbon cycle. The carbon pool that is constituted by carbon in biomass and bio-products is termed \u2018biogenic carbon\u2019. Whether this biogenic carbon can be considered \u2018CO2 neutral\u2019 or \u2018carbon neutral\u2019 is a specific key issue for bio-products and their relevance for climate change, and it is discussed in Sect. 30.4.4. There are also issues related to the timing of carbon sequestration and release which affects the \u2018carbon neutrality\u2019 aspect, as temporary release or storage of carbon may also play a role in terms of climate change, especially on short-term targets (e.g. Cherubini et al. 2012b; J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2689, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 763, "book_page": 757, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cherubini et al. 2012b; J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2015). The issue of the potential role of temporary carbon storage in relation to climate change is addressed in Sect. 30.3.1. While the feedstock of bio-products consists of biogenic carbon, the production of the feedstock as well as other processes in the product life cycle may include fossil fuel consumption, or in other ways contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Thus, it is crucial to conduct an LCA in order to determine the actual climate change impacts of bio-products, along with other environmental impacts. There is no standard classification of bio-products. However, a proposal is given in Fig. 30.1 providing an overview of existing bio-products, considering bio-product application and type. The same distinction into biofuels and biomaterials was used throughout this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2690, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 763, "book_page": 757, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.1 providing an overview of existing bio-products, considering bio-product application and type. The same distinction into biofuels and biomaterials was used throughout this chapter. This chapter focuses on bio-products that serve for the substitution of conventional petrochemical products, such as fuels, chemicals and polymers, rather than bio-products based on traditional biomaterials such as wood, paper and textiles. However, many of the aspects discussed here apply for traditional biomaterials as well. Bioproducts Liquid fuels Solid fuels Gaseous fuels Bioproduct application Bioproduct type Examples of bioproducts Fuels Materials Traditional Synthetic Bioethanol, biodiesel Firewood, charcoal, wood pellets Biogas, biohydrogen Wood, paper, textile, essential oil Biocomposites, biopolymers Fig. 30.1 Overview of existing bio-products. Image Copyright \u00a9 Anthony Benoist. Used with permission LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2691, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 763, "book_page": 757, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Generally, bio-products are distinguished into different \u2018generations\u2019: First generation (1G) covers bio-products that are produced by conventional methods, based on sugar, starch, vegetable oil or animal fats. Most bio-products today are 1G, but this feedstock entails certain competition with food production and there is a major focus on moving on to the Second generation (2G). The use of the term 2G is not completely consistent in the literature. Predominantly, it refers to the change from the conventional technology to production of bio-products using lignocellulosic feedstock, e.g. agricultural residues or energy crops. However, some use the term to e.g. refer to a conversion route or end product, rather than feedstock (Cherubini 2010). Here, the first meaning of the terminology is used. Today, 2G biofuel production is reaching commercial scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2692, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 764, "book_page": 758, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "refer to a conversion route or end product, rather than feedstock (Cherubini 2010). Here, the first meaning of the terminology is used. Today, 2G biofuel production is reaching commercial scale. However, use of lignocellulosic feedstock also entails competition with its prior use, such as soil carbon replenishment for lignocellulosic residues, and land use competition for energy crops. Further, a so-called Third generation (3G) of bio-products is discussed in the literature, but like for 2G, the use of the term varies. The term 3G is often used to characterise the use of certain feedstocks like algae (e.g. Sander and Murthy 2010; Carus and Dammer 2013), or microalgae (Posten and Schaub 2009), due to its potential to address many of the concerns about 1G and 2G feedstock (Sander and Murthy 2010), its high yield potentials (Posten and Schaub 2009; Sander and Murthy 2010) and the different growing conditions, compared to terrestrial plants (Posten and Schaub 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2693, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 764, "book_page": 758, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, others use the term 3G to refer to a follow up on 2G, and do not refer to a shift in feedstock in the same way as the shift between 1G and 2G (Bessou et al. 2011). Bio-products beyond 1G are sometimes termed as \u2018next generation\u2019 or \u2018advanced\u2019 bio-products. As outlined, the use of terminology in this field is not consistent in the literature so caution should be taken when reading the terms. Biofuels can be classified into three categories (Fig. 30.1): 1. Liquid biofuels: the most common are bioethanol and biodiesel 2. Gaseous biofuels: Biogas, syngas and biohydrogen 3. Solid biofuels: Pellets, lignin, biochar and wood Among the biofuels, this chapter will concentrate on the liquid biofuels biodiesel and bioethanol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2694, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 764, "book_page": 758, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Solid biofuels: Pellets, lignin, biochar and wood Among the biofuels, this chapter will concentrate on the liquid biofuels biodiesel and bioethanol. These are among the focus areas in the EU-RED (European Parliament 2009) in Europe and the Renewable Fuel Standard, RFS (Schnepf and Yacobucci 2012) in the USA, both of which set the official (political) standards for permitted life cycle emissions of a biofuel to be labelled \u2018renewable\u2019. In both documents, the renewability of a biofuel is judged solely on GHG emissions. This in turn steers the industrial and to a large extend the academic focus onto GHG emissions, which could lead to potential problem shifting towards other impact categories. S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2695, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 764, "book_page": 758, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Biomaterials can be classified in various ways\u2014here two main distinctions are made (Fig. 30.1): 1. Synthetic biomaterials (e.g. biopolymers or biocomposites) substituting conventional materials, such as various types of petrochemical plastic, cement or chemicals. 2. Traditional biomaterials, e.g. wood, paper and textiles. The biomaterials in focus here are those of the first group. An example of such a biomaterial is polylactic acid (PLA), a widespread biopolymer for example used for biomedical applications, disposable cups and cutlery, food containers and biodegradable bags for compostable waste. 30.1.2 System Boundaries Bio-products are most often created to substitute fossil resource-based products. As such, it is of high importance that the system boundaries are set in a manner to make direct impact comparisons with fossil resource-based products possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2696, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 765, "book_page": 759, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As such, it is of high importance that the system boundaries are set in a manner to make direct impact comparisons with fossil resource-based products possible. In assessments of bio-products, the most controversial system boundary decisions pertain to the assessment of land use change (LUC) (direct and indirect), the modelling of waste products, use stage and the \u2018end-of-life handling\u2019 (for biomaterials). Often, these aspects have simply been sidestepped or ignored. A number of studies have included these aspects and found that they are in most cases very important (e.g. Majer et al. 2009). As such, they should never be omitted from the assessment without proper documentation that they are negligible. Other types of system boundaries are pertaining to inclusion of impact categories and time horizons. These are dealt with in Sect. 30.2 Sustainability of Biofuels and Biomaterials and Sect. 30.3 Specific Issues for Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2697, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 765, "book_page": 759, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These are dealt with in Sect. 30.2 Sustainability of Biofuels and Biomaterials and Sect. 30.3 Specific Issues for Biomaterials. It must be kept in mind that the system boundaries should be drawn to include what is important in relation to the goal of the study (see Chap. 8). Inclusion of aspects like LUCs and in particular indirect land use change (ILUC) may lead to increased representativeness of the study, but also increased uncertainties. There can thus be great variations in LUC emissions depending on land uses, soil type, geography, climate, etc.; and it can be difficult to determine which products are ultimately substituted. The needed data for a specific assessment are often difficult to come by and simplifications/assumptions may be necessary. It is important that these issues, along with simplifications and assumptions, are dealt with and described. Conventionally, attributional system boundaries (see Chap. 8) have been used for bio-products as with most other products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2698, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 765, "book_page": 759, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Conventionally, attributional system boundaries (see Chap. 8) have been used for bio-products as with most other products. In recent years, consequential system boundaries (see Chaps. 8 and 9) have been introduced; either for the entire system or partially, to describe (in)direct LUCs (see Sect. 30.4) and for the evaluation of the residue use and by-products, which cross the system boundaries. LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2699, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 765, "book_page": 759, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.2 Sustainability of Biofuels and Biomaterials More LCA results can be found on biofuels than on biomaterials (e.g. Patel et al. 2005), and most are based on first generation (1G), where fewer LCA results are available for the next generations of bio-products. For the environmental sustainability of bio-products relative to their fossil-based counterparts, conclusions cover a wide range. This is further complicated by LCA not having consensus on a standardised impact assessment methodology resulting in various impact categories being used in studies on bio-products (Singh et al. 2010). However, generally, LCA studies conclude the following: \u2022 With respect to fossil fuel consumption and climate change impacts, bio-products generally perform better than their petrochemical counterparts (Weiss et al. 2007, 2012; Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011; Wang 2010; Patel et al. 2005). This picture can, however, change if the feedstock is planted on previously high carbon stock land (Kim et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2700, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 766, "book_page": 760, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007, 2012; Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011; Wang 2010; Patel et al. 2005). This picture can, however, change if the feedstock is planted on previously high carbon stock land (Kim et al. 2009) or when including GHG emissions from ILUC, which can be substantial (Weiss et al. 2012). The issues of LUC and ILUC are covered in Sect. 30.4. \u2022 When it comes to other impact categories, bio-products do not necessarily perform better than their conventional counterparts. Many reviews conclude that bio-products often have a higher impact than conventional products in the case of eutrophication (e.g. Weiss et al. 2007, 2012; Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011) and stratospheric ozone depletion (e.g. Weiss et al. 2007, 2012). \u2022 For acidification, some reviews conclude that bio-products generally have a higher impact than their petrochemical counterparts (e.g. Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011; Taboneet al. 2010; Luo et al. 2009; Weiss et al. 2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2701, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 766, "book_page": 760, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011; Taboneet al. 2010; Luo et al. 2009; Weiss et al. 2007). Other studies, however, find inconclusive results for this impact category, which may indicate that the results vary between different types of bio-products (Weiss et al. 2012). \u2022 Some studies suggest that biomaterials have a lower impact in terms of human toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, as well as carcinogenic potential, but a higher aquatic ecotoxicity, compared to conventional materials (Weiss et al. 2012), while other studies conclude that bio-product systems lead to increased human toxicity and ecotoxicity in most cases (Cherubini and Str\u00f8mman 2011). However, those categories are often not included in LCA studies and results are based on few studies (Weiss et al. 2012). In addition, biomass feedstock production use land and thus include a number of impacts related to that land use (see more on impact assessment of land use in Sect. 10.14)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2702, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 766, "book_page": 760, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2012). In addition, biomass feedstock production use land and thus include a number of impacts related to that land use (see more on impact assessment of land use in Sect. 10.14). These are, however, in many cases not consistently included in LCA, as mentioned in Sect. 30.4.3. As mentioned, most current conclusions on LCA results of bio-products compared to their fossil-based counterparts are primarily based on 1G bio-products. For 2G bio-products, these results are expected to improve, as this feedstock is generally expected to have a better environmental performance than 1G. This is further discussed in Sect. 30.5. S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2703, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 766, "book_page": 760, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These results make the current overall environmental performance of bio-products compared to conventional products inconclusive from a general point of view, and illustrate the importance of including all relevant impact categories when considering bio-based product sustainability, in order to avoid problem shifting. Further, it illustrates that environmental sustainability of bio-products relative to fossil counter products is rather case specific, emphasising the need for LCAs on a case level. 30.2.1 Biofuels or Biomaterials? Most LCA studies on bio-products focus on their environmental performance relative to petrochemical counter products. Comparing whether biofuels or biomaterials are preferable, in terms of optimal biomass use from an environmental perspective, has been less studied. However, Patel et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2704, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 767, "book_page": 761, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Comparing whether biofuels or biomaterials are preferable, in terms of optimal biomass use from an environmental perspective, has been less studied. However, Patel et al. (2005) concludes that when comparing use in biofuels or biomaterials from the perspective of energy savings and reduced GHG emissions, biomaterials currently seem to be preferable. This conclusion is supported by Brehmer et al. (2012) stating that dedicated biochemical production can outperform biofuels in terms of fossil fuel replacement potential. As innovation continues in those technologies, these are preliminary results and further investigation is needed. Also in terms of to what extent the issue between biofuels and biomaterials is competition and to what extent it is complementary (Patel et al. 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2705, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 767, "book_page": 761, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also in terms of to what extent the issue between biofuels and biomaterials is competition and to what extent it is complementary (Patel et al. 2005). The potential complementarity between biofuels and biomaterials is to some extent pursued in the biorefinery concept\u2014a bio-based analogue to the existing petrochemical refinery, producing both fuel and materials in an integrated process. However, even though some commercial and pilot scale biorefinery plants exist, the technology is still rather new and only few LCA studies are available. Cherubini and Jungmeier (2010) conclude that the biomass energy and material recovery is maximised if applying the biorefinery concept, joining a variety of technical processes. Apart from the potentially increased efficiency, LCA results resemble the general LCA results for bio-products, as the biorefinery concept is simply an integrated production of various bio-products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2706, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 767, "book_page": 761, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Apart from the potentially increased efficiency, LCA results resemble the general LCA results for bio-products, as the biorefinery concept is simply an integrated production of various bio-products. 30.2.2 Major Impact Processes in the Life Cycle The environmental impacts from bio-products originate from a number of activities, but some contribute more than others. Here, some of the major influencing aspects are highlighted: \u2022 LUCs can potentially contribute very significantly to especially the GHG emissions in a bio-based product system. LUCs are discussed in Sect. 30.4. LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2707, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 767, "book_page": 761, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 A substantial share of environmental impacts from bio-products originate from industrial farming practices, e.g. from the use of fertilisers, pesticides and water. Further, solid and liquid wastes can cause significant impacts if not treated properly, but they also have the potential to be used directly as solid fuel or be used as feedstock for second generation bio-products and thereby improve the environmental performance of the system. \u2022 The production stage for bio-products can also have a large contribution to the overall environmental impact, e.g. for bioethanol (Tabone et al. 2010; Wang 2010). 30.2.3 Reliability of Results Conclusions of environmental impacts of bio-products compared to conventional petrochemical products from different LCA studies often differ substantially, as previously mentioned. Here, we distinguish between: \u2022 Variations due to real differences in studied systems, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2708, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 768, "book_page": 762, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here, we distinguish between: \u2022 Variations due to real differences in studied systems, e.g. due to difference in products, feedstock, production routes or spatial variability due to different regional scopes \u2022 Delimitations due to lack of the entire LCA perspective in studies, either by including only one or a few impact categories, or using a scope that does not cover the entire life cycle (e.g. using only \u2018cradle-to-gate\u2019 perspective, see Sect. 8.6) \u2022 Uncertainty due to limitations in data, insufficient knowledge on which to base reliable assumptions etc. Variations and Delimitations When discussing bio-products in general, there is bound to be variations due to the different types of bio-products. However, many LCA studies on bio-products also differ in, e.g. modelling choices of system boundaries, functional units, allocation procedure and life cycle scenarios (Weiss et al. 2012; Malca and Freire 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2709, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 768, "book_page": 762, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "modelling choices of system boundaries, functional units, allocation procedure and life cycle scenarios (Weiss et al. 2012; Malca and Freire 2011). Often, there are considerable variations in the LCAs on bio-products due to difference in product systems; e.g. in terms of feedstock type, production technology or yields (Weiss et al. 2012; Wang 2010; Dornburg et al. 2003). Furthermore, results vary with regional scope, as aspects such as electricity generation and end-of-life handling of products differ substantially between countries (Patel et al. 2005). Many LCA studies on bio-products are also delimited in their life cycle approach, either in terms of impact categories, scope or coverage of life cycle stages. For one thing, a substantial part of LCA studies on bio-products focuses only on fossil fuel consumption and GHG emissions (Von Blottnitz and Curran 2007). While this may be relevant in terms of specific political targets, it entails a risk of problem shifting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2710, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 768, "book_page": 762, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "While this may be relevant in terms of specific political targets, it entails a risk of problem shifting. In later years, it seems that the inclusion of more impact S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2711, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 768, "book_page": 762, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "categories within this field has increased (Weiss et al. 2012). Some studies only include a cradle-to-gate perspective, rather than the full LCA perspective cradle-to-grave, or leave out important aspects in some life cycle stages, with the limitations and potential problem shifting that entails. Other points to be aware of are that there is an overweight of LCAs on European products, and that some results are based on pilot scale production while others are based on large industrial scale (Weiss et al. 2012) and others again are based largely on generic data. Such variations and delimitations make comparison of results difficult and meta-analysis has become a popular tool for reducing some of the differences. In meta-analysis, available studies are made comparable by, e.g. altering the functional unit and recalculating results accordingly (Weiss et al. 2012). Example 30.1 The interest in 3G biofuels has seen an important increase in the last decade", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2712, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 769, "book_page": 763, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "altering the functional unit and recalculating results accordingly (Weiss et al. 2012). Example 30.1 The interest in 3G biofuels has seen an important increase in the last decade. Many theoretical process chains have been proposed by coupling biomass production facilities (as open ponds or photobioreactors) and concentration and transformation processes (centrifugation, chemical separation, wet or dry extraction of compounds of interest, etc.). Since the first microalgal biodiesel LCA (Lardon et al., 2009), around 300 studies dealing with this topic have been published in scientific literature. All these studies try to capture the environmental drawbacks of these emerging systems for which real industrial data do not (yet) exist. The variability of LCIs combined with unclear system boundaries (as well-to-wheel or well-to-tank (see Sect. 27.1.3), co-product management rules, etc.) explains large variations in results. To illustrate this variability, Collet et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2713, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 769, "book_page": 763, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27.1.3), co-product management rules, etc.) explains large variations in results. To illustrate this variability, Collet et al. (2013) reviewed 13 microalgal biofuel LCA publications; they found a range of climate change impact from \u221275 to 531 g CO2-eq per MJ produced. Collet et al. (2015) list 24 main issues driving variation in LCA results due to differences in goal and scope, LCI and LCIA steps, which should be assessed to allow result comparisons among 3G systems. Uncertainty Uncertainties in inventory data may be rather large and often vary substantially between bio-product studies (Weiss et al. 2012; Patel et al. 2005). One of the main reasons for this is the substantial use of assumptions (Davis et al. 2009), which is partially due to the fact that especially production of biomaterials is still relying on rather new technologies and LCA modelling is often based on small scale data (Weiss et al. 2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2714, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 769, "book_page": 763, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007). In addition, when conducting an LCA on bio-products it must be kept in mind that especially biofuel is a highly politicised topic and that existing data and assumptions may be biased. A vast number of academic papers and reports have been published using a wide array of methodologies and assumptions, making comparison of studies difficult if not impossible in many cases. Thus, for the LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2715, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 769, "book_page": 763, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "purpose of conducting an LCA and collecting data, as well as choosing existing studies for comparison, strict review of the assumptions and data foundation in existing studies is important. The potentials for production of bio-products in developing and emerging countries are rapidly increasing. Specific data in these countries is often sparse, non-verifiable and not publicly available and it cannot be assumed that data from industrial countries apply. Note that Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines (e.g. IPCC 2006) often do not apply to tropical conditions as the background data are collected from industrialised countries. Special focus on data integrity and clearly stated assumptions is thus necessary. 30.2.4 Areas Getting Increased Attention Current LCA results generally do not include ILUC impacts, but significant work is dedicated to tackling this issue in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2716, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 770, "book_page": 764, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.2.4 Areas Getting Increased Attention Current LCA results generally do not include ILUC impacts, but significant work is dedicated to tackling this issue in LCA. Further, several land use related impacts are receiving increased attention, such as water consumption and quality downgrading, changes in biodiversity, losses of soil carbon and erosion of soil, as well as changes in surface albedo and other biogeophysical impacts. However, many such land use related impacts have not yet been included in general LCAs (e.g. Weiss et al. 2012; Wang 2010; Patel et al. 2005). ILUC is further discussed in Sect. 30.4.1 and land use related impacts are further discussed in Sect. 30.4.2. N2O emissions from agricultural land using industrial and/or organic fertilisers is another issue, which has been neglected in many studies as data is sparse (Cherubini et al. 2009). However, some studies have highlighted the potentially very significant impacts from this strong greenhouse gas (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2717, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 770, "book_page": 764, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009). However, some studies have highlighted the potentially very significant impacts from this strong greenhouse gas (e.g. Crutzen et al. 2008) and recent studies have quantified some potential emissions, though generic data from IPCC (2006) is often used rather than site specific data (e.g. Majer et al. 2009). 30.3 Specific Issues for Biomaterials In many aspects, biofuels and biomaterials are comparable as they are based on the same feedstock types and thus have similar opportunities and challenges with respect to feedstock issues. For that reason, they can to a large extend be addressed together, which is what has been done in the previous sections in this chapter. However, there are some issues that differ between biofuels and biomaterials, due to one main difference, which is the product lifetime. Whereas the use stage for fuels is also the disposal stage and the fuel is not expected to have a long lifetime, this is different for some biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2718, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 770, "book_page": 764, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Whereas the use stage for fuels is also the disposal stage and the fuel is not expected to have a long lifetime, this is different for some biomaterials. This difference leads to a number of issues that need to be considered specifically for biomaterials. S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2719, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 770, "book_page": 764, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.3.1 Temporary Carbon Storage When biomaterials are produced, they store the biogenic carbon from their biomass origin, thus keeping it out of the atmosphere until, the carbon is released again, which e.g. happens if the product is incinerated at its end of life. There is an ongoing discussion on how, and even if, such temporary carbon storage contributes to reducing global warming issues, and many suggestions for the handling of temporary carbon storage exist (see, e.g. Brand\u00e3o et al. 2013; J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2015). The ILCD handbook handles temporary carbon storage as follows (European Commission 2010): Temporary removal of CO2 from the air by e.g. storage in long-lived bio-products is accounted for in the inventory, but generally not included in the total impact calculation of the LCA, due to the general infinite time horizon in LCA. It should only be considered in the total impact calculation if the short-term perspective rather than the normal infinite perspective is considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2720, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 771, "book_page": 765, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It should only be considered in the total impact calculation if the short-term perspective rather than the normal infinite perspective is considered. Generally, all emissions occurring during the first 100 years of the analysis are inventoried as normal elementary flows, whereas emissions occurring after those 100 years are inventoried as \u2018long-term emissions\u2019 and are not included in the short-term emissions. Thus, accounting for temporary carbon storage is done by introducing a \u2018correction elementary flow\u2019, using IPCC GWP100 factors and including the duration of the temporary carbon storage within the first 100 years of the analysis. Using this approach, the derived GWP100 impact factor is \u22120.01 kg CO2-eq for 1 kg CO2 stored 1 year.1 This way of handling temporary carbon storage is analogous to the handling of delayed emissions, with the exception that fossil delayed emissions do not have the benefit of prior uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2721, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 771, "book_page": 765, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Example 30.2 If a stock of biopolymer products has a mass of carbon equivalent to 1 tonne CO2 (*273 kg carbon) and is stored for 5 years, the correction flow will be: 1000 kg CO2 \u0003 5 years \u0003 \u00040:01 kg CO2-eq=kg CO2=year 1\u20444 \u000450 kg CO2-eq \u00f030:1\u00de If the study requires inclusion of the value of temporary carbon storage in the impact assessment, the correction flow of \u221250 kg CO2-eq means that 50 kg CO2-eq are subtracted from the total GHG impact of the product stock over its lifetime, thus lowering the carbon footprint of the products. 10.01 kg CO2-eq per kg CO2 stored 1 year corresponds to the GWP100 for 1 kg CO2 of 1 kg CO2eq over 100 years, if assuming linearity, and considering a short-term perspective, rather than the normal infinite one, as explained in the text. LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2722, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 771, "book_page": 765, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Time Horizons A central issue in the discussion of the handling of temporary carbon storage in LCA is the use of time horizons. When assessing climate change impacts in LCA, a time horizon of 100 years is often used for the characterisation factor, reflecting the time horizon adopted in the Kyoto Protocol. In approaches for assessing the value of temporary carbon storage, the use of such a time horizon is by some interpreted as implying that impacts occurring after this time should not be included in the assessment (e.g. Moura-Costa 2002; Clift and Brand\u00e3o 2008). To distinguish between these interpretations, this latter interpretation, of disregarding all impacts occurring after the time horizon, is here referred to as \u2018accounting period\u2019. It is important to understand the major difference between the time horizon used in the Kyoto Protocol and such an accounting period", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2723, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 772, "book_page": 766, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is important to understand the major difference between the time horizon used in the Kyoto Protocol and such an accounting period. The 100-year time horizon adopted in the Kyoto Protocol includes impacts of the first 100 years of every greenhouse gas emission, regardless of when the emission occurs, cutting off only the so-called \u2018tails\u2019 of the emissions that are left 100 years after the emission. For CO2 emissions, for example, approximately 20% stays in the atmosphere for many thousand years (Archer et al. 1997). The approach is illustrated in Fig. 30.2: In contrast to this, the accounting period, suggested by some for temporary carbon storage crediting, starts counting from the time the carbon is stored and cuts off every impact occurring after the accounting period, regardless of when along the accounting period the carbon is released again", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2724, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 772, "book_page": 766, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that some of the impacts from an emission will be \u2018hidden\u2019 or completely disregarded due to the accounting period, which is a very different result than using the time horizon as adopted in the Kyoto Protocol (J\u00f8rgensen and Hauschild 2013; Brand\u00e3o et al. 2013). For example, if carbon is stored for 30 years before being released, using the 100-year time horizon will still give a 100 year impact inclusion whereas the 100-year accounting period will only give an inclusion of 70 years impact. The difference in the two ways of interpreting time horizons is illustrated in Fig. 30.3. 0.5 Part of CO2 emission le\u014c in the atmosphere Years since emission Cut off of atmospheric CO2 'tail' a\u014cer 100 years from emission, using the 100-year \u019fme horizon Fig. 30.2 Implication of the 100-year time horizon", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2725, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 772, "book_page": 766, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.2 Implication of the 100-year time horizon. The black line indicates the fraction of a CO2 emission left in the atmosphere as a function of time after emission, whereas the grey area represents the \u2018tail\u2019 of the emission, which is cut off due to the use of the 100-year time horizon (modified from: J\u00f8rgensen and Hauschild 2013) S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2726, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 772, "book_page": 766, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use of a 100-year accounting period can thus not be justified with reference to the normal use of a 100-year time horizon in LCIA of climate change impacts. As the choice is essential for the outcome, it should be ensured that it properly reflects the real climate change mitigation value of temporarily storing carbon (e.g. J\u00f8rgensen and Hauschild 2013; Brand\u00e3o et al. 2013). Another time-related issue is the lifetime of the product, which determines the length of temporary carbon storage and thus influences the potential value of the storage relative to the product carbon footprint. Since product lifetimes are generally very short compared to the duration of impacts from GHG emissions, temporary carbon storage does not change much in terms of long-term climate impacts (J\u00f8rgensen and Hauschild 2013). Note that terminology for above-discussed types of time horizons differ in the literature, and may often not be clearly distinguished", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2727, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 773, "book_page": 767, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that terminology for above-discussed types of time horizons differ in the literature, and may often not be clearly distinguished. Tipping Points The issue of long-term climate change implications is, however, not the only relevant issue when considering the potential role of carbon storage in mitigating climate change. Due to increased global warming, there is also an issue of urgency, with the risk of passing critical climate change levels, so-called climatic \u2018tipping points\u2019. A tipping point is a point where a structural change occurs in a system, which starts a \u2018chain reaction\u2019, meaning that it is no longer external forcing, but rather internal mechanisms in the system, which drives the process of change (IPCC 2007). Crossing such a tipping point is expected to lead to dramatic climate system changes which may be virtually irreversible (IPCC 2007), meaning that it is not realistic to return to the situation as it was before crossing the tipping point", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2728, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 773, "book_page": 767, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mitigation of the rise in atmospheric GHG concentration is urgently required if the passing of expected climatic tipping points should be avoided. Thus, even short-term storage of carbon may have value in terms of climate change mitigation, if it can add to staying below such climatic tipping points, until more permanent solutions are reached (J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2015). It is therefore suggested to distinguish between long-term and short-term impacts when addressing the climate change 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 Years of impact included Years of product storage before release Years of impact inclusion a\u014cer GHG release following temporary storage 100-year TH 100-year AP Fig. 30.3 Difference in using a 100-year time horizon (TH) and a 100-year accounting period (AP)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2729, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 773, "book_page": 767, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.3 Difference in using a 100-year time horizon (TH) and a 100-year accounting period (AP). Inclusion of impacts after a GHG emission, following a certain time of temporary carbon storage in bio-products depending on whether a 100-year TH or AP is used LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2730, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 773, "book_page": 767, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mitigation value of temporary carbon storage (J\u00f8rgensen and Hauschild 2013; J\u00f8rgensen et al. 2015). 30.3.2 Biodegradability There is a widespread misconception that all biomaterials are biodegradable, making them more sustainable than, and distinguishing them from, petrochemical materials. There are several mistakes in this belief. In the first instance, biomaterials are not necessarily biodegradable, while some petrochemical materials can be biodegradable. Biodegradability is a material property, which depends on the molecular structure of the material, not the feedstock (PlasticsEurope 2013). In fact, materials can be identical once produced, regardless of whether they were made from a biomass or petrochemical feedstock. Second, biodegradability does not inherently equal sustainability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2731, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 774, "book_page": 768, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In fact, materials can be identical once produced, regardless of whether they were made from a biomass or petrochemical feedstock. Second, biodegradability does not inherently equal sustainability. Even if biodegradability does increase environmental sustainability of a certain material in the disposal stage, there may be other impacts in the life cycle of that biodegradable product that cancel out or overshadow the benefit. However, in some cases, being biodegradable may also in itself add no benefit, or may even have a damaging effect, relative to the environmental sustainability profile. In some countries, plastic is incinerated to produce heat and power, thereby replacing alternative fuels that are often fossil. The concept of using biomass first for products and subsequently for energy recovery through incineration is referred to as \u2018carbon cascading\u2019 (Weiss et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2732, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 774, "book_page": 768, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The concept of using biomass first for products and subsequently for energy recovery through incineration is referred to as \u2018carbon cascading\u2019 (Weiss et al. 2012). If instead composting biodegradable materials, the benefits from the composting need to be counterbalanced against what is lost from the heat and power recovery from waste incineration. A study of the biopolymer polylactic acid (PLA) has shown that product-specific GHG emissions may vary by 20% depending on whether or not energy recovery from incineration is included (Hermann et al. 2011). In case biodegradable materials end up being incinerated, which is likely under the current waste management situation in a country like Denmark, it does not matter whether they are biodegradable. If biodegradation takes place under anaerobic conditions, the carbon in the material will be converted into a mixture of methane and CO2 by digestion, rather than just converted to CO2 as under aerobic conditions in e.g. composting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2733, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 774, "book_page": 768, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "composting. If anaerobic digestion takes place in a biogas plant or a landfill with capture of landfill gases, the methane can be used to substitute fossil energy. However, if taking place in landfills where the methane is not captured, or in poorly managed home composting systems leading to anaerobic conditions (Song et al. 2009), as applicable in many places in the world, the methane production may lead to higher overall climate change impacts from biodegradable materials than for non-biodegradable ones, due to the relative high characterisation factor of methane compared to CO2 S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2734, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 774, "book_page": 768, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(e.g. Patel et al. 2005). When conducting studies on biodegradable polymers, composting is often considered as the waste handling method, whereas the option of digestion is rarely included (Patel et al. 2005). Some studies suggest that composting biodegradable materials can be more beneficial than incineration, if the compost is used for agricultural carbon soil replenishment (e.g. Weiss et al. 2012; Hermann et al. 2011). For the issue of potential storage of carbon in the composted material, however, it is most likely that between 80% and all of the initially sequestered carbon will be released during composting of biodegradable polymers, due to their ability to rapidly decompose (Patel et al. 2005) in which case there will not be much left for soil replenishment and storage in the soil", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2735, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 775, "book_page": 769, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005) in which case there will not be much left for soil replenishment and storage in the soil. Furthermore, composting biomaterials only have a nutritional value for the soil if the biomaterial in question includes nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous or potassium, which is normally not the case. If, on the other hand the biomaterial does include nitrogen, then composting includes the risk of potential emissions of N2O, which due to its large global warming potential can reverse any benefits from the compost (IPCC 2006). Finally, for using biodegradable products in compost and soil replenishment, all substances in the bio-products have to comply with requirements for this use, such as heavy metal thresholds (e.g. Song et al. 2009). Biodegradability is therefore a property like many others, which may or may not have a positive impact on the environmental profile of a product when considering all life cycle impacts under the relevant circumstances", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2736, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 775, "book_page": 769, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.4 Land Use Change, LUC Three major drivers for land use change (LUC) exist globally: (1) Timber harvesting, (2) Infrastructure development, (3) Agricultural/horticultural expansion (Kim et al. 2009). Often, the LUC is due to a combination of the above. Biofuels and biomaterials are by default directly linked to the agri- and horticultural sectors and direct and indirect land use change will in most cases contribute significantly to the life cycle impacts of bio-based products. In some cases, LUC impacts can be higher than the impacts of the rest of the life cycle impacts combined. Potential LUCs related to bio-product crops are: 1. Forest or other virgin land to bio-product crop 2. Agricultural crop to bio-product crop 3. Fallow land to bio-product crop 4. Urban land to bio-product crop (happens only on a very small scale and is not dealt with here) LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2737, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 775, "book_page": 769, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.4.1 Direct and Indirect Land Use Change Direct land use change (DLUC) is the man-made conversion of a piece of land from a previous land use (like another crop type or forest) to a bio-product crop. Indirect land use change (ILUC) occurs when land carrying a crop \u2018A\u2019 is converted to a bio-product crop and market demand for product(s) that are derived from the earlier crop \u2018A\u2019 (directly or through other indirect crop displacements) drives conversion of marginal land elsewhere to meet that demand. This process is shown in Fig. 30.4. DLUC is often followed by ILUC if the DLUC takes place on previously cultivated land. Marginal land describes the land ultimately most likely to be converted. Unless there is an unlikely decline in demand for agricultural land in the region, the marginal land will be virgin land like forest or abandoned land like secondary forest or fallow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2738, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 776, "book_page": 770, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Unless there is an unlikely decline in demand for agricultural land in the region, the marginal land will be virgin land like forest or abandoned land like secondary forest or fallow. Example 30.3 If rapeseed oil in Europe is used for biodiesel production, less vegetable oil will be available on the market. Palm oil, which is produced mainly in Malaysia and Indonesia, is currently the cheapest and fastest growing vegetable oil crop in the world and as such it is the marginal oil crop (i.e. the oil most likely to be produced if vegetable oil demand increases). Thus, the supply deficit in vegetable oil when rapeseed oil is used as fuel will most likely be covered by additional production of palm oil in Malaysia and Indonesia. The marginal land in Malaysia and Indonesia is to a large extent forest, so the production of biodiesel from rapeseed in Europe will likely result in deforestation in South East Asia", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2739, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 776, "book_page": 770, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The marginal land in Malaysia and Indonesia is to a large extent forest, so the production of biodiesel from rapeseed in Europe will likely result in deforestation in South East Asia. Note that in this example no direct land use change occurs when producing fuel from rapeseed oil as only the use of the crop changes. As ILUC is highly dependent on market forces, and it creates scenarios that are beyond the influence of farmers and bio-product producers, it becomes highly uncertain to predict or model, and a formal consensus has not been reached for a methodology to include ILUC in LCA. 30.4.2 Impacts of Land Use Change Historical and current LCA literature on bio-products focuses mainly on carbon emissions from LUC, but other impacts like biodiversity loss, water use impacts and biogeophysical impacts like albedo changes are starting to attract more interest", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2740, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 776, "book_page": 770, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Biodiversity The loss of biodiversity is a major environmental concern, and habitat loss and (local) species extinction due to a changed land use is expected to be the main driver of biodiversity changes in terrestrial ecosystems (Sala et al. 2000). However, S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2741, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 776, "book_page": 770, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "approaches on how to handle the consideration of biodiversity impacts in LCA are still on a rather preliminary level (e.g. Chaudhary et al. 2015; de Baan et al. 2013; Koellner et al. 2013; Michelsen 2008). The current lack of consensus on an assessment method (which over time may be solved by the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative\u2019s effort to establish a global consensus on LCIA models and methods) and the lack of geographical specific data are main obstacles for obtaining quantitative and reliable results of biodiversity impacts in LCA. However, due to the importance of this aspect, obtaining qualitative or rough quantitative results of best available approaches is considered better than disregarding biodiversity impacts. Albedo Albedo is a measure of how much of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by a surface. Albedo values vary with seasons and differ a lot depending on the type of land cover", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2742, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 777, "book_page": 771, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Albedo Albedo is a measure of how much of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by a surface. Albedo values vary with seasons and differ a lot depending on the type of land cover. Surfaces covered in snow and ice thus have much higher albedo than darker surfaces, for instance areas covered with forest (e.g. Cherubini et al 2012a). The effect of increased albedo is cooling, whereas decreased albedo of a surface leads to warming. As LUC can lead to substantial changes in the albedo of an area, which can play an important role in terms of climate impacts, albedo changes is increasingly included in climate impact assessments of biofuel systems (e.g. Bright et al. 2012a, b; Cherubini et al. 2012a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2743, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 777, "book_page": 771, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bright et al. 2012a, b; Cherubini et al. 2012a). Reliability of results depends on availability Biofuel and feedstock replacing other crop Alterna\u019fve/synthe\u019fc produc\u019fon Replacing other crop Induced impacts Other market changes Crop price increases (Similar/marginal) Crop planted elsewhere Less demand for replaced crop Mi\u019fgated or no indirect impact Yes No (or insufficient) Intensified agricultural produc\u019fon of the crop* No (or insufficient) Yes Replacing marginal virgin land (forest) Fig. 30.4 Potential ILUC effects can be very complex making accurate predictions very difficult. The figure provides a simplified overview of the potential consequences of LUC. ILUC can be avoided or mitigated by less demand for\u2014or intensified agricultural production of\u2014the replaced crop. Asterisk Intensified agricultural production can induce impacts through e.g. increased use of chemicals and soil degradation LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2744, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 777, "book_page": 771, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of relevant geographical data for similar land uses. Other biogeophysical effects exist as well, but on a global scale the albedo effect is the dominating direct climate forcing of these, especially in locations with seasonal snow cover (Claussen et al. 2001; Randerson et al. 2006; Bala et al. 2007). 30.4.3 Carbon Pools Through the conversion of land a number of carbon pools are affected (Germer and Sauerborn 2008): \u2022 Above ground biomass: All living plants above ground \u2022 Below ground biomass: All living biomass in the soil; e.g. roots \u2022 Litter and deadwood: Fallen trees, leaves and branches \u2022 Soil carbon: Organic carbon residues left in the soil after degradation of biomass The various carbon pools vary greatly depending on climate, vegetation and soil type. The net carbon balance for LUC is the difference in the four carbon pools between the previous land use and the bio-product crop land use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2745, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 778, "book_page": 772, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The net carbon balance for LUC is the difference in the four carbon pools between the previous land use and the bio-product crop land use. LUC can thus result in net emission as well as a net sequestration of carbon depending on the carbon stored in the previous land use and the bio-product crop land use. Note that carbon sequestration credits are the difference in carbon stock at the beginning and the end of the assessment time horizon. If the land is cleared in the last crop cycle of the assessment time horizon then no permanent carbon sequestration should be credited. Thus, unless there is documented reason to believe that the land will be left with a certain carbon pool at the end of the assessment time horizon then no permanent carbon sequestration should be credited. In the case of plantations, which are replanted, e.g. every 30 years, it can be argued that there is temporary carbon storage for these 30 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2746, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 778, "book_page": 772, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the case of plantations, which are replanted, e.g. every 30 years, it can be argued that there is temporary carbon storage for these 30 years. However, as the carbon is sequestered and stored approximately linearly over the 30 year period, the average retention of the carbon is only half of that, i.e. 15 years. If the goal of the study requires inclusion of temporary carbon storage, then the temporary carbon storage model from ILCD (European Commission 2010) could be applied (see Sect. 30.3.1). Applying this, the temporary carbon storage in the plantations should be credited 15% of the full carbon storage potential (see application in e.g. Hansen et al. 2014). It must be clearly stated that the storage is biogenic. If organic residues of the bio-product crop (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2747, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 778, "book_page": 772, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hansen et al. 2014). It must be clearly stated that the storage is biogenic. If organic residues of the bio-product crop (e.g. trunks) are treated and stored in a product thereby preventing the release of the fixed carbon, then this temporary carbon storage should not be inventoried under LUC, but rather under the production stage of the bio-product, in which the residue is generated. Although biomass is often considered CO2 neutral as the carbon has been captured recently, this is not the case if the biomass is from virgin sources, such as virgin forest, where there has been carbon equilibrium for thousands or millions of years, or if such land has been cleared for enabling the production of the biomass. So even though the individual trees/plants may not be old, the carbon stored in the land must be considered a permanent carbon pool, which is lost if the forest is converted to S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2748, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 778, "book_page": 772, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "agriculture. All virgin forest conversion emissions should thus be inventoried as fossil carbon dioxide (European Commission 2010). Before a forest is converted to agricultural land it is most often logged for valuable timber. The extraction of trees suitable for timber has a market value and can in attributional LCA be considered as belonging to a separate product system. The carbon stored in the timber trees should thus not be counted in the LUC emissions in the bio-product system. In a consequential approach it is necessary to consider whether the timber is substituting timber harvesting somewhere else, in which case the carbon stored in a similar quantity of marginal timber can be subtracted from the total carbon loss from the LUC including the timber", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2749, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 779, "book_page": 773, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Special local conditions, which are not covered specifically in the ILCD Handbook (European Commission 2010), can occur as per following example: Example 30.4 In the case of palm oil derived biodiesel from Malaysia, the Malaysian government has selected areas still under forest cover for timber extraction and future development, e.g. oil palm plantations. These areas have alreadybeen or will beharvested for timber byselective logging.Clear cutting is only used if a plantation is established immediately after the logging. The extracted timber would thus be cut whether an oil palm plantation is established or not and thus felling of that timber in the virgin forest should in this case not be allocated to the palm oil biodiesel, but to the timber production. The emissions from a logged-over forest would thus be more suitable to use in the assessment of the palm oil production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2750, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 779, "book_page": 773, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The emissions from a logged-over forest would thus be more suitable to use in the assessment of the palm oil production. However, if the logged-over forest was left idle it would likely recover and the actual loss of carbon when converting to oil palm is thus that of a recovered logged forest. ILCD recommends that the emissions from land use change should be allocated to the first 20 years of agricultural use or in the case of plantations the first planting cycle, which is often 20\u201330 years (more details on timing issues can be found in Sect. 30.4.4). Applying this amortization period, the emissions from conversion of forest (which is harvested for timber before conversion) should be those of a logged-over forest after 20\u201330 years of recovery. The emissions from the logged-over forest should still be counted as fossil emissions as per above whereas the carbon sequestered during recovery is biogenic. Note that with a few changes in details or assumptions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2751, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 779, "book_page": 773, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that with a few changes in details or assumptions (e.g. that the logged forest dies rather than recovers), this example could turn out differently. ILCD (European Commission 2010) labels the emissions from conversion of secondary forests, crops and plantations to bio-products crops as biogenic carbon dioxide. The IPCC (2006) provides generic carbon data for various land uses under various climatic conditions. It is recommended to use IPCC data when no site or regional specific data is available (European Commission 2010). However, it must be stressed that\u2014as also highlighted in IPCC (2006)\u2014carbon stocks even in forests of similar type and geography vary significantly and using generic/mean values would result in large uncertainties. LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2752, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 779, "book_page": 773, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.4.4 Timing issues and Payback Time Immediate Emissions Immediate LUC emissions are emissions taking place during the conversion of the land. Above and below ground biomass as well as litter and deadwood are included. In accordance with the ILCD (European Commission 2010) guidelines, LUC emissions for conversion to sub-annual, annual and bi-annual crops should be attributed to the first 20 years of the new land use, unless it is known that the new land use period will be shorter than 20 years. Thus, for any given year the production at that piece of land should be allocated 1/20 of the total immediate LUC emissions. For a plantation with trees or palms, it is recommended that the emissions are allocated to the first cycle of trees/palms, i.e. 20\u201330 years. Long-Term Emissions The degradation or sequestration of soil carbon takes place over a number of years until a new equilibrium is established", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2753, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 780, "book_page": 774, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20\u201330 years. Long-Term Emissions The degradation or sequestration of soil carbon takes place over a number of years until a new equilibrium is established. As for the immediate emissions, it is recommended to allocate the emissions/sequestration over 20 years unless the actual period, when 90% of the emissions/sequestration have occurred is known, in which case that number is used as n in Eq. (30.2) (European Commission 2010). As opposed to the immediate emissions, the long-term emissions cannot be allocated linearly over the allocation period. Instead, larger fractions of the total emissions are allocated to the earlier years: x 1\u20444 100 \u0003 2 \u00f0 \u00de= n \u00fe 1 \u00f0 \u00de \u0003 n \u0004 i \u00f0 \u00de=n; \u00f030:2\u00de where \u2022 x is the % of the total carbon inventory allocated to year i \u2022 n is the amortization period for the total carbon allocation, e.g. 20 years \u2022 i is the number of years after the LUC (i \u0005 n) Example 30.5 Peat soils are soils with very high organic contents", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2754, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 780, "book_page": 774, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "20 years \u2022 i is the number of years after the LUC (i \u0005 n) Example 30.5 Peat soils are soils with very high organic contents. They are created through biomass accumulation under water logged, anoxic conditions, which slows the organic degradation and makes the accumulation rate higher than the degradation rate. When peat land is converted to agricultural land the peat is drained, thus exposing the peat to oxygen and increasing the rate of decomposition. Without proper land management, the oxidation of the peat can continue for several decades and emit carbon dioxide in quantities several times larger than the immediate emissions from land clearing depending on the site specific soil conditions. Special considerations must thus be given to the management practices as well as site specific soil conditions when conducting an assessment of a bio-product crop planted on peat soil. Whereas the largely homogenous peat in temperate climate regions has been studied S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2755, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 780, "book_page": 774, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "intensively, the large localised variations in tropical peat composition as well as effects of diverse management practices of cultivated peat land have not yet been fully understood in terms of potential and actual carbon emissions. The large ranges of emissions from cultivated tropical peat are evident from IPCC (2014) and these ranges may increase further as more data is produced from the numerous peat composition and management practices scenarios. Note that peat land conversion to palm oil plantation is not uncommon in, e.g. Indonesia. As palm oil is the marginal vegetable oil on the world market, this can have impacts on all other biodiesel feedstocks through ILUC, as explained in Sect. 30.4.1. For both immediate emissions and long-term emissions no allocation to individual years is needed if the assessment uses an average of the emissions from the bio-product crop of a period equal to or longer than the amortization period", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2756, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 781, "book_page": 775, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In that case, the total LUC and ILUC emissions are simply added to the rest of the life cycle emissions (European Commission 2010). Payback Time Payback time is often used to describe the time it takes a bio-product to pay back the carbon emissions related to LUC; the so-called carbon debt. Almost all bio-products save carbon emissions compared to fossil products when (indirect) LUCs are not taken into consideration, but the picture can change when including these. By dividing the total LUC carbon emissions for a hectare of land converted to bio-product crop production with the carbon savings from replacing the fossil products with bio-products produced from that hectare for a year (not including LUC emissions) it is calculated how long it will take before the bio-product system actually starts saving carbon emissions. Example 30.6 A land use change has resulted in a total emission of 50 tonne CO2-eq/ha", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2757, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 781, "book_page": 775, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Example 30.6 A land use change has resulted in a total emission of 50 tonne CO2-eq/ha. 1 tonne biodiesel is produced per ha/year and the carbon emissions from the biodiesel production are 1.7 tonne CO2-eq/tonne biodiesel. The emissions for extraction, refining and combustion of fossil diesel are 2.7 tonne CO2-eq/tonne biodiesel equivalent (biodiesel has a lower heating value than fossil diesel, so less than 1 tonne diesel is needed per tonne biodiesel equivalent). The net saving for the biodiesel production is thus 1 tonne CO2eq/tonne biodiesel. Paying back the land use change emissions will thus take 50 years. Only then will the biofuel system actually start saving CO2 emissions. (Note that values used in the example are generally realistic values but can vary from case to case.) LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2758, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 781, "book_page": 775, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "30.5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives \u2022 Competition for Biomass Due to limitations in land availability, only the most optimistic outlooks expect availability of enough sustainable biomass to cover future replacement of all replaceable fossil fuels and products with bio-products, while still covering demands for food and feed of a growing population (see e.g. J\u00f8rgensen 2014). Therefore, the biomass use needs to be based on prioritisation. \u2022 Integrated Biorefineries As mentioned in Sect. 30.2, the biorefinery concept is already to some extend existing today and breakthroughs within this area are expected in the coming years (Weiss et al. 2012). Biorefineries are expected to provide the optimal utilisation of biomass for production of both biofuels and biomaterials, resulting in a maximised utilisation of the biomass feedstock. However, there are today still significant challenges in reducing production cost", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2759, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 782, "book_page": 776, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, there are today still significant challenges in reducing production cost. \u2022 Maturity of Competing Technologies While the petrochemical industry has been optimised through a long time period and is based on mature technology, production of many bio-products is still relying on rather new technologies. Some types of biofuels can to a certain extent make use of conventional processes, but this is often not the case for biomaterials (Weiss et al. 2007). Furthermore, many bio-products are not yet available in commercial scale. Thus, there is a rather large potential for optimising efficiency, while substantial improvements are also expected for the integrated production of biofuels and biomaterials in biorefineries (Patel et al. 2005). Major reduction potentials in environmental impacts from biomass feedstock production have also been identified to be obtainable if changing agricultural management practices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2760, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 782, "book_page": 776, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005). Major reduction potentials in environmental impacts from biomass feedstock production have also been identified to be obtainable if changing agricultural management practices. For example, changing to no-tillage farming, including cultivation of winter crops or changing to extensive farming, as well as utilising agricultural residues for biofuel or biomaterial production, except the fraction that is essential for preserving soil organic carbon (Weiss et al. 2012). However, it should be kept in mind that some changes in farming practices can also lead to lower productivity and thus need for additional land use. \u2022 Future Bio-product Feedstocks As mentioned, most current general conclusions on environmental sustainability of bio-products relative to fossil products relate to 1G, whereas it is expected that the environmental performance of 2G will have substantial potential to improve", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2761, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 782, "book_page": 776, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The potentials lie both in reduced GHG emissions and non-renewable energy use when substituting fossil products, compared to 1G (e.g. Dornburg et al. 2008) and in reduced impacts in terms of water use and water quality, unless the feedstock S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2762, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 782, "book_page": 776, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "crops are from irrigated plantations (Gnansounou 2010). Compared to feedstocks for 1G bio-products, feedstocks for 2G bio-products generally have lower need for agricultural input such as fertiliser, pesticides and irrigation (e.g. Dohleman et al. 2010) have higher soil organic carbon sequestration potentials (e.g. Anderson-Teixeira et al. 2009) and can reduce erosion (e.g. Somerville et al. 2010). Furthermore, feedstock for 2G bio-products can decrease the land use compared to that for 1G bio-products, and especially the use of agricultural land. A major part of the reason for improvement expectations for 2G is that it can utilise biomass feedstock types which can grow on land not suited for agricultural production, as well as agricultural and forest residues. Such feedstocks are not competing with global food production, and in the case of residues, this feedstock is in some cases even seen as a waste product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2763, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 783, "book_page": 777, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such feedstocks are not competing with global food production, and in the case of residues, this feedstock is in some cases even seen as a waste product. However, currently much of such residues are left in the fields/forests, adding to soil carbon replenishment. The aspect of soil carbon replenishment should thus be considered when assessing the sustainably available amount of crop residues, e.g. by considering a minimum amount of residues to either be left in the field or be earmarked for biochar production through pyrolysis, which also produces bio-oil. Biochar is mostly non-degradable carbon, which will potentially stay in the soil for millennia to avoid soil degradation and act as carbon sequestration (Lehmann 2007). Bio-products based on algae biomass (3G) also present some interesting perspectives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2764, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 783, "book_page": 777, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bio-products based on algae biomass (3G) also present some interesting perspectives. Promising features of algae biomass as feedstock for bio-products are that they do not compete for agricultural land, there is a large production potential, and CO2 capture and biomass yields are high. Furthermore, a range of products are available from microalgae, including hydrogen, biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol and other starch based bio-products (Posten and Schaub 2009). However, there are also challenges, e.g. in terms of power requirements and production cost, and improvements are needed in order to make algae as feedstock for bio-based production a sustainable and commercially viable reality (e.g. Sander and Murthy 2010). Also, algae feedstock may still show higher impacts in most environmental impact categories, including fossil energy use and GHG emissions, compared to conventional crops (Clarens et al. 2010). As it is a rather new technology, it is hard to predict the actual potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2765, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 783, "book_page": 777, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010). As it is a rather new technology, it is hard to predict the actual potential. \u2022 Reference Fossil Product Feedstock Conventional petrochemical reference products are typically oil-based. However, as conventional crude oil resources are moving towards depletion, other petrochemical options will take over in the future. Shale gas and oil sands have received increased attention as oil prices have made these options feasible to exploit. These feedstocks, however, seem to have much larger impacts on the environment than conventional oil. Production of synthetic crude oil from oil sands is generally reported to have substantially higher GHG emission impacts per barrel compared to production of conventional crude oil, however large variations in results exist (e.g. National Energy Technology Laboratory 2008; Charpentier et al. 2009), and the life cycle water consumption for shale gas and oil sands is LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2766, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 783, "book_page": 777, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "approximately double that of conventional oil (King and Webber 2008), while also affecting quality and availability of land (Jordaan 2012). Thus, if these are the fossil resources that will become the future conventional feedstock against which to compare the bio-products, the latter will become more competitive in terms of environmental performance. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful inputs from Arnaud H\u00e9lias (Montpellier SupAgro/INRA) and Anthony Benoist (CIRAD). Anderson-Teixeira, K.J., Davis, S.C., Masters, M.D., Delucia, E.H.: Changes in soil organic carbon under biofuel crops. GCB Bioenergy 1, 75\u201396 (2009) Archer, D., Kheshgi, H., Maier-Reimer, E.: Multiple timescales for neutralization of fossil fuel CO2. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24(4), 405\u2013408 (1997) Bala, G., Caldeira, K., Wickett, M., Phillips, T.J., Lobell, D.B., Delire, C., Mirin, A.: Combined climate and carbon cycle-cycle effects of large-scale deforestation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2767, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 784, "book_page": 778, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lett. 24(4), 405\u2013408 (1997) Bala, G., Caldeira, K., Wickett, M., Phillips, T.J., Lobell, D.B., Delire, C., Mirin, A.: Combined climate and carbon cycle-cycle effects of large-scale deforestation. PNAS 104, 6550\u20136555 (2007) Bessou, C., Ferchaud, F., Gabrielle, B., Mary, B.: Biofuels, greenhouse gases and climate change. In: Lichtfouse, E., et al. (eds.) Sustainable Agriculture, vol. 2 (2011). Springer, New York\u2014 EDP Sciences 2011. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-0394-0_20 Brand\u00e3o, M., Levasseur, A., Kirschbaum, M.U.F., Weidema, B.P., Cowie, A.L., J\u00f8rgensen, S.V., Hauschild, M.Z., Pennington, D.W., Chomkhamsri, K.: Key issues and options in accounting for carbon sequestration and temporary storage in life cycle assessment and carbon footprinting. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 230\u2013240 (2013) Brehmer, B., Boom, R.M., Sanders, J.: Maximum fossil fuel feedstock replacement potential of petrochemicals via biorefineries. Chem. Eng. Res. Des", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2768, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 784, "book_page": 778, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 230\u2013240 (2013) Brehmer, B., Boom, R.M., Sanders, J.: Maximum fossil fuel feedstock replacement potential of petrochemicals via biorefineries. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 87(9), 1103\u20131119 (2009) Bright, R.M., Cherubini, F., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: Climate impacts of bioenergy: Inclusion of carbon cycle and albedo dynamics in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 37, 2\u201311 (2012a) Bright, R.M., Cherubini, F., Astrup, R., Bird, N., Cowie, A.L., Ducey, M.J., Marland, G., Pingoud, K., Savolainen, I., Str\u00f8mman, A.H.: A comment to \u201cLarge-scale bioenergy from additional harvest of forest biomass is neither sustainable nor greenhouse gas neutral\u201d: important insights beyond greenhouse gas accounting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2769, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 784, "book_page": 778, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1188\u20131202 (2013) Lardon, L., H\u00e9lias, A., Sialve, B., Steyer, J.-P., Bernard, O.: Life-cycle assessment of biodiesel production from microalgae. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 6475\u20136481 (2009) Lehmann, J.: A handful of carbon. Nature 447, 143\u2013144 (2007) Luo, L., Voet, E., Huppes, G., Udo de Haes, H.A.: Allocation issues in LCA methodology: a case study of corn stover-based fuel ethanol. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14, 529\u2013539 (2009) Majer, S., Mueller-Langer, F., Zeller, V., Kaltschmitt, M.: Implications of biodiesel production and utilization on global climate\u2014a literature review. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 111, 747\u2013762 (2009) Malca, J., Freire, F.: Life-cycle studies of biodiesel in Europe: a review addressing the variability ofresults and modeling issues. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 338\u2013351 (2011) Mascia, P.N., et al. (eds.) Plant Biotechnology for Sustainable Production of Energy and Co-products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2780, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 786, "book_page": 780, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15, 338\u2013351 (2011) Mascia, P.N., et al. (eds.) Plant Biotechnology for Sustainable Production of Energy and Co-products. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry 66, Springer, Berlin (2010). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13440-1_15 Michelsen, O.: Assessment of Land use impact on biodiversity. Proposal of a new methodology exemplified with forestry operations in Norway. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 22\u201331 (2008) S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2781, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 786, "book_page": 780, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moura-Costa, P.: Carbon accounting, trading and the temporary nature of carbon storage. The Nature Conservancy U.S. (2002) National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL):. Development of Baseline Data and Analysis of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Petroleum-Based Fuels. DOE/NETL-2009/1346 (2008) Patel, M., Bastioli, C., Marini, L., Wuerdinger, E.: Life cycle assessment of bio-based polymers and natural fiber composites. Bioploymers (2005, online) PlasticsEurope.: The plastics portal, Q&As (2013). Accessible at http://www.plasticseurope.org/ what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/bio-based-plastics/qas.aspx. Accessed Feb 2016 Posten, C., Schaub, G.: Microalgae and terrestrial biomass as source for fuels\u2014a process view. J. Biotechnol. 142, 64\u201369 (2009) Randerson, J.T., Liu, H., Flanner, M.G., Chambers, S.D., Jin, Y., Hess, P.G., Pfister, G., Mack, M. C., Treseder, K.K., Welp, L.R., Chapin, F.S., Harden, J.W., Goulden, M.L., Lyons, E., Neff, J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2782, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 787, "book_page": 781, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "C., Treseder, K.K., Welp, L.R., Chapin, F.S., Harden, J.W., Goulden, M.L., Lyons, E., Neff, J. C., Schuur, E.A.G., Zender, C.S.: The impact of boreal forest fire on climate warming. Science 314, 1130\u20131132 (2006) Rothermel, J.: Raw material change in the chemical industry\u2014The general picture. Presentation at HLG Chemicals\u2014Working Group Feedstock, Energy & Logistics, February 7, 2008 Brussels (2008). Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/chemicals/files/wg_7_8fer08/ 01rothermel_raw_material_change_en.pdf. Accessed Jan. 2014 Sala, O.E., Chapin III, F.S., Armesto, J.J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo, R., Huber-Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L.F., Jackson, R.B., Kinzig, A., Leemans, R., Lodge, D.M., Mooney, H.A., Oesterheld, M., Poff, N.L., Sykes, M.T., Walker, B.H., Walker, M., Wall, D.H.: Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287, 1770\u20131774 (2000) Sander, K., Murthy, G.S.: Life cycle analysis of algae biodiesel. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2783, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 787, "book_page": 781, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Science 287, 1770\u20131774 (2000) Sander, K., Murthy, G.S.: Life cycle analysis of algae biodiesel. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 704\u2013 714 (2010) Schnepf, R., Yacobucci, B.D.: Renewable fuel standard: overview and issues. CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service (2012) Singh, A., Pant, D., Korres, N.E., Nizami, A.S., Prasad, S., Murphy, J.D.: Key issues in life cycle assessment of ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass: challenges and perspectives. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 5003\u20135012 (2010) Somerville, C., Youngs, H., Taylor, C., Davis, S.C., Long, S.P.: Feedstocks for lignocellulosic biofuels. Science 329, 790\u2013792 (2010) Song, J.H., Murphy, R.J., Narayan, R., Davies, G.B.H.: Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2127\u20132139 (2009) Tabone, M.D., Gregg, J.J., Beckman, E.J., Landis, A.E.: Sustainability metrics: life cycle assessment and green design in polymers. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2784, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 787, "book_page": 781, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2127\u20132139 (2009) Tabone, M.D., Gregg, J.J., Beckman, E.J., Landis, A.E.: Sustainability metrics: life cycle assessment and green design in polymers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 8264\u20138269 (2010) USDA: S Biobased Products Market Potential and Projections Through 2025, OCE-2008-01, US Department of Agriculture (2008) Von Blottnitz, H., Curran, M.A.: A review of assessments conducted on bio-ethanol as a transportation fuel from a net energy, greenhouse gas, and environmental life cycle perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 15(7), 607\u2013619 (2007) Wang, M.: Life-cycle analysis of biofuels. Biotechnol. Agric. For. 66, 385\u2013408 Weiss, M., Patel, M.K., Heilmeier, H., Bringezu, S.: Applying distance-to-target weighing methodology to evaluate the environmental performance of bio-based energy, fuels, and materials. Resour. Conserv. Recycl", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2785, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 787, "book_page": 781, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 50(3), 260\u2013281 (2007) Weiss, M., Haufe, J., Carus, M., Brand\u00e3o, M., Bringezu, S., Hermann, B., Patel, M.K.: A review of the environmental impacts of biobased materials. J. Ind. Ecol. 16, S169\u2013S181 (2012) LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2786, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 787, "book_page": 781, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biographies Susanne Vedel Hjuler has been working with LCA since the early 2010s. Particularly experienced within LCA of biomaterials, climate change related LCIA method development, as well as experienced LCA practitioner. Participated in the UNEP/SETAC task force on global warming LCIA. Main LCA interests are climate change, biomass use, as well as use of LCA in practice. Sune Balle Hansen LCI expert working intermittently on applied LCA of biofuels and edible oils since 2004 with focus on palm oil and palm oil derived biodiesel. Special LCA research attention has been given to the inclusion of residue use and land use change aspects. S.V. Hjuler and S.B. Hansen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2787, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "30 LCA of Biofuels and Biomaterials", "pdf_page": 788, "book_page": 782, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products Peter Fantke and Alexi Ernstoff Abstract This chapter focuses on the application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental performance of chemicals as well as of products and processes where chemicals play a key role. The life cycle stages of chemical products, such as pharmaceuticals drugs or plant protection products, are discussed and differentiated into extraction of abiotic and biotic raw materials, chemical synthesis and processing, material processing, product manufacturing, professional or consumer product use, and finally end-of-life. LCA is discussed in relation to other chemicals management frameworks and concepts including risk assessment, green and sustainable chemistry, and chemical alternatives assessment. A large number of LCA studies focus on contrasting different feedstocks or chemical synthesis processes, thereby often conducting a cradle to (factory) gate assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2788, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 789, "book_page": 783, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A large number of LCA studies focus on contrasting different feedstocks or chemical synthesis processes, thereby often conducting a cradle to (factory) gate assessment. While typically a large share of potential environmental impacts occurs during the early product life cycle stages, potential impacts related to chemicals that are found as ingredients or residues directly in products can be dominated by the product use stage. Finally, methodological challenges in LCA studies in relation to chemicals are discussed including the choice of functional unit, defining the system boundaries, quantifying emissions for many thousands of marketed chemicals, characterising emissions in terms of toxicity and other impacts, and finally interpreting LCA results. The chapter is relevant for LCA students and practitioners who wish to gain basic understanding of LCA studies of products or processes with chemicals as a key aspect. P. Fantke (&) \u0001 A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2789, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 789, "book_page": 783, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The chapter is relevant for LCA students and practitioners who wish to gain basic understanding of LCA studies of products or processes with chemicals as a key aspect. P. Fantke (&) \u0001 A. Ernstoff Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: pefan@dtu.dk A. Ernstoff EPFL Innovation Park, Quantis International, B\u00e2t. D, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_31", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2790, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 789, "book_page": 783, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.1 LCA and Chemicals: Introduction and Context 31.1.1 Chemicals and Their Relevance in Society Chemicals are everywhere. Almost every second a new entry is added to the list of more than 100 million unique chemical substances registered in the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS; www.cas.org), the world\u2019s authority on chemical information. Since industrialisation, the welfare of modern society largely builds on extensively mining minerals and fossil fuels including coal, petroleum and natural gas to produce large quantities of synthetic chemicals (\u2018synthetic\u2019 simply means man-made and should not be confused with \u2018artificial\u2019, which implies that a chemical does not occur naturally). Consequently, the enormity and diversity of the chemical industry is astounding and poses various challenges for the management of environmental and human health impacts related to chemicals production and use. In this chapter, we outline important aspects to know about chemicals in the context of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2791, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 790, "book_page": 784, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this chapter, we outline important aspects to know about chemicals in the context of LCA. Fundamentally, chemicals are substances composed of one or more atoms, and make up every material thing on earth\u2014including our bodies. The atomic composition of chemicals classifies them essentially as \u2018organic\u2019 (chemicals with molecules built on a skeleton of interlinked carbon atoms and primarily consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) and \u2018inorganic\u2019 (chemicals with molecules generally lacking carbon-to-carbon bonds, but instead based on the rest of the elements, including metals). In this sense, \u2018organic\u2019 has nothing to do with \u2018organic food\u2019 or \u2018organic farming\u2019 or \u2018organic lifestyle\u2019 as these terms generally refer to promoting sustainability. The atomic composition, molecular structure and ionisation (positive/negative charge) all influence chemical reactivity and behaviour in the environment as well as in living organisms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2792, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 790, "book_page": 784, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The atomic composition, molecular structure and ionisation (positive/negative charge) all influence chemical reactivity and behaviour in the environment as well as in living organisms. Because of this, chemical behaviours can be predicted and tested, and chemicals can be designed by industries to fulfil biological (e.g. medical) and physical (e.g. solvent) functions. Chemicals may also be classified according to functional groups (e.g. alcohols, amines, acids and bases), structural groups (e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), physical structure (e.g. nanotubes), feedstock sources (e.g. petrochemicals derived from fossil fuels, biochemicals derived from starch- and sugar-based feedstocks), physicochemical properties (e.g. volatile, lipophilic), use function (e.g. surfactants, warfare agents), means of creation (e.g. reaction intermediates, metabolites), main economic sector (e.g. cosmetics, agrochemicals), toxicity endpoints (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2793, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 790, "book_page": 784, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "surfactants, warfare agents), means of creation (e.g. reaction intermediates, metabolites), main economic sector (e.g. cosmetics, agrochemicals), toxicity endpoints (e.g. carcinogens, neurotoxins, endocrine disruptors), and other aspects. Established nomenclatures or patents can be used to name chemicals. Most chemicals have an assigned CAS Registry Number except some metabolites of natural processes or grouped chemicals, such as polychlorinated dibenzofurans. CAS numbers are the most discriminant method for chemical reference. Of the chemicals registered by CAS, more than ten thousand are currently in commercial use, some with annual production volumes of millions of tonnes, while most chemicals are produced at levels of less than thousand tonnes per year. Worldwide, the production of chemicals has risen to several hundred million tonnes per year and P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2794, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 790, "book_page": 784, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sales were valued in 2013 at 3156 billion Euro with an average annual growth of 10.3% between 2003 and 2012 (CEFIC 2014). China dominates world chemical sales with a share of 33.2% followed by the European Union (16.7%), USA (14.8%), and Japan (4.8%) in 2013. Databases, such as the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) Registered Substances database (http://echa.europa.eu/ information-on-chemicals), the Household Product Database (http:// householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov), the Hazardous Substances Data Bank through ToxNet (http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov), and the Chemical and Product Categories Database (http://actor.epa.gov/cpcat) attempt to keep track of chemicals, their uses, properties and/or toxicity, but large data gaps still remain. Several major environmental and health concerns associated with chemicals have led to various shifts in the global chemicals market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2795, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 791, "book_page": 785, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Several major environmental and health concerns associated with chemicals have led to various shifts in the global chemicals market. As an example, potentially toxic and highly persistent polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been replaced by chlorinated paraffins in various applications. While PCBs have been primarily produced in USA and Europe with a total historical production volume of 1.3 million tonnes between 1930 and 1995, chlorinated paraffins are currently almost exclusively produced in China and reach production volumes of more than one million tonnes per year (Fantke et al. 2015). The chemical and pharmaceutical industries are a major driver of the welfare of modern society and scientific progress. These industries rely on the extraction, purification and synthesis of both naturally occurring and artificial chemicals and are among the largest and most influential economic sectors at the global scale. Main production segments are petrochemicals (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2796, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 791, "book_page": 785, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Main production segments are petrochemicals (e.g. benzene, styrene), consumer chemicals (e.g. detergents, fragrances and flavours), speciality chemicals (chemicals used for providing a special performance or effect, e.g. paints, dyes, adhesives), basic inorganics (fertilisers, industrial gases like nitrogen and oxygen), and polymers (e.g. plastics, synthetic rubbers and fibres). One of the largest segments is the production of organic chemicals with, e.g. formaldehyde, aromatics, acids, alcohols and esters providing the building blocks for drugs, agrochemicals, cosmetics and many other applications. Along with societal advantages, the rise of chemical industries has also caused various undesirable consequences. Health impacts associated with air pollution are increasing worldwide and there is currently insufficient information to fully assess the impacts of chemicals on humans and the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2797, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 791, "book_page": 785, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Health impacts associated with air pollution are increasing worldwide and there is currently insufficient information to fully assess the impacts of chemicals on humans and the environment. Rachel Carson\u2019s book Silent Spring published in 1962 documented the detrimental impacts of chemicals on wildlife and humans, especially related to using synthetic organic pesticides, and marked a major change in public awareness that eventually inspired regulation of industry and for example the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Since that time, a remarkable amount of research correlates and demonstrates impacts on human and ecosystem health as well as the environment (e.g. the ozone layer) caused by intentional and unintentional chemical releases both indoors and outdoors. Some reported impacts are directly related to the chemical industry, whereas other impacts are related to the use or disposal of chemicals by other industries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2798, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 791, "book_page": 785, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Some reported impacts are directly related to the chemical industry, whereas other impacts are related to the use or disposal of chemicals by other industries. In the following sections, we overview strategies for chemical management, focusing particularly on life-cycle assessments of chemicals production processes and chemical products. LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2799, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 791, "book_page": 785, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.1.2 Chemicals Management in Relation to LCA Depletion of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons used as refrigerants and solvents, soil and water pollution with heavy metals from ore mining and processing, pesticide emissions and residues in food, the formation of dioxins by incomplete combustion processes, and leaching of fertilisers into groundwater are just examples of the many problems associated with chemical releases to the environment. Hence, managing human and environmental risks posed by chemicals that are potentially toxic or may lead to other impacts is a major concern of regulators, industries, consumers and other stakeholders. As a consequence, the chemicals industry is one of the most regulated industries with main focus on regulating chemicals in consumer products and minimising chemical emissions to the indoor (workplace, public buildings and household) and outdoor environments along product life cycles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2800, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 792, "book_page": 786, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the context of chemicals management, risk is defined as the probability of a chemical to cause an adverse effect (hazard) occurring as a result of a given contact between the chemical and humans or ecosystems (exposure). Risks associated with chemical emissions from a given product or process can arise at a later time after a chemical emission or exposure has occurred and depend on chemical background concentrations due to all release sources. In LCA, information on emission location and time as well as information on background concentrations, e.g. from sources outside the considered product system, is usually not available. Hence, modelled impacts in LCA are not interpreted in terms of actual risk, i.e. real environmental effects, but in terms of \u2018potential impacts\u2019 (Chap. 10) used as environmental performance indicators for comparing and optimising products or systems with respect to a defined functional unit (Hauschild 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2801, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 792, "book_page": 786, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10) used as environmental performance indicators for comparing and optimising products or systems with respect to a defined functional unit (Hauschild 2005). However, models applied in LCA can also be applied in other fields of research and can be advanced and adapted to consider background concentrations as well as spatiotemporal resolution (e.g. daily or seasonal changes), and in such cases estimated potential impacts can be interpreted as estimates of actual risk. Chemicals management occurs from local to global scale, from specific product\u2013 chemical combinations to entire industries and from raw material acquisition to waste handling, depending on the intended purpose", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2802, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 792, "book_page": 786, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (http://ozone.unep.org) and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs; www.pops.int) are examples of global chemicals management treaties, whereas the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) is a recent example of an international legislative framework for managing industrial chemicals in the European Union. At all levels and scopes, effective chemicals management relies on assessment tools and guiding principles to ensure consistency and the achievability of defined goals. There are many examples of chemicals assessment tools and guidance, such as risk assessment, green and sustainable chemistry, chemical alternatives assessment, life cycle assessment, and a market for entrepreneurs to create industry-specific interfaces and applications. In the following sections, risk assessment (Sect. 31.1.3), green and sustainable chemistry (Sect. 31.1.4), and P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2803, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 792, "book_page": 786, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the following sections, risk assessment (Sect. 31.1.3), green and sustainable chemistry (Sect. 31.1.4), and P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2804, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 792, "book_page": 786, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "chemical alternatives assessment (Sect. 31.1.5) are discussed as commonly used chemical management tools that have both complementary and overlapping aspects with LCA as illustrated in Fig. 31.1. 31.1.3 Risk Assessment and Safety Chemical risk assessment or chemical safety assessment is implemented in various regulatory frameworks and is one of the most widely used chemicals management tools. Risk assessment (\u2018How risky is a situation?\u2019) as an integral part of risk management (\u2018What shall we do about it, if a situation is risky?\u2019) essentially emerged at the start of the nineteenth century from studying hazards and risks associated with different occupations. Risk assessment mainly consists of hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterisation. Depending on the context, \u2018risk\u2019 and \u2018safety\u2019 have different meanings with regulatory policy commonly seeking to minimise risk while optimising safety", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2805, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 793, "book_page": 787, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depending on the context, \u2018risk\u2019 and \u2018safety\u2019 have different meanings with regulatory policy commonly seeking to minimise risk while optimising safety. In this context, risk is generally defined as the probability of harm, whereas safety is described as the absence of harm (Embry et al. 2014). Chemical \u2018safety\u2019 is defined by legislators or regulators and can vary from country to country, and evolves over time as science progresses. In this sense, \u2018safe\u2019 Chemical Risk Assessment Chemical Alterna\u019fves Assessment Green and Sustainable Chemistry Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of chemicals, products and services Sustainability assessment tools Regulatory chemicals management tools Chemical-related criteria (hazard, exposure, toxicity, ...) Other environmental criteria (energy and resources efficiency, ...) Other criteria (technical feasibility, socioeconomics,...) Product and material design Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2806, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 793, "book_page": 787, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.1 Conceptual relationships of main chemical management tools LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2807, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 793, "book_page": 787, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "is not synonymous with \u2018natural\u2019 as it is often perceived. In fact, using the word \u2018natural\u2019 is misleading in the context of chemical safety (and LCA) and there are many naturally occurring chemicals that have very harmful properties like arsenic, nicotine or radon. As a consequence, we need to acknowledge that it is not always the \u2018natural\u2019 chemicals or solutions that are most \u2018environmentally friendly\u2019\u2014a common misconception in different science-policy fields and among consumers. Defining safety thresholds, e.g. chemical concentrations in different environmental media (e.g. ambient air, soil, water) or in food, is a common strategy in chemical risk assessment, and generally refers to levels below which a situation is considered \u2018safe\u2019 by a risk manager, meaning that any risk below threshold is regarded as \u2018acceptable\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2808, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 794, "book_page": 788, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As an example, chemical exposure resulting in one additional cancer case or less over lifetime in a population of one million people is regarded as an acceptable risk, i.e. safe, in the U.S. (van Leeuwen and Vermeire 2007). Using units like \u2018part per million\u2019 (ppm) as in one cancer case in a million or \u2018part per billion\u2019 is common for assessing (very small) amounts of chemicals in the environment. To get an impression of how much one ppm actually is, we can use 1 teaspoon of salt (5.5 g) in 5.5 tonnes of potato chips corresponding to one part of salt per one million parts of potato chips", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2809, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 794, "book_page": 788, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To get an impression of how much one ppm actually is, we can use 1 teaspoon of salt (5.5 g) in 5.5 tonnes of potato chips corresponding to one part of salt per one million parts of potato chips. Thresholds are also applied when managing environmental systems and for developing chemical pollution control strategies, such as allowable nutrient releases from wastewater treatment plants or setting greenhouse gas emission targets, or in the context of \u2018planetary boundaries\u2019 in an attempt to assess if the pressure from chemical pollution (analogous to the amount of receiving environment required to dilute pollution below a threshold level) exceeds a planetary boundary (analogous to the amount of receiving environment available) for a \u2018safe operating space\u2019 for human activities (MacLeod et al. 2014). Chemical pollution levels have recently been expressed as \u2018chemical footprints\u2019 that can be compared with respective planetary or other boundaries for chemical pollution (Posthuma et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2810, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 794, "book_page": 788, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014). Chemical pollution levels have recently been expressed as \u2018chemical footprints\u2019 that can be compared with respective planetary or other boundaries for chemical pollution (Posthuma et al. 2014) to assess how companies or nations perform with respect to different chemicals management issues. Risk assessment approaches take a receptor perspective (Fig. 31.2, right-side box), where thresholds are set in order to protect specific receptors, i.e. exposed humans or ecosystem species. In a receptor perspective, all relevant sources of a chemical or target chemicals are typically considered. In contrast, impact assessment tools in LCA are generally not receptor-oriented or threshold-based. This is because LCA takes a \u2018producer\u2019 (or \u2018emitter\u2019) perspective (Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2811, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 794, "book_page": 788, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In contrast, impact assessment tools in LCA are generally not receptor-oriented or threshold-based. This is because LCA takes a \u2018producer\u2019 (or \u2018emitter\u2019) perspective (Fig. 31.2, left-side box) by comparing potential impacts relative to each other across compared products and life cycle stages, aiming at minimising impacts considering various receptors (entire human populations, freshwater ecosystems, marine ecosystems, etc.). Differences and commonalities of risk assessment and LCA have been contrasted elsewhere (e.g. Bare 2006; Pennington et al. 2006), and there are several attempts combining, blending or integrating both concepts (Harder et al. 2015). An increasing number of chemicals is approved for use in commerce, e.g. in food contact materials, but many chemicals lack adequate information to characterise risks (Neltner et al. 2013). In response, high-throughput screening (\u2018first tier\u2019 P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2812, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 794, "book_page": 788, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "assessments) of chemical risks has emerged as a strategy for prioritising and ranking chemicals for more in-depth study (\u2018higher-tier\u2019 assessments). First-tier screening usually relies on ranking chemicals with respect to hazard (e.g. chemical toxicity) combined with estimates of exposure. \u2018High-throughput\u2019 refers to processing dozens to thousands of chemicals via resource efficient methodologies, such as robotic in vitro bioassays (instead of animal in vivo experiments) and low-tier computational models relying on databases (instead of data-intensive complex and time-consuming modelling). LCA impact assessment models have been used in high-throughput risk screening offering dual purpose and a promising area of interdisciplinary overlap to manage chemical risks (e.g. Shin et al. 2015). 31.1.4 Green and Sustainable Chemistry \u2018Green chemistry\u2019 is a concept that was coined by the U.S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2813, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 795, "book_page": 789, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Shin et al. 2015). 31.1.4 Green and Sustainable Chemistry \u2018Green chemistry\u2019 is a concept that was coined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in the early 1990s in response to the Pollution Prevention Act and increasing attention to chemical pollution. This concept builds upon a set of 12 Principles of Green Chemistry defined by Anastas and Warner (1998) aiming at reducing or eliminating hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products. Thereby, \u2018green\u2019 refers to more environmentally benign (less hazardous) chemicals. The concept of \u2018sustainable chemistry\u2019 is broader than the scope of green chemistry and strives towards \u2018eco-efficiency\u2019. In addition to chemical hazards, sustainable chemistry centrally focuses on optimising the use of finite resources, while reducing environmental impacts of chemical production (OECD 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2814, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 795, "book_page": 789, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sustainable chemistry\u2014sometimes also referred to as R t \u019f P d / i\u01a9 \u019f Receptor perspec\u019fve [Chemical-specific hazards and risks] Single chemical exposes individual Producer/emi\u01a9er perspec\u019fve [Product- or service-specific impacts] Single or mul\u019fple chemicals expose Single chemical exposes individual receptor via mul\u019fple sources Exposure and related risks es\u019fmated with respect to Single or mul\u019fple chemicals expose mul\u019fple receptors over life cycle of single product or service Exposure and related impacts es\u019fmated with respect to environmental chemical concentra\u019fons Compari\u019fve ranking of risks based Exposure and related impacts es\u019fmated per unit of chemical emi\u01a9ed or used Compara\u019fve ranking of impacts Compari\u019fve ranking of risks based on exposure and toxicity poten\u019fal Risk assessment; high throughput risk screening Compara\u019fve ranking of impacts based on func\u019fonal service or use Life cycle assessment; chemical alterna\u019fves assessment high-throughput risk screening Single chemical", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2815, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 795, "book_page": 789, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "high throughput risk screening Compara\u019fve ranking of impacts based on func\u019fonal service or use Life cycle assessment; chemical alterna\u019fves assessment high-throughput risk screening Single chemical alterna\u019fves assessment Single product Mul\u019fple sources Exposed i di id l Mul\u019fple Exposed Single chemical product over life cycle sources, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2816, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 795, "book_page": 789, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "products individual receptor Mul\u019fple chemicals p mul\u019fple receptors Fig. 31.2 Examples and underlying characteristics of dichotomous perspectives followed in different chemicals management approaches LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2817, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 795, "book_page": 789, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sustainable chemistry and engineering\u2014is rooted in the concept of Sustainable Development established in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and is guided by 9 Principles of Green Engineering postulated at the Sandestin conference (Abraham and Nguyen 2003). Green and sustainable chemistry are concepts focusing on the technological approaches aiming at the reduction of resource consumption and pollution prevention in chemical production processes rather than focussing on the assessment of chemicals in the environment. Hence, green and sustainable chemistry\u2014often relying on comparing qualitative or semi-quantitative indicator results\u2014are primarily applicable in the design phase of products to guide innovation and to support sustainable production goals. Green chemistry in relation to LCA has been discussed in more detail elsewhere (e.g. Anastas and Lankey 2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2818, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 796, "book_page": 790, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Green chemistry in relation to LCA has been discussed in more detail elsewhere (e.g. Anastas and Lankey 2000). In summary, compared to green and sustainable chemistry, LCA aims at fully quantifying potential impacts associated with a chemical product or production system over its entire life cycle. Using LCA in early stages of chemical product and process design of various sectors including emerging technologies (e.g. bio- and nanotechnologies) has provided insight into the relationship between chemical and process parameter selection and related impacts on humans and the environment (Kralisch et al. 2015). LCA results have moreover demonstrated that quantitative methods are needed to assess the environmental performance of \u2018green\u2019 chemicals (Tufvesson et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2819, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 796, "book_page": 790, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). LCA results have moreover demonstrated that quantitative methods are needed to assess the environmental performance of \u2018green\u2019 chemicals (Tufvesson et al. 2013). This is especially relevant as green chemistry usually focuses on optimisation of (production) processes, including some specific end-of-life problems related to chemicals, which may still risk sub-optimisation when a full life cycle perspective is lacking. Using LCA in early product development stages, for example before a product has been created and marketed, comes with methodological and practical challenges, such as low data availability, uncertainty related to future product applications, and unclear scale of production for a changing market. Therefore, LCA has mostly been applied to chemical products and processes that are already well established and operational at the market scale, which often leads to LCA supported decision making being reactive instead of proactive", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2820, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 796, "book_page": 790, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.1.5 Chemical Alternatives Assessment Chemical alternatives assessment (CAA) aims to identify, compare and select safer alternatives to substitute (replace) harmful chemicals in materials, processes and products on the basis of their hazards, performance and economic viability (Hester and Harrison 2013). CAA emerged from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\u2019s Design for Environment (DfE) program in the late 1990s to promote less hazardous chemicals in various products and applications, and to avoid unintended consequences of harmful alternatives resulting in incremental improvements or even \u2018regrettable substitution\u2019 situations (Fantke et al. 2015). Ideally, CAA tools P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2821, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 796, "book_page": 790, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "would evaluate hazard, exposure, life cycle and social impacts, economic feasibility and technical performance of alternative solutions, and consider chemicals, materials, products or technologies, and behavioural changes as potentially viable solution options. In reality, however, most CAA tools focus only on comparisons of hazard scores and exclusively consider chemicals as potential solutions. Several existing CAA tools have been compiled into the OECD Substitution and Alternatives Assessment Toolbox (www.oecdsaatoolbox.org). The concept of \u2018acceptable risk\u2019 (as applied in risk assessment) is usually avoided in CAA in order to support selecting relatively less hazardous chemicals and materials in products (Whittaker 2015). Despite the current focus on assessing chemical hazard, including exposure, life cycle, and social considerations are lately also gaining more attention (Jacobs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2822, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 797, "book_page": 791, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Despite the current focus on assessing chemical hazard, including exposure, life cycle, and social considerations are lately also gaining more attention (Jacobs et al. 2016), focusing the CAA discussion around using more quantitative and chemical function-based methods and tools (Tickner et al. 2015). However, the need for rapid screening of numerous viable alternative solutions prevents CAA from simply adopting the use of LCA tools due to high complexity and data demand. CAA is mainly used to identify and evaluate solutions to hazardous chemicals in products that have been targeted for market phase-out, and to inform early product development to minimise reliance on hazardous chemicals. With that, CAA takes the \u2018producer\u2019 perspective similarly to LCA (Fig. 31.2, left-side box), focusing on the impact of chemicals and their alternatives on various receptors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2823, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 797, "book_page": 791, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With that, CAA takes the \u2018producer\u2019 perspective similarly to LCA (Fig. 31.2, left-side box), focusing on the impact of chemicals and their alternatives on various receptors. The main difference between CAA and LCA is that while CAA focuses on seeking for viable alternatives to harmful chemicals, LCA considers the life cycle of whole products or processes not focusing specifically on the content of one or more chemicals that might be considered \u2018hazardous\u2019, but instead evaluating the overall product or process environmental performance. 31.2 LCA Applied to Chemicals Chemicals play a central role in the LCA framework for different reasons. Hundreds of chemical emission (inventory) flows typically occur along the life cycle of products or systems (Fig. 31.3) and are quantified as part of the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI; see Chap. 9) phase. Chemicals are also often precursors of product materials, and input for manufacturing and disposal processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2824, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 797, "book_page": 791, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3) and are quantified as part of the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI; see Chap. 9) phase. Chemicals are also often precursors of product materials, and input for manufacturing and disposal processes. Chemical emissions associated with energy conversion during manufacturing, transport of goods and end-of-life treatment processes often dominate overall emission profiles for many product categories that can be characterised in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA; see Chap. 10) phase. Chemicals contribute to nearly all LCIA impact categories affecting human health and ecosystem quality as two main areas of protection in LCA (Hauschild et al. 2013). In LCIA, chemicals contribute to global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, formation of photochemical ozone in the troposphere, air pollution (via respiratory particles and precursors), aquatic and terrestrial acidification and eutrophication, and last but not least human toxicity and aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2825, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 797, "book_page": 791, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Only a handful LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2826, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 797, "book_page": 791, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of chemicals are associated with the majority of abovementioned impact categories, such as carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases contributing to global warming impacts or ammonia, nitrogen oxides, phosphate and some other nitrogen and phosphorus containing chemicals contributing to aquatic eutrophication. In contrast, thousands of chemicals can be characterised as potentially toxic to humans and/or ecosystems (Rosenbaum et al. 2008). The generic life cycle stages shown in Fig. 31.3 are applicable to a chemical product (e.g. pharmaceutical or dye) or material (e.g. polymer), from raw materials extraction to product disposal, often referred to as \u2018cradle to grave\u2019 (Fig. 31.3, stages A\u2013F). A \u2018cradle to grave\u2019 LCA study can provide valuable insight regarding which stages dominate the impacts throughout a product life cycle. Some of these life cycle stages, however, may not be relevant or may be assumed to be equal in two compared systems depending on the goal (Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2827, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 798, "book_page": 792, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Some of these life cycle stages, however, may not be relevant or may be assumed to be equal in two compared systems depending on the goal (Chap. 7) and scope (Chap. 8), and the product system under study. For example, the \u2018material processing\u2019 stage may Chemical synthesis/ processing Product manufacturing Raw materials extrac\u019fon Product applica\u019fon/use Product disposal System boundaries Input: energy, resources (e.g. water), materials, chemical substances A B D F Material processing C E Output: chemical emissions, secondary func\u019fons, co-products Relevant ques\u019fons for different life cycle stages... A: Fossil or bio-based resources; virgin or recycled materials; alterna\u019fve use of resource or material (e.g. food) or waste (e.g. shell or husk); loca\u019fon of extrac\u019fon (e.g. rain forest, ocean, conflict zone); secondary func\u019fons (e.g. algae waste treatment)? B: Reactor configura\u019fon (e.g. batch or con\u019fnuous); number of reac\u019fon steps or unit opera\u019fons; solvents; catalysts (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2828, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 798, "book_page": 792, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "algae waste treatment)? B: Reactor configura\u019fon (e.g. batch or con\u019fnuous); number of reac\u019fon steps or unit opera\u019fons; solvents; catalysts (e.g. enzymes, rare metals)? C: Machine lubricants; chemical contents and concentra\u019fons? D: Machine lubricants; solvents; adhesives? E: Product longevity; secondary func\u019fons; exposure during use; nature of use (e.g. amount used; addi\u019fonal requirements such as hot water); societal func\u019fon (e.g. to cure a disease)? F: Special handling (e.g. pharmaceu\u019fcals); disposal loca\u019fon; process (e.g. incinera\u019fon or landfil); reuse opportunity; circularity of waste streams? A-D and F: Waste handling (e.g. municipal or industrial; type); co-products (e.g. materials; energy from incinera\u019fon); exis\u019fng or new infrastructure; efficiency; worker exploita\u019fon or occupa\u019fonal exposure? Fig. 31.3 Generic life cycle stages and system boundaries for chemical products or materials and LCA-related questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2829, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 798, "book_page": 792, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3 Generic life cycle stages and system boundaries for chemical products or materials and LCA-related questions. In some cases, chemical processing may be followed by material production (e.g. polymers) before manufacturing a product (e.g. plastic bottles), while in other cases, chemicals (e.g. solvents) may be directly added to products or product manufacturing processes. Underlined topics are mostly lacking methods or not included in environmental LCA studies P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2830, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 798, "book_page": 792, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "not be relevant in cases where a chemical is directly added into a product as an ingredient, such as fragrances in cosmetics or detergents in cleaning products. As another example, the \u2018product application/use\u2019 or \u2018product disposal\u2019 stages may not be relevant for comparing the environmental performance of chemical synthesis or production processes as long as the compared processes do not influence the chemical amount used in a product or for product disposal. An LCA study from raw material extraction to chemical product manufacturing, i.e. without considering product use and disposal stages, is referred to as \u2018cradle to gate\u2019 (Fig. 31.3, stages A\u2013D), where \u2018gate\u2019 refers to the manufacturing or production facility (which could be the \u2018gate\u2019 of a chemical or product \u2018factory\u2019, depending on the focus of the study)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2831, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 799, "book_page": 793, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3, stages A\u2013D), where \u2018gate\u2019 refers to the manufacturing or production facility (which could be the \u2018gate\u2019 of a chemical or product \u2018factory\u2019, depending on the focus of the study). In Table 31.1, different assessment scopes for LCA studies focusing on chemicals in materials, products and processes are contrasted and associated with relevant chemicals management questions. LCA can help identify a variety of impacts associated with chemical production, use, and disposal, that are either intrinsic to a chemical (e.g. toxicity potential) or related to supporting industrial chemical processes (e.g. water consumption, greenhouse gas emissions). The main uses of LCA for managing chemicals and chemical processes are to compare impacts between products or services, or to identify \u2018hot spots\u2019 within a life cycle that contributes greatly to the impacts of a product or service. With respect to chemicals, LCA can be applied to various combinations of the generic life cycle stages in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2832, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 799, "book_page": 793, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With respect to chemicals, LCA can be applied to various combinations of the generic life cycle stages in Fig. 31.3 depending on the LCA study goal and chosen system boundaries. In some cases, individual life cycle stages and associated inputs or outputs may be found to be irrelevant for the system considered or question asked. The chemical industry developed a guidance document to support the assessment of the environmental performance of chemical products based on attributional LCA, i.e. referring to process-based modelling and excluding market-mediated effects (WBCSD 2014). In the following sections, an overview is given of how LCA has been applied to consider these various life cycle stages and the general lessons learnt from these studies. Thereby, LCA can be used to compare impacts at the level of chemicals in materials, products and formulations or at the level of chemical synthesis and production processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2833, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 799, "book_page": 793, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Thereby, LCA can be used to compare impacts at the level of chemicals in materials, products and formulations or at the level of chemical synthesis and production processes. 31.2.1 Chemicals in Materials, Products, and Formulations A subset of materials, products, formulations (combination or mixture of chemicals) and processes are intrinsically reliant on the functionality of key chemical ingredients. In this section, main trends in the application of LCA- or LCA-based methodologies are summarised. This may include also partial LCA studies, e.g. methods only considering a subset of life cycle stages (i.e. cradle to gate or gate to gate), with focus on chemicals in materials, products and formulations. LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2834, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 799, "book_page": 793, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA studies have focused on pharmaceuticals (e.g. De Soete et al. 2014), cleaning products (e.g. Van Lieshout et al. 2015) and pesticide formulations (e.g. Geisler et al. 2005) as examples of products where chemicals provide the main product functions. Other LCA studies on chemicals with in-product functions include studies focusing on flame retardants in electronics (Jonkers et al. 2016), nano-materials used in bandages and cosmetics (Botta et al. 2011), and polymers used in food packaging (Hottle et al. 2013). Chemicals required for industrial processes have also been assessed in LCA studies, including industrial solvents (Zhang et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2835, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 800, "book_page": 794, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011), and polymers used in food packaging (Hottle et al. 2013). Chemicals required for industrial processes have also been assessed in LCA studies, including industrial solvents (Zhang et al. 2008) and chemicals used for the production of treated water, oil and Table 31.1 Relevant life cycle assessment scopes and life cycle stages for selected chemicals management questions and example studies Chemicals management questions Assessment scopes and considered life cycle stages Example studies What is the environmental performance of different products with respect to chemical emissions? \u2022 Cradle to grave \u2022 Stages A\u2013F (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemicals consumption and emissions \u2022 Cleaning products (Van Lieshout et al. 2015) \u2022 Textiles (Roos et al. 2015) What are the environmental profiles of the production of different chemicals? \u2022 Cradle to (factory or consumer) gate \u2022 Stages A\u2013D or a subset of these stages (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemical manufacturing \u2022 Pharmaceuticals (Wernet et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2836, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 800, "book_page": 794, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemical manufacturing \u2022 Pharmaceuticals (Wernet et al. 2010) Which stage of a chemical product life cycle contributes most to environmental impacts? \u2022 Cradle to grave \u2022 Hotspot analysis including stages A\u2013F (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemicals as products \u2022 Plant protection products (Geisler et al. 2005) Which chemical synthesis and/or manufacturing processes contribute most to environmental impacts? \u2022 Cradle to (factory) gate \u2022 Hot-spot analysis including stages A\u2013B or A\u2013C (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemical manufacturing \u2022 Pharmaceuticals (De Soete et al. 2014) \u2022 Nano-materials (Pati et al. 2014) Which life cycle stage of a chemical in a product contributes most to human exposure? \u2022 Cradle to grave \u2022 Partial LCA (only human e.g. exposure estimates) including stages A\u2013F (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemicals in products \u2022 Cosmetics (Ernstoff et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2837, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 800, "book_page": 794, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "exposure estimates) including stages A\u2013F (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemicals in products \u2022 Cosmetics (Ernstoff et al. 2016a) Which feedstock provides the most environmentally friendly substrate for biochemical synthesis? \u2022 Cradle to (factory) gate \u2022 Stages A or A\u2013B (Fig. 31.3) \u2022 Focus on chemicals and raw materials consumption \u2022 Acrolein (Cespi et al. 2015) \u2022 PET (Akanuma et al. 2014) P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2838, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 800, "book_page": 794, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "gas, printing paper and dyed textiles (e.g. Alvarez-Gaitan et al. 2013; Parisi et al. 2015). When analysing LCA studies on chemical-based functions, a few generalisations emerge. For example, it is important to consider life cycle thinking early on in the design phase of products and processes whenever possible and it has been shown that simplified tools may help in this process (e.g. De Soete et al. 2014). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that hybridised LCA tools or metrics can be useful to improve communication and management for specific stakeholders (e.g. Alvarez-Gaitan et al. 2013). Several LCA studies indicate that being sceptical of services deemed \u2018green\u2019 or \u2018sustainable\u2019 is crucial, especially when an LCA has not yet been performed. Case studies on, e.g. \u2018green\u2019 solvents (Zhang et al. 2008) or \u2018sustainable\u2019 bio-based chemicals and materials (e.g. Hottle et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2839, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 801, "book_page": 795, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Case studies on, e.g. \u2018green\u2019 solvents (Zhang et al. 2008) or \u2018sustainable\u2019 bio-based chemicals and materials (e.g. Hottle et al. 2013) demonstrate that materials and products guided by principles of \u2018sustainability\u2019, \u2018eco-friendliness\u2019 or \u2018green chemistry\u2019 can have significant, but often disregarded or unassessed, environmental impacts. An example is given in Fig. 31.4, where environmental life cycle impacts of petro- and bio-based polymers are contrasted based on data from Hottle et al. (2013). 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS Global warming Ozone deple\u019fon Eutrophica\u019fon Acidifica\u019fon Normalized impacts 60% 80% 100% zed impacts 0% 20% 40% 60% PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS PLA TPS HDPE LDPE PET PP PS Ecotoxicity Human toxicity cancer Human toxicity noncancer Respiratory inorganics Normalized imp Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2840, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 801, "book_page": 795, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.4 Impact scores for LCAs of two bio-based polymers (dark bars; PLA Polylactic acid, TPS Thermoplastic starch) compared to petroleum-based polymers (light bars; HDPE High-density polyethylene, LDPE Low-density polyethylene, PET Polyethylene terephthalate, PP Polypropylene, PS Polystyrene) per kg of produced granule, normalised for each category to the polymer with highest impacts (based on data from Hottle et al. 2013) LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2841, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 801, "book_page": 795, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "According to this study, bio-based polymers lead to higher impacts than petro-based polymers for several impact categories, which contradicts assumptions that bio-based automatically implies \u2018green\u2019 or \u2018sustainable\u2019 (see also Chap. 30). Higher impacts for bio-based polymers are mainly associated with feedstock-related agricultural emissions of fertilisers (eutrophication) and pesticides (human toxicity and ecotoxicity), as well as deforestation (impacts related to changes in land use). However, the relative importance (i.e. contribution to overall environmental impacts) of the different impact categories also needs to be considered when evaluating the overall environmental performance of different polymers or other chemical products and processes. Often products are referred to as \u2018green\u2019 or \u2018sustainable\u2019 based on a single environmental issue (e.g. reducing greenhouse gas emissions), or based on following the principles of green chemistry in chemical design only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2842, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 802, "book_page": 796, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "reducing greenhouse gas emissions), or based on following the principles of green chemistry in chemical design only. However, chemical products that are claimed to be \u2018green\u2019 or \u2018sustainable\u2019 may in fact lead to greater impacts on the environment or humans than the conventional alternatives. For example, \u2018eco-friendly\u2019 food packaging made of plant fibres may increase exposure and environmental emissions of highly hazardous fluorinated chemicals (Yuan et al. 2016), and \u2018green\u2019 solvents can have higher impacts across many impact categories when compared to conventional solvents (Zhang et al. 2008). Furthermore, the production of bio-based raw materials (such as corn, sugar cane, or soy for feedstock) may or may not be associated with lesser greenhouse gas emissions and consumptions of fossil resources, but may have equal or greater impacts in other impact categories (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2843, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 802, "book_page": 796, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "land use, toxicity related to using pesticides, eutrophication related to using fertilisers) than fossil-based materials (see Chap. 30 for further details). These phenomena are commonly referred to as burden shifting (e.g. between environmental issues or compartments). Identifying these is a fundamental application principle unique to LCA. LCA is a tool that can be useful for comparing products and processes for identifying such burden shifting and how to minimise impacts across a variety of impact categories. However, it is important always to ensure as a practitioner that all relevant chemical emissions are inventoried and all impact pathways are characterised. These general cautions are also relevant for LCA studies focusing on chemical synthesis and production processes as discussed in the following section. 31.2.2 Chemical Synthesis and Production Processes LCA is a useful tool for improving existing processes and designing new processes for the synthesis and production (Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2844, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 802, "book_page": 796, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.2.2 Chemical Synthesis and Production Processes LCA is a useful tool for improving existing processes and designing new processes for the synthesis and production (Fig. 31.3, stages A\u2013D) as well as for the end-of-life treatment (Fig. 31.3, stage F) of chemicals and chemical products, to inform process systems engineering decisions (Jacquemin et al. 2012). In this section, LCA case studies focusing on chemical synthesis and production processes across various economic sectors are discussed. P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2845, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 802, "book_page": 796, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A major issue illustrated by several LCA studies is that management decisions based on single indicators or criteria can lead to increasing other impacts (that were not considered in the decisions), thereby indicating the strength of LCA as an approach to assess multiple indicators and related trade-offs. An example is the development and application of new plant protection products (pesticides) designed with the intention to reduce human toxicity and ecotoxicity potentials associated with emissions after application in agricultural crop protection or elsewhere (e.g. household pesticides). A related LCA study revealed that the production of a new and more effective plant growth regulating pesticide with less intrinsic toxicity (preferable from a risk perspective) than a functionally equivalent earlier marketed pesticide comes at the expense of increased impacts associated with pesticide synthesis and production processes (Geisler et al. 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2846, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 803, "book_page": 797, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005). The higher impacts for the new pesticide are mostly explained by the high complexity of its molecular structure requiring more synthesis and processing steps. In general, impacts related to the production of chemicals have been attributed to energy consumption which tends to increase with increasing complexity of a chemical molecule. Highly specialised chemicals, such as pharmaceuticals, can thereby be associated with higher energy consumption and related impacts from synthesis and production processes than other chemicals (Wernet et al. 2010). Not only complexity of chemical synthesis and production processes, but also the difference in raw materials used drives environmental performance profiles of chemicals and chemical products. This is shown in another set of LCA studies contrasting chemical production from fossil fuel-based versus renewable (bio-based) resources. Synthesising and producing chemicals from biomass (e.g. sugar cane) instead from fossil fuels (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2847, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 803, "book_page": 797, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Synthesising and producing chemicals from biomass (e.g. sugar cane) instead from fossil fuels (e.g. petroleum or natural gas) has been proposed as a \u2018sustainable technology\u2019 with respect to reducing reliance on fossil resources and greenhouse gas emissions. However, a full sustainability analysis has typically not been conducted, which is why several LCA studies have focused on this claim. As an example, a simplified overview of the different chemical synthesis and processing steps involved in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) polymer production is given in Fig. 31.5. While terephthalic acid used in the production of the chemically identical PET and bio-PET is in both cases derived from petroleum, ethylene glycol can be derived from natural gas as a fossil resource (for PET) or from sugar cane as a biomass feedstock (for bio-PET)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2848, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 803, "book_page": 797, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The process of natural gas refinement to create ethylene glycol alone consists of several steps including cracking (breaking down) into ethylene and other chemicals, ethylene separation and purification involving several distillation processes (not shown in Fig. 31.5). Accordingly, LCA studies have found that bio-based chemical production usually can lead to less greenhouse gas emissions than fossil-based chemical production, mainly because less refinement of fossil fuels is required. However, growing, harvesting and processing bio-based feedstocks may lead to other impacts related to agriculture production systems, e.g. land use (see Chaps. 29 and 30), which are highly variable with respect to the type of biomass used (Tabone et al. 2010; Akanuma et al. 2014). Furthermore, the type of biomass used can influence the energy required, and LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2849, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 803, "book_page": 797, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "post-processing of bio-based products and residues greatly influence the overall related environmental performance. Other LCA studies have focused on specific aspects of chemical synthesis and processing, such as comparing continuous and batch reactor types (e.g. Wang et al. 2013) or different catalysis and fermentation processes (e.g. Pati et al. 2014). It is further important to consider which catalysts are used in other processing steps that petro- and bio-based materials like PET have in common, such as antimony trioxide found at concentrations of 200\u2013300 ppm in PET or other, metal-free catalysts used in the polycondensation process as part of polymerisation. Several studies have concluded that processes with higher yields have a lower impact per chemical production unit. The use of solvents has additionally been identified as an important component influencing environmental performance of chemical products (De Soete et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2850, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 804, "book_page": 798, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use of solvents has additionally been identified as an important component influencing environmental performance of chemical products (De Soete et al. 2014). Generally, and specifically for chemical synthesis and processing, it is important to be sceptical of processes and products labelled or deemed \u2018green\u2019 or \u2018sustainable\u2019 without performing a full LCA as shown, e.g. for \u2018green\u2019 nano-materials synthesis (Pati et al. 2014). An overview of aspects that are relevant for assessing \u2018green\u2019 chemical synthesis and production processes is given by Kralisch et al. (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2851, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 804, "book_page": 798, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for \u2018green\u2019 nano-materials synthesis (Pati et al. 2014). An overview of aspects that are relevant for assessing \u2018green\u2019 chemical synthesis and production processes is given by Kralisch et al. (2015). PET bio-PET Petroleum refinery xylene terephthalic acid ethylene (petro) ethylene oxide ethylene glycol bio-ethylene bio-ethylene oxide bio-ethylene glycol bio-ethanol Natural gas refinery glucose molasses (by-product) Livestock feed Energy bagasse (le\u014cover biomass) 2 CO2 H2O O2 H2O O2 O2 H2O fermenta\u019fon dehydra\u019fon oxida\u019fon oxida\u019fon cataly\u019fc oxida\u019fon oxida\u019fon oxida\u019fon combus\u019fon polymeriza\u019fon polymeriza\u019fon Sugar cane harvest desugariza\u019fon ~70% ~30% steam cracking fluid cataly\u019fc cracking Fig. 31.5 Production process steps for chemical synthesis of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) derived from fossil fuels and bio-PET (partly) derived from bio-resources (modified from Tabone et al. 2010) P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2852, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 804, "book_page": 798, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3 Specific and General Methodological Issues for LCA of Chemicals Applying LCA, specifically in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry, and in other sectors where chemicals play a central role, comes with several methodological and practical challenges. Generally, gathering chemical inventory data, quantifying impacts, and interpreting results constitute challenges for LCA studies across sectors. In the following sections, some of the most relevant challenges focusing on chemicals in LCA are discussed in relation to the definition of the goal and scope of an LCA study, product system modelling and quantification of life cycle chemical emissions in the inventory analysis, characterisation modelling in the impact assessment, and finally interpretation of LCA results in different contexts. 31.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition Consistently defining the goal and scope for chemical products or processes (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2853, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 805, "book_page": 799, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition Consistently defining the goal and scope for chemical products or processes (e.g. functional unit of the considered product or service system and related reference flow(s) and system boundaries) is not trivial and needs to be critically considered by a practitioner. Examples of relevant issues when defining functional unit, reference flow(s), and system boundaries are discussed in the following. Functional Unit (FU) LCA (and other types of assessments) can be designed to compare functionally equivalent chemicals and chemical products as classified by chemical function (e.g. solvents, catalysts), material function (e.g. nanotubes, polymers) or product function (e.g. herbicides). It is hence important to define the level of \u2018functionality\u2019 based on which a study will be conducted. This functionality must be captured in the definition of the FU of an LCA study as basis for comparing products or systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2854, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 805, "book_page": 799, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This functionality must be captured in the definition of the FU of an LCA study as basis for comparing products or systems. Performing an LCA study is useful for providing valuable insight into which alternative, functionally equivalent chemicals or products provides the function with the lowest overall environmental impact profile, thereby focusing on avoiding burden shifting between different types of environmental impacts. To screen multiple alternatives to harmful chemicals in a particular product application, in contrast, the focus often is not mainly on environmental performance, but on a combination of regulatory compliance, economic and technical feasibility, along with considering hazard and human, environmental and social impacts. In such cases, a chemical alternatives assessment (CAA) might be the preferred approach to identify the most viable solution(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2855, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 805, "book_page": 799, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In such cases, a chemical alternatives assessment (CAA) might be the preferred approach to identify the most viable solution(s). Chemicals and chemical products can also fulfil more than a single function and, hence, a partial definition of the functional unit could lead to inconsistent LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2856, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 805, "book_page": 799, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "comparisons if the appropriate product systems are not considered as demonstrated in Example 31.1. Example 31.1 Functional Unit (FU) Take a cosmetic product like shampoo, where different chemical ingredients provide different functions as part of the final shampoo product, e.g. to provide clean, shiny and fragrant hair for one person over 24 h. If the FU is defined with respect to a single shampoo product (one-product system) that cleans the hair of one person (by containing detergents) and makes it shiny (by containing siloxanes) for 24 h, a functionally equivalent service could be also provided by applying two distinct products (two-product system), one being a shampoo that only cleans hair (and does not make it shiny) and another being a conditioner that makes the hair shiny (and does not clean). However, both the one-product and two-product systems should not provide fragrance in order to be consistently compared via the same FU (bold text above) that excludes fragrance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2857, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 806, "book_page": 800, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, both the one-product and two-product systems should not provide fragrance in order to be consistently compared via the same FU (bold text above) that excludes fragrance. Likewise, if the FU is defined to just clean hair for one person over 24 h, comparing LCA results of a shampoo that only provides clean hair to a shampoo that provides clean, shiny and fragrant hair could yield the misleading outcome that the former shampoo \u2018performs better\u2019, because the production and related impacts of additional chemicals of the latter shampoo (containing siloxanes for making the hair shiny and terpenes for making the hair fragrant) are related to functions not fulfilled by the shampoo that only cleans hair. Hence, the comparison would be biased by comparing products fulfilling distinct functions. Defining an appropriate FU for multi-functionality (see Chap. 8) is also important", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2858, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 806, "book_page": 800, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hence, the comparison would be biased by comparing products fulfilling distinct functions. Defining an appropriate FU for multi-functionality (see Chap. 8) is also important. For example, water and propylene glycol are both effective chemical solvents and, thus, both would fulfil an FU defined with respect to providing the function of a solvent in, e.g. a shampoo product. Propylene glycol, however, provides other functions that water does not provide (e.g. stabiliser, humectant, emulsifier). Therefore, a comparison of propylene glycol and water in an LCA study based on a solvent-based FU would not capture the multi-functionality of propylene glycol. Defining the FU with respect to all functionalities and then providing system expansion when necessary (e.g. water plus a stabiliser plus a humectant plus an emulsifier is functionally equivalent to propylene glycol in shampoo) can be an important consideration in any LCA on chemicals or product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2859, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 806, "book_page": 800, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "water plus a stabiliser plus a humectant plus an emulsifier is functionally equivalent to propylene glycol in shampoo) can be an important consideration in any LCA on chemicals or product systems. It is, hence, important to ensure the product(s) or chemical(s) investigated in an LCA study are functionally equivalent and the FU captures this equivalency appropriately. Reference Flow The reference flows (Chap. 8) in an LCA study reflect the overall amount of goods and/or services that are required to fulfil the defined FU. Taking a no-wash (dry) shampoo versus a conventional (liquid) shampoo as examples, the reference P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2860, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 806, "book_page": 800, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "flows to fulfil an FU of cleaning the hair of one person for one day could be 10 g of the liquid shampoo product plus the (hot) water used to wash the hair. The reference flow for the dry, leave-in, no-wash shampoo could be simply 5 g of powdered product (with no wash-water needed). Furthermore, if functionally equivalent products or chemicals provide different efficiencies to fulfil a defined FU, the different efficiencies need to be accounted for in the reference flow. This issue also points to a problem for cradle to gate LCA studies on chemicals, where it is possible that a chemical could have greater cradle to gate impacts than another chemical per unit mass emitted, but far less of the former chemical is required to fulfil the same FU. Here, pesticides with different efficiencies towards the same pest offer a typical example. System Boundaries The system boundaries (Chap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2861, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 807, "book_page": 801, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here, pesticides with different efficiencies towards the same pest offer a typical example. System Boundaries The system boundaries (Chap. 8) of any defined chemical product or service systems in an LCA study need to capture all relevant processes for the systems being compared. For example, if the purpose of an LCA study is to compare bio- with fossil-based chemical synthesis, the system boundaries must include and differentiate all raw material acquisition processes, namely all refining processes for the fossil-based chemical and the crop production and processing steps for the bio-based chemical (see also Fig. 31.5). However, for these systems, it may not be relevant to include chemical use and disposal stages in the study, whenever these life cycle stages are equivalent in both cases. Such systems are referred to as \u2018cradle to (factory) gate\u2019 systems and are common in LCA studies on chemical synthesis and other chemical production processes (Jimenez-Gonzalez and Overcash 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2862, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 807, "book_page": 801, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such systems are referred to as \u2018cradle to (factory) gate\u2019 systems and are common in LCA studies on chemical synthesis and other chemical production processes (Jimenez-Gonzalez and Overcash 2014). In contrast, if the purpose of the study is to compare two distinct fossil-based materials fulfilling the same function, the disposal stage could be a relevant driver of the difference between the compared product systems. For several chemical products and production processes, consistently defining system boundaries is challenging. An example is the application of plant protection products containing chemical pesticide active ingredients (e.g. carbamate insecticides) applied in agricultural crop production, where the FU could be defined to provide a specified amount of crop in a season. Allocating field buffer strips (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2863, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 807, "book_page": 801, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "carbamate insecticides) applied in agricultural crop production, where the FU could be defined to provide a specified amount of crop in a season. Allocating field buffer strips (i.e. non-agricultural areas that are among other functions introduced to reduce the impact of applied pesticides on non-treated areas), which may be required by law, to the technosphere would apparently influence the crop yield per hectare and amount of pesticide used compared with an equivalent system, where the buffer strips are defined as part of the environment (Rosenbaum et al. 2015). Including buffer strips in the considered technosphere system or not will, hence, influence the related impacts and also defines the scope of the environmental distribution processes of pesticides in the LCI and LCIA phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2864, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 807, "book_page": 801, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As a consequence, the definition of the system boundaries needs to be aligned with the selected pesticide inventory data and characterisation models to avoid overlaps, double counting of processes and potential gaps along the pesticide impact pathways. LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2865, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 807, "book_page": 801, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3.2 Product System Modelling and Inventory Analysis There are several obstacles that need to be considered in the product system modelling and inventory analysis phase (Chap. 9), after the goal and scope of an LCA study have been defined. Data Availability and Quality All relevant chemical elementary flows from a given product system to the environment need to be quantified in the LCI phase. When using LCA software, emission quantities are often available through an LCI database, for example for processes occurring in Europe or the \u2018rest of the world.\u2019 LCI databases generally rely on typical or average emission inventories or an inventory taken by one industry for a given unit process, which may be outdated or tied to, e.g. a specified electricity mix. Thus, it is always preferred to gather primary data, especially for the foreground system modelling (Chap. 9), of the specific LCA case under study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2866, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 808, "book_page": 802, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a specified electricity mix. Thus, it is always preferred to gather primary data, especially for the foreground system modelling (Chap. 9), of the specific LCA case under study. This poses a particular challenge to LCA practitioners, who may or may not have access to company-specific data to resolve the nuances of a particular supply chain. While in some cases, a particular commissioner of an LCA study might provide such data, while in other cases such data have to be collected from different parties. An example is the application of plant protection products, where pesticide manufacturers will know the concentration of a pesticide active ingredient in a formulation product, but where the different farmers might know the effectively used amount that is applied on agricultural fields and this usually depends on pest-, climate-, soiland application-specific conditions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2867, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 808, "book_page": 802, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Emission Estimation and Modelling Most chemical synthesis and material or product manufacturing processes involve several steps, which can yield usable by-products that have to be considered in an LCA study (see Chap. 9 for further details). As an example, harvesting sugar cane yields refined sugar, but also molasses (sugar refining by-product) and bagasse (dry leftover biomass after extracting the juice from the sugar cane). While molasses can be further used to produce biochemicals, bagasse is usually burned (for energy conversion) or used as livestock feed (Fig. 31.5). In an LCA study, usually only one of these products (sugar, biochemical, energy, livestock feed) is in focus and the other products must be accounted for through subdivision or system expansion or, if it cannot be avoided, through different types of allocation (see Chap. 9). When building a product system model, different tools and software packages are available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2868, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 808, "book_page": 802, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9). When building a product system model, different tools and software packages are available. Specifically for simulating material and energy balances of chemical production and processing, there exist several (open-source and commercial) chemical process simulators, such as Aspen HYSYS for oil and gas process simulation and Aspen Plus for chemical process optimisation (www.aspentech.com), BatchReactor and BatchColumn for chemical reactor and batch distillation columns simulation, respectively (www.prosim.net), or the CHEMCAD software suite for chemical process simulation and optimisation including batch operations (http:// www.chemstations.com). Such software packages may include proprietary data P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2869, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 808, "book_page": 802, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "from the chemical and other industries that are otherwise not accessible and may intrinsically use different allocation systems. The responsibility of ensuring transparency and consistency when building a product system including proper consideration of co-products and by-products lies with the LCA practitioner. However, several documents exist for LCA practitioners to seek guidance, and working examples of co-product considerations for the chemical industry can be found elsewhere (e.g. Weidema 2000; Karka et al. 2015). In most LCA studies, an inventory covers hundreds of processes and emission flows but not all chemical emissions are usually able to be considered. Often missing from LCI databases are, e.g. emissions to the occupational and consumer environments, and the ingredients (e.g. chemicals) in a product, which can be emitted indoors during product use or outdoors during post-use as demonstrated in Example 31.2. Example 31.2 LCI Emission Pathways When a consumer product (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2870, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 809, "book_page": 803, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "chemicals) in a product, which can be emitted indoors during product use or outdoors during post-use as demonstrated in Example 31.2. Example 31.2 LCI Emission Pathways When a consumer product (e.g. perfume) or industrial product (e.g. agricultural pesticide) is used, the chemicals within the product can follow different transport and fate mechanisms that can lead to exposures of humans and ecosystems. Consider that a colleague at work applies an air freshener or perfume in the office. Perhaps you smell or even taste it in the first minutes after application (indication of exposure), maybe the scent remains in the office for some days (indicating sorption and desorption to and from indoor walls and other surfaces), and maybe you can even smell it just outside the office building (indicating transport outdoors via ventilation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2871, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 809, "book_page": 803, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In some cases, a large proportion of chemicals within products can be taken in by humans during and after product use, which is a major concern amongst regulators and researchers. In LCA, such considerations are currently largely missing, but first efforts were made to include indoor fate and exposure pathways (referred to as \u2018near-field\u2019) into the toxicity characterisation model USEtox 2.0 (http://usetox. org). Without accounting for near-field fate and exposure pathways, LCA studies typically may assume a fixed fraction like 100% of product ingredients being emitted to the environment. In general, assuming such emission distributions could lead to an underestimation of resulting human toxicity potentials and in some cases also to an overestimation of environmental or ecosystem impacts. This is illustrated in Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2872, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 809, "book_page": 803, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is illustrated in Fig. 31.6 for d-limonene as commonly found chemical in a shampoo product, where assuming 100% of the used product being washed-off (left-side pathway in figure) instead of modelling a more complex yet more realistic distribution (right-side pathway in figure) yields a difference of more than three orders of magnitude for freshwater ecotoxicity impacts, which is beyond the uncertainty range for this impact category. Emissions can also occur from chemical residues in products that are related to cross-contamination, i.e. such chemicals are not purposefully added to a product and enter a product from using, e.g. recycled material where not all chemical ingredients are known. Often, inventory data related to cross-contamination LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2873, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 809, "book_page": 803, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pathways are very limited if at all available. Using similar processes or pathways as proxy might be a possibility to address this limitation, but also introduces additional uncertainty in the emission estimates. Spatiotemporal Variability in Emissions Time (e.g. year, season or duration) and location can influence variations in emissions, referred to as \u2018spatiotemporal\u2019 variability. In many cases, LCI results do not capture the time of emissions from systems, e.g. agricultural practices (e.g. harvesting, applying fertilisers) can occur according to daily or seasonal cycles according to the geographic location of the farm. Likewise, emissions of landfill leachate are influenced by changes in environmental conditions (e.g. acidity and temperature) which can change through time and according to location (Bakas et al. 2015). Incomplete Emission Inventories It is important to be aware of the incompleteness of some emission inventories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2874, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 810, "book_page": 804, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). Incomplete Emission Inventories It is important to be aware of the incompleteness of some emission inventories. For example, energy conversion processes generally are well detailed in LCI which can result in high toxicity related impacts resulting from energy conversion, but other processes, e.g. related to chemical synthesis may have less complete inventories and, hence, related toxicity impacts might be underestimated (Laurent et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2875, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 810, "book_page": 804, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "related to chemical synthesis may have less complete inventories and, hence, related toxicity impacts might be underestimated (Laurent et al. 2012). Ecotoxicity impacts: 3\u00d710\u22124 PAF m3 d 100% washed-off 3\u00d710\u22126 kg to freshwater 3\u00d710\u22125 kg to air 1.5\u00d710\u22125 kg to soil 20% user intake 80% vola\u019fliza\u019fon <1% washed-off Freshwater aqua\u019fc ecosystem toxicity characteriza\u019fon factors [PAF m3 d kg\u22121] 3\u00d710\u221210 kg to freshwater 4\u00d710\u22125 kg to air 2\u00d710\u22129 kg to soil Ecotoxicity impacts: 2\u00d710\u22127 PAF m3 d 5 g of product applied daily 1% d-limonene w/w content 0.05 g of d-limonene applied <1% biodegraded 5% to freshwater 65% to air 30% to soil <1% biodegraded 5% to freshwater 65% to air 30% to soil environmental emissions a\u014cer treatment % washed-off to wastewater treatment plant % vola\u019flized released to air no near-field pathways considered including near-field pathways Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2876, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 810, "book_page": 804, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.6 Illustrative example of assumptions for emission distributions of chemicals in consumer products in life cycle assessment showing a substantial decrease in the estimated potentially affected fraction (PAF) of freshwater species from the chemical ingredient d-limonene (CAS: 5989-27-5) in shampoo when accounting for indoor fate and exposure of cosmetic products. Adapted from results from Ernstoff et al. (2016a) combined with freshwater ecotoxicity characterisation factors from USEtox 2.0 (http://usetox.org). Air emissions were assumed to be to urban air, water emissions to continental freshwater, and soil emissions to continental natural soil P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2877, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 810, "book_page": 804, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.3.3 Impact Assessment Characterising chemical emission flows resulting from the LCI in terms of their impacts on humans and the environment requires a careful consideration of study context (e.g. spatial region), number and relevance of chemicals to be characterised (in many cases, most chemicals contribute marginally to overall impacts, while only few chemicals dominate overall impact profiles). In the following, challenges and pitfalls in the impact assessment of chemical products and processes are discussed with focus on toxicity-related impacts, where special challenges exist mainly due to the countless chemicals to be characterised and the complexity of related impact pathways. Limited Substance Coverage USEtox, a scientific consensus model for characterising human and ecotoxicological impacts of chemicals, presently provides characterisation factors for more than 3000 chemicals, which constitutes the largest list currently available in LCIA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2878, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 811, "book_page": 805, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, with tens of thousands of chemicals on the market, inventoried chemical emissions either documented in an LCI database or by a practitioner investigating a specific system or process, may in many cases not have existing characterisation factors or the data required to develop new characterisation factors (e.g. toxicity dose-response information). This limitation to substance coverage in LCIA is important when interpreting results, because a lack of data for many chemicals does not preclude their possible impacts. Chemical Degradation Products When a chemical does not degrade, or degrades very slowly, it is considered \u2018persistent.\u2019 Persistent chemicals thereby can be linked to greater impacts because they are not or very slowly removed from the system through degradation. In current LCIA methodologies, abiotic (e.g. where a chemical is transformed via interactions with sunlight) and biotic (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2879, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 811, "book_page": 805, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In current LCIA methodologies, abiotic (e.g. where a chemical is transformed via interactions with sunlight) and biotic (e.g. when a chemical is metabolised by soil bacteria) degradation essentially \u2018removes\u2019 organic chemicals from the system and no further impacts are characterised. In reality, degradation processes transform a chemical into one or more degradation or transformation \u2018products\u2019, including other chemicals or gases, which can also impact the environment. Degradation products can have greater or lesser impacts than their parent compounds; for example aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), which is the main degradation product of the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate, is more persistent and more toxic than the glyphosate parent compound. As an example, not including AMPA in an LCA study that considers agricultural processes where this herbicide is used could underestimate the impacts of using glyphosate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2880, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 811, "book_page": 805, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As an example, not including AMPA in an LCA study that considers agricultural processes where this herbicide is used could underestimate the impacts of using glyphosate. Therefore, an LCA practitioner should include estimates of persistent degradation products and appropriate characterisation factors (in this case for AMPA, not glyphosate) to better capture the impacts of chemicals. While this approach will not be feasible for all chemicals (due to data limitations), it should be performed when the issue is known and data are available. LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2881, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 811, "book_page": 805, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Impacts from Chemical Mixtures Impacts towards humans or different ecosystems, related to chemical emissions, are a function of the simultaneous prevalence of other chemicals, which might have synergistic (enhancing) or antagonistic (counteracting) properties with respect to the effect of a considered chemical. Since information on the site-specific mixture of chemicals in any environmental medium or compartment is not usually available, and the impacts of such a mixture on humans or the environment are not known, synergistic or antagonistic effects are usually not considered, and instead additivity of exposure and related effects is assumed. This means that the effects of all chemicals contributing to the same impact category, e.g. freshwater aquatic ecosystem toxicity or ozone depletion, are summed up to arrive at an overall product system-related impact score", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2882, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 812, "book_page": 806, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "freshwater aquatic ecosystem toxicity or ozone depletion, are summed up to arrive at an overall product system-related impact score. If for any LCA study the emission location and time is known and related background levels are available for all relevant chemicals, this assumption could be evaluated by identifying and quantifying the synergistic or antagonistic effect potentials. However, the potentially added accuracy in an LCA context is most likely not relevant given existing uncertainty attributable to other aspects in the characterisation of chemical emissions. Besides, the large number of chemicals present and emitted into the environment yields an almost limitless amount of possible mixtures, rendering it impossible to quantify the specific effect potentials for each mixture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2883, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 812, "book_page": 806, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Missing Fate and Exposure Processes and Pathways In order to reduce the demand put on LCA practitioners, to streamline workflows, and to allow for science-based and consensus-driven solutions, LCIA often relies on predefined methodologies. While hundreds or even thousands of chemicals might be inventoried for various processes in an LCA study, characterisation factors or a LCIA method for a given impact at mid-point or end-point level might in some cases be missing, especially for toxicity-related impacts (see Chap. 10). Moreover, certain exposure settings (occupational, consumer) or routes (e.g. dermal exposure) or target organisms (e.g. exposures of bees) may be missing from an LCIA model. Effect factors may also be missing or inconsistent, e.g. in the case of human toxicity, effects of allergy or endocrine disruption (i.e. interaction with the hormone system) are often not included, but may be highly relevant for chemicals in consumer products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2884, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 812, "book_page": 806, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "interaction with the hormone system) are often not included, but may be highly relevant for chemicals in consumer products. Finally, many of the methodological gaps in LCIA are also due to the reliance on simplifying assumptions. The LCA practitioner, who is constrained by resources (time, money, data access), is responsible for compiling the necessary data and for ensuring that the LCIA methodology chosen (or developed) is suitable for the defined goal and scope of an LCA study. Specifically, to characterise a chemical\u2019s impact, several assessment factors are required and must be sufficiently scrutinised within the chosen LCIA method, such as the chemical environmental fate, ecosystem and/or human exposure if relevant, and subsequent effects with respect to given impact categories. Each of the related data requirements poses its own challenges", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2885, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 812, "book_page": 806, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Each of the related data requirements poses its own challenges. To avoid the misleading conclusion that missing aspects of the chosen LCIA method do not cause impacts because they were not assessed, it is important to be familiar with which processes (e.g. biotransformation), environmental compartments (e.g. indoor air), exposure P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2886, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 812, "book_page": 806, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pathways (e.g. dermal uptake), and effects (e.g. endocrine disruption), may be missing from the selected characterisation methods but are relevant for the system under study. In some cases such missing aspects can be addressed by the practitioner by developing new methods or by adapting existing methods; if not, it is important to be aware of how this could influence results. Spatiotemporal Variability of Impacts LCIA methods are generally based on regional or global averages for various chemical, environmental and pathway data and processes, e.g. how long it takes chemicals emitted to freshwater to reach the sea (i.e. residence time), or how many persons live in an urban area (i.e. population density). Studies have shown, intuitively, using a continental average instead of \u2018spatially differentiated\u2019 regionalised models can yield large uncertainty in the estimated impacts (e.g. Kounina et al. 2014). Thus, if the location of the emissions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2887, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 813, "book_page": 807, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Kounina et al. 2014). Thus, if the location of the emissions (e.g. from a specific factory) in an LCA study is known, using a model with characterisation factors specific for that region can reduce uncertainty of model results. If emission locations are not known (as is the case for most chemicals in typical LCA studies), characterisation results for regions can be applied that are parameterised, i.e. averaged for the characteristics of a particular region. The same rule applies for temporal aspects, where in LCA mostly steady-state conditions and continuous emissions are assumed, which might not be true for, e.g. agricultural pesticides that are applied on specific days only (i.e. pulse emissions). In such cases, accounting for the dynamics of the chemicals in the modelled environmental system may reduce uncertainty in characterisation results (e.g. Fantke et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2888, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 813, "book_page": 807, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pulse emissions). In such cases, accounting for the dynamics of the chemicals in the modelled environmental system may reduce uncertainty in characterisation results (e.g. Fantke et al. 2012), but whenever temporal information on emission patterns is not available, parameterised characterisation results can be applied that account for the most important temporal aspects of a modelled system. Impacts Versus Benefits Life cycle impact assessment inherently focuses on quantifying \u2018negative\u2019 impacts on humans and the environment. A stakeholder could in some cases argue that their product or service offers a benefit to society that is not accounted for, meaning that an LCA yields misleading results. When facing such an argument as an LCA practitioner, it is important to go back to the fundamentals of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2889, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 813, "book_page": 807, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "When facing such an argument as an LCA practitioner, it is important to go back to the fundamentals of LCA. The impact assessment phase of LCA is designed to assess environmental \u2018benefits\u2019 in the form of \u2018avoiding environmental impacts.\u2019 For example, a wastewater treatment plant design that also decreases environmental pollution compared to another design offers a \u2018benefit\u2019 that is quantifiable in an LCA context (see Chap. 34 on LCA of wastewater treatment). Furthermore, when comparing functionally equivalent products or services, their benefits (e.g. restoring a wetland to yield a level of biodiversity, or designing a car with a certain safety rating) is often captured in the functional unit of an LCA study, which defines a unit of the (beneficial) service being provided. There are special cases where considering societal benefits that are not captured in the functional unit or by the assessment methods can be extremely important when guiding decision-making", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2890, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 813, "book_page": 807, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There are special cases where considering societal benefits that are not captured in the functional unit or by the assessment methods can be extremely important when guiding decision-making. In some cases, LCA may not be the appropriate tool to assess such benefits; however, developing LCA-compatible methods to quantify societal benefits (specifically positive human health outcomes) LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2891, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 813, "book_page": 807, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "is a topic of high interest when assessing human nutrition and dietary patterns, where two functionally equivalent diets can have very different health impacts or benefits (Nemecek et al. 2016). 31.3.4 Interpretation The interpretation of results is fundamental for the findings and reliability of every LCA study and subsequent guidance provided to stakeholders, and to LCA in general (see Chap. 12). Robust and transparent interpretation of results from an LCA study can offer sound council for the stakeholders and when aggregating with other LCA studies can elucidate generalisable findings important for sustainable development. As an example of nuances of interpretation, the \u2018New Plastics Economy\u2019 report (WEF 2016) cites interpretation of several LCA studies and implies that a major shortcoming of LCA is its inability to identify and support \u2018target states\u2019, such as moving towards increased production and use of bio-based plastics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2892, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 814, "book_page": 808, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Indeed, as previously discussed, LCA studies on bio-based versus fossil-based plastics have demonstrated similar, if not greater impacts (e.g. on land use and toxicity potentials) for bio-based plastics due to agricultural practices (see Chap. 30), which is a finding that may be unintuitive or undesirable to some (e.g. stakeholders in the bioplastics industry). When interpreting such LCA results, it is important to distinguish what an LCA says about \u2018here and now\u2019 versus what it could mean for future sustainability goals or targets of stakeholders. For example, LCA results showing bio-based plastics have \u2018greater impacts\u2019 than fossil-based plastics do not discredit bio-based plastics as a sustainability goal, but they do indicate that bio-based plastics face sustainability challenges given current agricultural practices, which thus must be addressed to avoid impact trade-offs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2893, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 814, "book_page": 808, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, LCA results can help indicate which feedstock is the most eco-efficient (less impacts per kilogram) to work towards a bio-based \u2018target\u2019. In practice, LCA may not be able to easily identify target states often elucidated according to societal values (which may include socioeconomic or political factors) or intuitive/consensual sustainability goals, but LCA can be instrumental in reaching goals and target states in a holistically sustainable manner and shedding light on challenges faced when working towards such goals. In the following, some additional challenges in interpreting LCA results are outlined. Contribution to Impact Results Especially for LCAs on chemical products or processes, it is important to transparently report and document the contribution of different chemicals to impacts related to product life cycle stages and individual processes. This can help identify potential problems in the processing of LCI or LCIA results (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2894, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 814, "book_page": 808, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This can help identify potential problems in the processing of LCI or LCIA results (e.g. if one chemical dominates results). Interpreting LCA results might be particularly challenging if it is not clear whether toxicity-related impacts are associated with chemical emissions occurring along the product life cycle or, in contrast, with chemicals that are P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2895, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 814, "book_page": 808, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product ingredients (Roos and Peters 2015). As an example, glass used as food packaging can show higher potential toxicity impacts compared with plastic packaging due to transport-related emissions of toxic chemicals from fossil fuel burning (Humbert et al. 2009), which is linked to the fact that glass is usually heavier than plastic. However, plastic food packaging can likely lead to greater exposures to various chemicals through food than glass, but this aspect is not (yet) considered in current LCIA toxicity models (Ernstoff et al. 2016b). Further, it might be unclear whether worker and/or consumer exposure pathways are included as these are currently beyond the scope of LCA studies focusing primarily on environmental emissions. The covered pathways and exposed populations should always be clarified in an LCA study to avoid possible misinterpretation of results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2896, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 815, "book_page": 809, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The covered pathways and exposed populations should always be clarified in an LCA study to avoid possible misinterpretation of results. This is of specific relevance for the comparison of chemicals and chemical products and processes, where such ambiguities can cause confusion regarding the contribution of chemicals and related impact pathways and life cycle stages. Identification of Considered Chemicals In any of the aforementioned contexts, it must be acknowledged that most chemicals have various common names (lindane, CAS RN: 58-89-9, is for example also commonly known as HCH, hexachlorobenzene, or cyclohexane, etc.). Hence, it is important to ensure that names for chemicals in the different phases of an LCA study (e.g. inventory analysis and impact assessment) are consistently chosen based on using CAS registry numbers or similar as chemical identifier to, e.g. avoid double counting or neglecting chemicals with ambiguous names", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2897, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 815, "book_page": 809, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "avoid double counting or neglecting chemicals with ambiguous names. This exercise can prove to be challenging as LCA software packages often report chemical inventories by chemical name and not by CAS number. Quality and Uncertainty Quality checks across the large number of inventoried chemicals is usually difficult, but inventory results should nevertheless be verified by, e.g. checking the mass balance of only those chemicals that drive overall impact results, for examples heavy metals that often dominate toxicity impact profiles. Furthermore, it is essential to report and discuss uncertainties of LCA data and results with respect to each impact category as integral part of the analysis, and consider such uncertainties in the interpretation of results and guidance provided to decision makers (see Chap. 11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2898, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 815, "book_page": 809, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11). Particularly uncertainty associated with toxicity characterisation results is high compared with other impact categories and results can furthermore differ between toxicity characterisation methods, which can in some cases influence the overall ranking of compared product systems. Uncertainty (lack of data or understanding) and variability (data heterogeneity) are distinct concepts, but are sometimes (incorrectly) aggregated. For example, often \u2018high uncertainty\u2019 is perceived negatively or seen to discredit a particular LCIA method. However, such \u2018uncertainty\u2019 can be a direct reflection of reality and variabilities in temporal and spatial chemical fate and organism disease responses (see Chap. 11 for further details)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2899, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 815, "book_page": 809, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, such \u2018uncertainty\u2019 can be a direct reflection of reality and variabilities in temporal and spatial chemical fate and organism disease responses (see Chap. 11 for further details). Likewise, if an impact category has low or no associated uncertainty, this is perceived as positive but should in fact be a warning sign that there may be a lack of understanding of what uncertainties and/or variabilities exist or that the environmental relevance (or LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2900, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 815, "book_page": 809, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "representativeness) of an indicator may be low (which introduces an uncertainty in the interpretation phase, but this is usually not quantified). To begin transparently addressing this issue, impacts should ideally be cross-compared using different LCIA characterisation methods with particular focus on identifying which chemicals contribute the most to impacts in each LCIA method (which are often not the same). Moreover, uncertainty ranges for toxicity-related impacts should be reported in logarithmic scale to put average uncertainties of two to three orders of magnitude into perspective of more than 15 orders of magnitude in the variability across chemicals. This is shown in Fig. 31.7 for 786 chemicals with available measured ecotoxicity effective concentrations for 50% of the exposed species (EC50; mg/L) for aquatic ecosystems. EC50 values are used to calculate effect factors as part of toxicity characterisation in LCIA (see Sect. 10.11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2901, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 816, "book_page": 810, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EC50 values are used to calculate effect factors as part of toxicity characterisation in LCIA (see Sect. 10.11). The relation between uncertainty and cross-chemical variability is not much different for toxicity impacts than for other impacts, where uncertainty in characterisation results (of usually only a handful of contributing chemicals) and related variability across contributing chemicals are both less broad. However, uncertainty ranges vary widely between chemicals, but chemical-specific uncertainty around characterisation factors is usually not available in LCA, except for specific pathways, e.g. exposure to pesticide residues in food crops (Fantke and Jolliet 2016), where also the underlying method to quantify chemical-specific uncertainty is outlined. Comparison with Results from Other Methods Comparing results from an LCA study with results from a different method can help identify methodological inconsistencies that require further inspection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2902, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 816, "book_page": 810, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Comparison with Results from Other Methods Comparing results from an LCA study with results from a different method can help identify methodological inconsistencies that require further inspection. As an example, it might be desired to compare the ranking of chemicals in terms of their potential toxicity impacts on humans and/or ecosystems in an LCA study with the ranking of chemicals based on persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity or other criteria used, e.g. by risk regulators. In this context, it is important to acknowledge that inconsistencies can result from the primary data used in an LCA versus another 1E+05 1E+06 ] uncertai 1E+01 1E+02 1E+03 1E+04 EC50 [mg/L] ncertainty variability 1E-02 1E-01 1E+00 EC50 [m iability 1E-05 1E-04 1E-03 Chemical number Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2903, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 816, "book_page": 810, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.7 Ranges of measured chemical-specific ecotoxicity effective concentrations (50% of exposed species affected), EC50, for aquatic ecosystems collected and indicated as reliable for 786 chemicals based on REACH (echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach) P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2904, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 816, "book_page": 810, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "method, or assumptions and cut-offs may be based on different criteria, e.g. worst case versus best estimate or most sensitive species versus average ecosystem sensitivity (Harder et al. 2015). This might lead to problems when comparing chemical rankings based on different assessment methods and data sources. Chemical toxicity results may furthermore differ between regions, countries or assessment methods, and thereby the consideration of chemicals as, e.g. \u2018non-carcinogenic\u2019 in LCA toxicity characterisation models may not be consistent with a specific regulatory context, such as the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) legislation framework of the European Union. 31.4 Conclusions Stakeholders commissioning an LCA study can drive the goal and scope, the selection of inventory processes, and the selection of impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2905, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 817, "book_page": 811, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "31.4 Conclusions Stakeholders commissioning an LCA study can drive the goal and scope, the selection of inventory processes, and the selection of impact categories. In many cases, this can lead to an assessment that is restricted, for example to greenhouse gas emissions and a focus on climate change. The limited scope of such studies must be considered in the interpretation and application of their results, whenever other important impact pathways for chemical production, use, and disposal are not assessed. It is always important to be critical towards LCA outcomes and understand their limitations and scope, and respect that no tool (including LCA) can answer all questions related to chemicals and sustainability. Not only can the scope of an LCA study be intentionally restricted according to its goal and scope, but there are several remaining challenges that also limit LCA, such as partial coverage of chemical inventory data, fate modelling (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2906, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 817, "book_page": 811, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "regional variation), exposure pathways (e.g. dermal exposure of consumers), and characterisation of potential human and ecosystem toxicity impacts. Given that there are tens of thousands of commercially used chemicals, and often little data on their properties or effects, the challenge of addressing chemical risks and impacts is not unique to LCA. Generally, the various methods for characterising risk and impacts of chemicals face similar challenges of data availability, but they also face methodological challenges and intentional differences. For example, results of an LCA addressing several impact categories and hundreds of chemicals, where often the exact emission location and timing is unknown, are difficult to cross-compare with results of a toxicity-focused risk assessment considering specific (e.g. worst-case) conditions and only one or several chemicals of concern (Harder et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2907, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 817, "book_page": 811, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "worst-case) conditions and only one or several chemicals of concern (Harder et al. 2015). Attempts of combining LCA with principles of green and sustainable chemistry, combining LCA- and risk-based approaches, and including life cycle impacts in chemical alternatives assessment frameworks demonstrate the growing complementarity and relevance of the life cycle approach in other science-policy fields (Jimenez-Gonzalez and Overcash 2014; Harder et al. 2015; Jacobs et al. 2016). Overall, the number of LCA studies focusing on chemicals or chemical products or LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2908, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 817, "book_page": 811, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "processes is growing; thus, increasing discourse and trust in LCA methods as well as improving existing inventory and impact characterisation approaches. Over the past years of research, LCA has developed into a powerful tool to identify and assess trade-offs and burden shifting between different environmental issues, identify hotspots and minimise overall environmental impacts of chemicals emitted along the life cycles of products and processes. With rising interest in creating \u2018environmentally friendly\u2019 chemicals and products, LCA is particularly important to help avoiding \u2018green washing\u2019 and unsupported sustainability claims. A common example is the comparison of products that can be developed purely from petrochemicals and also from a combination of petro- and biochemicals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2909, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 818, "book_page": 812, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A common example is the comparison of products that can be developed purely from petrochemicals and also from a combination of petro- and biochemicals. Larger potential greenhouse gas emissions in the petrochemical production are confronted with often larger land use and pesticide-related toxicity impacts from agricultural crop production when serving as feedstock for biochemical production (Tabone et al. 2010; Cespi et al. 2015). Only comparing climate change impacts in this context would lead to false conclusions (i.e. that bio-based chemicals are always \u2018greener\u2019) and does not help identify how to optimise production processes and resource use when moving from petrochemicals to biochemicals in, e.g. plastics production. This is especially relevant when assessing emerging technologies, where there is a high level of optimisation potential in the years to come for upscaling lab-level processes to a commercial level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2910, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 818, "book_page": 812, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is especially relevant when assessing emerging technologies, where there is a high level of optimisation potential in the years to come for upscaling lab-level processes to a commercial level. Future research related to chemicals and LCA should focus on identifying and resolving areas of high uncertainty (such as changes through space and time), filling data gaps (for example with high-throughput exposure and toxicity modelling approaches), and addressing issues of high concern such as consumer and occupational exposure and other toxicity endpoints (e.g. toxicity to bees). Furthermore, applying LCA in case studies and analyses to address issues of existing and emerging technologies can help pinpoint and corroborate solutions towards more sustainable production and consumption of synthetic and naturally occurring chemicals. Abraham, M.A., Nguyen, N.: \u201cGreen engineering: defining the principles\u201d\u2014results from the Sandestin conference. Environ. Prog", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2911, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 818, "book_page": 812, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Abraham, M.A., Nguyen, N.: \u201cGreen engineering: defining the principles\u201d\u2014results from the Sandestin conference. Environ. Prog. 22, 233\u2013236 (2003) Akanuma, Y., Selke, S.E.M., Auras, R.: A preliminary LCA case study: comparison of different pathways to produce purified terephthalic acid suitable for synthesis of 100% bio-based PET. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1238\u20131246 (2014) Alvarez-Gaitan, J.P., Peters, G.M., Rowley, H.V., Moore, S., Short, M.D.: A hybrid life cycle assessment of water treatment chemicals: an Australian experience. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1291\u20131301 (2013) Anastas, P.T., Lankey, R.L.: Life cycle assessment and green chemistry: the yin and yang of industrial ecology. Green Chem. 2, 289\u2013295 (2000) Anastas, P., Warner, J.: Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press, New York (1998) P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2912, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 818, "book_page": 812, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bakas, I., Hauschild, M.Z., Astrup, T.F., Rosenbaum, R.K.: Preparing the ground for an operational handling of long-term emissions in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1444\u20131455 (2015) Bare, J.C.: Risk assessment and Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) for human health cancerous and noncancerous emissions: Integrated and complementary with consistency within the USEPA. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 12, 493\u2013509 (2006) Botta, C., Labille, J., Auffan, M., Borschneck, D., Miche, H., Cabi\u00e9, M., Masion, A., Rose, J., Bottero, J.-Y.: TiO2-based nanoparticles released in water from commercialized sunscreens in a life-cycle perspective: structures and quantities. Environ. Pollut. 159, 1543\u20131550 (2011) CEFIC: The European Chemical Industry Facts and Figures 2014, p. 54", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2913, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 819, "book_page": 813, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Pollut. 159, 1543\u20131550 (2011) CEFIC: The European Chemical Industry Facts and Figures 2014, p. 54. European Chemical Industry Council, Brussels (2014) Cespi, D., Passarini, F., Mastragostino, G., Vassura, I., Larocca, S., Iaconi, A., Chieregato, A., Dubois, J.L., Cavani, F.: Glycerol as feedstock in the synthesis of chemicals: a life cycle analysis for acrolein production. Green Chem. 17, 343\u2013355 (2015) De Soete, W., Debaveye, S., De Meester, S., Van der Vorst, G., Aelterman, W., Heirman, B., Cappuyns, P., Dewulf, J.: Environmental sustainability assessments of pharmaceuticals: an emerging need for simplification in life cycle assessments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 12247\u2013 12255 (2014) Embry, M.R., Bachman, A.N., Bell, D.R., Boobis, A.R., Cohen, S.M., Dellarco, M., Dewhurst, I. C., Doerrer, N.G., Hines, R.N., Morett, A., Pastoor, T.P., Phillips, R.D., Rowlands, J.C., Tanir, J.Y., Wol, D.C., Doe, J.E.: Risk assessment in the 21st century: roadmap and matrix. Crit. Rev", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2914, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 819, "book_page": 813, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "C., Doerrer, N.G., Hines, R.N., Morett, A., Pastoor, T.P., Phillips, R.D., Rowlands, J.C., Tanir, J.Y., Wol, D.C., Doe, J.E.: Risk assessment in the 21st century: roadmap and matrix. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 44, 6\u201316 (2014) Ernstoff, A.S., Fantke, P., Csiszar, S.A., Henderson, A.D., Chung, S., Jolliet, O.: Multi-pathway exposure modelling of chemicals in cosmetics with application to shampoo. Environ. Int. 92\u2013 93, 87\u201396 (2016a) Ernstoff A, Muncke J, Trier X, Niero M, Fantke P (2016b) Exposure to chemicals in food packaging as a sustainability trade-off in LCA. In: 10th International Conference on LCA of Food, 19\u201321 Oct 2016, Dublin, Ireland, pp. 336\u2013343 Fantke, P., Jolliet, O.: Life cycle human health impacts of 875 pesticides. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 722\u2013733 (2016) Fantke, P., Wieland, P., Juraske, R., Shaddick, G., Itoiz, E.S., Friedrich, R., Jolliet, O.: Parameterization models for pesticide exposure via crop consumption. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2915, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 819, "book_page": 813, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 12864\u201312872 (2012) Fantke, P., Weber, R., Scheringer, M.: From incremental to fundamental substitution in chemical alternatives assessment. Sustain. Chem. Pharm. 1, 1\u20138 (2015) Geisler, G., Hellweg, S., Hofstetter, T.B., Hungerb\u00fchler, K.: Life-cycle assessment in pesticide product development: methods and case study on two plant-growth regulators from different product generations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 2406\u20132413 (2005) Harder, R., Holmquist, H., Molander, S., Svanstr\u00f6m, M., Peters, G.M.: Review of environmental assessment case studies blending elements of risk assessment and life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 13083\u201313093 (2015) Hauschild, M.Z.: Assessing environmental impacts in a life-cycle perspective. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2916, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 819, "book_page": 813, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 13083\u201313093 (2015) Hauschild, M.Z.: Assessing environmental impacts in a life-cycle perspective. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 81A\u201388A (2005) Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guin\u00e9e, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., Pant, R.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013697 (2013) Hester, R.E., Harrison, R.M.: Chemical Alternatives Assessments. RSC Publishing, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge (2013) Hottle, T.A., Bilec, M.M., Landis, A.E.: Sustainability assessments of bio-based polymers. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 98, 1898\u20131907 (2013) Humbert, S., Rossi, V., Margni, M., Jolliet, O., Loerincik, Y.: Life cycle assessment of two baby food packaging alternatives: glass jars vs. plastic pots. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14, 95\u2013106 (2009) LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2917, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 819, "book_page": 813, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Jacobs, M.M., Malloy, T.F., Tickner, J.A., Edwards, S.: Alternatives assessment frameworks: research needs for the informed substitution of hazardous chemicals. Environ. Health Perspect. 124, 265\u2013280 (2016) Jacquemin, L., Pontalier, P.-Y., Sablayrolles, C.: Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the process industry: a review. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 1028\u20131041 (2012) Jimenez-Gonzalez, C., Overcash, M.R.: The evolution of life cycle assessment in pharmaceutical and chemical applications\u2014a perspective. Green Chem. 16, 3392\u20133400 (2014) Jonkers, N., Krop, H., Ewijk, H., Leonards, P.E.G.: Life cycle assessment of flame retardants in an electronics application. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 146\u2013161 (2016) Karka, P., Papadokonstantakis, S., Hungerb\u00fchler, K., Kokossis, A.: Life cycle assessment of biorefinery products based on different allocation approaches. Comput. Aided Chem. Eng", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2918, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 820, "book_page": 814, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "21, 146\u2013161 (2016) Karka, P., Papadokonstantakis, S., Hungerb\u00fchler, K., Kokossis, A.: Life cycle assessment of biorefinery products based on different allocation approaches. Comput. Aided Chem. Eng. 37, 2573\u20132578 (2015) Kounina, A., Margni, M., Shaked, S., Bulle, C., Jolliet, O.: Spatial analysis of toxic emissions in LCA: a sub-continental nested USEtox model with freshwater archetypes. Environ. Int. 69, 67\u2013 89 (2014) Kralisch, D., Ott, D., Gericke, D.: Rules and benefits of life cycle assessment in green chemical process and synthesis design: a tutorial review. Green Chem. 17, 123\u2013145 (2015) Laurent, A., Olsen, S.I., Hauschild, M.Z.: Limitations of carbon footprint as indicator of environmental sustainability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 4100\u20134108 (2012) MacLeod, M., Breitholtz, M., Cousins, I.T., de Wit, C.A., Persson, L.M., Rud\u00e9n, C., McLachlan, M.S.: Identifying chemicals that are planetary boundary threats. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2919, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 820, "book_page": 814, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 11057\u201311063 (2014) Neltner, T.G., Alger, H.M., Leonard, J.E., Maffini, M.V.: Data gaps in toxicity testing of chemicals allowed in food in the United States. Reprod. Toxicol. 42, 85\u201394 (2013) Nemecek, T., Jungbluth, N., Canals, L.M., Schenck, R.: Environmental impacts of food consumption and nutrition: where are we and what is next? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 607\u2013 620 (2016) OECD (2012) The Role of Government Policy in Supporting the Adoption of Green/Sustainable Chemistry Innovations. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, p. 50 Parisi, M.L., Fatarella, E., Spinelli, D., Pogni, R., Basosi, R.: Environmental impact assessment of an eco-efficient production for coloured textiles. J. Clean. Prod. 108, 514\u2013524 (2015) Pati, P., McGinnis, S., Vikesland, P.J.: Life cycle assessment of \u201cgreen\u201d nanoparticle synthesis methods. Environ. Eng. Sci", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2920, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 820, "book_page": 814, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 108, 514\u2013524 (2015) Pati, P., McGinnis, S., Vikesland, P.J.: Life cycle assessment of \u201cgreen\u201d nanoparticle synthesis methods. Environ. Eng. Sci. 31, 410\u2013420 (2014) Pennington, D.W., Margni, M., Payet, J., Jolliet, O.: Risk and regulatory hazard-based toxicological effect indicators in life-cycle assessment. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 12, 450\u2013 475 (2006) Posthuma, L., Bj\u00f8rn, A., Zijp, M.C., Birkved, M., Diamond, M.L., Hauschild, M.Z., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Mulder, C., van de Meent, D.: Beyond safe operating space: finding chemical footprinting feasible. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 6057\u20136059 (2014) Roos, S., Peters, G.M.: Three methods for strategic product toxicity assessment\u2014the case of the cotton T-shirt. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-11015-10895-11366 Roos, S., Posner, S., J\u00f6nsson, C., Peters, G.M.: Is unbleached cotton better than bleached? Exploring the limits of life-cycle assessment in the textile sector. Cloth. Text. Res. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2921, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 820, "book_page": 814, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cloth. Text. Res. J. 33, 231\u2013 247 (2015) Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M.D., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z.: USEtox\u2014the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 532\u2013546 (2008) Rosenbaum, R.K., Anton, A., Bengoa, X., Bj\u00f8rn, A., Brain, R., Bulle, C., Cosme, N., Dijkman, T. J., Fantke, P., Felix, M., et al.: The Glasgow consensus on the delineation between pesticide emission inventory and impact assessment for LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 765\u2013776 (2015) P. Fantke and A. Ernstoff", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2922, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 820, "book_page": 814, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Shin, H.-M., Ernstoff, A.S., Arnot, J.A., Wetmore, B., Csiszar, S.A., Fantke, P., Zhang, X., McKone, T.E., Jolliet, O., Bennett, D.H.: Risk-based high-throughput chemical screening and prioritization using exposure models and in vitro bioactivity assays. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 6760\u20136771 (2015) Tabone, M.D., Cregg, J.J., Beckman, E.J., Landis, A.E.: Sustainability metrics: life cycle assessment and green design in polymers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 8264\u20138269 (2010) Tickner, J.A., Schifano, J.N., Blake, A., Rudisill, C., Mulvihill, M.J.: Advancing safer alternatives through functional substitution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 742\u2013749 (2015) Tufvesson, L.M., Tufvesson, P., Woodley, J.M., B\u00f6rjesson, P.: Life cycle assessment in green chemistry: overview of key parameters and methodological concerns. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 431\u2013444 (2013) van Leeuwen, C.J., Vermeire, T.G.: Risk Assessment of Chemicals: An Introduction, 2nd edn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2923, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 821, "book_page": 815, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 431\u2013444 (2013) van Leeuwen, C.J., Vermeire, T.G.: Risk Assessment of Chemicals: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Springer Press, Dordrecht (2007) Van Lieshout, K.G., Bayley, C., Akinlabi, S.O., von Rabenau, L., Dornfeld, D.: Leveraging life cycle assessment to evaluate environmental impacts of green cleaning products. Procedia CIRP 29, 372\u2013377 (2015) Wang, Q., Vural G\u00fcrsel, I., Shang, M., Hessel, V.: Life cycle assessment for the direct synthesis of adipic acid in microreactors and benchmarking to the commercial process. Chem. Eng. J. 234, 300\u2013311 (2013) WBCSD: Life Cycle Metrics for Chemical Products, p. 120. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Geneva (2014) WEF: The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of Plastics, p. 36. World Economic Forum, Geneva (2016) Weidema, B.: Avoiding co-product allocation in life-cycle assessment. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2924, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 821, "book_page": 815, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "36. World Economic Forum, Geneva (2016) Weidema, B.: Avoiding co-product allocation in life-cycle assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 4, 11\u201333 (2000) Wernet, G., Conradt, S., Isenring, H.P., Jim\u00e9nez-Gonz\u00e1lez, C., Hungerb\u00fchler, K.: Life cycle assessment of fine chemical production: a case study of pharmaceutical synthesis. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 294\u2013303 (2010) Whittaker, M.H.: Risk assessment and alternatives assessment: comparing two methodologies. Risk Anal. 35, 2129\u20132136 (2015) Yuan, G., Peng, H., Huang, C., Hu, J.: Ubiquitous occurrence of fluorotelomer alcohols in eco-friendly paper-made food-contact materials and their implication for human exposure. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2016). doi:10.1021/acs.est.1025b03806 Zhang, Y., Bakshi, B.R., Demessie, E.S.: Life cycle assessment of an ionic liquid versus molecular solvents and their applications. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2925, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 821, "book_page": 815, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2016). doi:10.1021/acs.est.1025b03806 Zhang, Y., Bakshi, B.R., Demessie, E.S.: Life cycle assessment of an ionic liquid versus molecular solvents and their applications. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 1724\u20131730 (2008) Author Biographies Peter Fantke develops methods for LCIA, health impact assessment and chemical alternatives assessment since 2006. Has contributed to UNEP/SETAC LCIA working groups and is USEtox Manager. He is mainly interested in quantifying and characterising chemical emissions, uncertainty analysis, consumer exposure, chemical substitution and model parameterisation. Alexi Ernstoff Studied various aspects of chemical fate, transport, and exposure since 2007. Recent focus is modelling human exposure to chemicals in products for LCIA. Main interest is ensuring human health impacts, mediated by using consumer and food products, is consistently considered in quantitative sustainability assessments. LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2926, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "31 LCA of Chemicals and Chemical Products", "pdf_page": 821, "book_page": 815, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 32 LCA of Nanomaterials Mirko Miseljic and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract Application of nanomaterials in products has led to an increase in number of nanoproducts introduced to the consumer market. However, along with new and improved products, there is a concern about the potential life cycle environmental impacts. Life cycle assessment is able to include a wide range of environmental impacts but, due to data limitations, it is commonly applied with focus on the cradle-to-gate part of the nanoproducts life cycle, neglecting use and disposal of the products. These studies conclude that nanomaterials are more energy demanding and have an inferior environmental profile than conventionally used materials, but functional units of these comparisons need to consider the use stage benefits attained through nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2927, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 822, "book_page": 817, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A particular assessment challenge is the lack of understanding of the toxicological mechanisms related to potential release, fate and effects of nanomaterials when penetrating into living organisms. This is especially relevant for the freshwater compartment, as it is a common recipient. 32.1 The basis of the nano-technology terminology is the nanometre, which is one billionth of a metre (10\u22129 m). Nano-scale is defined as the range from 0.1 to 1000 nm, nanomaterial as a material with at least one dimension within 1\u2013100 nm, and nanoparticle as a particle with all three dimensions within the 1\u2013100 nm range (ISO 2008; SCENIHR 2007). Nanomaterials and nanoparticles can be naturally or unintentionally produced, and they have always been present in the human surroundings. Examples of these are, e.g., soil (dust) and salt particles in air, to which humans are commonly exposed. These naturally occurring nanomaterials are in general known to cause little harm to humans (Buzea et al. 2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2928, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 822, "book_page": 817, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These naturally occurring nanomaterials are in general known to cause little harm to humans (Buzea et al. 2007). Other sources of naturally occurring nanoparticles are, e.g. forest fires or volcanos, the particles from M. Miseljic (&) \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: mimi@dti.dk \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_32", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2929, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 822, "book_page": 817, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "which may have the same impacts as the anthropogenic, unintentionally produced particles arising from combustion activities. The other path to production of nanomaterials is by manufacturing activities through either downscaling (from bulk) or upscaling (from atomic or molecular) materials. These activities may also cause unintentional emissions of nanoparticles. The manufacturing of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) is linked to application of nanomaterials in/on consumer products, as alteration of materials from bulk to nano-size leads to an increase in surface area and improved functionality. As an example, gold becomes reactive at nano-size and may be used to increase oxidation in car catalytic converters so emission of pollutants is reduced. Further, ENMs may also provide products with, e.g. improved material properties like hydrophobicity (lotus effect), strength and/or electrical conductivity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2930, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 823, "book_page": 818, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Further, ENMs may also provide products with, e.g. improved material properties like hydrophobicity (lotus effect), strength and/or electrical conductivity. For quite some time particles from combustion have been known to cause harmful human impacts, even though the exact mechanisms are still being researched. ENMs and nanoparticles (ENPs) also cause concerns, but their behaviour in the environment and potential impacts to environment and humans are to a large extent still unknown (Miseljic and Olsen 2014; Jolliet et al. 2013). In order to embrace the entire life cycle of ENMs, and to avoid burden shifting, the LCA approach is favourable in order to quantify potential environmental impacts\u2014not only as a single approach but also as a framework to be applied along with other methods (Som et al. 2010). 32.1.1 Nanoproducts and Environmental Assessment Nano-technology and the application of ENMs in products have developed much in recent years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2931, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 823, "book_page": 818, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010). 32.1.1 Nanoproducts and Environmental Assessment Nano-technology and the application of ENMs in products have developed much in recent years. The reason for this is that ENMs are able to improve properties and functionalities of different materials, and thereby the consumer products. This has meant that companies have developed new and smart products, resulting in more nanoproducts being introduced to the consumer market (see Figs. 32.1 and 32.2). The more common nanoproducts are within the product category of health and fitness, with TiO2-enhanced sunblock and Ag-enhanced clothing as prominent examples. The home and garden product category contains the second most widely used nanoproducts (mainly as sealants and coatings), as seen in Fig. 32.1. The most commonly used nanomaterials are based on Ag, TiO2, and carbon as shown in Fig. 32.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2932, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 823, "book_page": 818, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "32.1. The most commonly used nanomaterials are based on Ag, TiO2, and carbon as shown in Fig. 32.2. In line with the rapid introduction of nanoproducts, and thereby ENMs, concerns are raised in terms of the potential environmental impacts these may have along their life cycle. Currently, chemical risk assessment (RA) is commonly performed on ENMs, but this approach has a different scope compared to LCA. RA is a procedure applied in order to estimate if a toxicological risk occurs from a substance, thus calculating, measuring or modelling the existence of risk derived from chemical exposure (European commission 2007; ECHA 2010, see also Sect. 31.1.3). LCA on M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2933, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 823, "book_page": 818, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ENM products per category Product categories Appliances Automotive Cross cutting Electronics and computers Food and beverages Goods for children Health and fitness Home and garden Number of products November, 2007 August, 2014 Fig. 32.1 Number of ENM products per product category (PoEN 2014; Hansen 2009; Miseljic 2014) ENM products per material Product categories Carbon (incl. fullerenes & nanotubes) Gold Magnesium Silicon Silicon dioxide Silver Titanium dioxide Zinc oxide Number of products November, 2007 August, 2014 Fig. 32.2 ENM products per most frequently used material, in year 2007 and 2014 (PoEN 2014; Hansen 2009; Miseljic 2014) LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2934, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 824, "book_page": 819, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the other hand is a relative environmental impact assessment method that also considers a wide range of environmental impact categories (ISO 2006). In LCA, the starting point of the assessment is the functional unit, where products or systems are studied, whereas RA is commonly substance oriented, see also Fig. 32.3. There are benefits and challenges to applying both RA and LCA, due to these two approaches being developed with different initial purposes. The benefit of applying RA for ENMs is that it targets specific emission, exposure and dose-response conditions, but the downside is that the uncertainty is still high due to lack of data and lack of proper regulation. A refinement of regulation is needed, e.g. for the characterisation of ENMs applied in laboratory testing and thereby the use of appropriate metrics for expressing hazard and exposure. In addition to ENM mass, Aitken et al. (2011) and Hankin et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2935, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 825, "book_page": 820, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition to ENM mass, Aitken et al. (2011) and Hankin et al. (2011) proposed particle number and surface area as additional characteristic metrics. LCA conveys an assessment of a wider range of environmental impacts, but as for RA there are also challenges to this approach. One of these is, as for RA, the lack of needed data and another is the lack of consideration of impact from ENM/ENP released to the environment. Sweet and Strohm (2006) and Som et al. (2010) outlined that RA should consider more life cycle concepts and LCA should be more risk-based, when dealing with future environmental impact assessment of ENMs. This underlines the general approach that LCA should be applied as a complimentary framework along with other environmental impact assessment approaches (Grieger et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2936, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 825, "book_page": 820, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This underlines the general approach that LCA should be applied as a complimentary framework along with other environmental impact assessment approaches (Grieger et al. 2012). Extrac\u019fon of raw materials Produc\u019fon of material and/or product Use Disposal Transport Transport Transport LCA Starting point: \u201dfunctional unit\u201d for product or system Risk assessment Starting point: \u201dsubstance\u201d Use scenarios Absolute results Relative results Life cycle Fig. 32.3 RA and LCA coverage and starting point when addressing a product or system (Grieger et al. 2012) M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2937, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 825, "book_page": 820, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "32.2 Literature Review In order to evaluate the current assessment status of ENMs, and the application of LCA in this context, published scientific articles were reviewed. Only 29 LCA case studies were found and reviewed according to strengths and weaknesses, and the challenges the assessments represent (Miseljic and Olsen 2014). Jolliet et al. (2013) identified 43 studies but use a broader definition of LCA. Some studies did not perform LCA according to usual guidelines (e.g. ISO 2006), but claimed to include life cycle thinking and commonly focused on energy consumption of ENM manufacturing. 32.2.1 Impact Hotspots Commonly, among the reviewed studies in Miseljic and Olsen (2014) and Jolliet et al. (2013), it can be concluded that, on a same produced mass basis, the manufacture of nanomaterials is found to have significantly higher energy requirements compared to the production of conventional materials such as aluminum or steel (shown e.g. in Khanna et al. 2007, 2008)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2938, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 826, "book_page": 821, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in Khanna et al. 2007, 2008). Even though there are discrepancies of up to several orders of magnitude between the energy requirements for the same nanomaterials reported by different studies this often results in a less favourable cradle-to-gate environmental impact profile of ENM products compared to comparable conventional products. The high energy demand for production emphasise that one should be careful with normally accepted cut-off criteria when making inventories of nanoproducts since the product generally contains only few percent of ENMs. In terms of impact categories, those that are dominating for ENM production are nonrenewable resource depletion, global warming, acidification and impacts caused by airborne inorganics. However, due to the improved product functionality, the use stage of ENM products is often more environmentally friendly than for conventional products. This is exemplified In Lloyd and Lave (2003) and Lloyd et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2939, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 826, "book_page": 821, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is exemplified In Lloyd and Lave (2003) and Lloyd et al. (2005), where ENM enhanced clay-polypropylene ENMs in car body panels and platinum-group metal particles in car catalysts have an environmentally friendlier use stage. However, potential release of ENMs/ENPs to the environment is not considered in these studies. Most of the reviewed LCA studies focused on the manufacturing of nanomaterials, thus limiting the assessment scope to the energy consumption of the cradle-to-gate part. The use and disposal stages are commonly not considered, with few exceptions, e.g. Walser et al. (2011) who also consider toxicity from ENMs/ENPs from nanoproducts. However, the tendency is also that these studies rely on generic data, as seen in e.g. Grubb and Bakshi (2010), Osterwalder et al. (2006), Tibbetts et al. (1994), Hwang et al. (2005), Healy (2006), and Healy et al. (2008). LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2940, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 826, "book_page": 821, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "32.2.2 Overall Findings The tendencies across the identified LCAs on ENMs can be summed up and also reflect the LCA state of knowledge regarding ENMs (Miseljic and Olsen 2014): \u2022 Usually the studies consider cradle-to-gate or manufacturing system boundary. \u2022 Use and disposal stages of the life cycle are poorly covered. \u2022 Functional unit does not always consider functional benefits of ENMs. \u2022 Common use of generic LCI data and assumptions, e.g. for upscaling of laboratory data. \u2022 Almost no consideration of ENM release (e.g. in use or disposal stages) and the potential toxic impacts from these (fate, exposure and effect consideration). Walser et al. (2011) and Meyer et al. (2010) are exceptions. \u2022 Cradle-to-gate LCA comparison of counterpart products (with ENMs and without) show that ENM products are more energy demanding and therefore have a worse cradle-to-gate environmental profile, e.g. in polymer nanocomposites versus steel and socks with and without nano (Moign et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2941, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 827, "book_page": 822, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in polymer nanocomposites versus steel and socks with and without nano (Moign et al. 2010; Meyer et al. 2010). \u2022 Cradle-to-grave LCA comparison of counterpart products (with ENMs and without) show that the use stage is better for ENM products as usually an improved functionality is achieved, e.g. comparing clay-propylene nanocomposites with steel or aluminium in light duty vehicles (Osterwalder et al. 2006). End-of-life performance of ENM products is rarely considered. 32.3 General Methodological Issues 32.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition Generally, it is found that the system boundaries for a fair comparison to products containing ENMs should include both the use stage where the beneficial functionalities of the ENMs are expressed, and the disposal stage. Certain reviewed studies consider the use and disposal stages, but their coverage is rather incomplete (Lloyd and Lave 2003; Lloyd et al. 2005; Babaizadeh and Hassan 2012; Manda et al. 2012; Roes et al. 2007; Steinfeldt et al. 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2942, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 827, "book_page": 822, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005; Babaizadeh and Hassan 2012; Manda et al. 2012; Roes et al. 2007; Steinfeldt et al. 2010). In the quoted example by Lloyd and Lave (2003) on clay-polypropylene ENMs in car body panels, the use stage is assessed by solely including the resource savings (fuel consumption) when driving with the lighter ENM enhanced panels. Other supplementary materials are not considered, meaning that release of other agents is not considered in the use stage (Som et al. 2010). In addition, the disposal stage is commonly not dealt with due to lack of knowledge in end-of-life treatment of ENMs and also which disposal processes they will be subject to (landfilling, incineration, or recycling). M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2943, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 827, "book_page": 822, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to perform a comparable LCA the functional unit is central, as a comparable functionality of products or systems needs to be applied. Certain ENM studies tend to apply a simplified mass based functional unit, e.g. relating to 1 kg of an ENM product (Joshi 2008; Kushnir and Sand\u00e9n 2008; Grubb and Bakshi 2010). However, a mass-based functional unit does not make sense when comparing ENMs with conventional products, as functionality is not proportional with weight (Hischier and Walser 2012). The improved material functionality, when using ENMs in products, needs to be considered in the functional unit. This means that higher resource and energy use in ENM production, compared to conventional additives, may be justified in the use stage by leading to less environmental impacts. As an example, Roes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2944, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 828, "book_page": 823, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As an example, Roes et al. (2007) include elasticity (Young modulus) and tensile strength in the functional unit when comparing polypropylene (PP)/layered silicate nanocomposites with conventional PP, reason being that the nanocomposite and PP mix obtains the needed material properties at a lower weight. In this approach Roes et al. (2007) scale the functional unit, but in general it may be difficult to identify the most important properties that are to be applied in a functional unit of a fair LCA comparison. 32.3.2 Inventory Data The inventory modelling of a nanoproduct typically involves background processes that are not specific to nano and thus not of specific interest here, while foreground process (e.g. data for production of ENM; and direct nanoparticle emissions) should be specific of the considered process (Jolliet et al. 2013). Commonly, as identified in the 29 LCA on ENMs studies from Miseljic and Olsen (2014), the studies rely on generic data for production of ENMs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2945, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 828, "book_page": 823, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). Commonly, as identified in the 29 LCA on ENMs studies from Miseljic and Olsen (2014), the studies rely on generic data for production of ENMs. Primary process data, on the other hand, is often difficult to acquire from the ENM industry. This can be due to several factors, but mainly to the relative novelty of the scientific field and the competition within the technology domain. This ongoing tendency leads to a higher level of uncertainty, as generic data and estimations need to be applied (e.g. in Bauer et al. 2008; Joshi 2008; Merugula et al. 2010; Isaacs et al. 2006). The immaturity of the field also lies behind the incomplete life cycle coverage in the performed LCAs with the very frequent omission of use and disposal stages from the product system modelling. Life cycle inventory (LCI) modelling is gradually improving for ENMs, studies such as Geranio et al. (2009), K\u00f6hler et al. (2008), K\u00fcnninger et al. (2010), Som et al. (2011), Suppen et al. (2005), Durucan et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2946, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 828, "book_page": 823, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2009), K\u00f6hler et al. (2008), K\u00fcnninger et al. (2010), Som et al. (2011), Suppen et al. (2005), Durucan et al. (2006) and Gutowski et al. (2010) do not perform LCAs per se, but are providing valuable LCI data on specific processes as well as some estimates of the direct release of nanoparticles. Geranio et al. (2009) quantifies the release of Ag ENPs during textile washing and K\u00fcnniger et al. (2010) the release of nano-Ag from facades due to weathering. LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2947, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 828, "book_page": 823, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Concerning the direct emissions of nanoparticles, the physical and chemical characteristics of the emitted nanoparticles are also of interest since these characteristics are needed to link up with the impact assessment. 32.3.3 Impact Assessment Generally, the impact from background and foreground process is no different from other LCAs. Therefore, the main aspect to consider is the potential impacts from direct emissions of nanoparticles. Here the potential toxic effects have caused highest concern and the next chapter will deal exclusively with this. 32.3.4 Interpretation It is evident from the previous text that LCAs of nanoproducts are rather uncertain and that an understanding of the main uncertainties is important (Jolliet et al. 2013). It is suggested to use tools for uncertainty assessment and sensitivity analysis as explained in Chap. 11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2948, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 829, "book_page": 824, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). It is suggested to use tools for uncertainty assessment and sensitivity analysis as explained in Chap. 11. 32.4 Specific Methodological Issues for Ecotoxicological Impact Characterisation of ENMs/ENPs As concluded in the previous section, the potential release of ENMs throughout the life cycle of ENM products is generally not considered. A sensitivity analysis of the importance of potential freshwater ecotoxicity impacts from Ag and TiO2 ENM release from products underlined the need to consider potential impacts of such releases throughout a product\u2019s entire life cycle (Miseljic and Olsen 2014). The analysis also illustrates the differences between the impacts of different ENPs (i.e. higher freshwater ecotoxicity from Ag ENMs, compared to TiO2 ENMs). The assessment of impacts of ENM release from cradle to grave improve the LCA of ENMs, and address an increasing environmental concern (Buzea et al. 2007; Bauer et al. 2008; Oberd\u00f6rster et al. 2007; Jolliet et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2949, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 829, "book_page": 824, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007; Bauer et al. 2008; Oberd\u00f6rster et al. 2007; Jolliet et al. 2013). However, current lack of understanding of the mechanisms leading to toxicity, more precisely the ENM release, fate and potential effects when penetrating into living organisms, pose challenges for the assessment while being highly relevant; especially for the freshwater compartment, as it is a common recipient (Quik et al. 2011; Lowry et al. 2012; Som et al. 2010). According to Jones and Grainger (2009), the main hurdle is to predict the actual fate of the released ENMs. In the following, the most important aspects related to such an assessment are discussed as an example of the challenges specific for LCIA of nano-technology. M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2950, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 829, "book_page": 824, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "32.4.1 Particle Appearance The primary ENP appearance differs over time and according to environmental conditions, as ENPs tend to agglomerate (coagulate), aggregate (fuse) or a combination thereof. The interaction and bonding happens in order to reduce the high-surface energy. Interaction between two ENPs, e.g. in liquid and air, can in theory be described by forces of van der Walls attractions and electrostatic repulsions (Rupasinghe R-A-TP 2011). The appearance of ENPs, along with the forces causing this, influences the toxicity of ENMs in e.g. water (Oberd\u00f6rster et al. 2007). 32.4.2 Transformation After release to freshwater, which is considered a common recipient, the ENMs are either subject to biotic (interaction with plants, water flea, fish etc.) or abiotic (interaction with water, sand, light, etc.) transformation. These can alter the shape, size, surface chemistry, and ultimately the fate of the released ENMs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2951, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 830, "book_page": 825, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These can alter the shape, size, surface chemistry, and ultimately the fate of the released ENMs. Thus, physico-chemical properties of ENMs are important for the differentiated behaviour of ENMs in water and the water-phase processes considered important are: \u2022 Aggregation/agglomeration \u2022 Dissolution \u2022 Sedimentation (and resuspension) \u2022 Change in surface structure of ENMs/ENPs. Commonly, freshwater fate of ENMs tends to be dominated by sorption to high-surface-area colloids with subsequent sedimentation (Klaine et al. 2008). Within the sediment the ENMs can be transported, and also re-suspended to the water phase, see Fig. 32.4. 32.4.3 Transport Transport of ENMs is partially controlled by aggregation/agglomeration, which subsequently is followed by sedimentation. The aggregation will depend on parameters such as (Lowry and Casman 2009; Lowry et al. 2012): \u2022 Hydrophobicity \u2022 Chemical bonding between nanoparticles \u2022 Ionic strength \u2022 Ionic composition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2952, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 830, "book_page": 825, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The aggregation will depend on parameters such as (Lowry and Casman 2009; Lowry et al. 2012): \u2022 Hydrophobicity \u2022 Chemical bonding between nanoparticles \u2022 Ionic strength \u2022 Ionic composition. Ionic strength, pH and the presence of divalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ will influence the rate and extent of aggregation/agglomeration (e.g. a higher ionic LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2953, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 830, "book_page": 825, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fate ENMs/NMs Manufactured Natural Incidental Point Manufacturing, landfills, wastewater effluent etc. Non-point Wear of tyres, sunscreen, brake pads etc. Emission Water Soil Air ENMs/NMs ENMs/NMs ENMs/NMs Surfactant stabilised Aggrega\u019fon/ agglomera\u019fon Bio-degrada\u019fon, photolysis, hydrolysis Binding to NOM & other colloids Sedimenta\u019fon Dissolu\u019fon Binding to suspended par\u019fcles/ biota Par\u019fcle migra\u019fon Dissolu\u019fon Biota Human Inhala\u019fon Inges\u019fon Dermal Plant uptake & bioaccumula\u019fon Gravita\u019fonal setling Wet & dry deposi\u019fon Difussion Aggrega\u019fon/ agglomera\u019fon Deposi\u019fon Invertabrate uptake & interac\u019fons Microbial interac\u019fons Sorp\u019fon Aggrega\u019fon/ agglomera\u019fon Oxida\u019fon Impact species Fig. 32.4 Potential environmental pathways of released engineered and naturally occurring nanomaterials (ENMs and NMs) in air, water, and soil and related to common impact organisms (Miseljic and Olsen 2014) M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2954, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 831, "book_page": 826, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "strength will lead to more aggregation/agglomeration, as is the case for marine waters compared to freshwater). Brant et al. (2005) exemplify that if the ENM C60 fullerene is released into water with an ionic strength higher than 0.001 M the formed aggregates/agglomerates will sorb to other particles and media and eventually become immobilised. This happens in particular when pH is close to the isoelectric point (i.e. pH at which a molecule has no net electrical charge), since the particle charge is then lower and a change in repulsive forces is able to promote aggregation/agglomeration (Franklin et al. 2007; Ill\u00e9s and Tomb\u00e1cz 2006). In water, the gravitational forces cause the aggregates/agglomerates to sediment, thus becoming less available to certain aquatic organisms, but more to the benthic organisms (Klaine et al. 2008; Lowry et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2955, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 832, "book_page": 827, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008; Lowry et al. 2012). Subsequently, turbulent motion in benthos and bio-turbulation in the sediment can cause the ENM to be re-suspended and become more available again in the water phase. 32.4.4 Important Physico-Chemical Characteristics Considering the developing understanding of the fate of ENMs in freshwater, the following physico-chemical ENM properties are important to consider (Batley and McLaughlin 2010; Klaine et al. 2008): \u2022 Chemical composition \u2022 Mass \u2022 Particle number and concentration \u2022 Surface area concentration \u2022 Size distribution \u2022 Specific surface area \u2022 Surface charge/zeta potential \u2022 Surface contamination and the nature of any shell and capping \u2022 Solubility \u2022 Crystal structure. In addition to the ENM specific properties, the natural conditions of the surrounding environment are also important when dealing with ENM fate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2956, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 832, "book_page": 827, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In addition to the ENM specific properties, the natural conditions of the surrounding environment are also important when dealing with ENM fate. However, aggregation/agglomeration and dissolution alongside other co-related mechanisms are neither fully understood nor well represented with characterisation data, in relation to mechanisms shown in Fig. 32.4 (Farr\u00e9 et al. 2011). 32.4.5 Toxicity The toxic effects from ENPs and ENMs depend on several parameters, e.g. size, surface/crystal structure, dissolution and aggregation/agglomeration. Size of ENPs is proven to have an influence on the level of toxicity, e.g. 48 h testing on Daphnia LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2957, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 832, "book_page": 827, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "magna showed, according to Zhu et al. (2009), a 143 mg/L LC50 for <25 nm TiO2 (20% rutile and 80% anatase crystal structure), while Heinlaan et al. (2008) observed a 20,000 mg/L LC50 for 25\u201375 nm TiO2 (crystal structure not reported). These two studies along with several others (e.g. Kashiwada 2006; Hussain et al. 2009) indicate large variations between different nominal sizes of ENPs, but it needs to be underlined that tests are difficult to compare due to variations in test conditions. In addition to size, crystal structure also has an influence on toxicity, where, e.g. TiO2 in anatase crystal structure is known to be more toxic to organisms than in rutile form. Toxicity is dependent on the intrinsic toxicity potential of the ENMs, influenced by, e.g. size, and ions formed through oxidative dissolution (Scheringer et al. 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2958, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 833, "book_page": 828, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Toxicity is dependent on the intrinsic toxicity potential of the ENMs, influenced by, e.g. size, and ions formed through oxidative dissolution (Scheringer et al. 2010). The high toxicity potential of free Ag ions in natural waters may be disrupted by the presence of complexing ligands, as they reduce the Ag ion concentration and thus the bioavailability (Scheringer et al. 2010). In addition, toxicological effects also depend on the surface structure of ENPs, where surface structure can be removed/altered, e.g. by natural and anthropogenic chemicals in the environment. Change in surface structure may result in enhanced mobility, bioavailability, aggregation (mainly hydrophobic surfaces), sedimentation, dissolution and dispersion (mainly hydrophilic surfaces), and consequently the actual exposure and toxicity may increase (Vonk et al. 2009; Lowry and Casman 2009; Ratte 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2959, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 833, "book_page": 828, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009; Lowry and Casman 2009; Ratte 1999). Further, the pH and presence of adsorbing molecules and ions have an influence on ENM fate and eventually the toxicity. The correlation of various mechanisms in ENM behaviour and impacts, in contrast to single-chemical behaviour, means that single-chemical impact models are not suitable to be applied for ENMs (Lowry and Casman 2009). 32.5 Conclusion: What to Consider When Performing LCA on ENMs Currently, LCA of ENMs is deficient in several areas. First, novelty of the nano-technology is limiting the availability of LCI data. Second, the potential release of ENMs/ENPs is difficult to include in LCA at this point. This is due to both lack of LCI data and an incomplete understanding of fate, exposure and effects (eco- and human toxicity characterisation factors). Figure 32.5 illustrates the current state of LCA for nano-technological products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2960, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 833, "book_page": 828, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Figure 32.5 illustrates the current state of LCA for nano-technological products. Based on already performed LCAs on ENMs there should be awareness of the following when aiming at performing an LCA on ENMs: \u2022 Goal and scope: If possible consider the whole life cycle and be realistic when setting goals (see Fig. 32.5). The functional unit needs to take into account the potential differences in functionality of the product when using ENMs. \u2022 LCI: Data is difficult to acquire, so either collaborate with the industry or base the data on already published studies and generic processes from databases as M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2961, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 833, "book_page": 828, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "e.g. ecoinvent. Be aware that lab-scale production data can be misleading and need to be scaled up. \u2022 LCIA: A completely holistic impact assessment cannot yet be performed, mainly due to the challenges related to quantification of ENM/ENP release and the related impacts (Som et al. 2010; Bauer et al. 2008): \u2013 How much ENM/ENP is released to environmental compartments (e.g. water) and technosphere (e.g. waste water treatment)? \u2013 Which exposures to ENM/ENP occur in the environment and what are the effects on biota and humans? \u2013 At different times, what appearance (size, shape and composition) do the ENMs/ENPs take in the environment (primary particles (ENPs), agglomerated ENPs, aggregated ENPs, agglomerated aggregates)? \u2013 What are the environmental consequences from different end-of-life treatment of ENM products? Extrac\u019fon of raw materials - Generic processes Manufacturing - Inventory difficul\u019fes Use - Product dependent Disposal - Unknown conseq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2962, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 834, "book_page": 829, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cCradle-to-gate\u201d \u201c-grave\u201d Primary par\u019fcle (ENP) Agglomerate d ENPs Aggregate d ENPs Agglomerated aggregates Resources Resources Resources Resources CO2 CO CH4 NOx SO2 NMVOC NH3 N2O Waste etc. Life cycle stages Environmental compartments Impact categories Water, soil and air Water, soil and air Global warming Acidifica\u019fon Eutrophica\u019fon Ozone deple\u019fon Photochemical ozone forma\u019fon Human toxicity Ecosystems toxicity Resource deple\u019fon Waste Etc. Ecosystems & human toxicity Possible in LCA Currently not possible in LCA Fig. 32.5 Possibilities and limitations of LCA: what currently can be assessed in LCA (Miseljic and Olsen 2014). Full lines illustrate what is currently done (and is possible at the stage of current research) while dotted lines illustrate the challenges, especially related to the assessment of release of nanoparticles LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2963, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 834, "book_page": 829, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "So far, the LCAs performed on ENMs have been used to assess the accountable production-related emissions. Future LCAs should seek to develop the areas that are currently poorly covered, so that impact burden shifting is avoided. This may be done by including other approaches (e.g. RA) using LCA as a framework for gathering the best developed approaches in order to perform a holistic environmental impact assessment. Aitken, R.A., Bassan, A., Friedrichs, S., et al.: Specific Advice on Exposure Assessment and Hazard/Risk Characterisation for Nanomaterials Under REACH (RIP-oN 3). Final Project Report, RNC/RIP-oN3/FPR/1/FINAL. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/nanotech/ pdf/report_ripon3.pdf (2011). Accessed 9 Nov 2011 Babaizadeh, H., Hassan, M.: Life cycle assessment of nano-sized titanium dioxide coating on residential windows. Constr. Build. Mater. 40(March), 314\u2013321 (2012) Batley, E.G., McLaughlin, J.M.: Fate of Manufactured Nanomaterials in the Australian Environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2964, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 835, "book_page": 830, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Constr. Build. Mater. 40(March), 314\u2013321 (2012) Batley, E.G., McLaughlin, J.M.: Fate of Manufactured Nanomaterials in the Australian Environment. CSIRO Niche Manufacturing Flagship Report. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/ pages/371475a0-2195-496d-91b2-0a33f9342a6d/files/manufactured-nanomaterials.pdf (2010). Accessed 5 Oct 2013 Bauer, C., Burchgeister, J., Hischier, R., Poanietz, W.R., Schebek, L., Warsen, J.: Towards a framework for life cycle thinking in the assessment of nanotechnology. J. Clean. Prod. 16(8\u20139), 910\u2013926 (2008) Brant, J., Lecoanet, H., Wiesner, M.: Aggregation and deposition characteristics of fullerene nanoparticles in aqueous systems. J. Nanopart. Res. 7(4\u20135), 545\u2013553 (2005) Buzea, C., Blandino, P. II, Robbie, K.: Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2965, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 835, "book_page": 830, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Grieger, K.D., Laurent, A., Miseljic, M., Christensen, F., Baun, A., Olsen, S.I.: Analysis of current research addressing complementary use of life-cycle assessment and risk assessment for engineered nanomaterials: Have lessons been learned from previous experience with chemicals? J. Nanopart. Res. 14, 958 (2012) Grubb, F.G., Bakshi, R.B.: Life cycle of titanium dioxide nanoparticle production. J. Ind. Ecol. 15 (1), 81\u201395 (2010) Gutowski, T.G., Liow, J.Y.H., Sekulic, D.P.: Minimum energy requirements for the manufacturing of carbon nanotubes. In: 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology (ISSST), vol. 1(6), pp. 17\u201319 (2010) Hankin, S.M., Peters, S.A.K., Poland, C.A., et al.: Specific Advice on Fulfilling Information Requirements for Nanomaterials Under REACH (RIP-No. 2). Final Project Report, RNC/RIP-oN2/FPR/1/FINAL. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/nanotech/pdf/report_ ripon2.pdf", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2969, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 836, "book_page": 831, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Int. 37(2011), 1068\u20131077 (2011) Ratte, H.T.: Bioaccumulation and toxicity of silver compounds: a review. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18, 89\u2013108 (1999) Roes, A.L., Marsili, E., Nieuwlaar, E., Patel, M.K.: Environmental and cost assessment of a polypropylene nanocomposite. J. Polym. Environ. 15(3), 212\u2013226 (2007) M. Miseljic and S.I. Olsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2979, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 837, "book_page": 832, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rupasinghe, R.-A.-T.P.: Dissolution and aggregation of zinc oxide nanoparticles at circumneutral pH; a study of size effects in the presence and absence of citric acid. Master thesis, University of Iowa (2011) SCENIHR: The existing and proposed definitions relating to products of nanotechnologies. Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks. http://ec.europa.eu/ health/ph_risk/committees/04_scenihr/docs/scenihr_o_012.pdf (2007). Accessed 20 Sept 2012 Scheringer, M., Macleod, M., Behra, R., Sigg, L., Hungerb\u00fchler, K.: Environmental risk associated with nanoparticulate silver used as biocide. H and PC Compendium on Detergency, vol. 6(2), April/June 2011, pp. 27\u201329 (2010) Som, C., Berges, M., Chaudry, Q., Dusinska, M., Fernandes, F.T., Olsen, S.I., Nowack, B.: The importance of life cycle concepts for the development of safe nanoproducts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2980, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 838, "book_page": 833, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "27\u201329 (2010) Som, C., Berges, M., Chaudry, Q., Dusinska, M., Fernandes, F.T., Olsen, S.I., Nowack, B.: The importance of life cycle concepts for the development of safe nanoproducts. Toxicology 269 (2\u20133), 160\u2013169 (2010) Som, C., Wick, P., Krug, H., Nowack, B.: Environmental and health effects of nanomaterials in nanotextiles and fa\u00e7ade coatings. Environ. Int. 37, 1131\u20131142 (2011) Steinfeldt, M., von Gleich, A., Henkle, J.L.L., Endo, M., Morimoto, S., Momosaki, E.: Environmental relief effects of nanotechnologies by the example of CNT composite materials and films. In: International Conference; 9th, Ecobalance; Towards and Beyond 2020 (2010) Suppen, N., Carranza, M., Huerta, M., Hern\u00e1ndez, A.M.: Environmental management and life cycle approaches in the Mexican mining industry. J. Clean. Prod. 14(12\u201313), 1101\u20131115 (2005) Sweet, L., Strohm, B.: Nanotechnology\u2014life-cycle risk management. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2981, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 838, "book_page": 833, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Clean. Prod. 14(12\u201313), 1101\u20131115 (2005) Sweet, L., Strohm, B.: Nanotechnology\u2014life-cycle risk management. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 12, 528\u2013551 (2006) Tibbetts, G.G., Bernardo, C.A., Gorkiewicz, D.W., Alig, R.A.: Role of sulfur in the production of carbon fibers in the vapor phase. Carbon 32(4), 569\u2013576 (1994) Vonk, J.A., Struijs, J., van de Meent, D., Peijnenburg, W.J.G.M.: Nanomaterials in the Aquatic Environment: Toxicity. Exposure and Risk Assessment. RIVM Report 607794001/2009, RIVM Bilthoven, Nederlands. http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/607794001.pdf (2009). Accessed 10 Oct 2012 Walser, T., Demou, E., Lang, J.D., Hellweg, S.: Prospective environmental life cycle assessment of nanosilver t-shirts. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(10), 4570\u20134578 (2011) Zhu, X., Chang, Y., Chen, Y.: Toxicity and bioaccumulation of TiO2 nanoparticle aggregates in Daphnia magna", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2982, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 838, "book_page": 833, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(10), 4570\u20134578 (2011) Zhu, X., Chang, Y., Chen, Y.: Toxicity and bioaccumulation of TiO2 nanoparticle aggregates in Daphnia magna. Chemosphere 78, 209\u2013215 (2009) Author Biographies Mirko Miseljic Background in development and application of LC(I)A methodology for different technology domains. Contributed with improvement of methodological and data background for LCA of nano-metaloxides, and LCA work within e.g. nanomaterials, waste, water treatment, food. Interested in LCIA modelling, spatial differentiation and uncertainty. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making. LCA of Nanomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2983, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "32 LCA of Nanomaterials", "pdf_page": 838, "book_page": 833, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply Berit Godskesen, Noa Meron and Martin Rygaard Abstract Water supplies around the globe are growing complex and include more intense treatment methods than just decades ago. Now, desalination of seawater and wastewater reuse for both non-potable and potable water supply have become common practice in many places. LCA has been used to assess the potentials and reveal hotspots among the possible technologies and scenarios for water supplies of the future. LCA studies have been used to support decisions in the planning of urban water systems and some important findings include documentation of reduced environmental impact from desalination of brackish water over sea water, the significant impacts from changed drinking water quality and reduced environmental burden from wastewater reuse instead of desalination", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2984, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 839, "book_page": 835, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Some of the main challenges in conducting LCAs of water supply systems are their complexity and diversity, requiring very large data collection efforts, with multiple sources of information, many of them not public and requiring cooperation. Important for product and system LCAs with substantial water use, it is emphasized that standard life cycle inventory databases do not reflect the significant variance in environmental impacts of water supply across locations and technologies. B. Godskesen (&) HOFOR (Greater Copenhagen Utility), \u00d8restads Boulevard 35, 2300 Kbh S, Copenhagen, Denmark e-mail: berg@env.dtu.dk N. Meron The Porter School of Environmental Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 69978 Tel-Aviv, Israel M. Rygaard Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet Building 115, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_33", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2985, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 839, "book_page": 835, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.1 33.1.1 Water Consumption and Water Treatment Technologies Water supply systems are unique for every region around the globe. They are based on a variety of water resources and technologies. Importantly, some of them have been based on the same traditional technologies for more than 100 years, while others are rapidly changing to cope with the urban development. The differences are also large between neighbouring countries. For example, while Denmark is 100% based on groundwater abstraction for its water supply, the neighbouring countries Sweden and Germany were sourcing just 22 and 61%, respectively of their water supply from groundwater in 2010. Instead of groundwater these countries use a variety of surface water, spring water and artificially recharged groundwater (IWA 2014). Other countries are now heavily reliant on water reuse and desalination, for example Spain, USA, Israel, Singapore and Saudi Arabia (IWA 2014; Tal 2006; GWI 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2986, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 840, "book_page": 836, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other countries are now heavily reliant on water reuse and desalination, for example Spain, USA, Israel, Singapore and Saudi Arabia (IWA 2014; Tal 2006; GWI 2010). Desalination and reuse are increasingly used and the rapid development is underlined by the rapid growth in desalination capacity around the globe (Fig. 33.1). 33.1.2 Water Systems Growing Complex There is a wide variety of water systems, which may interact with many processes and systems (Fig. 33.2). Although, water systems normally include: production (abstraction and treatment or desalination), transmission and distribution of water to various users, each process may apply various technologies, and the systems may million m3/d Fig. 33.1 Installed capacity of desalination plants registered by International Desalination Association. Source Pankratz (2010) and http://idadesal.org/desalination-101/desalination-by-thenumbers/", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2987, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 840, "book_page": 836, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "use multiple resources and multiple output water qualities for different users. In order to account for the different environmental profiles of water production pathways, Hospido et al. (2013) proposed the concept of water supply mix for the example of irrigation in Spain and inspired by the concept of the electricity mix. Water losses throughout the supply system also vary considerably and can range between 5 and 55% (Ratnayaka et al. 2009), thus may have an important effect on systems\u2019 impact. The environmental performance of water systems can therefore greatly vary. From a systems perspective, the new sources of water and combinations of new and traditional water treatment technologies makes planning decisions difficult. Multiple water resources and differences in the direct and indirect impacts on the environment from each process in the system are complex aspects to consider in the process of finding the best solution for a particular situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2988, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 841, "book_page": 837, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To complicate things, the drivers of change in water systems also push in the direction of having systems with multiple water qualities, treatment technologies and resources in use at the same time. For example, until now, Danish water utilities have managed urban water systems based on groundwater abstraction, simple low-intensive treatment, distribution of one water quality (drinking water). After use, a one-stringed sewer system would divert wastewater to central treatment plants before discharging the treated wastewater to the recipients", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2989, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 841, "book_page": 837, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After use, a one-stringed sewer system would divert wastewater to central treatment plants before discharging the treated wastewater to the recipients. Now, water utility managers foresee a Ground water Abstrac\u019fon Produc\u019fon of Potable Water Transmission Distribu\u019fon Consump\u019fon Sewage collec\u019fon Sea water Brackish water Surface water Industrial processing Industrial/ agricultural consump\u019fon Landfill Sewage overflow Nature (sea / surface / soil) Storm water Storage Incinera\u019fon Compos\u019fng Transmission Wastewater Leakage Sewage sludge Distribu\u019fon Water Leakage Water Treatment Sludge Transport Wastewater treatment Grey Water Recycling Treatment/ Desalina\u019fon Abstrac\u019fon Produc\u019fon of NonPotable Water Treatment/ Dilu\u019fon/ Reclama\u019fon Fig. 33.2 General water supply chain. Adapted from Meron et al. (2016) LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2990, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 841, "book_page": 837, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "diversification of their water systems that include distribution of multiple water qualities, decentralized handling of wastewater and reclamation of wastewater for distribution for non-potable purposes (Fig. 33.3). Also decision support in much more water scarce areas around the world such as China and Australia have dealt with the difficult choice between a vulnerable, but simple water system and a more robust but significantly more complex diversified water system (Kenway et al. 2011; Lane et al. 2015; Li et al. 2016). In such cases LCA provides insight to the environmental trade-offs between future water supply scenarios. 33.1.3 Water Supply Technologies: Traditional and New Possibilities With the development in especially membrane filtration processes, it has become common practice for many water supplies to treat water that just a couple of decades ago was considered economically infeasible to use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2991, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 842, "book_page": 838, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Back then, most water suppliers based their production on simple treatment techniques such as aeration, flocculation and filtration with activated carbon and sand filters, and disinfection by chlorine. These techniques are adequate to remove many common unwanted substances, for example methane and hydrogen sulphide, iron, organic pollutants, and to deactivate or remove pathogens. With newer treatment techniques like membrane filtration and advanced oxidation methods it is possible to treat wastewater and Waterworks Local resources Rainwater harvesting Greywater Stormwater Old city City area New developments Groundwater Central resources Stormwater Polluted groundwater Brackish groundwater Surface water Wastewater Treatment and advanced treatment Heat exchange Secondary water distribution Fig. 33.3 Visions for the future urban water systems in larger cities in Denmark as developed by the two biggest Danish water utilities Aarhus Vand and HOFOR", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2992, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 842, "book_page": 838, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.3 Visions for the future urban water systems in larger cities in Denmark as developed by the two biggest Danish water utilities Aarhus Vand and HOFOR. The water systems are foreseen to become increasingly complex and cover multiple water sources, a mix of central and decentralized systems and vary between old and new parts of the city (Rygaard et al. 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2993, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 842, "book_page": 838, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "remove salt from ocean water to make it suitable for drinking. Potable wastewater reuse, seawater and brackish desalination can now be established at total costs around 0.5\u20132 US$ per produced m3 water, which is similar to production costs of more simple and traditional water treatment (Greenlee et al. 2009; Rygaard et al. 2011; Wols and Hofman-Caris 2012). However, aeration and simple filtration requires little energy and few other resources in the operation, while removing salts from water using reverse osmosis requires advanced membranes, high pressure pumps and chemicals to keep the membranes clean. Typical simple groundwater treatment requires around 0.3 kWh/m3 while state-of-the-art desalination of ocean water requires around 2.5\u20137 kWh/m3 produced (Rygaard et al. 2011; Plappally and Lienhard 2012). Shifting from traditional and simple treatment technologies to more advanced treatment gives access to huge additional water resources in the wastewater stream and seawater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2994, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 843, "book_page": 839, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Shifting from traditional and simple treatment technologies to more advanced treatment gives access to huge additional water resources in the wastewater stream and seawater. On the other hand, it can have significant impact on the material and energy use in the production of water. Membrane-based treatment technologies can produce very clean product water with essentially no pollutants and minerals in it. This may be particularly beneficial for some industry processes demanding ultraclean water. The option of remineralizing the demineralized water makes it possible to optimize water quality for specific uses, e.g. drinking water with a certain mineral content (Birnhack et al. 2008; Rygaard et al. 2011a). 33.2 Literature Review In urban water management, LCA is found to be the most dominant and appropriate tool to assess the environmental impacts (Godskesen et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2995, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 843, "book_page": 839, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008; Rygaard et al. 2011a). 33.2 Literature Review In urban water management, LCA is found to be the most dominant and appropriate tool to assess the environmental impacts (Godskesen et al. 2013). Other tools such as carbon and water footprint are also being used but they are not as comprehensive as they only focus on one or two environmental aspects and might not cover the entire life cycle from cradle to grave. LCA has been applied in the water sector for years and numerous LCA studies of water processes and subprocesses have been reported. Publications have been made on the abstraction, production, transport and distribution, and on entire urban or regional water systems. These studies lead to various conclusions. A meta-analysis of water supply systems and subsystems has confirmed that there is a large variation in the impacts of water supply systems. For example, global warming potential ranges between 0.16 and 3.4 kg CO2-eq per m3 of supplied water (Meron et al. 2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2996, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 843, "book_page": 839, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For example, global warming potential ranges between 0.16 and 3.4 kg CO2-eq per m3 of supplied water (Meron et al. 2016). 33.2.1 LCA to Identify Hot Spots in Water Supply Several studies have shown that water production has the highest contribution to the impacts of the entire water supply system (Friedrich et al. 2009; Godskesen et al. LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2997, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 843, "book_page": 839, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013; Lemos et al. 2013; Tarantini and Ferri 2001; Uche et al. 2013), and desalination in particular (Del Borghi et al. 2013). Only a few publications specifically report the contribution of the abstraction and transport and distribution subsystems to the impact of entire water supply systems, although in some cases they may also have significant contribution. For example, in Tarragona, Spain (Amores et al. 2013), and in Lasi, Romania (Barjoveanu et al. 2014), the distribution subsystem has the highest impacts in all categories except eutrophication due to pumping electricity consumption. Activities affecting water used at households were also shown to be important. For example, water boiling to improve water quality after its deterioration through the distribution subsystem has the highest contribution to the impacts of the supply system in Hanoi, Vietnam (Hom\u00e4ki et al. 2003)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2998, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 844, "book_page": 840, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2003). The impacts of activated carbon-based filter to improve water quality at domestic level are also considerably higher scores than the impacts of the centralized water supply in Milan (Nessi et al. 2012). Environmental impacts of household activities can be reduced if water is softened at the treatment stage (Godskesen et al. 2012). The importance of electricity consumption in LCAs of water supply systems has been reported in many studies (Lemos et al. 2013; Lundie et al. 2004; Tarantini and Ferri 2001; Lane et al. 2015). Energy is also found to be a significant factor in water supply subsystems: in abstraction (Buckley et al. 2011), in production through treatment of freshwater (Buckley et al. 2011; Igos et al. 2014; Lyons et al. 2009; Racoviceanu et al. 2007), in desalination (Lyons et al. 2009; Raluy et al. 2005a; Stokes and Horvath 2006; Tarnacki et al. 2012; Uche et al. 2013), in pumping (Amores et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 2999, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 844, "book_page": 840, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014; Lyons et al. 2009; Racoviceanu et al. 2007), in desalination (Lyons et al. 2009; Raluy et al. 2005a; Stokes and Horvath 2006; Tarnacki et al. 2012; Uche et al. 2013), in pumping (Amores et al. 2013) and in landfilling sludge in the case of wastewater reclamation (Li et al. 2016). Energy also has an important contribution to the environmental impacts of water through background processes. The production of treatment chemicals (Bonton et al. 2012; Buckley et al. 2011) and materials for construction of decentralized water supply systems (Godskesen et al. 2013) are reported to have significant impacts. Production technologies were also studied and compared. Large variation was reported in the impacts of water production. For example, the average Global Warming Potential (GWP) of thermal desalination have been found to be about ten times the average of reverse osmosis desalination\u2019s GWP, and about 100 times higher than freshwater technologies\u2019 GWP (Meron et al. 2016). Raluy et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3000, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 844, "book_page": 840, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2016). Raluy et al. (2005a, b) studied several desalination technologies and import of water from a distant river to a local water body. The paper underlines that even though desalination has high energy requirements it has become competitive and transfer of water is not always the best solution dependent on energy needs for long distance transport. Within the process of freshwater treatment, chemicals production may play an important role (e.g. Barrios et al. 2008). Yet in some cases chemicals had low contribution (Arpke and Hutzler 2006; Tarantini and Ferri 2001; Jeong et al. 2015). The contribution of the materials and construction of the distribution infrastructure may be significant and up to 60% of the overall impact of distribution, while only up to 15% of the abstraction impacts and up to 20% of the production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3001, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 844, "book_page": 840, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impacts (Meron et al. 2016). Infrastructure construction is shown to have only limited contribution to the total impact of sea water desalination (Raluy et al. 2005b; Uche et al. 2013) and of groundwater treatment plants (Igos et al. 2014; Uche et al. 2013), but infrastructure does represent a significant contribution to the impact of water distribution (Barjoveanu et al. 2014; Slagstad and Bratteb\u00f8 2014; Uche et al. 2013; Jeong et al. 2015). A study of the impact of pipes compared different materials used in the water transport and distribution network, using several impact categories. The study showed that the installation stage is especially relevant for constructive solutions with smaller pipe diameters (e.g. 90 mm diameter HDPE), whereas the production of the pipe becomes more relevant with larger pipe diameters (e.g. 200 mm diameter HDPE)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3002, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 845, "book_page": 841, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "90 mm diameter HDPE), whereas the production of the pipe becomes more relevant with larger pipe diameters (e.g. 200 mm diameter HDPE). The reduction of environmental impacts involves the optimisation of the trench dimensions and the process of installation as well as the selection of pipe materials with lower environmental impacts in the production stage (Sanjuan-Delm\u00e1s et al. 2014). Several LCAs studied the impacts of urban rainwater capture as an option to supplement or replace water demand from centralized water supply systems. These studies show that rain harvesting can reduce environmental impacts in some cases (Godskesen et al. 2013) whereas in some locations rain water harvesting is not the best choice (Mithraratne and Vale 2007; de Haas et al. 2011). Rain tank impacts are mainly due to electricity consumption (de Haas et al. 2011; Mithraratne and Vale 2007; Angrill et al. 2012) and in some cases infrastructure, depending on which materials are used (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3003, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 845, "book_page": 841, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011; Mithraratne and Vale 2007; Angrill et al. 2012) and in some cases infrastructure, depending on which materials are used (e.g. concrete or plastic) (Mithraratne and Vale 2007; Angrill et al. 2012). 33.2.2 LCA of Water Reuse In several studies LCA was applied to study the environmental impacts of water reuse. Tertiary treatment has a relatively low impact compared to the impact of the entire wastewater treatment plant, as well as compared to desalination (Pasqualino et al. 2011). Production from freshwater sources has also been shown to have similar impacts to tertiary treatment (Meneses et al. 2010). Reclaimed wastewater that replaces freshwater resources used for irrigation may reduce the environmental burden of the water system, compared to systems without reuse (Fang et al. 2016). Wastewater reclamation, water transfer, and desalination were compared in different locations including California (Stokes and Horvath 2006), Arizona (Lyons et al. 2009) and northern China (Li et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3004, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 845, "book_page": 841, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Wastewater reclamation, water transfer, and desalination were compared in different locations including California (Stokes and Horvath 2006), Arizona (Lyons et al. 2009) and northern China (Li et al. 2016). In all these studies desalination has the highest environmental impacts in all of the impact categories, except in the freshwater withdrawal impact. In summary, LCA has been used to show the reduced environmental burden from water systems turning towards water reuse, instead of expanding surface water treatment or turning to desalination. LCA studies have also highlighted the need for looking beyond standard impact categories, like carbon footprint, and include toxicity impacts in the decision-making. For example, a study compared eco-toxicity of four alternatives LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3005, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 845, "book_page": 841, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for use of wastewater after secondary treatment: no-reuse, direct use, and use after two different tertiary treatment technologies based on ozonation. From the ecotoxicity perspective, use after tertiary treatments is the best choice. The study emphasized also that LCAs of wastewater reusing systems assessing toxicity should include wastewater pollutants such as heavy metals, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which can contribute above 90% of the toxicity impact (Mu\u00f1oz et al. 2009). 33.2.3 LCA as a Tool in Water Supply Management The previous sections have shown how LCA have revealed the environmental burden of various water systems and included processes and technologies. LCA is also used in cases where there is a lack of water and need for strategic choices in the planning of future water supplies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3006, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 846, "book_page": 842, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA is also used in cases where there is a lack of water and need for strategic choices in the planning of future water supplies. One good example of the typical application of LCA in water supply management is the comparison of possible solutions to water scarcity, where two or more water production scenarios are considered. Mu\u00f1oz and Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba (2008) showed that a shift from ocean water to brackish groundwater could significantly reduce the environmental impact from water supply operations. They found that desalinating groundwater with salt content of 15 g/L reduces environmental impacts to nearly half of a seawater-based desalination plant treating water with salt content of 36 g/L. The difference is mainly explained by the electricity consumption in both cases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3007, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 846, "book_page": 842, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The difference is mainly explained by the electricity consumption in both cases. Similarly, several other cases have used life cycle thinking approaches in decision support before changing the water systems with the aim to obtain a better environmental performance in the utilization of water resources, water treatment technologies, etc. (Rygaard et al. 2014). Another example is an LCA of the Sydney water planning aiming to evaluate several initiatives and to bring down the environmental impacts. The study included several scenarios for changing water supply and wastewater systems and the outcome is a decision support tool for future planning of the complex water system (Lundie et al. 2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3008, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 846, "book_page": 842, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The study included several scenarios for changing water supply and wastewater systems and the outcome is a decision support tool for future planning of the complex water system (Lundie et al. 2004). 33.2.4 Tap Versus Bottled Water Under some circumstances consumers prefer to buy bottled water instead of drinking water from the tap, but what is the environmental perspective on this choice? A comparison of an LCA on centralized drinking water production for Copenhagen, reported in Godskesen et al. (2013) with studies of CO2-emissions for bottled water in Niccoluci et al. (2010) or Jungbluth (2006) reveals the environmental benefits of centralized drinking water supply in terms of carbon footprint. In the mentioned studies bottled water production emits between 0.14 and 0.18 kg CO2-eq/L when including water intake, production of the bottle and transport. Water supply based on groundwater as in Copenhagen from source to tap emits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3009, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 846, "book_page": 842, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "740\u2013920 times less kg CO2-eq/L, and even the hypothetical case of desalinated water in Copenhagen emits 110\u2013140 times less CO2-eq/L (Table 33.1). Similarly, Botto et al. (2011) found that tap water had ecological and carbon footprints 300 times less than bottled water. This comparison emphasizes that when it comes to carbon footprint, centralized water supply is strongly preferable, especially when the water source is groundwater but also when it is seawater even though desalination processes require much more electricity even in the Copenhagen case for 2013, which is a system relying heavily on fossil fuels. 33.2.5 Case Study of Four Technologies for Drinking Water Supply in Copenhagen, Denmark Water supply in Denmark is based on groundwater abstracted from well fields located on primarily rural or agricultural land", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3010, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 847, "book_page": 843, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is also the case for the capital of Denmark, Copenhagen, where water is abstracted from groundwater sources located outside the city limits and transported to the waterworks where it is treated by aeration and sand filtration before distribution. The basic structure of Copenhagen\u2019s water supply was established more than 150 years ago, and the structure remained largely unchanged until now apart from additional well fields and waterworks. The European Water Framework Directive (EU-WFD) is implemented in the EU-Member States through River Basin Management Plans which among other parameters regulate the water flow requirements for rivers and streams and the utilizable amount of water in each freshwater (ground- and surface water) compartment (European Commission 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3011, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 847, "book_page": 843, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The implementation has revealed that groundwater is not an abundant resource when the requirements to the quality of the freshwater environment have to be met as stipulated in the EU-WFD, and the water utility in Copenhagen has been forced to seek new water resources or new approaches to sustain the water withdrawal permissions in order to supply the city Table 33.1 Climate change impacts from production and distribution of 1L of water from bottled water or centralized drinking water supply (Godskesen et al. 2013) System Country of study kg CO2-eq/L Jungbluth (2006) Bottled water in non-returnable bottle Switzerland 0.18 Niccoluci et al. (2010) Bottled water in non-returnable bottle Italy 0.14 Godskesen et al. (2013) Centralized groundwater based drinking water supply Denmark 0.00019 Godskesen et al. (2013) Centralized drinking water supply, desalination of seawater Denmark, hypothetical 0.0013 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3012, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 847, "book_page": 843, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "with sufficient water for urban purposes. One could say that the Copenhagen water scarcity is more political than physically founded when compared to other more water stressed areas in the Mediterranean, region, Northern Africa, or India where freshwater resources are far more scarce and often overexploited (Smakhtin et al. 2004; Gleeson et al. 2012) putting pressure on water supplies to shift to other water sources than freshwater. As an example the water service providers in Melbourne built a desalination plant due to a severe drought and an increase in the number of inhabitants. The building of the desalination plant was finalized in 2012. In a case study for the Copenhagen region, we identified four relevant options for water supply which fulfil the EU-WFD and which can either alone or as a mix constitute the future water supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3013, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 848, "book_page": 844, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In a case study for the Copenhagen region, we identified four relevant options for water supply which fulfil the EU-WFD and which can either alone or as a mix constitute the future water supply. We performed an environmental evaluation using LCA on the four options since environmental performance is a well-established criterion and should per se be included in any optimization of future supply options in search for the optimal water supply solution. In this case study system boundaries need to be placed so the LCA also includes effects of changed water quality in the households which is relevant when evaluating water systems delivering water of different water hardness (Godskesen et al. 2012). Also, some of the proposed alternatives are located in areas with combined sewers which means that rain and wastewater are transported in the same sewer system. Therefore, system boundaries should reflect this difference among the alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3014, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 848, "book_page": 844, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Therefore, system boundaries should reflect this difference among the alternatives. Finally, the impacts of the water supply system on freshwater resources can be very important in relation to water supply and a method for this was further developed with local specificity for the Copenhagen region (Godskesen et al. 2013). 33.2.5.1 Cases The four cases were: A1 rain- and stormwater harvesting, A2 compensating actions, A3 new well fields and A4 desalination. The existing system was also included as the base case A0, enabling us to compare the environmental impacts of the four alternatives with today\u2019s water production. We defined the functional unit as: Replacing 1 m3 of potable drinking water as of today in a way that fulfils the EU-WFD\u2019s water flow requirements. Schematic diagrams of the options and their location in relation to the urban area are shown in Fig. 33.4. The LCA was performed according to the ISO 14044 standard procedure (ISO 2006) also including a weighting step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3015, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 848, "book_page": 844, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.4. The LCA was performed according to the ISO 14044 standard procedure (ISO 2006) also including a weighting step. The systems were modelled with the GaBi 4.4 software delivered by PE International and environmental impacts were assessed using EDIP 1997 (Wenzel et al. 1997). A0 Base Case In 2009 the city of Copenhagen (population of 0.52 million) used a total volume of 29.8 million m3 drinking water. The water was abstracted from groundwater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3016, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 848, "book_page": 844, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sources located outside the city, requiring only simple treatment at the waterworks in terms of aeration and sand filtration before distribution. During aeration CH4 and H2S are emitted and these emissions are also included in the LCA. The water abstraction, treatment and distribution consume only 0.27 kWh per m3 drinking water. Since the groundwater originates from chalk aquifers the hardness of the water is 362 mg/L as CaCO3 and it is categorized as very hard drinking water (USGS 2012). Primary data from the Copenhagen water supply on use of materials and auxiliaries for water supply was used in the assessments. After use drinking water is considered as wastewater and is transported via combined sewers to the wastewater treatment plants where it is treated before discharged to the Sea (\u00d8resund)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3017, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 849, "book_page": 845, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "After use drinking water is considered as wastewater and is transported via combined sewers to the wastewater treatment plants where it is treated before discharged to the Sea (\u00d8resund). Electricity consumption for wastewater transportation is based on average consumption in the period 2007\u20132009 and modelling of the processes at wastewater treatment plants is based on registered data for consumptions from 2005 to 2009 (Danva 2010). Fig. 33.4 The four options included in the case study: A0 base case relying on groundwater abstraction; A1 rain- and stormwater harvesting from several blocks; A2 compensating actions consisting of water transfer in the affected catchment areas; A3 establishing well fields 20 km further away from the waterworks; A4 desalination of seawater from \u00d8resund. The background is a hypothetical map but it emphasizes where the alternatives are located in relation to the urban area (dark orange) (Godskesen et al. 2013) LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3018, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 849, "book_page": 845, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A1 Rain- and Stormwater Harvesting In the A1 case rain- and stormwater is considered harvested from an urban area of 68,500 m2 (roof area 20,200 m2; main road area 8500 m2) populated by 1000 residents and 200 employees. The water is of non-potable quality and is used for flushing toilets and washing clothes. The case is hypothetical as it does not exist but was designed and dimensioned as a potential option (Petersen 2011). Rainwater is collected from the roofs of residential and office buildings and led to an underground basin (750 m3). Stormwater from main roads is collected in large pipes (\u00d81000 mm) and led to a basin established in connection with a clarifier and pumping station controlling the flow. The clarifier separates oils from the water before it passes through a dual porosity filter. In the dual filtration, stormwater floats by gravity over a layer of CaCO3 particles where suspended solids, heavy metals and PAHs are adsorbed and thereby removed (Jensen 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3019, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 850, "book_page": 846, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the dual filtration, stormwater floats by gravity over a layer of CaCO3 particles where suspended solids, heavy metals and PAHs are adsorbed and thereby removed (Jensen 2009). Afterwards the treated stormwater is mixed with rainwater and stored in a basin. Prior to distribution back to the buildings the water is UV-treated. A2 Compensating Actions Compensating actions included transfer of water from lakes and groundwater compartments with surplus of groundwater to water courses where the water flow is reduced due to the water utility\u2019s groundwater abstraction. Also included was reestablishment of wetlands from agricultural land. Besides these compensating actions A2 included all processes in the base case (A0)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3020, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 850, "book_page": 846, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also included was reestablishment of wetlands from agricultural land. Besides these compensating actions A2 included all processes in the base case (A0). A3 New Well Fields Assuming that it would be possible for the water utility to find well fields with a surplus of available groundwater according to the EU-WFD within an additional distance of 20 km, the new well fields case (A3) is equivalent to the base case A0 but with addition of a 20 km longer pipeline from well fields to the waterworks. In comparison, in A0, water is transported 5 km. The longer distance means increased electricity consumption for pumping of abstracted groundwater. A4 Desalination Copenhagen is situated at the entrance to the Baltic Sea (\u00d8resund) with brackish water, and desalination of seawater is thus an option. The treatment plant is considered to be located 5 km south of the city", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3021, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 850, "book_page": 846, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The treatment plant is considered to be located 5 km south of the city. First, water is filtrated mechanically (150 lm) to remove large particles, a coagulant is added and pH adjusted and the water is ultra-filtrated whereby 10% of the water is lost and returned to \u00d8resund", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3022, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 850, "book_page": 846, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "after separation of dry matter. Anti-scaling chemicals are added before the water passes through a two-step reverse osmosis membrane. Finally, calcium hydroxide is added and the water UV treated. The water has a hardness of 108 mg/L as CaCO3 when distributed as drinking water. 33.2.5.2 Methodological Challenges This case study gives examples where system boundaries must be defined with great care to make the comparisons based on the results from the LCA trustworthy. 33.2.5.3 Water Hardness Although, central softening at waterworks uses energy and chemicals, the case study showed that these negative effects are more than compensated for by positive effects of reduced water hardness encountered in the households (Fig. 33.5). The negative environmental effects in the study originate from the softening processes of chemical precipitation of CaCO3 in a pellet reactor at the waterworks. The positive effects located in the households are, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3023, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 851, "book_page": 847, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The positive effects located in the households are, e.g. prolonged service life of household equipment like washing machine, dishwasher, coffee maker and kettle; and reduced consumption of energy, cleaning agents, laundry detergent, soap and shampoo. Thus, from an environmental viewpoint it is preferable to reduce the water hardness at the waterworks of very hard water supplies. Decentralized softening of water was not included in our study. The study emphasizes the importance of including effects of changed water hardness in the LCA scoping, when the choice of water supply technologies produces different hardness and therefore causes effects of importance for the overall environmental assessment. Fig. 33.5 Processes occurring at waterworks and in the households when central softening of drinking water is introduced (Godskesen et al. 2012) LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3024, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 851, "book_page": 847, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the case study of alternative technologies for water supply the cases A1 (rainand stormwater based supply) and A4 (desalinated seawater) deliver water of a lower hardness (171 and 108 mg/L as CaCO3 respectively) compared to the drinking water in the base case (A0) (362 mg/L as CaCO3). For desalination of seawater (A4) consideration of the beneficial effects of the lower water hardness reduces the environmental impacts by approximately 40% while the rain- and stormwater case (A1) shows a reduction of environmental impacts by 35%\u2014results not shown here but can be found in Godskesen et al. (2013). However, desalination (A4) is still the technology with the highest impact though not as severe when the effects of reduced hardness are included (Table 33.2). Table 33.2 Normalized impact scores per 1 m3 water delivered by the four options to replace 1 m3 of potable water, grouped after Environmental impacts, Toxicity impacts and Resource consumption (Godskesen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3025, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 852, "book_page": 848, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013) A0 Base case A1 Rain- and storm-water A2 Compensating actions A3 New well fields A4 Desalination Environmental impacts, \u03bcPET (person equivalent targeted, weighted result) Total environmental imp. Global warming 82.5 65.5 82.8 91.9 151.4 Acidification 24.6 10.3 24.7 27.5 36.3 Nutrient enrichment 14.5 7.6 14.5 16.2 23.6 Photochem. ozone form 1.9 \u22121.5 1.9 2.2 \u22126.5 Toxicity impacts, \u03bcPET (person equivalent targeted, weighted result) Total toxicity imp. Ecotoxicity water chronic 63.7 24.9 64.8 70.1 85.7 Human toxicity soil 69.9 69.8 70.3 78.7 58.8 Human toxicity water 42.4 31.0 45.2 44.9 36.1 Resource consumption, \u03bcPR (person reserve) Chromium 17.3 \u221234.1 17.4 17.3 \u221238.3 Copper 0.05 \u22123.0 0.057 0.063 \u22125.3 Hard coal 2.6 1.2 2.6 2.9 5.1 Natural gas 1.7 1.1 1.7 1.9 2.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3026, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 852, "book_page": 848, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.2.5.4 Combined Sewers When conducting the LCA of the case study it was found that the combined sewers in the city which transport the discharge (rain and wastewater) to the wastewater treatment plants where it is treated also have an effect on the system boundaries. The decoupling of the rain- and stormwater from the sewer system is a significant environmental advantage of A1 as electricity consumption for transport and treatment of sewage water is reduced. Therefore, the system boundaries had to be defined so that this difference is taken into account. Hence, this work (Table 33.2) shows that rain- and stormwater harvesting in areas with combined sewers is environmentally beneficial while other authors have found that rainwater harvesting in areas with separate sewer systems (rain and wastewater is handled in separate sewer systems) has a higher environmental impact than, e.g. import of freshwater (Crettaz et al. 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3027, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 853, "book_page": 849, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "import of freshwater (Crettaz et al. 1999). When the modelled system is expanded to include the wastewater system, the strongest environmental impacts originate from wastewater treatment mainly due to the high electricity consumption for treating wastewater (Godskesen et al. 2011; Lundie et al. 2004). Therefore, we found that it is important to include the wastewater system when collecting rain- and stormwater in areas with combined sewers. 33.2.5.5 Results of the Case Study of Alternative Technologies for Water Supply The results for the alternatives differ markedly for the different impact categories (Table 33.2) and show that the rain- and stormwater harvesting option (A1) has the lowest total aggregated environmental impact (82 \u03bcPET/m3). The cases relying on groundwater abstraction (A0, A2 and A3) have environmental impacts of 124\u2013138 \u03bcPET/m3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3028, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 853, "book_page": 849, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The cases relying on groundwater abstraction (A0, A2 and A3) have environmental impacts of 124\u2013138 \u03bcPET/m3. A1 has a low environmental impact mainly due to the role of combined sewers and the positive effects of reduced water hardness in the households. Desalination has the highest total environmental impact score (205 \u03bcPET/m3), primarily due to the high electricity demand of this technology. The environmental impact category with the highest importance is global warming potential (Table 33.2). The contribution from water treatment is higher for A4 compared to the others (Fig. 33.6). The alternatives relying on groundwater abstraction (A0, A2, A3) show very similar patterns with little contribution from water production and more than 50% from wastewater transport and treatment in the global warming impact category and total environmental impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3029, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 853, "book_page": 849, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If wastewater treatment had not been included, these three options would have had the lowest impact, but then they would not have been comparable since the rain- and stormwater harvesting reduces the amount of wastewater to be treated. This emphasizes the importance of a thorough assessment of proper system boundaries (in this case by including the combined sewers and wastewater treatment processes), functional unit, etc. in the preparation of an LCA (ISO 2006). LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3030, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 853, "book_page": 849, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In conclusion, the LCA showed that the rain- and stormwater harvesting scenario (A1) has the lowest environmental impact (82 \u03bcPET/m3) followed by the options relying on groundwater abstraction (124\u2013138 \u03bcPET/m3), and that A4 Desalination (205 \u03bcPET/m3) has a noteworthy increase in total environmental impacts. If the rain- and stormwater is not harvested it is led to combined sewers in the city which makes it environmentally beneficial to prevent it from discharging into the sewers, e.g. by harvesting and recycling for non-potable purposes. Figure 33.6 shows by the reduction in environmental impacts (negative numbers which reduce the environmental impacts of A1 and A4) that it is essential to include the beneficial effects of reduced water hardness in households when comparing the environmental impacts of water supply cases leading to water of different hardness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3031, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 854, "book_page": 850, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.3 Specific Methodological Issues for the Application of LCA to Water Supply 33.3.1 General Following the ISO standard 14044 (ISO 2006) most LCA studies report objectives as part of the goal and scope description, as well as functional unit and system boundaries definitions. However, a widely accepted standard of a uniform set of Fig. 33.6 Distribution over the life cycle of contributions to global warming potential for the base case and the four alternative options for water supply (Godskesen et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3032, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 854, "book_page": 850, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "indicators to describe the water supply system under study is still missing. Each study therefore describes the studied system in a different way, in many cases missing important descriptors. As a minimum, it is recommended to include the following descriptors: \u2022 Analysed region population and its area \u2022 Total length of pipes \u2022 Distances between abstraction and production, and average distance between production and consumers \u2022 Average difference in height from production to consumers \u2022 Water losses \u2022 Energy mix of electricity \u2022 Details of the water sources and their respective share of contribution \u2022 Production technologies in place, their capacity, and actual supply \u2022 Product water quality 33.3.2 Goal and Scope Published case studies of LCA of water supply indicate that the goal is often to compare different technologies for water supply in order to identify the most environmentally sound technology for water production or water supply system (Lundie et al. 2004; Lassaux et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3033, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 855, "book_page": 851, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2004; Lassaux et al. 2007; Klaversma et al. 2013; Godskesen et al. 2013; Stokes and Horvath 2006; Lyons et al. 2009). The goal may also be to identify hot spots in the system allowing for optimizing the environmental performance. Studies use different functional units (FU). The most common is one m3 of water produced at the period of time for which the analysis is valid, at the user or at the end of the process. For example, the most common FU for the entire water supply systems is one m3 of potable water at the consumer tap. Another example of the definition of a FU would be the annual consumption of water at the end user. When infrastructure is the focus of the LCA FUs may take another form. For example, a study on reverse osmosis membranes used one membrane module as FU (Lawler et al. 2015) and a study on pipes used a metre of pipe network (Herz and Lipkow 2002; Sanjuan-Delm\u00e1s et al. 2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3034, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 855, "book_page": 851, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015) and a study on pipes used a metre of pipe network (Herz and Lipkow 2002; Sanjuan-Delm\u00e1s et al. 2014). Such definitions may serve adequately the specific systems, in which they were used, but they are not applicable for comparison between systems or case studies, in which case the specific FU should be linked to the commonly used FUs. Quality of source and product water can vary substantially and should therefore be reported. Owens (2001) proposed water quantity and quality indicators to make LCAs compatible with environmental management and reporting systems. When carrying out the case study of water technologies for Copenhagen it was found that the service life of different components in the system differ and therefore it is important to carefully go through each component and gather data or LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3035, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 855, "book_page": 851, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "best available estimates on the expected service lives. This applies to components such as pumps, different types of pipes (polyethylene, polypropylene, concrete, cast iron, etc.), materials used in building of waterworks (bricks, concrete, steel), etc. 33.3.3 Inventory and Product System Modelling The system boundaries of studies of water supply systems vary by the life cycle stages included in each analysis: infrastructure construction, operation, maintenance and demolition. Studies also vary in the included activities: material production, material transportation, equipment use and energy production (Meron et al. 2016). Some studies of recycling systems include raw wastewater treatment (e.g. Tangsubkul et al. 2005; Pasqualino et al. 2011 Lyons et al. 2009; Li et al. 2016) while some studies start only with the secondary effluent entering tertiary treatment (Mu\u00f1oz et al. 2009; Meneses et al. 2010; Stokes and Horvath 2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3036, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 856, "book_page": 852, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011 Lyons et al. 2009; Li et al. 2016) while some studies start only with the secondary effluent entering tertiary treatment (Mu\u00f1oz et al. 2009; Meneses et al. 2010; Stokes and Horvath 2006). A few studies do not report LCA results of water supply systems and the wastewater collection and treatment separately, due to availability of aggregated data only. For example, the study of Aveiro (2008) in Portugal (Lemos et al. 2013), and of the city of Atlanta (2005\u20132009) in the USA (Jeong et al. 2015) report the distribution of water and collection of wastewater together because electricity monitoring could not be separated. Having a more detailed monitoring system of electricity consumption as well as other operational data can be an important recommendation to water systems managers, which enable more accurate LCAs in the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3037, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 856, "book_page": 852, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A review of studies analysing rainwater harvesting tanks showed considerable difference between ex-ante theoretical calculations and measured data from established systems. Where the theoretical calculation had a median electricity consumption of 0.2 kWh/m3, the median measured data was 1.4 kWh/m3 (Vieira et al. 2014). This shows the importance of establishing better data inventories based on actual measured data rather than generic estimations. Therefore, it is recommended to collect actual data from the water supply system for the LCA modelling. If data is unavailable literature values and estimates may be used. Upstream and downstream background data is usually available in the LCI databases such as GaBi, Ecoinvent, etc. In the case study of water technologies for supplying the city of Copenhagen the system boundaries where placed to reflect equal effects of the water hardness of the drinking water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3038, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 856, "book_page": 852, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the case study of water technologies for supplying the city of Copenhagen the system boundaries where placed to reflect equal effects of the water hardness of the drinking water. This had a significant effect on the results of the LCA especially in the global warming potential impact category. The case study shows that system boundaries must be defined so the alternatives compared in the LCA are equal also when it comes to product water quality.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3039, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 856, "book_page": 852, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33.3.4 Impact Assessment Various LCIA methods were used in different studies, including CML 2000 (e.g. Barjoveanu et al. 2014), CML 2001 (e.g. Li et al. 2016), and CML-IA (e.g. Mu\u00f1oz and Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba 2008; Meneses et al. 2010; Amores et al. 2013), ReCiPe (e.g. de Haas et al. 2011; Jeong et al. 2015; Slagstad and Bratteb\u00f8 2014), Eco-indicator 95 (Mohapatra et al. 2002), Eco-indicator 99 (e.g. Uche et al. 2013), IPCC GWP 2007a (e.g. Uche et al. 2013), IMPACT 2002+ (e.g. Bonton et al. 2012), USES-LCA (e.g. Mu\u00f1oz et al. 2009; Tarantini and Ferri 2001), USEtox (e.g. Li et al. 2016) or EPD 2013 (e.g. Del Borghi et al. 2013). Most papers use a variety of units to present the impacts, whereas some papers transform the results to a single unit such as \u201ceco-point\u201d (e.g. Raluy et al. 2005a; El-Sayed et al. 2010; Uche et al. 2013) and EDIP\u2019s \u201cperson equivalent\u201d (Godskesen et al. 2011). Several studies have pointed out the uncertainties resulting from using early stage impact models (Jeong et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3040, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 857, "book_page": 853, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010; Uche et al. 2013) and EDIP\u2019s \u201cperson equivalent\u201d (Godskesen et al. 2011). Several studies have pointed out the uncertainties resulting from using early stage impact models (Jeong et al. 2015; Lane et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2011). A comprehensive LCIA harmonization for GWP-100 showed that the maximum difference between GWP scores obtained with different LCIA methods is 7%, while in some impact categories, such as human toxicity and marine ecotoxicity, variability between different LCIA methods is very high and scores are incomparable (Meron et al. 2016). Selection of impact models is important and future research is required in order to generate an agreed set of models. Impact categories to describe water depletion have been the subject of many studies. Many have expressed the volume of freshwater withdrawn for water supply, (Sharma et al. 2009; Lundie et al. 2004; Lane et al. 2015; Jeong et al. 2015; Li et al. 2016) e.g. by water foot-printing (Hoekstra et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3041, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 857, "book_page": 853, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009; Lundie et al. 2004; Lane et al. 2015; Jeong et al. 2015; Li et al. 2016) e.g. by water foot-printing (Hoekstra et al. 2011) where water is considered a resource for man rather than an environmental media with environmental impacts when withdrawn. More recent methods have been suggested to integrate freshwater use into the LCA methodology by treating freshwater consumption as an environmental impact category with an impact on the freshwater environment (N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. 2016) and human health (Boulay et al. 2015b). The relative Available WAter REmaining (AWaRe) indicator was developed by the Water Use in LCA (WULCA) working group of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative as a (proxy-) midpoint indicator to assess the environmental performance regarding freshwater consumption (Boulay et al. 2015a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3042, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 857, "book_page": 853, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015a). The indicator aims to represent the potential of water deprivation, to humans or ecosystems, based on the assumption that the less water remaining available per area, the more likely another user will be deprived (Boulay et al. accepted). Further details on water consumption LCIA can be found in Sect. 10.15. Reporting impacts of water supply systems in the water use category is important because water supply systems are the major source of direct impacts in this category and without it any impact assessment of products that use water will be incomplete. To compare the significance of various impact categories of water supply systems, a normalization analysis of 10 supply system models and 15 production LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3043, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 857, "book_page": 853, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "systems has been carried out using ReCiPe (H) V1.12/World (Meron et al. 2016). The highest value is associated with marine ecotoxicity, with consistently highest values in nine of the ten models of water supply systems. Normalized values of freshwater ecotoxicity, freshwater eutrophication, fossil depletion, human toxicity, and GWP follow. Other impact categories have considerably lower scores. 33.3.5 Interpretation It is recommended to include a sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. In the study of drinking water technology for Copenhagen a sensitivity analysis on the future prediction of the Danish electricity mix for the years 2020 and 2050 evaluated the changes in the global warming potential impact category and showed that global warming potential values will decrease and other impact categories will be higher compared to the others (Godskesen et al. 2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3044, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 858, "book_page": 854, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). Similarly to the electricity mix, the scarcity of freshwater resources will change in the future due to population increase (demand) and climate change (local availability) as demonstrated for Spain by N\u00fa\u00f1ez et al. (2015), which may be of significance for studies with longer time horizons. Therefore, a sensitivity and uncertainty analysis may change the outcome of the results and also affect the interpretation of the LCA. 33.4 Concluding Remarks and Outlook LCAs of water supply systems are of growing importance as an increasing number of regions in the world rely less on nature (rain) and shift to more treatment intensive water resources, e.g. desalination of sea or brackish water. It has been shown that the differences among water supply systems result in significant variation in environmental impacts. However, site-specific LCAs of regional supply systems have been carried out only in a limited number of regions, mostly in Europe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3045, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 858, "book_page": 854, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, site-specific LCAs of regional supply systems have been carried out only in a limited number of regions, mostly in Europe. Studies of systems in water-stressed regions are therefore needed. In particular, it is important to carry out studies of supply systems in regions where desalination is heavily used. LCAs of water supply systems in rapidly developing countries (e.g. India, Brazil, Indonesia, Turkey) are also needed as the impacts of their water supply systems may be significantly different from the impacts identified in available studies. Using standard LCI databases is a common practice although impacts of water supply systems can vary significantly (Meron et al. 2016). In the assessment of products that consume large amounts of water, using datasets from other regions may result in misleading conclusions. Relying on correct selection from available studies can serve as a basis for receiving more accurate results than straightforward use of standard datasets.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3046, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 858, "book_page": 854, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Our case study and the work of others show that LCA is useful for assessing the environmental impacts of water supply technologies and it provides a platform for integrating environmental considerations in the decision-making process and planning of future water systems. When conducting LCA of water supply it is important that: \u2022 the system boundaries are defined carefully so that compared alternatives are fully comparable, e.g. shares the same product water quality \u2022 a typical functional unit could be the annual consumption or supply of one m3 of water at the end user \u2022 a hot spot analysis is performed to better understand where and what processes in the water supply system contribute most to the environmental impacts; \u2022 impacts of freshwater use are considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3047, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 859, "book_page": 855, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is especially relevant to include when working with water supply systems because of the intrinsically large use of water \u2022 an uncertainty and sensitivity analysis is carried out that accounts for data availability, estimations versus measured data and also considers the future predictions of electricity mix and water scarcity. LCA can also be used for integrating environmental aspects in the decision-making process within other areas of water systems. In Copenhagen the water utility is using LCA to reach better overall environmental performance of the water utility through: \u2022 Evaluation of alternative options for supplying a new neighbourhood under development in Copenhagen with non-potable water \u2022 Evaluation of stormwater management solutions \u2022 Water supply strategy development, e.g. the choice of establishing new well fields and waterworks within the city limits or extending the water import from well fields and waterworks located 30\u201350 km outside the city", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3048, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 859, "book_page": 855, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the choice of establishing new well fields and waterworks within the city limits or extending the water import from well fields and waterworks located 30\u201350 km outside the city. LCA is not only relevant for the analysis of future urban water management. As for most other production activities, water utilities are also met with requirements or intentions to declare environmental impacts, carbon and water footprint, green accounting, etc. Therefore, it is in the water utility\u2019s interest to evaluate their production and transport of water, as well as handling of wastewater to provide transparent efficiency measures, decision support for daily operations that thoroughly covers environmental aspects. To reach a full sustainability assessment, LCA can be combined with an economic and social evaluation, such as multi-criteria decision analysis (Sombekke et al. 1997; Lundie et al. 2006; Lai et al. 2008; Godskesen 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3049, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 859, "book_page": 855, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1997; Lundie et al. 2006; Lai et al. 2008; Godskesen 2012). The combination of these criteria completes the three-dimensional sustainability approach as suggested by the first political definitions of sustainability (WCED 1987; UNEP 1992). LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3050, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 859, "book_page": 855, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1158\u20131168 (2013) GWI: Water Market Middle East 2010, Global water intelligence (2010) El-Sayed Mohamed Mahgoub, M., van der Steen, N.P., Abu-Zeid, K., Vairavamoorthy, K.: Towards sustainability in urban water: a life cycle analysis of the urban water system of Alexandria City, Egypt. J. Clean Prod. 18, 1100\u20131106 (2010) European Commission: The EU water framework directive\u2014integrated river basin management for Europe [WWW Document] (2012). http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/waterframework/index_en.html. Accessed 14 Jan 2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3055, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 860, "book_page": 856, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Fang, L.L., Valverde Perez, B., Damgaard, A., Pl\u00f3sz, B.G., Rygaard, M.: Life cycle assessment as development and decision support tool for wastewater resource recovery technology. Water Res. 88, 538\u2013549 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.10.016 Friedrich, E., Pillay, S., Buckley, C.: Carbon footprint analysis for increasing water supply and sanitation in South Africa: a case study. J. Clean. Prod. 17, 1\u201312 (2009) Gleeson, T., Wada, Y., Bierkens, M.F.P., van Beek, L.P.H.: Water balance of global aquifers revealed by groundwater footprint. Nature 488, 197\u2013200 (2012) Godskesen, B.: Sustainability evaluation of water supply technologies\u2014by using life-cycle and freshwater withdrawal impact assessment and multi-criteria analysis. PhD Thesis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3056, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "PhD Thesis. DTU Environment (2012) Godskesen, B., Zambrano, K.C., Trautner, A., Johansen, N.B., Godskesen, B., Rygaard, M., Albrechtsen, H.J., Johansen, N.B., Thiesson, L., Andersen, L., Clauson-Kaas, J., Neidel, T.L., Andersen, L., Clauson-Kaas, J., Neidel, T.L., Kl\u00f8verpris, N.H.: Life cycle assessment of three water systems in Copenhagen\u2014a management tool of the future. Water Sci. Technol. 63(3), 565\u2013572 (2011) Godskesen, B., Hauschild, M.Z., Rygaard, M., Zambrano, K.C., Albrechtsen, H.J.: Life cycle assessment of central softening of very hard drinking water. J. Environ. Manage. 105, 83\u201389 (2012) Godskesen, B., Hauschild, M.Z., Rygaard, M., Zambrano, K.C., Albrechtsen, H.J.: Life-cycle and freshwater withdrawal impact assessment of water supply technologies. Water Res. 47(7), 2363 (2013) Greenlee, L.F., Lawler, D.F., Freeman, B.D., Marrot, B., Moulin, P.: Reverse osmosis desalination: Water sources, technology, and today\u2019s challenges. Water Res", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3057, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Res. 47(7), 2363 (2013) Greenlee, L.F., Lawler, D.F., Freeman, B.D., Marrot, B., Moulin, P.: Reverse osmosis desalination: Water sources, technology, and today\u2019s challenges. Water Res. 43, 2317\u20132348 (2009) Herz, R., Lipkow, A.: Life cycle assessment of water mains and sewers. Water Supply 2, 51\u201358 (2002) Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M., Mekonnen, M.M.: The Water Footprint Assessment Manual: Setting the Global Standard. Earthscan (2011). ISBN: 978-1-84971-279-8 Hom\u00e4ki, K., Nielsen, P.H., Sathasivan, A., Bohe, E.L.: Life cycle assessment and environmental improvement of residential and drinking water supply systems in Hanoi, Vietnam. Int. J. Sust. Dev. World 10, 27\u201342 (2003) Hospido, A., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Ant\u00f3n, A.: Irrigation mix: how to include water sources when assessing freshwater consumption impacts associated to crops. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3058, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "World 10, 27\u201342 (2003) Hospido, A., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Ant\u00f3n, A.: Irrigation mix: how to include water sources when assessing freshwater consumption impacts associated to crops. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 881\u2013890 (2013) Igos, E., Dalle, A., Tiruta-Barna, L., Benetto, E., Baudin, I., Mery, Y.: Life cycle assessment of water treatment: what is the contribution of infrastructure and operation at unit process level? J. Clean. Prod. 65, 424\u2013431 (2014) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006) IWA: International Statistics for Water Services. International Water Association, London (2014) Jensen, M.B.: Basisrapport: Dobbeltpor\u00f8s filtrering. Pilotafpr\u00f8vning\u2014Rensning af vejvand i \u00d8restad. H\u00e6ndelse 1\u201325, januar\u2013juli 2007 (eng.: Double Porous Filter\u2014Pilot project)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3059, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Pilotafpr\u00f8vning\u2014Rensning af vejvand i \u00d8restad. H\u00e6ndelse 1\u201325, januar\u2013juli 2007 (eng.: Double Porous Filter\u2014Pilot project). KU Life, Denmark (2009) Jeong, H., Minne, E., Crittenden, J.C.: Life cycle assessment of the City of Atlanta, Georgia\u2019s centralized water system. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 880\u2013891 (2015) Jungbluth, N.: Comparison of the environmental impact of drinking water vs. bottled mineral water. Manuscript for the SGWA information bulleting and GWA. Uster (2006) Kenway, S., Gregory, A., McMahon, J.: Urban water mass balance analysis. J. Ind. Ecol. 15(5), 693\u2013706. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00357.x (2011) Klaversma, E., van der Helm, A.W.C., Kappelhof, J.W.N.M.: The use of life cycle assessment for evaluating the sustainability of the Amsterdam water cycle. J. Water Climate Change 04(2), 103\u2013109 (2013) Lai, E., Lundie, S., Ashbolt, N.J.: Review of multi-criteria decision aid for integrated sustainability assessment of urban water systems. Urban Water J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3060, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Water Climate Change 04(2), 103\u2013109 (2013) Lai, E., Lundie, S., Ashbolt, N.J.: Review of multi-criteria decision aid for integrated sustainability assessment of urban water systems. Urban Water J. 5(4), 315\u2013327 (2008) LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3061, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 861, "book_page": 857, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Water Res. 89, 9\u201319 (2016) Lundie, S., Peters, G., Ashbolt, N., Lai, E., Livingston, D.: Water resources\u2014a sustainability framework for the Australian water industry\u2014the best of current strategic planning and sustainability assessments. Water 33(7), 3465\u20133473 (2006) Lundie, S., Peters, G.M., Beavis, P.C.: Life cycle assessment for sustainable metropolitan water systems planning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38(13), 3465\u20133473 (2004) Lyons, E., Zhang, P., Benn, T., Sharif, F., Costanza, M., Li, K., Crittenden, J., Chen, Y.S.: Life cycle assessment of three water supply systems: importation, reclamation and desalination. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply. 9(4), 439\u2013448 (2009) Meneses, M., Pasqualino, J.C., C\u00e9spedes-S\u00e1nchez, R., Castells, F.: Alternatives for reducing the environmental impact of the main residue from a desalination plant. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3063, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 862, "book_page": 858, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9(4), 439\u2013448 (2009) Meneses, M., Pasqualino, J.C., C\u00e9spedes-S\u00e1nchez, R., Castells, F.: Alternatives for reducing the environmental impact of the main residue from a desalination plant. J. Ind. Ecol. 14, 512\u2013527 (2010) Meron, N., Blass, V., Garb, Y., Kahane, Y., Thoma, G.: Why going beyond standard LCI databases is important: lessons from a meta-analysis of potable water. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 1134\u20131147 (2016) Mithraratne, N., Vale, R.: Conventional and alternative water supply systems: a life cycle study. Int. J. Environ. Sustain. Dev. 6(2), 136\u2013146 (2007) Mohapatra, P., Siebel, M., Gijzen, H., Van der Hoek, J., Groot, C.: Improving eco-efficiency of Amsterdam water supply: a LCA approach. Aqua J. Water Supply Res. Technol. 51, 217\u2013228 (2002) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba, A.R.: Reducing the environmental impacts of reverse osmosis desalination by using brackish groundwater resources. Water Res", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3064, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 862, "book_page": 858, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Supply Res. Technol. 51, 217\u2013228 (2002) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba, A.R.: Reducing the environmental impacts of reverse osmosis desalination by using brackish groundwater resources. Water Res. 42(3), 801\u2013811 (2008) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Rodr\u00edguez, A., Rosal, R., Fern\u00e1ndez-Alba, A.R.: Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater reuse with ozonation as tertiary treatment: a focus on toxicity-related impacts. Sci. Total Environ. 407(4), 1245\u20131256 (2009) Nessi, S., Rigamonti, L., Grosso, M.: LCA of waste prevention activities: a case study for drinking water in Italy. J. Environ. Manage. 108, 73\u201383 (2012) Niccoluci, V., Rugani, B., Botto, S., Gaggi, C.: An integrated footprint based approach for environmental labelling of products: the case of drinking bottled water. Int. J. Design Nature Ecodyn. 5(1), 68\u201375 (2010) N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Pfister, S., Vargas, M., Ant\u00f3n, A.: Spatial and temporal specific characterisation factors for water use impact assessment in Spain. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3065, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 862, "book_page": 858, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5(1), 68\u201375 (2010) N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Pfister, S., Vargas, M., Ant\u00f3n, A.: Spatial and temporal specific characterisation factors for water use impact assessment in Spain. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 128\u2013138 (2015) N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Bouchard, C., Boulay, A.M., Bulle, C., Margni, M.: Critical analysis of life cycle impact assessment methods addressing consequences of freshwater use on ecosystems and recommendations for future method development. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2016). doi:10. 1007/s11367-016-1127-4 Owens, J.W.: Water resources in life-cycle impact assessment: considerations in choosing category indicators. J. Ind. Ecol. 5(2), 37\u201354 (2001) Pankratz, T.: IDA Desalination Yearbook 2009\u20132010. Media Analytics Ltd, Oxford (2010) Pasqualino, J.C., Meneses, M., Castells, F.: Life cycle assessment of urban wastewater reclamation and reuse alternatives. J. Ind. Ecol. 15, 49\u201363 (2011) Petersen, S.: Central Sekundavandsopsamling (eng. Centralized rainwater harvesting for non-potable purposes)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3066, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 862, "book_page": 858, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 15, 49\u201363 (2011) Petersen, S.: Central Sekundavandsopsamling (eng. Centralized rainwater harvesting for non-potable purposes). Student project carried out in cooperation between HOFOR and DTU (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3067, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 862, "book_page": 858, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Plappally, A.K., Lienhard, V.J.H.: Energy requirements for water production, treatment, end use, reclamation, and disposal. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16(7), 4818\u20134848 (2012) Racoviceanu, A.I., Karney, B.W., Kennedy, C.A., Colombo, A.F.: Life-cycle energy use and greenhouse gas emissions inventory for water treatment systems. J. Infrastruct. Syst. 13, 261\u2013 270 (2007) Raluy, R.G., Serra, L., Uche, J.: Life cycle assessment of water production technologies\u2014part 1: life cycle assessment of different commercial desalination technologies (MSF, MED, RO) (9 pp). Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10(4), 285\u2013293 (2005a) Raluy, R.G., Serra, L., Uche, J.: Life cycle assessment of water production technologies\u2014part 2: reverse osmosis desalination versus the Ebro river water transfer. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10 (5), 436\u2013454 (2005b) Ratnayaka, D.D., Brandt, M.J., Johnson, M.: Twort\u2019s water supply, 5th edn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3068, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10 (5), 436\u2013454 (2005b) Ratnayaka, D.D., Brandt, M.J., Johnson, M.: Twort\u2019s water supply, 5th edn. ButterworthHeinemann, London (2009) Rygaard, M., Albrechtsen, H.-J., Jensen, I., Pedersen, C., S\u00f8rensen, S., Zambrano, K.: Catalogue of development projects\u2014identified at three workshops with AarhusVand, K\u00f8benhavns Energi and DTU (in Danish: Udviklingskatalog\u2014Opsamling p\u00e5 3 workshops afholdt i samarbejdet Fremtidens vandh\u00e5ndtering i Storbyer). DTU, Milj\u00f8vej, Bygning 113, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby (2012) Rygaard, M., Arvin, E., Bath, A., Binning, P.J.: Designing water supplies: optimizing drinking water composition for maximum economic benefit. Water Res. 45(12), 3712\u20133722 (2011) Rygaard, M., Godskesen, B., J\u00f8rgensen, C., Hoffmann, B.: Holistic assessment of a secondary water supply for a new development in Copenhagen, Denmark. Sci. Total Environ. 497\u2013498, 430\u2013439 (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3069, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sci. Total Environ. 497\u2013498, 430\u2013439 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.07.078 Sanjuan-Delm\u00e1s, D., Petit-Boix, A., Gasol, C.M., Villalba, G., Su\u00e1rez-Ojeda, M.E., Gabarrell, X., Josa, A., Rieradevall, J.: Environmental assessment of different pipelines for drinking water transport and distribution network in small to medium cities: a case from Betanzos, Spain. J. Clean. Prod. 66, 588\u2013598 (2014) Sharma, A.K., Grant, A.L., Grant, T., Pamminger, F., Opray, L.: Environmental and economic assessment of urban water services for a greenfield development. Environ. Eng. Sci. 26(5), 921\u2013934 (2009) Slagstad, H., Bratteb\u00f8, H.: Life cycle assessment of the water and wastewater system in Trondheim, Norway\u2014a case study: case study. Urban Water J. 11, 323\u2013334 (2014) Smakhtin, V., Revenga, C., Doll, P.: A pilot global assessment of environmental water requirements and scarcity. Water Int", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3070, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Urban Water J. 11, 323\u2013334 (2014) Smakhtin, V., Revenga, C., Doll, P.: A pilot global assessment of environmental water requirements and scarcity. Water Int. 29(3), 307\u2013317 (2004) Sombekke, H.D.M., Voorhoeve, D.K., Hiemstra, P.: Environmental impact assessment of groundwater treatment with nanofiltration. Desalination 113(2\u20133), 293\u2013296 (1997) Stokes, J., Horvath, A.: Life cycle energy assessment of alternative water supply systems. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11(5), 335\u2013343 (2006) Tal, A.: Seeking sustainability: Israel\u2019s evolving water management strategy. Science 80(313), 1081\u20131084 (2006) Tangsubkul, N., Beavis, P., Moore, S., Lundie, S., Waite, T.: Life cycle assessment of water recycling technology. Water Resour. Manage. 19, 521\u2013553 (2005) Tarantini, M., Ferri, F.: LCA of drinking and wastewater treatment systems of Bologna city: final results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3071, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Resour. Manage. 19, 521\u2013553 (2005) Tarantini, M., Ferri, F.: LCA of drinking and wastewater treatment systems of Bologna city: final results. In: Proceedings of the 4th Inter-Regional Conference on Environment-Water, 27\u201330 Aug 2001, Fortaleza (2001) Tarnacki, K., Meneses, M., Melin, T., van Medevoort, J., Jansen, A.: Environmental assessment of desalination processes: reverse osmosis and Memstill\u00ae. Desalination 296, 69\u201380 (2012) Uche, J., Mart\u00ednez, A., Castellano, C., Subiela, V.: Life cycle analysis of urban water cycle in two Spanish areas: Inland city and island area. Desalin. Water Treat 51, 280\u2013291 (2013) UNEP: Rio declaration on environment and development. In: United Nations Publication (1992) USGS: Water Hardness and Alkalinity (2012). http://water.usgs.gov/owq/hardness-alkalinity.html Vieira, A.S., Beal, C.D., Ghisi, E., Stewart, R.A.: Energy intensity of rainwater harvesting systems: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 34(June), 225\u2013242 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.rser", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3072, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 34(June), 225\u2013242 (2014). doi:10.1016/j.rser. 2014.03.012 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3073, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 863, "book_page": 859, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "WCED: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, New York (1987) Wenzel, H., Hauschild, M.Z., Alting, L.: Environmental Assessment of Products 1: Methodology, Tools and Case Studies in Product Development. Chapman & Hall, London (1997) Wols, B.A., Hofman-Caris, C.H.M.: Review of photochemical reaction constants of organic micropollutants required for UV advanced oxidation processes in water. Water Res. 46, 2815\u2013 2827 (2012) Boulay, A.-M., Bare, J., Benini, L., Berger, M., Lathuilli\u00e8re, M., Manzardo, A., Margni, M., Motoshita, M., N\u00fa\u00f1ez, M., Pastor, A.V., Ridoutt, B., Oki, T., Worbe, S., Pfister, S. (accepted): The WULCA consensus characterization model for water scarcity footprints: assessing impacts of water consumption based on available water remaining (AWARE). Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3074, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 864, "book_page": 860, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(accepted): The WULCA consensus characterization model for water scarcity footprints: assessing impacts of water consumption based on available water remaining (AWARE). Environ. Sci. Technol. Zhou, J., Chang, V.W.C., Fane, A.G.: Environmental life cycle assessment of reverse osmosis desalination: the influence of different life cycle impact assessment methods on the characterization results. Desalination 283, 227\u2013236 (2011) Author Biographies Berit Godskesen LCA practitioner with focus on sustainability assessment of urban water systems where LCA is combined with other decision support tools. Main LCA interests are assessing environmental impacts of potential system changes and incorporating results in the decision making process. Noa Meron Electronics engineer by background and involved in environmental sciences since 2008. Developed a best proxy methodology for LCAs where detailed LCI databases do not exist. Main LCA interests are in mathematical modelling and water supply systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3075, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 864, "book_page": 860, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Developed a best proxy methodology for LCAs where detailed LCI databases do not exist. Main LCA interests are in mathematical modelling and water supply systems. Martin Rygaard An expert on urban water management systems and how these interact with the environment, humans and economy. Has a special interest in effects of changing water quality, e.g. through desalination. Another focus is combined use of LCA and economic assessments to provide holistic evaluations of water systems and technologies.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3076, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "33 LCA of Drinking Water Supply", "pdf_page": 864, "book_page": 860, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment Henrik Fred Larsen Abstract The main purpose of wastewater treatment is to protect humans against waterborne diseases and to safeguard aquatic bio-resources like fish. The dominating environmental concerns within this domain are indeed still potential aquatic eutrophication/oxygen depletion due to nutrient/organic matter emissions and potential health impacts due to spreading of pathogens. Anyway, the use of treatment for micro-pollutants is increasing and a paradigm shift is ongoing\u2014 wastewater is more and more considered as a resource of, e.g. energy, nutrients and even polymers, in the innovations going on. The focus of LCA studies addressing wastewater treatment have from the very first published cases, been on energy and resource consumption. In recent time, the use of characterisation has increased and besides global warming potential, especially eutrophication is in focus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3077, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 865, "book_page": 861, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In recent time, the use of characterisation has increased and besides global warming potential, especially eutrophication is in focus. Even the toxicity-related impact categories are nowadays included more often. Application of LCA for comparing avoided against induced impacts, and hereby identifying trade-offs when introducing new technology, is increasingly used. A typical functional unit is the treatment of one cubic metre of wastewater which should be well defined regarding composition. Depending on the goal and scope of the study, all life cycle stages have the potential of being significant, though disposal of infrastructure seems to be the least important for the impact profile in many cases. No inventory data and none of the conventional impact categories (except stratospheric ozone depletion if emission of N2O is excluded) should be ruled out; but eutrophication and ecotoxicity are in many cases among the dominating ones", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3078, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 865, "book_page": 861, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "34.1 The history and the present status of wastewater treatment including the overall use of LCA within this technology domain are briefly described below. H.F. Larsen (&) Danish Road Directorate, 2640 Hedehusene, Denmark e-mail: hfjlarsen@gmail.com \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_34", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3079, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 865, "book_page": 861, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "34.1.1 History For thousands of years water has been used for sanitary purposes with the resulting wastewater (WW) being emitted to the environment. However, due to an accelerating global population with increased sanitary demands combined with the industrial revolution, the pollution potential has reached a severe level in modern time. In order to protect the aquatic bio-resources (e.g. fish and crustaceans), human health and the aquatic ecosystems, wastewater treatment (WWT) is now widespread and becomes more and more advanced. Starting with simple systems for sedimentation (mechanical or primary treatment), more advanced processes for removing organic matter and nutrients (ammonia/nitrate), like activated sludge treatment (secondary treatment), have now been used for some decades in industrialised and densely populated countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3080, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 866, "book_page": 862, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In recent years, the focus is more on tertiary treatment (removing phosphorus) and processes for removing micro-pollutants including ozonation and activated carbon treatment. A paradigm shift is ongoing\u2014wastewater is more and more considered as a resource of, e.g. energy (biogas from anaerobic digestion of sludge), nutrients (especially phosphorus) and polymers (sludge). Innovations addressing these issues are ongoing these years. The focus of LCA case studies within this area has consistently been on energy and in some cases combined with resource consumption. More recently, characterisation has increasingly been included and besides global warming potential (including direct emissions of CH4 and N2O from WWT) especially eutrophication is in focus. With the enhanced awareness of micro-pollutants in effluent and sludge also the toxicity-related impact categories are nowadays included more often", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3081, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 866, "book_page": 862, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With the enhanced awareness of micro-pollutants in effluent and sludge also the toxicity-related impact categories are nowadays included more often. Using LCA for identifying trade-offs and comparing the relative sustainability of alternative treatment systems has also become widespread. 34.1.2 Present Status Today, the number of wastewater treatment technologies is quite large with optimization and new technologies currently being introduced. This process is mainly driven by legislation like the EU Water Framework Directive for Europe (EC 2000) or the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling being part of the National Water Quality Management Strategy for Australia (Australian Government 2015). The wastewater treatment technologies or systems may be divided into at least three main groups with some overlap: \u2022 Treatment systems for removal of organic matter (e.g. sedimentation, activated sludge). \u2022 Treatment systems for removal of nutrients (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3082, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 866, "book_page": 862, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "sedimentation, activated sludge). \u2022 Treatment systems for removal of nutrients (e.g. nitrification/denitrification, P-precipitation). \u2022 Treatment systems for removal of micro-pollutants (e.g. ozonation, activated carbon). H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3083, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 866, "book_page": 862, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Among new technologies that presently have only reached lab or pilot scale are, e.g. microbial fuel cells and advanced oxidation processes like manganese oxidation. Less advanced technologies/systems like source separation (e.g. separating toilet water containing faeces from urine containing water and bathing water) are also part of the innovation going on. The traditional aim of sludge treatment is to reduce volume and mass in order to save disposal costs. However, as sludge has been and still is used as fertiliser on agricultural land (or, e.g. woods), removing pathogens is also a focus. Therefore, different physical, mechanical and biological technologies like dewatering, digestion, incineration and, e.g. heating for hygienic treatment are widespread. The increased focus on resource recovery/recycling in recent years has led to enhanced use of, e.g. anaerobic digestion for energy recovery (biogas/CH4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3084, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 867, "book_page": 863, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The increased focus on resource recovery/recycling in recent years has led to enhanced use of, e.g. anaerobic digestion for energy recovery (biogas/CH4). Furthermore, new technologies like sludge inertisation (wet oxidation, pyrolysis) and sludge triage (separating primary and secondary sludge before treatment) for improved exploitation/recovery of, e.g. phosphorus, are part of the innovation going on. The main environmental concerns within the wastewater treatment domain are still potential aquatic eutrophication/oxygen depletion due to nutrient/organic matter emissions and potential health impacts due to spreading of pathogens. Anyway, the focus on the potential ecotoxic effect of organic micro-pollutants (e.g. pharmaceuticals) and metals (e.g. mercury) is increasing together with efforts to improve the energy balance (e.g. optimise biogas production) and resource recovery (e.g. phosphorus)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3085, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 867, "book_page": 863, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pharmaceuticals) and metals (e.g. mercury) is increasing together with efforts to improve the energy balance (e.g. optimise biogas production) and resource recovery (e.g. phosphorus). The process steps in a typical conventional wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) are shown in Fig. 34.1. 34.2 Review of Existing LCA Case Studies on WWT At least more than 60 LCA studies on wastewater treatment have been performed since the mid 1990s, with the paper by Emmerson et al. (1995) being among the first ones. Today, several review papers exist with Larsen et al. (2007), Corominas Fig. 34.1 Conventional wastewater treatment plant (Doka 2007, with permission) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3086, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 867, "book_page": 863, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "et al. (2013) and Zang et al. (2015) being the most recent. The review by Larsen et al. (2007) includes 22 studies and focus on eco-toxicity-related impacts though conventional impact categories are also included. Corominas et al. (2013) reviewed 45 studies but excluded specific studies on sludge treatment. This is also the case for the review by Zang et al. (2015) that includes 53 studies (among these several Asian ones) on different technologies but focus on activated sludge plants. This chapter is mainly based on the review by Larsen et al. (2007) supplemented by the two other, more recent reviews (Corominas et al. 2013; Zang et al. 2015) together with some of the most comprehensive studies including Larsen et al. (2010). The results of the Larsen et al. (2007) review are briefly shown in Table 34.1 in Appendix. The reviewed studies include to varying degrees life cycle stages, LCA impact categories, micro-pollutants, and more, and present LCA profiles for wastewater treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3087, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 868, "book_page": 864, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reviewed studies include to varying degrees life cycle stages, LCA impact categories, micro-pollutants, and more, and present LCA profiles for wastewater treatment. The results are presented and discussed in the following sections on the importance of different life cycle stages for the impact profile, the relevance of different impact categories for this application domain, and the degree to which wastewater specific issues like micro-pollutants and pathogens are included. Finally, spatial differentiation, normalisation and weighting are addressed. 34.2.1 Importance of Life Cycle Stages The life cycle of the service of wastewater treatment comprises different stages, i.e. material stage (production of raw materials, e.g. oil) including the construction of the plant, use stage (running the plant), transport \u201cstage\u201d (in some cases an integrated part of the other stages) and finally disposal, waste or reuse/recycling stage (e.g. landfill)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3088, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 868, "book_page": 864, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "landfill). These stages are dealt with in the subsections below. Material and Construction Stage Some of the LCA studies included in Table 34.1 in Appendix, like Emmerson et al. (1995) and Tillman et al. (1998), have included the construction of the wastewater treatment plant(s) in a detailed way. In the case Emmerson et al. (1995), the results show that although the energy consumption is overall dominated by the operation stage at one of the WWTPs analysed, it is of the same order of magnitude in both the construction and the operation stages at the two other WWTPs included. Also the studies by Tangsubkul et al. (2005), Vlasopoulos (2004) and Vlasopoulos et al. (2006) point at the possible importance of infrastructure for several different processes, e.g. constructed wet lands and sand filters. Newer studies, not included in Table 34.1 in Appendix, like Larsen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3089, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 868, "book_page": 864, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "constructed wet lands and sand filters. Newer studies, not included in Table 34.1 in Appendix, like Larsen et al. (2010) confirm that infrastructure/capital goods may play a significant role when dealing with newer and upcoming technologies like ozonation and sludge inertisation. That infrastructure needs to be addressed in all cases, either by including or arguing for excluding, is also stated in the review by Corominas et al. (2013). H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3090, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 868, "book_page": 864, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Use Stage The use stage (or plant operation stage) plays an often dominating role is documented in almost all studies. The main reason is the typical use of electricity, fuels and especially the emission of pollutants from the wastewater to air, with effluents and sludge. Transport Transport may or may not play a significant role (but typically not dominating) in the LCA profile of a Wast Water Treatment Technology (WWTT) depending on the created scenario and its scoping. An example of significant importance of transport is the Australian study by Beavis and Lundie (2003) focusing on energetically efficient distance to place of application of biosolids (based on sludge) used for fertilisation of agricultural land. In their specific cases threshold transport distance of 172 km (aerobic digested sludge) and 143 km (anaerobic digested sludge) could be estimated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3091, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 869, "book_page": 865, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In their specific cases threshold transport distance of 172 km (aerobic digested sludge) and 143 km (anaerobic digested sludge) could be estimated. Another example of the importance of distance to place of application is described in the paper by Houillon and Jolliet (2005) showing by sensitivity analysis that doubling the distance results in a 23% increase in the overall energy consumption. In the study by Dixon et al. (2003) on small-scale WWTPs, the transport in the case of reed bed contributed with 30% of the total energy consumption. Also, transportation of the wastewater may be important in scenarios where it is collected in tanks and transported to the treatment plant over long distances. Disposal Stage The importance of including the disposal of waste (in some cases as a resource for reuse or recycling) in LCA studies on wastewater is documented in several studies. One example is the disposal of sludge for agricultural application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3092, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 869, "book_page": 865, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "One example is the disposal of sludge for agricultural application. Including the substitution of fertiliser production and the potential impact from especially the metal content of the sludge is very important (Beavis and Lundie 2003; Tangsubkul et al. 2005; Hospido et al. 2005), which has also been shown in more recent studies like Larsen et al. (2010) not included in Table 34.1 in Appendix. Another example is whether or not the methane production from anaerobic digestion is utilised (substituting fossil energy) or is emitted to air and hereby contributing significantly to the global warming potential (Tillman et al. 1998). 34.2.2 Relevance of Different Impact Categories The environmental impact categories are here divided into the typical energyrelated ones and typical toxicity (or chemical)-related ones. This is because a typical challenge in wastewater treatment is the achievement of higher effluent water quality at the expense of higher energy consumption", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3093, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 869, "book_page": 865, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is because a typical challenge in wastewater treatment is the achievement of higher effluent water quality at the expense of higher energy consumption. The energy-related categories comprise global warming, acidification and photochemical ozone formation, in a wastewater treatment system all primarily attributable to the combustion of fossil fuels in stationary or mobile processes. The toxicity-related impact categories include ecotoxicity and human toxicity. Eutrophication which in many other cases LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3094, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 869, "book_page": 865, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "is primarily energy related is here looked upon separately due to its high relevance for wastewater effluent. Resource consumption, stratospheric ozone depletion, land use, photochemical ozone formation, and waste generation are also treated separately. Energy-Related Impact Categories The typically high importance of the energy-related impact categories are documented in most of the studies reviewed. For example in the study by Clauson-Kaas et al. (2006), the induced potential impact (global warming, acidification, indirect eutrophication) related to the energy consumption from running two of the investigated treatment technologies (MBR and ozonation) is at least in the main scenario higher than the avoided potential impact (aquatic ecotoxicity) achieved by cleaning the water (normalised or weighted impact potentials)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3095, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 870, "book_page": 866, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the study by Beavis and Lundie (2003) focusing on disinfection technologies for effluents and digestion of sludge, the potential impacts related to energy consumption also plays a dominating role. In the review by Corominas et al. (2013), global warming, acidification and eutrophication is evaluated in 38, 27 and 28 of the 45 studies included, respectively. Newer impact categories like ionising radiation and particulate matter formation are also important as they are typically related to energy production. Toxicity-Related Impact Categories The importance of the toxicity-related impact categories, i.e. ecotoxicity and human toxicity, when doing LCA on wastewater treatment\u2014especially if the chemical/ toxic emission from the WWTP is actually included\u2014is documented in several studies. In, for example, the Dutch study by Roeleveld et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3096, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 870, "book_page": 866, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In, for example, the Dutch study by Roeleveld et al. (1997) focusing on municipal wastewater treatment, the normalised results show aquatic ecotoxicity to be the second most important impact category only exceeded by eutrophication. Main contributors to the ecotoxicity of the effluent are metals (about 90%; Hg, Cd) whereas the included non-specified organic micro-pollutants account for the rest. That other micro-pollutants than just metals can play an important role for aquatic ecotoxicity in the LCA comparison of different wastewater treatment options is documented in the study by Clauson-Kaas et al. (2006) including endocrine disruptors and other organics. Terrestrial ecotoxicity may also in some cases play an important role. This is seen especially in cases involving agricultural application of sludge containing metals. One example is the study by Hospido et al. (2005) comparing anaerobic digestion of sludge with different thermal alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3097, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 870, "book_page": 866, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "One example is the study by Hospido et al. (2005) comparing anaerobic digestion of sludge with different thermal alternatives. In this case, the anaerobic digestion scenario includes agricultural application and gets the overall highest normalised impact score on terrestrial ecotoxicity due to the content of metals in the sludge. In the same study and same scenario, the impact category on human toxicity gets the second highest normalised impact score (human exposure to metals via food chains) showing that at least in a few cases human toxicity may play an important role in an LCA study of wastewater treatment technologies. That also human toxicity related to air emission from energy production may play an at least not negligible role in this context is shown in, for example, two Danish studies (Clauson-Kaas et al. 2001, 2006). More recent studies including pharmaceuticals and more, like Larsen et al. (2010), confirm the overall H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3098, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 870, "book_page": 866, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "results of this review. The importance of toxicity-related impact categories is also reflected in the reviews by Corominas et al. (2013) and Zang et al. (2015). Eutrophication and Oxygen Depletion Due to Emission of Organic Matter Reduction in emission of organic matter (COD, BOD) and nutrients (N, P) has always been a key challenge for municipal WWTPs. That it is also important in LCAs of wastewater treatment is documented in many studies. For example in the paper by Roeleveld et al. (1997) focusing on municipal wastewater treatment in The Netherlands, the impact share of eutrophication is clearly the highest with 4.4%, whereas the second highest, aquatic ecotoxicity, only amounts to 2.4% and energy consumption only 0.6% (normalised on basis of the total potential impact of all Dutch societal activities). Another example is the study by Hospido et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3099, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 871, "book_page": 867, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another example is the study by Hospido et al. (2004) on a Spanish municipal wastewater plant showing that eutrophication is the dominating impact category after normalisation with a share of about 65%. The typical dominance of eutrophication when wastewater effluent is included is confirmed by newer studies as described in the reviews by Corominas et al. (2013) and Zang et al. (2015). Distinguishing between emissions to freshwater (typically P-deficient) and marine water (in many cases N-deficient), and if possible include spatial (and temporal) differentiation is important for this impact category. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion The impact category stratospheric ozone depletion is included in 6 out of the 22 reviewed studies. It may play some (minor) role in ranking different alternative wastewater treatment technologies as shown for advanced oxidation processes by, e.g. Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2005, 2006) and Garc\u00eda-Monta\u00f1o et al. (2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3100, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 871, "book_page": 867, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2005, 2006) and Garc\u00eda-Monta\u00f1o et al. (2006). However, after normalisation, the importance is typically negligible as regards WWTPs (Roeleveld et al. 1997; Hospido et al. 2004, 2005). This insignificant importance is confirmed by the Corominas et al. (2013) review but it should be noted that emission of N2O, which is in focus regarding global warming potential related to WWTPs, is considered to be today\u2019s dominant ozone layer depleting emission (UNEP 2013). Photochemical Ozone Formation That the impact category on (tropospheric) photochemical ozone formation (POF) in some cases may play at least a minor role is shown in several studies. In the study by Vlasopoulos et al. (2006) comparing 20 different technologies for cleaning petroleum process waters, the POF is showing a normalised contribution, that is, at the same level as the one for eutrophication. Another example is the study by Tangsubkul et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3101, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 871, "book_page": 867, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Another example is the study by Tangsubkul et al. (2006) analysing microfiltration processes where the POF plays a relative important role (due to its relation to energy production, in this case electricity production) and is shown to be microfiltration flux dependent. That the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from fossil fuel combustion (transport vehicles, machines etc.) can make the impact category for photochemical ozone formation significant in the comparison of different sludge treatment scenarios is shown by Suh and Rousseaux (2002). However, in the study on a municipal WWTP by Hospido et al. (2005) the normalised contribution from POF was found to be negligible. LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3102, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 871, "book_page": 867, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste Generation The disposal of \u201cwaste\u201d, for example, sludge produced during the wastewater treatment, is in a number of cases characterised by the use of the other impact categories. For example, the disposal of sludge on agricultural land is in some cases characterised by the use of the impact categories for terrestrial ecotoxicity, human toxicity and more (e.g. Hospido et al. 2005). The importance of addressing waste generation and its disposal is documented in several studies (e.g. Beavis and Lundie 2003; Tangsubkul et al. 2005). However, in many impact assessment cases and studies all or some of the waste is \u201conly\u201d included as, e.g. \u201chazardous waste\u201d, \u201cslag and ashes\u201d, \u201csolid waste\u201d etc. (e.g. Clauson-Kaas et al. 2001; Tillman et al. 1998) or not at all (e.g. Dixon et al. 2003)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3103, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 872, "book_page": 868, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201chazardous waste\u201d, \u201cslag and ashes\u201d, \u201csolid waste\u201d etc. (e.g. Clauson-Kaas et al. 2001; Tillman et al. 1998) or not at all (e.g. Dixon et al. 2003). One should always aim for characterising all waste disposals by the well-established impact categories including emissions to the biosphere (like freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity) and not just different waste categories. Land Use Only three studies have included land use in the LCA and only as occupied square metres or square metres times years of occupation. In the case of Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2006), the land use is associated with the construction of the plant and reflects the large area needed for the solar field. The results of Dixon et al. (2003) reflect the difference between the land use for small conventional plantsanda constructed wetlandswith the same capacity, i.e. the included wetlands require a factor of 17\u201340 times larger area than the corresponding conventional plants. Mels et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3104, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 872, "book_page": 868, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the included wetlands require a factor of 17\u201340 times larger area than the corresponding conventional plants. Mels et al. (1999) analysed three different large (100,000 p.e.) wastewater treatment plants (one reference and two alternatives) and come up with an area need of 8000\u201310,000 m2 depending on the plant. A general exclusion of land use can therefore not be recommended as it may play a role especially if the LCA includes constructed wetlands, high space demanding energy production or the like. That only a few studies have actually included land use until now is confirmed by the most recent review study by Zang et al. (2015). Resource Consumption 8 out of the 22 LCA studies reviewed include an impact category for resource consumption/depletion. However, in more cases resource consumption data is included in the inventory data presented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3105, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 872, "book_page": 868, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, in more cases resource consumption data is included in the inventory data presented. That resource depletion may play an important role in the impact assessment of wastewater treatment and that, in many cases, it is associated with consumption of fossil fuels is shown by Roeleveld et al. (1997), Gasafiet al. (2004) and Suh and Rousseaux (2002). Later studies like Larsen et al. (2010) confirm this. Water consumption/use as a separate category has also been included in a few recent studies as described in Zang et al. (2015). 34.2.3 Micro-Pollutants and Pathogens in Effluent and Sludge The reviewed papers (Table 34.1 in Appendix) only include micro-pollutants to a limited degree and pathogens are not included at all in an impact relevant manner. H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3106, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 872, "book_page": 868, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Regarding inorganic micro-pollutants, the evaluation of potential toxic impact from metals in effluent or sludge is included in 8 out of the 22 studies reviewed. Two studies include metals only in the assessment of the wastewater effluent (Clauson-Kaas et al. 2001, 2006), three studies apparently include metals in both effluent and sludge (Roeleveld et al. 1997; Beavis and Lundie 2003; Tangsubkul et al. 2005), and the other three studies only include metals in sludge (Suh and Rousseaux 2002; Hospido et al. 2004, 2005). Organic micro-pollutants in general are only dealt with in two studies and only specified as single substances (not groups) in one case (i.e. Clauson-Kaas et al. 2006). The Clauson-Kaas study includes linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LAS), diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), i.e. benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene for effluent emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3107, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 873, "book_page": 869, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene and indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene for effluent emissions. A newer study by Larsen et al. (2010), not included in Table 34.1 in Appendix, is one of the most comprehensive ones regarding organic micro-pollutants and includes pharmaceuticals/ metabolites for effluent emissions, and LAS, nonylphenol, DEHP and benzo(a) pyrene for sludge applied on agricultural land. Potential impacts of pathogens are not included in any of the 22 LCA studies. Reduction of pathogens by WWT is, however, included in two studies (Clauson-Kaas et al. 2006; Beavis and Lundie 2003) and pointed out as an important issue for sludge used for agricultural application (Hospido et al. 2004). Further, the lack of including human health risk caused by the presence of pathogens in wastewater is pointed out as a limitation \u201cthat can affect the use of LCA in decision support in water recycling planning\u201d (Tangsubkul et al. 2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3108, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 873, "book_page": 869, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005). A preliminary method on how to include pathogens in LCA has been developed by Larsen et al. (2009) and most recently this issue has been addressed regarding sewage sludge management (Harder et al. 2016). 34.2.4 Spatial Differentiation Site dependency with regard to aquatic ecotoxicity is only included on a general level as a differentiation between fresh water aquatic environment and marine (saltwater) aquatic environment and only in six of the reviewed studies. However, several studies include site-dependent inventory data when specific existing wastewater treatment works are looked upon (e.g. Tillman et al. 1998; Emmerson et al. 1995; Mu\u00f1oz et al. 2006). For WWT spatial differentiation seems especially relevant for impacts related to aquatic ecotoxicity and eutrophication. 34.2.5 Normalisation and Weighting Twelve of the reviewed studies use normalisation with five of them supplementing with a weighting based on value choices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3109, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 873, "book_page": 869, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "34.2.5 Normalisation and Weighting Twelve of the reviewed studies use normalisation with five of them supplementing with a weighting based on value choices. The normalisation is typically done on LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3110, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 873, "book_page": 869, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "basis of the total societal (land, region or global) potential impact per citizen within a reference year and the normalised results, for example, expressed in percentages of the total societal impact in each impact category (see also Sect. 10.3 on normalisation). By introducing value choices weighting factors may be estimated for each impact category or anticipated weighting factors (e.g. 0.5 and 1) may be used in sensitivity analysis as in the study by Suh and Rousseaux (2002). In the study by Clauson-Kaas et al. (2006), weighting factors (1.0\u20131.7) based on distance to political reduction targets, i.e. governmental and international conventions on reduction targets (actually the same as a normalisation reference for a future scenario) are used. In the case of Tillman et al. (1998) and Svanstr\u00f6m et al. (2004), the \u201cmonetary\u201d principle \u201cwillingness to pay\u201d, i.e. the willingness of society to pay for restoration of impacts on \u201careas of protection\u201d is used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3111, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 874, "book_page": 870, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1998) and Svanstr\u00f6m et al. (2004), the \u201cmonetary\u201d principle \u201cwillingness to pay\u201d, i.e. the willingness of society to pay for restoration of impacts on \u201careas of protection\u201d is used. In the recent review by Corominas et al. (2013), the use of the hierarchist perspective (archetypes) for weighting is found in WWT LCA cases. The strength of using normalisation and weighting is that it makes comparison between different WWT alternatives more simple and creates the opportunity to aggregate all the impact potentials into one common impact score. On the other hand, the weakness is that weighting is based on value choices and not natural science and therefore debatable. Probably due to this and a very stubborn (site-specific) risk-based approach on how to do environmental assessment within this applicationdomain, the LCA approach has had a hard time gaining a foothold", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3112, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 874, "book_page": 870, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Using normalisation references at different scales (catchment, region, nation etc.) and different weighting principles may therefore be a good idea in trying to test the robustness of a result and gain acceptance. 34.3 Methodological Issues When modelling LCA cases on wastewater the issue in focus is typically the service of treating one volume unit (i.e. m3) of more or less contaminated water. The processes leading to the contamination (e.g. sanitation and consumption) are only included in a limited way and in most cases not at all. Goal and Scope The most commonly used functional unit (see Sect. 8.4.2) is one cubic metre of (ingoing) wastewater. If comparison among technologies is the aim, it is highly important to define the wastewater composition strictly (P content, COD content, etc.) in order to avoid introducing a bias in the comparison. Depending on the goal and scope \u201cpopulation equivalents\u201d (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3113, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 874, "book_page": 870, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Depending on the goal and scope \u201cpopulation equivalents\u201d (e.g. based on BOD5) or nutrient content (kg phosphorus content) may also be used as functional unit. Defining the life time of the technologies in question is also important and may play a significant role. Scoping according to the goal is essential and may include the whole water cycle if the goal is mapping hot spots in a region\u2019s sanitary system or only specific process parameters if the aim is assessing the environmental performance of different technical process optimisations. It may, for example, be of high importance for the H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3114, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 874, "book_page": 870, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "impact contribution from infrastructure whether or not the sewer system is included. Including all (relevant) emissions and resource consumption/recovery like the handling/treatment and final disposal of sludge are very important as this emission route in many cases contains the major part of the pollutants (heavy metals, eutrophying substances). The direct emission of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4 and N2O) from the sewer system and/or from processes like activated sludge treatment (including nitrification/denitrification), sludge processing (e.g. anaerobic digestion), special treatments like ANaerobic AMMonium OXidation (ANAMMOX) and even emissions after disposal of sludge to agricultural land or landfill, may be important depending on the goal of the study. In this context, one should be aware of the content of fossil-based carbon in the sewage water, which may be at a level of up to 25% according to the review by Zang et al. (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3115, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 875, "book_page": 871, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this context, one should be aware of the content of fossil-based carbon in the sewage water, which may be at a level of up to 25% according to the review by Zang et al. (2015). For more information on the definition of goal and scope, see Chaps. 7 and 8, respectively. Inventory Foreground data is typically based on real plant measurement, laboratory/pilot tests or a combination with literature values and estimates. Background data (both upstream and downstream) are in most cases based on LCI databases like ecoinvent and GaBi. Transparency is always important in order to secure the possibility of a third part reproducingthestudy.FormoredetailedinformationoninventoryinLCA,seeChap. 9. Impact Assessment In order to achieve as robust an impact assessment as possible, the use of more than one impact assessment method is recommended (see Chap. 10 on life cycle impact assessment). Depending on the goal and scope, presentation of results at all relevant levels, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3116, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 875, "book_page": 871, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10 on life cycle impact assessment). Depending on the goal and scope, presentation of results at all relevant levels, i.e. inventory, impact potentials, normalised and weighted (single score) results should be done. Both midpoint and endpoint (damage) results should be included (see Chap. 10). This may be achieved using, for example, the ILCD recommended methods (EU 2013) and the ReCiPe method (Goedkoop et al. 2013). As described above, the typically important impact categories for LCIA on wastewater include the toxicity related ones (human toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, marine ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity and particulate matter formation), eutrophication (marine and freshwater), global warming, acidification, ionising radiation and (in some cases) water use, land use and stratospheric ozone depletion. Attempts to include special impact categories like pathogens and acute toxicity (due to, e.g. water emission of ammonia), and spatial and temporal differentiation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3117, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 875, "book_page": 871, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Attempts to include special impact categories like pathogens and acute toxicity (due to, e.g. water emission of ammonia), and spatial and temporal differentiation (e.g. regarding eutrophication) when doing site-specific assessments may be relevant depending on the goal and scope of the study. Interpretation With the aim of optimising the reliability and robustness of the result the use of sensitivity analysis but also uncertainty estimations if possible is highly recommended (see Chap. 12 on interpretation). An Alternative Approach on How to Do LCA on Wastewater Treatment The approach used to reach the goal of an LCA on wastewater treatment is typically based on the general approaches like hot spot identification in the life cycle of a specific LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3118, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 875, "book_page": 871, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technology or comparing the impact profile of different technologies performing the same service, e.g. phosphorus removal down to a specific level. An alternative is the \u201cavoided against induced impacts\u201d approach, where the impacts avoided by, e.g. introducing a new technology are compared to the impacts induced by this technology. This approach is illustrated in Figs. 34.2 and 34.3 and reflects a typical challenge in wastewater treatment, i.e.theachievement of higher effluent water quality at the expense of higher energy consumption or higher consumption of, e.g. precipitation chemicals. This approach has now been used in several studies and was introduced by Wenzel et al. (2008) and in a more comprehensive way by Larsen et al. (2007, 2010). The approach puts special demands on the toxicity related impact categories and the eutrophication potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3119, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 876, "book_page": 872, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2008) and in a more comprehensive way by Larsen et al. (2007, 2010). The approach puts special demands on the toxicity related impact categories and the eutrophication potential. 34.4 Concluding Remarks When performing LCA on wastewater treatment, one should be aware of the following more or less domain specific issues: \u2022 A typical functional unit is the treatment of one cubic metre of wastewater. Defining its composition/characteristics and/or using limit values for effluent is crucial for the reliability of the study in case of comparative studies \u2022 All life cycle stages have the potential of being significant, and therefore need to be considered even though decommissioning and disposal of infrastructure in many cases seems to be the least important for the impact profile \u2022 It is not generally possible in advance to consider some inventory data as unnecessary, but depending on the goal and scope large parts of the product system may be omitted (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3120, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 876, "book_page": 872, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "parts equal among alternatives) \u2022 None of the conventional impact categories (except stratospheric ozone depletion if emission of N2O is not included) should be excluded but eutrophication and ecotoxicity are in many cases among the dominating ones Fig. 34.2 By avoiding an obvious problem in one place we may induce a bigger problem somewhere else (sub-optimisation) (Larsen et al. 2010) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3121, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 876, "book_page": 872, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, if the aim is to perform an environmental product declaration (EPD), one should consult the already existing product category rules (PCR) for \u201cWastewater collection and treatment services\u201d (Environdec 2014). It should be noted that a future change in the relative importance of the different impact categories is likely due to coming improved inventory data and enhanced LCIA methodology including an increase in the number of characterisation factors or the use of, e.g. whole effluent toxicity (Larsen et al. 2009) regarding aquatic ecotoxicity. As discussed by Larsen et al. (2010), existing methodologies only cover a minor part of the possible toxicity impact of pollutants in wastewater due to lack of (good) characterisation factors. Including the specific toxic modes of action of, e.g. endocrine disrupters in a proper way, have the potential of increasing the importance of aquatic ecotoxicity significantly as shown in Larsen et al. (2009, 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3122, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 877, "book_page": 873, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "endocrine disrupters in a proper way, have the potential of increasing the importance of aquatic ecotoxicity significantly as shown in Larsen et al. (2009, 2010). Another example is the achievement of better inventory data on N2O and CH4 emissions from WWT which might change the importance of global warming drastically (Zang et al. 2015). Appendix See Table 34.1. INFLUENT Substance Concentration (mg/m3) 4-MBC DEHP Ibuprofen DeBDE Trimethoprim - - - - PLANT CONSTRUCTION Materials (kg) Life time of plant (years) MWWTP PLANT OPERATION Energy (kWh/d) Chemicals (kg/d) Emissions (kg/d) EFFLUENT Substance Concentration (mg/m3) 4-MBC DEHP Ibuprofen DeBDE Trimethoprim - - - - WWTT Wetlands Sand filtration Activated carbon Ozonation PLANT DISPOSAL Materials (kg) (disposal ways) Induced impact: (impact construction + impact operation + impact disposal) Avoided impact: (impact influent \u00f7 impact effluent) Avoided against induced impacts Sludge disposal or handling Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3123, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 877, "book_page": 873, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "34.3 The principle of avoided against induced impact illustrated for micro-pollutant polishing, by different wastewater treatment technologies (WWTT), e.g. ozonation of wastewater from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (MWWTP) (Larsen et al. 2007) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3124, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 877, "book_page": 873, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 Results of review on 22 LCA WWT cases (Larsen et al. 2007) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Industrial wastewater: process water from extraction of oil and gas Sand filtration, ozonation and 20 other technologies GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF + Material stage + Construction + Use stage \u0001 Transport \u0001 Waste treatment FU: Cleaning of 10,000 m3 wastewater to certain water quality levelsa Life time: 15 years No quantification [none] Vlasopoulos et al. (2006) Vlasopoulos (2004) Municipal wastewater, related to the WFD Sand filtration Membranbioreactor Ozonation GW, AC, NE/ET, POF, CHTS, CHTW, AHTA, CETS, CETF, AETF, CETSW + Material stage + Construction + Use stage \u0001 Transport + Waste treatmentb FU: Further treatment of 1 m3 wastewater treated conventionally, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3125, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 878, "book_page": 874, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "MBNC Life time: 20 years CETF, CETSW [Cd, Pb, Ni, NPE, LAS, DEHP, EE2, E2, PAH, (Zn, Cu, Hg, Cr)] Clauson-Kaas et al. (2006) Industrial wastewater: kraft mill bleaching wastewater Heterogeneous photocatalysis (PhC) GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETF, OLD + Material stage \u0001 Constructiond + Use stage + transport \u0001 Waste treatment FU: Removal of 15% DOC from 1 m3 kraft pulp mill wastewater Life time: ? (laboratory experiment in Pyrex cells) No quantification [none] Mu\u00f1oz et al. (2005) (continued) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3126, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 878, "book_page": 874, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Industrial wastewater (synthetic)c Heterogeneous photocatalysis (PhC) GW, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETF, OLD, LU, EC + Material stage + Constructiond + Use stage + Transport + Waste treatmente FU: Treatment of 1 m3 synthetic a-methyl-phenyl-glycine (MPG) solution (500 mg/L) in order to obtain an inherent biodegradable effluent Life time: 15 years Only for DOC, COD, Nammonia and N-nitrate [none] Mu\u00f1oz et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3127, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 879, "book_page": 875, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2006) Industrial wastewater (synthetic)f Photo-Fenton (PhF) process GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETF, CETS, CETSW, OLD + Material stage \u0001 Constructiond + Use stage + Transport + Waste treatmentg FU: Removal of 80% DOC from 1.2 L of 250 mg/L Cibacron RED FN-R synthetic wastewater from simulated batch dyeing Life time: ? (laboratory experiment in Pyrex cells) Only for DOC, COD, Nammonia and N-nitrate [none] Garc\u00eda-Monta\u00f1o et al. (2006) Municipal wastewater in the Netherlands (total sustainability in society) GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETF, CETS, OLD, (discharge of + Material stage + Construction + Use stage COD, NE/ET, CETF Roeleveld et al. (1997) (continued) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3128, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 879, "book_page": 875, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Activated sludge FeCl3 (phosphor removal) Activated carbon COD), (production of normal, toxic and nuclear waste) + Transport (\u0001 Waste treatment) FU: 24,000,000 p.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3129, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 880, "book_page": 876, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(not defined) Life time: Not defined [Hg, Cu, Cd, Zn, organic phosphorus containing compounds] Municipal wastewater in Australia (focus on disinfection and nutrients) UV Chlorination/dechlorination by chlorine or hypochlorite Dissolved air flotation GW, AC, NE/ET (freshwater and marine), POF, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (\u0001 Waste treatment) Case study I: FU: Disinfection (measured by CFU) of 1000 m3 tertiary treated wastewater (chlorine residual less than 0.01 mg/L) Case study II: fu: 1000 m3 wastewater yielding 714 kg biosolids (25% solids, anaerobic digestion) or 1250 kg biosolids (18% solids, aerobic digestion) Life time: Not defined Case study I: CFU-measurements Case study II: At least CETF Sludge: (At least CETS, but not specified) [common concentrations of metals, pesticides and chlordane assumed] Beavis and Lundie (2003) Municipal wastewater in Australia (focus on recycling for irrigation application) GW, NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3130, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 880, "book_page": 876, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "concentrations of metals, pesticides and chlordane assumed] Beavis and Lundie (2003) Municipal wastewater in Australia (focus on recycling for irrigation application) GW, NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW, salinisation + Material stage + Construction + Use stage + Transport Effluent as irrigation water, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3131, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 880, "book_page": 876, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "emission to soil: NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW, salinisation Tangsubkul et al. (2005) (continued) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3132, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 880, "book_page": 876, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Ozonation + continuous microfiltration (CMF) Membrane bioreactor (MBR) + reverse osmosis (RO) (\u0001 Waste treatment) FU: 1000 m3 recycled wastewater meeting national threshold limits for irrigation of sensitive crops (incoming raw sewage of \u201cmedium\u201d strength, i.e. 500 mg/L, 40 mg/L tot-N, etc.) Life time: Not defined Sludge as biosolids, i.e. emission to soil: NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW [besides mentioning metals no specification] Municipal wastewater in Spain (focus on environmental performance, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3133, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 881, "book_page": 877, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "emission to soil: NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW [besides mentioning metals no specification] Municipal wastewater in Spain (focus on environmental performance, i.e. removal of organic matter and hotspots) Only primary and secondary treatment GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETS, OLD + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport + Waste treatment FU (1): 53,349 m3/day (humid season) FU (2): 49,214 m3/day (dry season) Life time: Not defined NE/ET, (HT) Sludge: CETS, HT (GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, OLD) [Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn] Hospido et al. (2004) Municipal wastewater (focusing on energy consumption and reuse potential) Constructed wetlands, UV, Sequencing batch reactor \u201cNo impact categories\u201d, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3134, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 881, "book_page": 877, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2004) Municipal wastewater (focusing on energy consumption and reuse potential) Constructed wetlands, UV, Sequencing batch reactor \u201cNo impact categories\u201d, i.e. only comparison of removal efficiency (BOD, Tot-N and Tot-P), nutrient recycling and energy consumption \u0001 Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage \u0001 Transport (+ waste treatment) FU: 1 m3 Life time: Not defined No quantification [none] Brix (1999) (continued) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3135, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 881, "book_page": 877, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Municipal wastewater (focusing on small-scale treatment) Constructed wetland Besides LU (included as m2 occupied by plant) impact categories are only included as CO2 emitted, energy consumption and solid emission (i.e. waste) + Material stage + Construction + Use stage + Transport \u0001 Waste treatment FU: 1 p.e. (0.2 m3/day) treated to acceptable discharge standards, i.e. 10 mg/L BOD, 25 mg/L SS and 5 mg/L ammonia: Scales: 12, 60 and 200 p.e. Life time: 10 years No quantification [none] Dixon et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3136, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 882, "book_page": 878, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(0.2 m3/day) treated to acceptable discharge standards, i.e. 10 mg/L BOD, 25 mg/L SS and 5 mg/L ammonia: Scales: 12, 60 and 200 p.e. Life time: 10 years No quantification [none] Dixon et al. (2003) Sludge form municipal wastewater plant (focus on hotspots and process design) Supercritical water gasification (SCWG) GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) FU: 1 ton DM undigested sewage sludge (3% DM equals 33 ton wet sludge) Life time: Not defined Effluent from SCWG plant via WWTP: NE/ET [none] Gasafiet al. (2004) Industrial wastewater, brewery (focus on operation conditions for membrane filtration) GW, NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW, POF + Material stage + Construction + Use stage + Transport (\u0001 Waste treatment) No quantification (assumed to be equal for all scenarios) [none] Tangsubkul et al. (2006) (continued) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3137, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 882, "book_page": 878, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] FU: 1000 m3/day (produced from incoming settled effluent water from a sequencing batch reactor (SBR), 40 mg/L TSS and permeate turbidity\u2019s of <1 NTU) Life time: 20 years (membrane 5 years) Municipal wastewater (focus on physical-chemical pre-treatment) activated sludge, Pre-precipitation, Flotation No characterization only inventory (energy balance, final sludge production, effluent quality, use of chemicals, space requirements, i.e. LU) \u0001 Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage (\u0001 Transport) (\u0001 Waste treatment) FU: 7,120,000 m3/year (19,500 m3/day) (treated to acceptable discharge standards, i.e. <10 mg/L BOD, <50 mg/L COD, <10 mg/L Tot-N, <1 mg/L Tot-P, <10 mg/L SS) Life time: Not defined No quantification (assumed to be equal for all scenarios) [none] Mels et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3138, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 883, "book_page": 879, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "<10 mg/L BOD, <50 mg/L COD, <10 mg/L Tot-N, <1 mg/L Tot-P, <10 mg/L SS) Life time: Not defined No quantification (assumed to be equal for all scenarios) [none] Mels et al. (1999) Sludge form municipal wastewater plant (focus on final disposal), Incineration Agricultural land application GW, NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW, POF, DAR + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) No quantification For sludge: GW, NE/ET, HT, CETS, CETF, CETSW, POF, DAR, AC Suh and Rousseaux (2002) (continued) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3139, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 883, "book_page": 879, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Landfill FU: 1 ton DM mixed sewage sludge Life time: Not specified but more than 30 years mentioned in argumentation for leaving out construction [Substances and concentrations according to threshold limits in French regulation on leachate from landfills and content of sludge for agricultural land application. Only metals included for land application. No further specification] Predominantly municipal wastewater sludge (focusing on hot spots and energy consumption) Supercritical water oxidation GW, POF, DAR For EPS2000: Human health, biological diversity, ecosystem production, resources and aesthetic values) For EcoIndicator99: Human health, ecosystem health and resources + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (\u0001 Waste treatment) FU: 1000 kg wet sludge (7% TS) treated at specific plant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3140, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 884, "book_page": 880, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water effluent and gases assumed to have no adverse impacts Life time: Not defined No quantification (assumed to have no adverse impact for both water effluent and wet solid effluent) [none] Svanstr\u00f6m et al. (2004) Sludge form municipal wastewater plant (focus on energy and global warming) Agricultural land application Incineration Wet oxidation GW + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) FU: 1000 kg DM sludge disposed No quantification [none] Houillon and Jolliet (2005) (continued) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3141, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 884, "book_page": 880, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Pyrolysis Incineration in cement kilns Landfill (wet sludge: 0.3% dry solid content) Life time: Not defined Municipal wastewater treatment plant in Denmark (focus on hot spots) Activated sludge: nitrification/denitrification, phosphor removal, sludge incineration GW, AC, NE/ET, Persistent toxicity ((CETS + CETF + CHTS + CHTW)/ 4), AHTA, AETF, slag and ashes + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage ? Transport (\u0001 Waste treatment) FU: 29,800,000 m3 wastewater treated (i.e. 1 year, 1998) Life time: Not defined NE/ET, Persistent toxicity, AETF [Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Cd, Se, As, dioxin] Clauson-Kaas et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3142, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 885, "book_page": 881, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1 year, 1998) Life time: Not defined NE/ET, Persistent toxicity, AETF [Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Cd, Se, As, dioxin] Clauson-Kaas et al. (2001) Sludge form municipal wastewater plant (focus on post-treatments) Anaerobic digestion + agricultural land application Incineration Pyrolysis GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETS, OLD + Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) FU: 1000 kg DM sludge managed (thickened mixed: 1% dry matter) Life time: Not defined No quantification For sludge: GW, DAR, AC, NE/ET, POF, HT, CETS, OLD [Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn] Hospido et al. (2005) (continued) LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3143, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 885, "book_page": 881, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Municipal wastewater (focus on energy consumption and sludge production) Activated sludge: nitrification/denitrification, biological P-removal No characterization only inventory (oxygen requirements, sludge production and auxiliaries requirement/production (methanol, FeCl3 and methane) \u0001 Material stage \u0001 Construction + Use stage \u0001 Transport \u0001 Waste treatment FU: 2750 m3/day wastewater treated (fixed discharge levels: <15 mg/L BOD5, <15 mg/L TSS, <0.5 mg N/l ammonia, <10 mg/L Tot-N, <1 mg/L Tot-P Life time: Not defined No quantification (assumed to be equal for all scenarios) [none] Bagley (2000) Municipal wastewater (focus on small-scale WWTPs) Activated sludge No (quantitative) characterization only inventory (energy consumption, material use, waste, air emission from energy production\u2014especially CO2 (but also", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3144, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 886, "book_page": 882, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(focus on small-scale WWTPs) Activated sludge No (quantitative) characterization only inventory (energy consumption, material use, waste, air emission from energy production\u2014especially CO2 (but also SO2, CO and more) + Material stage + Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) FU: 15 years of functioning, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3145, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 886, "book_page": 882, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1,095,000 m3 (compliance of effluent and sludge (agricultural application) with regulatory framework) Life time: 15 years No quantification (assumed to be equal for all scenarios [none] Emmerson et al. (1995) (continued) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3146, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 886, "book_page": 882, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 34.1 (continued) Study on Impact categories included for LCIA Scoping, functional unit (FU) and life time Potential impact of effluent quantified by [micro-pollutants] Municipal wastewater (focus on change from conventional central WWTPs to local systems), sand filter, filter bed, urine separation No specification, only inventory data used in detailed impact assessment, i.e. energy consumption; air emission of CO2, methane, SO2 etc.; water emission of N-tot, P-tot, BOD etc.; waste such as sludge, hazardous waste etc. + Material stage + Construction + Use stage + Transport (+ Waste treatment) FU: The treatment of wastewater from 1 p.e. during 1 year. p.e. not defined in paper Life time: Stated that this is taken into account (full technical life time for each component) but not specified in paper No direct specification in paper of impact categories but at least assessed on basis of COD, BOD, N-tot and P-tot. [No specification] Tillman et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3147, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 887, "book_page": 883, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1998) MWWTP Municipal wastewater treatment plant; WWT Wastewater treatment; ST Sludge treatment; WFD Water framework directive (EC 2000, 2001); MBNC Mechanical (settlement)/biological/nitrification-denitrification/chemical phosphate removal; GW Global warming; POF Photochemical ozone formation; AC Acidification; NE/ET Nutrient enrichment/eutrophication; DAR Depletion of abiotic resources (sometimes divided into mineral resources and fossil energy resources); OLD Ozone depletion; LU Land use; EC (non-renewable) Energy consumption; HT Human toxicity; CHTS Chronic human toxicity soil; CHTW Chronic human toxicity water; AHTA Acute human toxicity air; CETS Chronic ecotoxicity soil; CETF Chronic ecotoxicity fresh water; AETF Acute ecotoxicity fresh water; CETSW Chronic ecotoxicity salt water; DOC Dissolved organic carbon p.e.: \u201cwastewater\u201d person equivalents; CFU Colony forming units; NTU Nephelometric turbidity units; + included; \u0001 not included aRelated to end-use categories (irrigation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3148, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 887, "book_page": 883, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "DOC Dissolved organic carbon p.e.: \u201cwastewater\u201d person equivalents; CFU Colony forming units; NTU Nephelometric turbidity units; + included; \u0001 not included aRelated to end-use categories (irrigation of wheat, cotton, barley, alfalfa, sorghum, rhodes, citrus and for industrial use \u2018cooling system feed\u2019 and \u2018boiler feed\u2019) bTreatment of waste from decommissioning of equipment included", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3149, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 887, "book_page": 883, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For sludge only sludge incineration as disposal included cSynthetic solution of a-methyl-phenyl-glycine (a pharmaceutical precursor) dSame type of UVA lamp used in all cases\u2014only differences in running time for achieving 15% reduction in DOC eTransport and land filling of used catalyst included. For sludge only sludge incineration as disposal included fSynthetic solution of the reactive azo dye Cibacron Red FN-R (C.I. Reactive Red 238) gFor sludge: dewatering, thickening and finally deposited at a landfill. Leachate (COD, BOD7, NO3 \u2212and NH4 +) and gas emission (CO2, CH4, NOx and NH3) estimated by ORWARE. 50% capture of gas (burned) and 90% capture of leachate (treated in WWTP) assumed LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3150, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 887, "book_page": 883, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Australian Government: National water quality management strategy. Australian Government, Department of Environment. http://www.environment.gov.au/water/quality/national-waterquality-management-strategy (2015). Accessed Sept 2015 Bagley, D.M.: Life cycle analysis of municipal waste water treatment. In: 2000 Annual Conference Abstracts, vol. 2, pp. 437\u2013443. Canadian Society for Civil Engineering (2000) Beavis, P., Lundie, S.: Integrated environmental assessment of tertiary and residuals treatment\u2014 LCA in the wastewater industry. Water Sci. Technol. 47(7\u20138), 109\u2013116 (2003) Brix, H.: How \u201cgreen\u201d are aquaculture, constructed wetlands and conventional wastewater treatment systems? Water Sci. Technol. 40(3), 45\u201350 (1999) Clauson-Kaas, J., Poulsen, T.S., Jacobsen, B.N., Guildal, T., Wenzel, H.: Environmental accounting\u2014a decision support tool in WWTP operation and management. Water Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3151, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 888, "book_page": 884, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "40(3), 45\u201350 (1999) Clauson-Kaas, J., Poulsen, T.S., Jacobsen, B.N., Guildal, T., Wenzel, H.: Environmental accounting\u2014a decision support tool in WWTP operation and management. Water Sci. Technol. 44(2\u20133), 25\u201330 (2001) Clauson-Kaas, J., Dahl, F., Dalgaard, O., H\u00f8ibye, L., Kj\u00f8lholt, J., Wenzel, H., Larsen, H.F.: Videreg\u00e5ende renseteknologier for kommunalt spildevand (Advanced treatment technologies for municipal waste water). Book in Danish with English summary. DANVA, Milj\u00f8styrelsen, Lynettef\u00e6lllesskabet og Spildevandscenter Aved\u00f8re. DANVA Forskningsog Udredningsprojekt nr. 2. DANVA, Denmark (2006) Corominas, L.l., Foley, J., Guest, J.S., Hospido, A., Larsen, H.F., Morera, S., Shaw, A.: Life cycle assessment applied to wastewater treatment: state of the art", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3152, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 888, "book_page": 884, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. DANVA, Denmark (2006) Corominas, L.l., Foley, J., Guest, J.S., Hospido, A., Larsen, H.F., Morera, S., Shaw, A.: Life cycle assessment applied to wastewater treatment: state of the art. Water Res 47:5480\u20135492 (2013) Dixon, A., Simon, M., Burkitt, T.: Assessing the environmental impact of two options for small-scale wastewater treatment: comparing reedbed and an aerated biological filter using a life cycle approach. Ecol. Eng. 20, 297\u2013308 (2003) Doka, G.: Part IV: life cycle inventory of wastewater treatment. Life cycle inventories of waste treatment services\u2014EcoInvent report No. 13. Swiss Center for Life Cycle Inventories, D\u00fcbendorf, Switzerland (2007) EC: Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000. Establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html (2000) EC: Decision No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3153, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 888, "book_page": 884, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html (2000) EC: Decision No. 2455/2001/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2001. Establishing the list of priority substances in the field of water policy and amending Directive 2000/60/EC (2001) Emmerson, R.H.C., Morse, G.K., Lester, J.N., Edge, D.R.: The life-cycle analysis of small-scale sewage-treatment processes. Water Environ. J. 9, 317\u2013325 (1995) Environdec: Waste water collection and treatment services. Product group: UN CPC 9411 & 9423. Version 1.01. Product category rules according to ISO 14025:2006. Date: 26 Feb 2014. The International EPD System. www.environdec.com (2014). Accessed 2 Oct 2015 EU: Commission recommendation of 9 April 2013 on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations. Official J Eur Union", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3154, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 888, "book_page": 884, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Official J Eur Union. L 124 (2013/179/EU) (2013) Garc\u00eda-Monta\u00f1o, J., Ruiz, N., Mu\u00f1oz, I., Dom\u00e8nech, X., Garc\u00eda-Hortal, J.A., Torrades, F., Peral, J.: Environmental assessment of different photo-Fenton approaches for commercial reactive dye removal. J. Hazard. Mater. A138(2006), 218\u2013225 (2006) Gasafi, E., Meyer, L., Schebek, L.: Using life-cycle assessment in process design. supercritical water gasification of organic feedstocks. J. Ind. Ecol. 7(3\u20134), 75\u201391 (2004) Goedkoop, H.R, Huijbregts, M.A.J., De Schryver, A., Struijs, J., van Zelm, R.: ReCiPe 2008. A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. Version 1.08. http://www.lcia-recipe.net/ (2013) Harder, R., Peters, G.M., Molander, S., Ashbolt, N.J., Svanstr\u00f6m, M.: Including pathogen risk in life cycle assessment: the effect of modelling choices in the context of sewage sludge management. Int. J. LCA 21(1), 60\u201369 (2016) H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3155, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 888, "book_page": 884, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hospido, A., Moreira, M.T., Fern\u00e1ndez-Couto, M., Feijoo, G.: Environmental performance of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Int. J. LCA 9(4), 261\u2013271 (2004) Hospido, A., Moreira, M.T., Martin, M., Rigola, M., Feijoo, G.: Environmental evaluation of different treatment processes for sludge from urban wastewater treatments: anaerobic digestion versus thermal processes. Int. J. LCA 10(5), 336\u2013345 (2005) Houillon, G., Jolliet, O.: Life cycle assessment of processes for the treatment of wastewater urban sludge: energy and global warming analysis. J. Clean. Prod. 13, 287\u2013299 (2005) Larsen, H.F., Hauschild, M., Wenzel, H., Almemark, M.: Homogeneous LCA methodology agreed by NEPTUNE and INNOWATECH. Deliverable 4.1. EC Project \u201cNEPTUNE\u201d, Contract No.: 036845. www.eu-neptune.org (2007) Larsen, H.F., Olsen, S.I., Hauschild, M., Laurent, A.: Methodology for including specific biological effects and pathogen aspects into LCA. Deliverable 4.2. EC Project \u201cNEPTUNE\u201d, Contract No.: 036845", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3156, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 889, "book_page": 885, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Deliverable 4.2. EC Project \u201cNEPTUNE\u201d, Contract No.: 036845. www.eu-neptune.org (2009) Larsen, H.F., Hansen, P.A., Boyer-Souchet, F.: Decision support guideline based on LCA and cost/efficiency assessment. Deliverable 4.3. EC Project \u201cNEPTUNE\u201d, Contract No.: 036845. www.eu-neptune.org (2010) Mels, A.R., van Nieuwenhuijzen, A.F., van Graaf, J.H.J.M., Klapwijk, B., de Koning, J., Rulkens, W.H.: Sustainability criteria as a tool in the development of new sewage treatment methods. Water Sci. Technol. 39(5), 243\u2013250 (1999) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Rieradevall, J., Torrades, F., Peral, J., Dom\u00e8nech, X.: Environmental assessment of different solar driven advanced oxidation processes. Sol. Energy 79(2005), 369\u2013375 (2005) Mu\u00f1oz, I., Peral, J., Ayll\u00f3n, J.A., Malato, S., Passarinho, P., Dom\u00e8nech, X.: Life cycle assessment of a coupled solar photocatalytic-biological process for wastewater treatment. Water Res", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3157, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 889, "book_page": 885, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Res. 40 (2006), 3533\u20133540 (2006) Roeleveld, P.J., Klapwijk, A., Eggels, P.G., Rulkens, W.H., van Starkenburg, W.: Sustainability of municipal wastewater treatment. Water Sci. Technol. 35(10), 221\u2013228 (1997) Suh, Y.-J., Rousseaux, P.: An LCA of alternative wastewater sludge treatment scenarios. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 35, 191\u2013200 (2002) Svanstr\u00f6m, M., Fr\u00f6ling, M., Modell, M., Peters, W.A., Tester, J.: Environmental assessment of supercritical water oxidation of sewage sludge. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 41, 321\u2013338 (2004) Tangsubkul, N., Beavis, P., Moore, S.J., Lundie, S., Waite, T.D.: Life cycle assessment of water recycling technology. Water Resour. Manag. 19, 521\u2013537 (2005) Tangsubkul, N., Parameshwaran, K., Lundie, S., Fane, A.G., Waite, T.D.: Environmental life cycle assessment of the microfiltration process. J. Membr. Sci. 284, 214\u2013226 (2006) Tillman, A.-M., Svingby, M., Lundstr\u00f6m, H.: Life cycle assessment of municipal waste water systems. Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3158, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 889, "book_page": 885, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Membr. Sci. 284, 214\u2013226 (2006) Tillman, A.-M., Svingby, M., Lundstr\u00f6m, H.: Life cycle assessment of municipal waste water systems. Int. J. LCA 3(3), 145\u2013157 (1998) UNEP: Drawing down N2O to protect climate and the ozone layer. A UNEP Synthesis Report. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya. www.unep.org/pdf/ UNEPN2Oreport.pdf (2013) Vlasopoulos, N.: Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment technolgies. M.Sc. Dissertation. Imperial College, London, UK (2004) Vlasopoulos, N., Memon, F.A., Butler, D., Murphy, R.: Life cycle assessment of wastewater treatment technologies treating petroleum process waters. Sci. Total Environ. 367(2006), 58\u2013 70 (2006) Wenzel, H., Larsen, H.F., Clauson-Kaas, J., H\u00f8ibye, L., Jacobsen, B.N.: Weighing environmental advantages and disadvantages of advanced wastewater treatment of micro-pollutants using environmental life cycle assessment. Water Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3159, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 889, "book_page": 885, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Water Sci. Technol. 57(1), 27\u201332 (2008) Zang, Y., Li, Y., Wang, C., Zhang, W., Xiong, W.: Towards more accurate life cycle assessment of biological wastewater treatment plants: a review. J. Clean. Prod. (2015). doi:10.1016/j. jclepro.2015.05.060 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3160, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 889, "book_page": 885, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Author Biography Henrik Fred Larsen long term experience as both a researcher and a consultant with environmental sustainability assessment and environmental impact assessment (RA of chemicals, cleaner technology assessments). Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCA methodology. Main LCIA interest is ecotoxicity impacts. H.F. Larsen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3161, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "34 LCA of Wastewater Treatment", "pdf_page": 890, "book_page": 886, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems Ioannis Bakas, Alexis Laurent, Julie Clavreul, Anna Bernstad Saraiva, Monia Niero, Emmanuel Gentil and Michael Z. Hauschild Abstract The chapter explores the application of LCA to solid waste management systems through the review of published studies on the subject. The environmental implications of choices involved in the modelling setup of waste management systems are increasingly in the spotlight, due to public health concerns and new legislation addressing the impacts from managing our waste. The application of LCA to solid waste management systems, sometimes called \u201cwaste LCA\u201d, is distinctive in that system boundaries are rigorously defined to exclude all life cycle stages except from the end-of-life. Moreover, specific methodological challenges arise when investigating waste systems, such as the allocation of impacts and the consideration of long-term emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3162, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 891, "book_page": 887, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Moreover, specific methodological challenges arise when investigating waste systems, such as the allocation of impacts and the consideration of long-term emissions. The complexity of waste LCAs is mainly derived from the variability of the object under study (waste) which is made of different materials that may require different treatments. This chapter attempts to address these challenges by identifying common misconceptions and by providing methodological guidance for alleviating the associated uncertainty. Readers are also provided with the list of studies reviewed and key sources for reference to implement LCA on solid waste systems. I. Bakas (&) \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 M. Niero \u0001 M.Z. Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: ioannis.bakas@bobagroup.dk J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3163, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 891, "book_page": 887, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: ioannis.bakas@bobagroup.dk J. Clavreul Residual Resources Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark A.B. Saraiva SAGE/COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil E. Gentil Copenhagen Resource Institute, Copenhagen K, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_35", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3164, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 891, "book_page": 887, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.1 Over the past century, both material use and waste generation have been constantly increasing in quantity and complexity at an unsustainable pace. Globally, waste generation from all sources amounts to around 17 billion tonnes, and is expected to reach 27 billion tonnes by 2050 (Karak et al. 2012). Municipal waste generation has also been increasing and, in Europe, only a few examples exist of decoupling municipal waste generation from economic growth, although recently efforts towards waste prevention are undertaken (EEA 2014). Currently, it is estimated that about 1.3 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste is generated worldwide and trends show that this number will increase in the future due to population increase, urbanisation and socioeconomic development of low-income populations (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012). The organised and systematic collection and central treatment of waste originally begun for reasons pertaining to public health and safety, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3165, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 892, "book_page": 888, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The organised and systematic collection and central treatment of waste originally begun for reasons pertaining to public health and safety, e.g. for combating diseases or reducing odours in public space. Only in recent years has waste been associated with environmental concerns, such as climate change, toxicity to humans and ecosystems or resource depletion. The links between waste management activities and emissions that cause specific environmental impacts have now been proven, e.g.: methane emissions from landfills contribute to climate change, halocarbons in discarded cooling systems or in-use foams contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion, while insufficient or inefficient recycling leads to increased resource depletion. In light of these environmental concerns, pieces of legislation around the world have attempted to regulate waste management activities and to promote more sustainable systems for waste handling (e.g. Directive 2008/98/EC)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3166, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 892, "book_page": 888, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Directive 2008/98/EC). The regulations may address technical issues, such as quality standards for recyclables or management issues, such as the promotion of recycling and the reduction of landfilling. In recent years, the role of waste as a pool for material resources extraction has been acknowledged and waste is now more and more viewed as a valuable resource instead of unwanted materials. Along these lines, new legislation and initiatives attempt to integrate waste management into a new vision of a circular economy, with increased quantity and quality of recycling. In order to conform with legislation, but also to tackle significant environmental considerations, and motivated by issues around the effectiveness and cost of waste treatment, public authorities have started designing integrated management systems that comprehensively address waste generation and that are differentiated according to waste source or waste material (fraction)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3167, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 892, "book_page": 888, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although, there are relatively few options to consider regarding waste treatment (the three main ones being recycling \u2014or biological treatment for organic waste, incineration and landfilling), their combinations for each waste type (defined by source of waste) and waste fraction are numerous. Therefore, the complexity of integrated waste management systems has become significant, highlighting the need to adopt systems approaches.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3168, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 892, "book_page": 888, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is thus necessary to use appropriate tools that address activities related to waste management in a systematic and comprehensive manner. LCA can credibly assess the full environmental consequences of waste management, in particular accounting for the interlinks between the waste sector and other sectors of the economy. For example, the energy produced in an incineration plant or processed scrap metals feed respectively into the energy and metal manufacturing sectors. Life cycle thinking helps map all exchanges with other sectors and estimate environmental impacts accurately. LCA applied to waste management systems is often termed \u201cwaste LCA\u201d as it includes only the End-of-Life phase of a product. Waste LCAs are mostly of a comparative nature (e.g. assessing different treatment options for a material or a waste type) and thus, the previous life cycle stages of a material/product in question can be omitted. This is also called the \u201czero-burden assumption\u201d (Ekval et al. 2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3169, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 893, "book_page": 889, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is also called the \u201czero-burden assumption\u201d (Ekval et al. 2007). In this respect, waste LCAs use different system boundaries assumptions than product LCAs. Another particularity of waste LCAs is that waste treatment in many cases happens locally, close to the waste source. This fact facilitates the collection of site-specific data and thus increases the geographical resolution of the assessment. 35.1.1 Definition and Scope A straightforward and descriptive definition of waste is as follows: \u201cWaste is a left-over, a redundant product or material of no or marginal value for the owner and which the owner wants to discard\u201d (Christensen 2011). In this chapter, only management of solid waste is addressed. Although, several definitions of solid waste exist, it is defined here as waste, which is neither water (wastewater) nor airborne (flue gases) (Christensen 2011). For application of LCA to wastewater management systems, see Chap. 34", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3170, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 893, "book_page": 889, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For application of LCA to wastewater management systems, see Chap. 34. Towards their end-of-life, most goods and commodities eventually become discarded and typically enter solid waste management systems. The waste product thus goes through a number of activities, which can be divided in four main phases: (1) generation, (2) collection and transport, (3) treatment, and (4) recycling, utilisation or landfilling, illustrated in Fig. 35.1 (Christensen 2011). Within the domain of waste management, the primary use of LCA is to inform about the environmentally preferable option when decision-making or policy-making communities evaluate different alternatives of solid waste management in a specific region. For instance when assessing the impact of integrating recycling in an existing municipal waste management system based on landfilling and incineration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3171, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 893, "book_page": 889, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For instance when assessing the impact of integrating recycling in an existing municipal waste management system based on landfilling and incineration. The applications of LCA encompassed in this chapter are therefore service-oriented, focusing on assessments of processes, technologies and systems handling solid waste, and do not consider upstream activities prior to waste generation. The uses of specific types of waste as feedstock for manufacturing products are only discussed when describing the environmental offsets from LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3172, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 893, "book_page": 889, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "material recycling and energy recovery, which can be credited to the assessed waste management systems (see Sect. 8.6.1). 35.1.2 Solid Waste Management Technologies and Practices The technologies and practices involved in a solid waste management system can be arranged into distinct system stages. The collection and transport stages refer to the collection of waste from its source of generation, which may include a large number of fractions (e.g. households) or fewer (e.g. industrial waste) depending on the waste type. Waste is then transported to central facilities for processing and/or treatment. The collection of waste may take place either as mixed waste or by targeting specific fractions that are separated at source (e.g. paper and cardboard destined to recycling). The type of collection system usually depends on the further treatment, e.g. for recycling waste is usually separated at the source in order to increase the homogeneity of the collected material", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3173, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 894, "book_page": 890, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The type of collection system usually depends on the further treatment, e.g. for recycling waste is usually separated at the source in order to increase the homogeneity of the collected material. The treatment stage refers to the processing of waste in order to modify its physical or chemical properties. Physical treatment may involve shredding and compacting of waste in order to reduce its volume. On the other hand, mechanical and biological treatment (MBT) facilities and thermal plants (such as incineration) mainly affect the chemical properties of waste, aiming at reducing its volume and environmental hazardousness. The Recycling-Utilisation-Landfilling stage includes all final treatment options that follow the waste processing stage. The state and composition of waste determines the suitability of each of the alternative final options. Homogenous materials are suitable for recycling or utilisation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3174, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 894, "book_page": 890, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The state and composition of waste determines the suitability of each of the alternative final options. Homogenous materials are suitable for recycling or utilisation (e.g. composting of organic waste), while Genera\u019fon Collec\u019fon & Transport Treatment Recycling \u2013 U\u019flisa\u019fon - Landfilling Mechanical Biological Thermal Recycling Landfilling U\u019fliza\u019fon Secondaryproducts (incl. materials, energy) Fig. 35.1 The four phases of solid waste management systems (based on Christensen 2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3175, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 894, "book_page": 890, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mixed waste usually ends up in landfills. This stage includes a large variety of technologies for recycling waste, composting (central composting or anaerobic digestion) and landfilling (engineered landfills, collection of landfill gas and leachate). The selection of a treatment technology (but also the design of an integrated waste management system in general) has direct implications for the environmental impacts caused. Since 1980s many countries around the world have established a waste hierarchy to prevent or limit the impacts of waste management operations on the natural resources, ecosystems and human health. The hierarchy (see Fig. 35.2) has been included in the EU legislation as a legally binding framework for designing or improving a waste management system (see Directive 2008/98/EC or the EU Waste Framework Directive). The hierarchy is based on a \u201crule of thumb\u201d regarding the environmental ranking of waste treatment options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3176, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 895, "book_page": 891, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The hierarchy is based on a \u201crule of thumb\u201d regarding the environmental ranking of waste treatment options. Deviations from the hierarchy, according to the legislation are accepted if justified by means of appropriate tools such as LCA. Waste prevention is mentioned as the first priority in the waste hierarchy. The assessment of prevention in LCA terms is fundamentally different compared to the other steps of the hierarchy as it involves upstream processes of a waste material, thus extending the system boundaries. 35.1.3 Main Environmental Concerns The recent shift in the perception of waste as a resource is reflected in the waste hierarchy. Re-use and recycling are the highest ranking treatment options. The ambition of the legislators is to integrate waste management in a circular economy structure, where waste activities deliver recovered resources and close loops in material cycles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3177, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 895, "book_page": 891, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The ambition of the legislators is to integrate waste management in a circular economy structure, where waste activities deliver recovered resources and close loops in material cycles. The reduction of the depletion of natural resources, such as fossil fuels, metals, as well as nitrogen and phosphorus is, therefore, a priority for waste management operations. The main environmental concerns related to waste management, besides resource efficiency, are: Fig. 35.2 Waste hierarchy indicating a scale of environmental preference for the five main treatment alternatives (EU-JRC 2011) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3178, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 895, "book_page": 891, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Climate change and the related energy security issue. Greenhouse gases are emitted from various processes in waste management such as transport or landfilling. A major opportunity for climate change mitigation lies in the avoided emissions through waste materials recycling in a system expansion approach (see Sect. 8.6.1). Climate benefits also arise through waste incineration, where electricity and/or heat is produced locally, substituting other (usually fossil) sources of energy. \u2022 Toxic emissions (to ecosystems and to humans) related to (1) processing waste (e.g. incineration) and (2) the eventual disposal of waste (e.g. in landfills). Toxic emissions also have a temporal aspect, since they may be released at a very slow rate (e.g. from landfills) and create problems at a much later time than when the waste deposition takes place", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3179, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 896, "book_page": 892, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Toxic emissions also have a temporal aspect, since they may be released at a very slow rate (e.g. from landfills) and create problems at a much later time than when the waste deposition takes place. Different impacts are related to different waste technologies: \u2022 Landfilling: leachate created by water infiltrating the waste mass and not collected may pollute the surrounding soil and groundwater with organic and inorganic (metals) pollutants. Landfill gas created by the anaerobic degradation of organic matter contains methane, a strong greenhouse gas. \u2022 Incineration: airborne emissions can affect local ecosystems. CO2 is emitted from the incineration of carbon (e.g. fossil carbon in waste plastics). Bottom ash contains significant concentrations of toxic heavy metals that can potentially leach after its deposition. Benefits from incineration depend strongly on the local energy mix, substituted by the energy delivered by incineration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3180, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 896, "book_page": 892, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Benefits from incineration depend strongly on the local energy mix, substituted by the energy delivered by incineration. \u2022 Recycling: recycling operations are linked mainly to energy use for processing the waste and chemicals used for recovery operations (e.g. de-inking of paper). The complexity and variety of environmental issues arising from waste management calls for a comprehensive approach such as LCA that addresses all potential environmental impacts (e.g. JRC 2011). 35.2 LCA Applied to Solid Waste Management Systems (SWMS) LCA is increasingly used to assess solid waste management systems. Two comprehensive review articles were published in 2014 on how LCA is applied on waste systems and which issues require special attention due to particularities in the field of waste LCA: 1. Laurent A, Bakas I, Clavreul J, Bernstad A, Niero M, Gentil E, Hauschild MZ, Christensen TH (2014) Review of LCA studies of solid waste management systems\u2014Part I: Lessons learned and perspectives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3181, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 896, "book_page": 892, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Laurent A, Bakas I, Clavreul J, Bernstad A, Niero M, Gentil E, Hauschild MZ, Christensen TH (2014) Review of LCA studies of solid waste management systems\u2014Part I: Lessons learned and perspectives. Waste Management 34 (2014) 573\u2013588", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3182, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 896, "book_page": 892, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. Laurent A, Clavreul J, Bernstad A, Bakas I, Niero M, Gentil E, Christensen TH, Hauschild MZ (2014) Review of LCA studies of solid waste management systems\u2014Part II: Methodological guidance for a better practice. Waste Management 34 (2014) 589\u2013606 The review and its results provide a useful background for describing the operational aspects of LCA applied to solid waste management systems. The authors analysed a wide range of peer-reviewed scientific articles and reports for their methodological approach to the LCA and contrasted it with the guidelines of the ILCD Handbook (JRC 2011). Key findings of the review are presented in this section, but the reader is referred to the original papers for a more in-depth analysis. 35.2.1 Review Process and Focus Areas The selection of the studies was performed by choosing studies in English, peer-reviewed and referring to solid waste, excluding sewage sludge", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3183, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 897, "book_page": 893, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.2.1 Review Process and Focus Areas The selection of the studies was performed by choosing studies in English, peer-reviewed and referring to solid waste, excluding sewage sludge. The results of the review were summarised into a table, a version of which is presented in Table 35.3. The original version of the table included all elements of the review, namely: 1. References/sources 2. Type of LCA studies (public report, scientific article...) 3. Standard compliance (e.g. None, ISO, ILCD, ...) 4. Goals (intended use/users of study) 5. Context situation (situation A, B, C1, C2) 6. Object(s) of study considered/compared 7. Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) (goal/scope) 8. Defined functional unit 9. System boundaries: Included/Excluded processes; included phases within the MSW based on intro definition (e.g. collection, incineration...). 10. Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) 11. Geographical coverage 12. Time scope (for validity of LCA results) 13", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3184, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 897, "book_page": 893, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "collection, incineration...). 10. Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) 11. Geographical coverage 12. Time scope (for validity of LCA results) 13. Date(s) of the collected primary (specific) data and secondary data (database) (to identify data representativeness in time, e.g. old/up-to-date) 14. Handling of multifunctional processes: approaches (e.g. allocation or syst. expansion) and type of data used to solve them (e.g. marginal/average data) 15. LCA software/Databases used for secondary data 16. LCIA method used 17. Use of normalisation and/or weighting (incl. method description for weighting if any) 18. Use of sensitivity analysis: what key parameters were identified and changed? LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3185, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 897, "book_page": 893, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "19. Main findings (e.g. significant impacts, comparative performances of 2 alternatives) ) also in relation to goals is possible 20. Identified method shortcomings (incl. \u201csolutions\u201d or \u201cactions taken\u201d for each identified problem) 21. Identified modelling shortcomings (incl. \u201csolutions\u201d or \u201cactions taken\u201d for each identified problem) 22. Identified data uncertainties (e.g. which data are difficult to collect...) (incl. \u201csolutions\u201d or \u201cactions taken\u201d for each identified problem) Table 35.3 in \u201cAppendix\u201d only includes some descriptive elements of the review, in order to inform about the external characteristics and variations of the reviewed studies. The more elaborate LCA elements of the review are included in Sects. 35.2.2\u201335.2.6 and 35.3. In these subsequent sections, the most important review findings are listed and methodological considerations are analysed in order to outline how a credible LCA should be applied on solid waste systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3186, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 898, "book_page": 894, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The majority of the studies reviewed (around 94%) were scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals. Most of the studies claimed compliance with the ISO standards, namely that the methodology proposed by ISO was followed by the studies. In fact, many studies did not actually comply with the ISO provisions, despite their claim to do so. The review revealed that only about one out of five studies actually complied with the ISO standards. This is because of a number of elements (or combinations of elements) missing that are essential in the ISO standards provisions. In the following sections, these omissions that lead to deviations from the standards are described more in detail. 35.2.2 Goal According to the ISO standards, the goal definition refers to the intended uses of the LCA case study and its potential users (ISO 2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3187, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 898, "book_page": 894, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.2.2 Goal According to the ISO standards, the goal definition refers to the intended uses of the LCA case study and its potential users (ISO 2006). Moreover, the ILCD Handbook, launched by EU\u2019s Joint Research Centre, specifies the definition even further into six aspects, namely the intended applications, limitations in using the results, drivers for performing the study, target audience, disclosure to the public and the commissioner of the study (EC 2010a, b) (see also Chap. 7). Since the majority of the studies reviewed come from scientific journals, they are rarely commissioned directly by an entity intending to use the results for decision support (some articles are based on larger reports that might be more complete and support decisions). This means that the goal definition is often out of focus for the study authors, which do not refer to potential users as the ISO standards require", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3188, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 898, "book_page": 894, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means that the goal definition is often out of focus for the study authors, which do not refer to potential users as the ISO standards require. Many of the studies only describe the intended use of the study, while many others do not have a specific purpose except for analysing methodological aspects of waste LCAs or tackling specific issues. Omitting the adequate description of the goal has a profound effect on the interpretation of the studies by the readers. The absence of context when considering the results might lead to overlooking the weaknesses of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3189, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 898, "book_page": 894, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the study (such as the inclusion of only a small part of impact categories) or unjustified generalisations (e.g. generalising the environmental superiority of a treatment option over another when the results of the study refer to specific local conditions). These identified shortcomings might also apply to LCA studies from other technology fields published as scientific articles. Another consolidated reference to the intended use of the study and the size of the consequences of the study\u2019s results is the decision context situation. The ILCD Handbook describes four cases of decision contexts: A (micro-level decision support), B (meso/macro-level decision support), C1 and C2 (accounting with no decision support) (see also Sect. 7.4). Most of the reviewed studies belong to situation B, followed by A. This was expected as normally the investigation of waste management systems happens on a larger scale (national, regional or municipal geographical units)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3190, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 899, "book_page": 895, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This was expected as normally the investigation of waste management systems happens on a larger scale (national, regional or municipal geographical units). Situation A refers to studies mainly assessing specific technologies or comparing them to others. However, although the classification of the study into a decision context situation helps put the results in perspective, none of the reviewed studies explicitly referred to a context situation. 35.2.3 Scope Definition The object of the reviewed studies varies greatly among the studies. Different waste systems or parts of systems were assessed, while referring to various types of waste. Figure 35.3 shows the amount of studies investigating each distinct aspect of a solid waste management system. The traditional treatment options, as well as collection and transport feature as the most popular topics for investigation, while emerging technologies such as thermal and some forms of biological treatment are starting to gather attention", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3191, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 899, "book_page": 895, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Due to the difficulty in framing LCAs on waste prevention in appropriate system boundaries or the lack of focus on prevention by decision-makers, only two studies were found that deal with this topic. The functional unit in waste LCAs is expressed mainly according to four types: (1) unitary, (2) generation-based, (3) input-based and (4) output-based (see Box 35.1. with examples). Box 35.1. Examples of Functional Units Used in the Reviewed Studies 1. Unitary: \u201cmanagement of 1 tonne of municipal solid waste\u201d 2. Generation-based: \u201cManagement of the waste generated in Copenhagen municipality\u201d 3. Input-based: \u201c100 tonnes of waste entering a waste incineration plant\u201d 4. Output-based: \u201cProduction of 500 kWh from a dedicated incineration plant for industrial waste\u201d LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3192, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 899, "book_page": 895, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although, the definition of a functional unit is relatively straightforward, in many cases LCA practitioners neglect to specify an adequate functional unit, as shown in Fig. 35.4. It also seems that a unitary functional unit is by far preferred in the reviewed studies reflecting a more theoretical or methodological goal for the LCA or potentially a confusion of the functional unit with the reference flow of the system. The functional unit refers to a quantified description of the primary function of the system under study, while the reference flow refers to the physical flow required for the system to fulfil its function (see also Sect. 8.4). The use of a reference flow in the cases, where the functional unit is defined as unitary neglects the appropriate description of the functional unit in several aspects, such as the composition of the waste that is treated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3193, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 900, "book_page": 896, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "As already mentioned, the system boundaries in waste LCAs are set in order to include only the end-of-life stage of the products\u2019 life cycles. This is justified as waste LCAs are normally of comparative nature and it is therefore assumed that for the waste in question in each case, the previous life cycle stages are identical for the systems compared and therefore can be omitted. Similar to all types of LCAs, a central issue in defining system boundaries is the inclusion of capital goods, i.e. the construction and use of infrastructure, plant facilities and equipment used in the assessed system. 62% of the studies reviewed did not mention the capital goods at all, 12% included them and 26% of the studies excluded them with justification. Collection and transport processes are also occasionally excluded from the system boundaries, due to their minor contribution to the overall impact categories\u2019 Fig. 35.3 Waste management technologies assessed in the studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3194, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 900, "book_page": 896, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.3 Waste management technologies assessed in the studies. Many studies investigate more than one aspect of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3195, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 900, "book_page": 896, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "results. 16% of studies chose to exclude such processes due to reasons such as their lack of relevance or identical contribution to all scenarios assessed. Another set of processes that is often excluded from the system boundaries refers to secondary products (i.e. valuable outputs such as digestate from anaerobic digestion) and secondary waste stemming from waste treatment processes (e.g. air pollution control ashes from incineration). Secondary products and secondary waste are only included in 44 and 53% of the reviewed studies respectively. Regardless of the impact of including/excluding such processes from the system boundaries, it is always recommended to address the issue transparently and in a case-by-case manner, as different systems with varying characteristics may justify opposite decisions regarding the definition of system boundaries. The literature review also analysed LCA practitioners\u2019 preferences with respect to included impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3196, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 901, "book_page": 897, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The literature review also analysed LCA practitioners\u2019 preferences with respect to included impact categories. Figure 35.5 demonstrates their preference for already established, traditional impact categories. Almost all reviewed studies included, at least partially, non-toxic impact categories, while toxicity was considered by more than half of the studies. Resource impact categories such as land and water use were underrepresented, but as research in these fields advances, it is likely that they will become more central in future waste LCA evaluations. However, it should be underlined that incomplete assessments, as in the majority of the reviewed studies, may reduce credibility of the results: maybe the burden is shifted to one of the impact categories that is not assessed. In order to better understand the characteristics of the reviewed studies, their distribution over space and time offers valuable insights", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3197, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 901, "book_page": 897, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In order to better understand the characteristics of the reviewed studies, their distribution over space and time offers valuable insights. Figure 35.6 shows the geographical distribution of the studies with European countries and the US dominating the map. China, Australia and Japan follow in number of studies assessing waste produced in these countries. It is evident from the map that Africa and large parts of Asia are underrepresented in the waste LCA applications. The time evolution of the studies as well as their distribution among the main scientific journals are shown in Fig. 35.7. As expected, the number of LCAs performed increases with time, alongside with the popularity of the tool and its Unitary Generation-based Output-based Input-based Others Unspecified Proportion of studies 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Fig. 35.4 Proportions of studies for each class of functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3198, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 901, "book_page": 897, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.4 Proportions of studies for each class of functional unit. A number of studies are classified into more than one category, including studies, for which the functional unit was only implicitly mentioned LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3199, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 901, "book_page": 897, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "establishment as a mainstream evaluation method for waste management systems. The figure also shows the adoption of important European legislation to illustrate the influence of legislative measures on the intensity of the research on waste management\u2019s environmental impacts. Non-toxic impacts Toxic impacts Non-renewable resources Land use Water use Proportions of studies 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Complete assessment All non-toxic but ozone depletion Partial assessment Not included Fig. 35.5 Proportions of impacts covered in the assessments. Non-toxic impacts include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, acidification, photochemical ozone formation, eutrophication. Toxic impacts include aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity, human toxicity and impacts from particulate matters Fig. 35.6 Geographical distribution of case studies based on locations of waste management systems under study. Generic cases and European cases as well as technical reports were excluded from the figure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3200, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 902, "book_page": 898, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.2.4 Inventory Modelling The inventory part of waste LCAs is given particular attention by practitioners due to its role in increasing the results\u2019 credibility. The accurate representation of the studied system with appropriate data is decided in the inventory preparations. In the reviewed studies of LCA applied to solid waste management systems, the authors tried in general to use site-specific information and when not possible, search for data in literature and databases. Around 70% of the reviewed studies included at least partly primary data, as Fig. 35.8 shows, but in most of the studies, practitioners had to supplement their inventory analysis with literature information and/or generic data. Although, as mentioned before, waste LCAs typically refer to a specific geographical region, the quest for primary data is rarely fruitful", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3201, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 903, "book_page": 899, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although, as mentioned before, waste LCAs typically refer to a specific geographical region, the quest for primary data is rarely fruitful. The reason is that data collection for LCIs is a difficult and time consuming process, leading many researchers to use generic data from widespread LCA databases, such as ecoinvent. These databases aim mainly at modelling the background system, but in the absence of relevant information they are often used as data sources for the foreground system as well. This solution also has the drawback that time representativeness is not followed. Databases are updated irregularly and usually after many years. Therefore, the use of generic database information in general reduces the relevance and representativeness of the study. The use of LCA databases and the compilation of the inventory data are facilitated by the inclusion of LCA databases in LCA software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3202, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 903, "book_page": 899, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use of LCA databases and the compilation of the inventory data are facilitated by the inclusion of LCA databases in LCA software. Both generic and waste-customised LCA tools are used, the latter ones enabling the specific modelling of different waste fractions through processes that can be parameterised (see EU Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste ISO 14044:2006 EU Waste Framework Directive 2012 * Case study articles in waste sector Int. J. Life Cycle Assessment Waste Management Resources Conservation and Recycling Waste Mangement and Research J. Cleaner Production Other journals Fig. 35.7 Distribution of publications describing LCAs of solid WMS across peer-reviewed journals. For multiple articles describing the same case study, only the main article supporting the case was accounted for. Literature search was stopped mid-2012, hence 2012 is an incomplete year (indicated by asterisk) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3203, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 903, "book_page": 899, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "e.g. Clavreul et al 2014 for an example of such tools). The most popular LCA software among the reviewed studies was the generic LCA tool SimaPro (Fig. 35.9). One important aspect in waste LCAs is the long-term emissions associated with waste landfilling. The issue around handling long-term emissions has been a subject of strong debate within the LCA community (Hischier et al. 2010). LCA in principle integrates emissions regardless of when they occur. This principle works well when considering relatively short time spans. But the time integration of emissions occurring in low concentrations over very long time spans (such as metal emissions leaching from landfills) leads to an estimation of very high and unrealistic impacts in toxic impact categories which are linked to toxic metal emissions when landfilling waste (Bakas et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3204, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 904, "book_page": 900, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). A suggestion has been to cut off all long-term emissions beyond the arbitrary threshold of 100 years from the waste deposition Primary data Databases Litterature data Proportion of studies 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Used Adequately used Inadequately used Not relevant Unspecified Fig. 35.8 Types of data sources used in studies. Primary data refers to site-specific data from, e.g. field investigations. Databases mainly refer to LCA software-embedded databases. Adequacy of literature data was based on a rough consistency check with the temporal and geographical scopes of the study SimaPro EASEWASTE GaBi ORWARE IWM DST WISARD Others None Unspecified Proportions of studies 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% Fig. 35.9 LCA software used in studies. The category \u201cOthers\u201d includes TEAM, UMBERTO, GEMIS, WRATE, LCAiT, JEMAI-LCA, EIME, WAMPS software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3205, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 904, "book_page": 900, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and either discard them (Hischier et al. 2010) or treat them in a separate impact category (Hauschild et al. 2008). These suggestions along with other proposals, all have inherent problems that do not allow them to become operational and widely accepted in the LCA community (Bakas et al. 2015). The lack of consensus and the absence of an adequate method to account for long-term emissions in LCA has led many practitioners in the reviewed studies to omit or assign less credibility to toxicity-related impact categories. Within the LCI phase, reference needs to be made to the handling of multifunctional processes (see Sects. 8.5 and 9.2.2). This choice is particularly relevant as waste operations often lead to the production of secondary products such as secondary materials (recycling) and energy (incineration, landfill gas extraction). According to the ISO standards, system expansion is the preferable option for dealing with such processes and, as Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3206, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 905, "book_page": 901, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "According to the ISO standards, system expansion is the preferable option for dealing with such processes and, as Fig. 35.10 shows, practitioners follow this recommendation to a great extent (around 75%), with a few cases of studies reported to resort to allocation. The allocation key varied among the studies with mass, heat value, waste volume, exergy and economic value all used by practitioners. On the other hand, the choice between marginal and average data for crediting a waste system delivering secondary products is more evenly divided. In many cases, also, the choice is not sufficiently justified, which could be attributed to the difficulties of practitioners in identifying the proper approach and the lack of adequate framing of the goal and scope of their study. The choice between marginal and average data depends on the goal of the study and the context situation it belongs to (see Chap. 7)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3207, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 905, "book_page": 901, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The choice between marginal and average data depends on the goal of the study and the context situation it belongs to (see Chap. 7). System expansion is often very crucial for estimating the final results, as it strongly influences the benefits of one waste treatment option over another. Thus, the lack of transparency in how this is performed may substantially reduce the Proportions of studies 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% System expansion (crediting) System expansion & allocation Allocation Not relevant Unspecified Energy crediting - Data type 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Average data Unspecified/Not relevant Marginal data Marginal & Average Material crediting - Data type 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Unspecified/Not relevant Specified Fig. 35.10 Handling of multifunctional processes. Energy includes both heat and electricity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3208, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 905, "book_page": 901, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.10 Handling of multifunctional processes. Energy includes both heat and electricity. The differentiation between marginal and average data for material crediting is largely omitted in the studies, and is hence not reported in the figure LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3209, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 905, "book_page": 901, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "credibility of the final results and conclusions. A systematic framework for consistent modelling of recycling, co-production and energy recovery has recently been developed by Schrijvers et al. (2016), describing the relation between the LCA goals and the attributional/consequential approach. Most of the reviewed studies assume a 1:1 substitution ratio between primary and secondary material production and/or quality similar to the substituted product. However, an overestimated substitution ratio or grade of the recovered materials can significantly impact the benefits gained from recycling and alternative methods based on the average market consumption mixes of primary and secondary materials have been proposed for calculating the environmental credits of end-of-life material recovery in attributional LCA (Gala et al. 2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3210, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 906, "book_page": 902, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015). One of the main challenges for LCA in the circular economy is to address the continuous loop of materials and account for the benefits from recycling in a consistent way (Niero et al. 2016). 35.2.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment The constant updating of existing and development of new impact assessment methods (see also Chaps. 10 and 40) makes it difficult to accurately map the popularity of specific LCIA methods among LCA practitioners in solid waste management. Figure 35.11 attempts to map the use of LCIA methods among the researchers and practitioners of the reviewed studies. CML is strongly preferred, followed by EDIP and Ecoindicator 99. Interestingly, around 20% of the studies failed to report on the LCIA method choice. This mapping reveals information on the selection criteria applied by practitioners, and also the perception of credibility of LCIA methods by LCA practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3211, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 906, "book_page": 902, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This mapping reveals information on the selection criteria applied by practitioners, and also the perception of credibility of LCIA methods by LCA practice. Additionally, the time of conducting the study is important as newly developed methods (such as ReCiPe; Goedkoop et al. 2009) are absent from Fig. 35.11 showing historical data, although they might be more widely used today. This information also needs to be put to perspective regarding the impact coverage CML EDIP EI99/EI95 IMPACT EPS TRACI CED Others / None Unspecified Proportions of studies (%) 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% Fig. 35.11 LCIA methods used. Some studies used more than one LCIA method; all have been included here. Category \u201cOthers\u201d includes the use of specific models, which are not considered as whole LCIA methods, e.g. IPCC (2007)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3212, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 906, "book_page": 902, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "analysed in the previous chapter. The selection of a complete LCIA method does not guarantee its proper implementation as many cases demonstrate that some of the impact categories in the methods were omitted. This implies in most cases a reduced credibility of the LCA results (unless the omission is well justified and in line with the goal and scope of the study), despite the use of a well-established LCIA method. Within the LCIA phase, normalisation and weighting steps are an option when appropriate. Performing these steps or not, is strongly associated with the choice of LCIA method and the normalisation and weighting frameworks these recommend. Most of the reviewed studies are concluded at the characterisation step, while 46% perform normalisation and 26% weighting. The majority of these cases perform weighting because of the choice of the Ecoindicator 99 LCIA method which is a damage-oriented method, offering its own weighting scheme (Goedkoop and Spriensma 2001)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3213, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 907, "book_page": 903, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With respect to weighting, a particular case arises when examining the impacts of long-term emissions from landfills. As mentioned before, this case poses particular challenges in an LCA framework when trying to characterise this type of emissions. Another aspect of this case is related to weighting, as some impacts from landfilling might occur in many millennia from waste deposition and might be weighted differently by some stakeholders. So far, there is no widespread weighting method for addressing time-differentiated impacts. Thus, this point was not addressed adequately by any of the reviewed studies. In general, there are some specific methodological considerations during the execution of an LCIA on solid waste management systems that should be given particular attention when performing a waste LCA. The first consideration refers to the handling of the biogenic carbon contained in waste material and its contribution to global warming potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3214, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 907, "book_page": 903, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The first consideration refers to the handling of the biogenic carbon contained in waste material and its contribution to global warming potential. Biogenic carbon can be considered either neutral or as contributing to climate change, depending on the approach, but this choice needs to be consistent throughout the study. Criteria for assigning global warming emission factors to biogenic carbon have been developed in the literature (Christensen et al. 2009). Another particular consideration refers to the already mentioned issue of long-term emissions. The LCA community has not reached a consensus in the proposed impact assessment method (Bakas et al. 2015) and this causes significant confusion among practitioners. A new approach has recently been published that applies time differentiation on long-term emissions, estimating toxicity separately for distinct future time periods (Bakas et al. 2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3215, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 907, "book_page": 903, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A new approach has recently been published that applies time differentiation on long-term emissions, estimating toxicity separately for distinct future time periods (Bakas et al. 2017). 35.2.6 Interpretation of Results/Conclusions The interpretation phase of an LCA should present the results of the study in the context of the defined goal and scope, according to the ILCD Handbook (see also Chap. 12). Therefore, practitioners of waste LCAs should reflect on the goal and LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3216, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 907, "book_page": 903, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "scope of the study and put their results in this perspective. The majority of the reviewed studies did not include an adequate interpretation section: instead the results were often presented out of context and only a fragmented commenting was included. Many of the LCAs performed on solid waste management systems are comparative assertions on treatment technologies for a specific waste stream or material. The review of the LCA cases revealed some trends regarding the environmental superiority of some treatment options compared to other. Based on studies selected because of their higher quality, some generic statements of the superiority of different treatment options are presented in Fig. 35.12. A central part of the interpretation is the sensitivity analysis, often accompanied by uncertainty analysis (see Chaps. 11 and 12). Sensitivity analysis is used for evaluating the dependence of the LCA results on input data, modelling choices and hypothesis made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3217, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 908, "book_page": 904, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11 and 12). Sensitivity analysis is used for evaluating the dependence of the LCA results on input data, modelling choices and hypothesis made. Although, there are many methods for performing sensitivity analysis, in LCAs applied to solid waste systems, a scenario analysis is often used. Scenario analyses are based on constructing an alternative scenario to the main one, which includes a different assumption or data input. In the reviewed studies, many Fig. 35.12 Comparative analysis of key findings for selected waste treatment technologies applied to paper, plastic, organic and mixed waste fractions (total of 34 studies). The nodes \u201cR\u201d stand for recycling, \u201cL\u201d for landfilling, \u201cT\u201d for thermal treatment, \u201cC\u201d for composting, \u201cAD\u201d for anaerobic digestion. For each pair comparison, three circled numbers are indicated, representing the number of studies concluding on the better environmental performance (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3218, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 908, "book_page": 904, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For each pair comparison, three circled numbers are indicated, representing the number of studies concluding on the better environmental performance (i.e. lower overall environmental impact) of one waste treatment technology over another (numbers closer to each of the two nodes), or reaching either inconclusive results or results with similar environmental burden (numbers in the middle). The size of the circles is proportional to the number of studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3219, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 908, "book_page": 904, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "different aspects of a waste system were processed in sensitivity analyses, as Fig. 35.13 shows. Preferred elements to include in sensitivity analyses are collection and transport. 35.3 Central Issues to Consider When Performing or Using Data from LCA Studies on Waste Management Systems The analysis above provides the necessary background for identifying methodological issues of particular importance when conducting an LCA of waste management options. These issues are identified due to their importance in ensuring credibility of the LCA results and also the frequency by which researchers fail to address them properly. As a general recommendation, in Table 35.1 the main methodological issues are presented along with proposed solutions and recommendations. The specific methodological challenges for waste LCAs comprise aspects like the differentiation in system boundaries, the zero-burden convention and specific capital goods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3220, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 909, "book_page": 905, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The specific methodological challenges for waste LCAs comprise aspects like the differentiation in system boundaries, the zero-burden convention and specific capital goods. The particularities of waste LCAs also include the product system itself, which typically consists of more local installations and smaller geographical dispersion. Specific modelling issues also arise in waste LCAs: the inclusion of biogenic carbon in the modelling, which arises in many waste streams; also, the inclusion of long-term emissions when landfilling waste, which modifies the perception of temporal boundaries one needs to consider in the LCA. Collection and transport Energy system Substitution of materials Technology modelling Waste composition Landfill / leaching Energy recovery Emission modelling assumptions Source separation Choice of LCIA method Weighting Others Number of studies Fig. 35.13 Issues covered in sensitivity analysis (total of 101 studies)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3221, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 909, "book_page": 905, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.13 Issues covered in sensitivity analysis (total of 101 studies). The category \u201cOthers\u201d (25 studies) includes carbon accounting methods (6), inclusion of secondary materials (4), allocation rules (4), accounting of waste containers (3), time horizon in impact assessment (3), testing of other treatments (2), choice of databases (2) and normalisation (1) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3222, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 909, "book_page": 905, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.1 Key methodological issues and proposed solutions for application of LCA on solid waste management systems Methodological and consistency issues Proposed solutions/recommendations Goal Absence of intended use, target audience and limitations of use Follow ISO recommendations Consistency among goal elements Check consistency among goal elements iteratively Scope Elements of functional unit definition missing Define the functional unit comprehensively. Functional unit not to be confused with reference flow Lack of transparency in choices around the LCI Ensure transparency and assess the choices in terms of uncertainty Fragmented description of system boundaries, especially in relation to capital goods and waste transportation Document assumptions pertaining the definition of system boundaries Impact coverage lacking comprehensiveness and representativeness Follow the selected LCIA method\u2019s recommendation for a comprehensive set of impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3223, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 910, "book_page": 906, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If an impact category is excluded, justification should be provided Insufficient justification of modelling choices (e.g. allocation) and assumptions (e.g. data types used) Key choices and assumptions, vital for the LCA results, should be transparently documented Consistency with the defined goal Define scope elements within the context of the goal. Revise goal if necessary to ensure consistency LCI (incl", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3224, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 910, "book_page": 906, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Revise goal if necessary to ensure consistency LCI (incl. modelling) Lack of geographical and temporal data representativeness Further data and information need to be collected to ensure a sufficient data representativeness Lack of data representing areas other than Europe and North America More efforts for data collection from other parts of the world than Europe and North America Lack of documentation of data collection processes Explain thoroughly how and why data sources are used (literature, databases, etc.) Distinction between fore- and background data sources missing and sources misused Describe and assess the consequences of using background data for the foreground system if necessary Lack of data on long-term emissions Consensus on how to deal with long-term emissions needed Use of non waste-specific LCA software The use of waste-specific LCA software facilitates the more accurate waste system\u2019s modelling (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3225, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 910, "book_page": 906, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35.4 Sources/Links to Access Information on LCA Applied to Solid Waste Management Systems Table 35.2 presents a non-exhaustive list of sources for obtaining data, software tools and methodological guidance on LCA applied on solid waste management systems. 35.5 Concluding Remarks This chapter attempts to provide guidance and recommendations in specific issues that differentiate waste LCAs from normal product LCAs. Due to these particularities, waste LCA has developed into its own sub-field encompassing its own sub-definitions of LCA elements, dedicated databases and software. Legislators, through for example the official endorsement of the waste hierarchy in Europe, have acknowledged the importance of LCA in operating as a reliable tool for providing credible information to decision-makers. Waste generation is increasing globally, while new emerging waste streams appear for the first time (e.g. nanomaterials or composite plastics)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3226, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 911, "book_page": 907, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste generation is increasing globally, while new emerging waste streams appear for the first time (e.g. nanomaterials or composite plastics). The assessment of the environmental Table 35.1 (continued) Methodological and consistency issues Proposed solutions/recommendations LCIA Missing impact categories (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3227, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 911, "book_page": 907, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "occupational) The exclusion of the results in specific impact categories should be avoided or, if unavoidable, documented Modelling of impacts from long-term emissions missing Assess the consequences of omitting the effects of long-term emissions Normalisation and weighting Describe and justify where modelling stops (characterisation, normalisation, weighting) Interpretation Interpretation step often missing altogether Interpretation of results is vital to putting results in context and should always be addressed Superficial analysis of impact potentials Refer to contribution analyses at substance and process level, identify hotspots and recommend improvement potential Frequent absence of sensitivity analysis and sensitivity checks Conduct sensitivity checks on most relevant processes and use the results in interpretation Negative impacts obtained from the disposal stage can mislead interpretations of LCA studies Relate results to goal and system boundaries selection LCA of Solid", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3228, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 911, "book_page": 907, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and use the results in interpretation Negative impacts obtained from the disposal stage can mislead interpretations of LCA studies Relate results to goal and system boundaries selection LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3229, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 911, "book_page": 907, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "implications of the management of new waste streams or of emerging treatment technologies, will remain an important topic in the future. The new challenges bring also new methodological challenges to waste LCA practitioners with respect to environmentally sound treatment of new waste materials or new technologies. On the other hand, old debates still remain unresolved, such as the proper allocation procedure and the handling of long-term emissions. In any case, practitioners are encouraged to address all methodological challenges, present in waste LCAs, by following best practice examples and applying transparency. Appendix: Reviewed Studies See Table 35.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3230, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 912, "book_page": 908, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Appendix: Reviewed Studies See Table 35.3. Table 35.2 Key sources for information and tools addressing LCA applied on solid waste management systems Sources Short description Used for EU-JRC (2011) Guidance document on application of LCA on SWMS Guidance in conducting waste LCAs Cleary (2009) Review of methodological issues from applying LCA on SWMS Better understanding of methodological challenges in LCA and waste management Christensen (2011) Description of technologies used in SWMS Obtain knowledge on SWMS http://www. wrate.co.uk/ Presentation of a waste LCA dedicated software Modelling SWMS in an LCA context https:// www.epa. gov/warm Presentation of the US EPA waste software, including a life cycle approach to greenhouse gas emission estimation Modelling SWMS, combined with LCA elements Gentil et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3231, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 912, "book_page": 908, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "gov/warm Presentation of the US EPA waste software, including a life cycle approach to greenhouse gas emission estimation Modelling SWMS, combined with LCA elements Gentil et al. (2010) Review of nine software tools applying LCA on SMWS Collecting information on dedicated waste LCA software Doka (2009) Information on the ecoinvent inventories for SWMS Waste LCA inventories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3232, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 912, "book_page": 908, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 Essential elements of reviewed studies of LCA applied on solid waste management systems References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Abduli et al. (2011) L, C MSW GW, ODP, ET, O IR Eco-indicator Abeliotis et al. (2012) L MSW RD, GW, AC, EU, HT, PO GR CML 2 Al Maaded et al. (2012) L, R Mixed plastic waste GW, AP, ADP, HTP QA NS Al-Salem et al. (2009) L, I, B MSW GW, AP, EU KW NS Andersen et al. (2012) C, I, L Organic household waste GW, PO, EU, AC, AET, TET, HT, O DK EDIP 1997 Arena et al. (2003) I, L Residual waste GW, AC, EN, LW, WA IT NA Arena et al. (2003) L, I, R PE/PET containers GW, RD, LW, O IT NA Assamoi et al. (2012) L, I Residual waste GW, AC, EU, O CA NA Assefa et al. (2005a) I, B, T Biodegradable waste GW, EN SE NS Assefa et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3233, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 913, "book_page": 909, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2003) L, I, R PE/PET containers GW, RD, LW, O IT NA Assamoi et al. (2012) L, I Residual waste GW, AC, EU, O CA NA Assefa et al. (2005a) I, B, T Biodegradable waste GW, EN SE NS Assefa et al. (2005b) T, I, L Industrial waste GW, AC, EU, EN, EI, PO SE NS Aye and Widjaya (2006) Int Market waste GW, AC, EU, PO ID NS Banar et al. (2009) Int MSW RD, GW, AC, EU, HT, PO, EI TR CML 2000 Beccali et al. (2001) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, HT, TET, AET, EN, LW IT NA Beigl and Salhofer (2004) Int MSW GW, AC, EN AT NA Bergsdal et al. (2005) I Municipal, commercial and special waste GW, AC, EU, PO, TET, AET, EI, O NO CML 2 Bernstad et al. (2011) I, C, B OFMSW GW, AP, EP, ODP, POP SE EDIP 1997 Bernstad et al. (2011) R MSW GW, AP, EP, ODP, POP SE EDIP 1997 Bernstad et al. (2012) COl Food waste GW, AC, EU, EN SE EDIP2003 (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3234, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 913, "book_page": 909, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Bientinesi and Petarca (2009) Int WEEE HT, GW, OD, ET, AC, O NA Ecoindicator 99, Impact 2002+ Bigum et al. (2012) R high-grade WEEE GW, AC, NE, POF, HT, ET NR EDIP 1997 Birgisdottir et al. (2007) L, R MSWI bottom ash GW, PO, EU, EC, HT, AET, TET, RD, O DK EDIP 1997 Bjorklund and Finnveden (2007) Int All waste EN, GW, OD, PO, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT SE CML 2000 Bj\u00f6rklund et al. (1999) Int Non-hazardous MSW, park and yard waste, sewage sludge and industrial biodegradable wastes GW, AC, EU, PO, O SE NA Blenghini et al. (2012) Int MSW GW, EN, RD IT IPCC Blenghini et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3235, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 914, "book_page": 910, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1999) Int Non-hazardous MSW, park and yard waste, sewage sludge and industrial biodegradable wastes GW, AC, EU, PO, O SE NA Blenghini et al. (2012) Int MSW GW, EN, RD IT IPCC Blenghini et al. (2012) Int Residual waste GW, EN, RD IT IPCC Blengini and Garbarino (2010) R C&DW HT, IR, OD, PO, AET, TET, AC, EU, GW, EN, LU, O IT IMPACT 2002+, Ecoindicator Blengini et al. (2008b) B, C, L OFMSW GW, AC, NE, POF, EU IT NS Blengini et al. (2008a) C, L OFMSW GW, OD, AC, PO, EU, EN IT SEMC 2000, EcoIndicator Boldrin et al. (2010) L, C Organic kitchen waste GW, AC, EU, PO, AET, TET, HT, O DK EDIP 1997 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3236, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 914, "book_page": 910, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Boldrin et al. (2011) I, C Garden waste GW, PO, EU, AC, AET, TET, HT DK EDIP 1997 Boughton et al. (2006) L, I, R Shredder residue GW, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET US CML Bovea et al. (2010) Int NA AC, EU, OD, GW, PO ES CML Bovea and Powell (2006) Int MSW GW, ADP, ODP, POF, AP, EP ES CML 2001 Brambilla-Pisoni et al. (2009) Int MSW GW, OD, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT, PM, RD, LU IT Ecoindicator 99, CML2, EPS2000 Briffaerts et al. (2009) R Waste batteries GW, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT, PM, RD, LU BE Ecoindicator Buttol et al. (2007) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, RD, TET, ET, AET, HT IT IPCC, CML, USES 2.0 Cabaraban et al. (2008) C, L MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, AET, HT, EN US Ecoindicator 95, IPCC Cadena et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3237, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 915, "book_page": 911, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2007) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, RD, TET, ET, AET, HT IT IPCC, CML, USES 2.0 Cabaraban et al. (2008) C, L MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, AET, HT, EN US Ecoindicator 95, IPCC Cadena et al. (2009) C OFMSW GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT ES NA Carballa et al. (2011) B Kitchen waste and sewage sludge ADP, GW, EP, HTP, ETP NR NS Carlsson-Reich (2005) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, EI, O SE NS Chaya and Gheewala (2006) I, L, B MSW GW, AC, EU, OD, PO, EN, O TH Ecoindicator Chen et al. (2011a) R, I Plastics waste GW, O CN IPCC (2006) (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3238, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 915, "book_page": 911, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Chen and Christensen (2010) I MSW GW, AC, PO, EU, HT, AET, LW, O CN EDIP 1997 Chen et al. (2011b) R Iron and steel production wastes GW, EU CN NS Cherubini et al. (2008) L, I, B MSW EN, GW, AC, EU, O IT NS Cherubini et al. (2009) L, B, I, R MSW EN, NR IT NA Chevalier et al. (2003) I NA GW, AC, HT, AET, RD, O FR IPCC 1995, CML 2000 Ciacci et al. (2010) L, R, I Automobile shredder residue (ASR) GW, OD, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT, PM, RD, LU IT EcoIndicator Ciroth et al. (2002a, b) I MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, OD, HT, O DE,CH,ES EcoIndicator Clauzade et al. (2010) and Lecouls et al. (2010) I, R, L Tyres GW, AC, PO, EU, RD, WA, EN, LW FR NA Coelho and de Brito (2012) L, R C&DW GW, AC, O PT NA Col\u00f3n et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3239, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 916, "book_page": 912, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010) and Lecouls et al. (2010) I, R, L Tyres GW, AC, PO, EU, RD, WA, EN, LW FR NA Coelho and de Brito (2012) L, R C&DW GW, AC, O PT NA Col\u00f3n et al. (2012) Int OFMSW GW, AC, PO, EU, HT, ADP, OD. ES CML 2001 Colon et al. (2010) C Left-overs of raw fruit and vegetables and pruning wastes RD, AC, EU, GW, OD, PO, EN ES CML 2001 Consonni et al. (2005) I Residual MSW GW, HT, AC, PO, EI, O IT CML 2001 Cook et al. (2012) L, I Unused pharmaceuticals (hazardous waste) GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET, PM US TRACI Corti and Lombardi (2004) Int Tyres GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, EN, O IT Ecoindicator (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3240, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 916, "book_page": 912, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Craighill and Powell (1996) R, L Household waste GW, AC, O UK IPCC, NA Dahlbo et al. (2007) R, L, T, I Discarded newspaper GW, OD, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT, PM, RD, LU, WA, EI, O FI DAIA, Ecoindicator 99, EPS2000 Damgaard et al. (2011) L Household waste GW, PO, OD, AC, EU, HT, TET, AET, O DK EDIP 1997 Damgaard et al. (2010) I MSW GW, PO, AC, EU, HT, TET, AET EU NA de Feo and Malvano (2009) Int MSW EN, GW, AC, EU, O IT NA DEFRA (2006) Int Portable batteries GW, AC, EU, OD, HT, AET, TET, RD NA CML 2001 Del Borghi et al. (2007) L Urban waste GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, RD, LU, WA, LW IT NA Delgado et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3241, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 917, "book_page": 913, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2007) L Urban waste GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, RD, LU, WA, LW IT NA Delgado et al. (2007) R, I Plastics GW, EN EU NA Di Maria and Fantozzi (2004) L, T MSW GW, ETP, AP, EP, LU, ODP, O IT Ecoindicator Diggelman and Ham (2003) C, I, L Food waste GW, O US NA Dodbiba et al. (2008) I, R Plastic wastes from discarded TV GW, RD, AC, PO, EU, HT JP Guin\u00e9e 2002 Eggels et al. (2001) Int plastic packaging GW, OD, AC, EU, RD, EN, HT, AET, PO, LW, O EU CML Emery et al. (2007) L, R, C MSW GW, OD, AC, EU, EN UK CML, WMO, IPCC Eriksson et al. (2005) I, L, B, R MSW GW, AP, EU, PO, O SE NS (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3242, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 917, "book_page": 913, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Fallaha et al. (2009) Int NA GW, OD, AET, TET, LU, AC, EU, EN, O NA IPCC, IMPACT2002 + Finnveden et al. (2000) I, L, R, B, C Food waste, newspaper, corrugated board, mixed cardboard, PP, PE, PS, PET, PVC EN, NEN, RD, LW, GW, OD, PO, HT, AET, TET, AC, EU, O SE EDIP, USES-LCA Fruergaard and Astrup (2011) I, T, B SRF and organic waste GW, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET DK EDIP 1997 Fruergaard et al. (2010) L, T APC GW, AC, NE, POF, HT, ET DK EDIP 1997 Gamberini et al. (2010) Col WEEE GW, OD, AC, PO, HT, ET, IR, PM, RD, LU IT Ecoindicator Gentil et al. (2010) P Food waste, unsolicited mail, beverage packaging (MSW) GW, AC, AET, HT, EU, PO EU EDIP 1997 Giugliano et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3243, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 918, "book_page": 914, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010) P Food waste, unsolicited mail, beverage packaging (MSW) GW, AC, AET, HT, EU, PO EU EDIP 1997 Giugliano et al. (2011) Int MSW GM, AC, HT, PO IT CML 2001 Grant et al. (2005) R C&DW GW, EN, RD, PO, EU, HT, LU, WA AU NA Grant et al. (2001) L, R All commonly recycled materials (newspaper + packaging) GW, PO, EN, WA, O AU IPCC 2000 Grant et al. (2003) Int MSW GW, RD, HT, AET, TET, PO, EU AU NA Guereca et al. (2006) L, C Biowaste GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, ET, LU, WD, RD ES NA Gunamantha et al. (2012) L, I, B, T MSW GW, AC, EU, PO ID NA (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3244, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 918, "book_page": 914, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used G\u00fcereca et al. (2007) C, B, I, L Biowaste GW, OD, AC, PO, EU, AET, TET, HT, RD, WA, LU ES TRACI Hanandeh and El-Zein (2010) Int MSW GW, AC, O AU NA Hassan et al. (1999) L, I, C Urban waste GW, EI, LW MY IPCC Hellweg et al. (2005) L, I, T MSW O CH CML2001, Ecoindicator 99, Ecological Scarcity Hischier et al. (2005) Int WEEE ADP, GW, EP, HTP, ETP, AP CH CML Hong and Li (2012) R Paper waste Midpoint: OD, AET, TET, AC, EU, GW, EN, O. Endpoint: Human health, ecosystems quality, climate change, and abiotic resources CN IMPACT 2002+ Hong et al. (2010) L, I, C MSW Midpoint: OD, AET, TET, AC, EU, GW, EN, O", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3245, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 919, "book_page": 915, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Endpoint: Human health, ecosystems quality, climate change, and abiotic resources CN IMPACT 2002+ Hong et al. (2010) L, I, C MSW Midpoint: OD, AET, TET, AC, EU, GW, EN, O. Endpoint: Human health, ecosystems quality, climate change, and abiotic resources CN IMPACT 2002+ Hong et al. (2006) C, L, I MSW GW, AC, EU CN NA Hunt (1995) L, I, C Paper and plastic wastes GW, O NA NA Iriarte et al. (2009) Col Organic, glass, paper, packaging and rest RD, GW, OD, HT, AET, TET, PO, AC, EU, EN ES CML 2000 (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3246, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 919, "book_page": 915, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Jenseit et al. (2003) R Plastic parts of end-of-life vehicles EN, RD, GW, AC, PO, EI, O EU Jensen 1996, IPCC, UBA, own method Johansson and Bj\u00f6rklund (2009) R, I NA GW, ADP SE CML 2001 Kaplan et al. (2008) Int MSW GW, EU, O US NS Khoo et al. (2009) B, C, I Food waste GW, AC, EU, PO, EN SG EDIP 2003 Khoo (2009) T MSW, wood, organic waste, scrap tyres GW, AC, EU, PO SG EDIP 2003 Khoo and Tan (2010) C, I, L Plastic bags GW, AC, PO SG EDIP 2003 Kiatkittipong et al. (2009) L, B, I Bagasse waste GW, AC, EU, PO TH EDIP, UMIP Kim et al. (2009) R Waste home appliances GW, RD, OD, PO, AC, EU, EC, HT, EI KR Ecoindicator Kirkeby et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3247, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 920, "book_page": 916, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2009) L, B, I Bagasse waste GW, AC, EU, PO TH EDIP, UMIP Kim et al. (2009) R Waste home appliances GW, RD, OD, PO, AC, EU, EC, HT, EI KR Ecoindicator Kirkeby et al. (2006) B, I Household waste GW, AC, PO, EU, HT, AET, TET, OD DK EDIP 1997 Klang et al. (2008) L, C, I, B MSW GW, AP, EP SE NA Koci and Trecakova (2011) Int Mixed municipal waste RD, AC, EU, AET, GW, HT, OD, PO, TET CZ CML 2001 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3248, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 920, "book_page": 916, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Koneczny and Pennington (2007) L, R, I, C, B Wet biodegradable wastes, paper and cardboard, plastic, glass, iron and steel, aluminium, other Midpoint: AC, AET, TET, EU, GW, HT, EN, OD, PO, O. Endpoint: Ecosystem impacts, human well-being, economic production PL IMPACT 2002+, EDIP2003 Koroneos and Nanaki (2012) L, R, B MSW GW, RD, EN, O GR Ecoindicator Krei\u00dfig et al. (2003) R, I, L Cable waste (PVC) GW, EN, AC, EI, O EU CML Larsen et al. (2010) R Household waste GW, AC, PO, EU, HT, RD, O DK EDIP 1997 Larsen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3249, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 921, "book_page": 917, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2003) R, I, L Cable waste (PVC) GW, EN, AC, EI, O EU CML Larsen et al. (2010) R Household waste GW, AC, PO, EU, HT, RD, O DK EDIP 1997 Larsen et al. (2009) Int Residual household waste, paper, glass, bulky waste GW, AC, PO, EU DK EDIP 1997 Le Borgne and Feillard (2001) L, R Bumper skin (car equipment) EN, GW, RD, AC, EU, OD NA CML, EPS, critical volumes Lee et al. (2007) L, C, B Food waste GW, HT, AC, EU, ET KR CML 2002 Lelah et al. (2011) Col Waste glass packaging GW, EN, ADP, O FR NS Li et al. (2010) R, T Tyres GW, O CN Ecoindicator Liamsanguan and Gheewala (2007) I MSW GW, PO, AC, EU TH IPCC, EDIP Liamsanguan and Gheewala (2007) L, I MSW GW, EU TH NS (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3250, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 921, "book_page": 917, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Lundie and Peters (2005) C, L Household food waste EN, GW, WA, HT, AET, TET, AC, EU AU Heijungs et al., 1992 Manfredi and Christensen (2009a) L Household waste GW, EU, OD, AC, PO, HT, O NA NA Manfredi et al. (2009b) L Household, industrial, healthcare, public administration, education, trade and commercial GW, EU, OD, AC, PO, HT, O FI NA Manfredi et al. (2010) L Mixed waste GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, AET, TET, HT, O NA EDIP 1997 Manfredi et al. (2011) L, I, R Organics, recyclable paper, recyclable plastic, aluminium and glass GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET DK NA Marinkovic et al. (2010) R Concrete wastes GW, AC, EU, PO, EN, RD, O RS CML 2001 Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3251, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 922, "book_page": 918, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010) R Concrete wastes GW, AC, EU, PO, EN, RD, O RS CML 2001 Mart\u00ednez-Blanco et al. (2010) C OFMSW RD, AC, EU, GW, OD, PO, EN ES CML 2001 Menard et al. (2004) L MSW GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET, RD, LW NA EDIP 1997 Mendes et al. (2003) L, C, B MSW GW, AC, EU BR EDIP 1997 Mendes et al. (2004) L, I MSW GW, AC, EU BR EDIP 1997 Mercante et al. (2012) Int C&DW GW, OD, PO, AC, EU ES CML Merrild et al. (2012) I, R Household glass, plastics, paper, cardboard, steel and aluminium GW, AC, EU, PO DK EDIP 1997 Miliute and Staniskis (2009) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, PO LT NA Molgaard (1995) R, T, I, L Plastic fraction in MSW GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, LW DK NA (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3252, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 922, "book_page": 918, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Morris (2005) R, L MSW GW, AC, EU, HT, ET US TRACI Morris (2005) R, L MSW GW, AC, EU, HT, ET US TRACI Morselli et al. (2005) I MSW AC, EU, GW, RD, AET, TET, HT,, PO, OD, O IT NA Morselli et al. (2008) Int MSW GW, AP, EP, HTP, OD, PO IT Ecoindicator Morselli et al. (2007) I MSW GW, OD, AC, PO, HT, ET, IR, PM, RD, LU IT EcoIndicator Muller (2011) B, C biogas digestate GW, AC, EN DE CML Munoz et al. (2004) Int Household, industrial-commercial waste GW, AC, OD, HT, EU, PO, RD, WA, EN, LW ES NR Munoz and Navia (2011) R, L Industrial waste GW, AC, EU, PO, TET, AET, HT, LU, RD, PM CL Ecoindicator 99, CML 2000 M\u00f8ller et al. (2011) I MSW AC, ET DK EDIP 1997 Nakatani et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3253, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 923, "book_page": 919, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2011) I MSW AC, ET DK EDIP 1997 Nakatani et al. (2010) R PET bottles GW, O JP/CN NA Navia et al. (2006) R Contaminated volcalic soil GW, ODP, ET, AP, EP, LU, O ES NS Nishijima et al. (2012) R Plastic wastes GW, O JP NS Niskanen et al. (2009) L All waste GW, AC, EU, PO, OD, HT, TET, AET, O FI EDIP 1997 Noon et al. (2011) L, I, R Computer monitors GW, EN, O US NA Ortiz et al. (2010) L, R, I Construction waste GW, AC, EU, AET, TET, HT, EN, WA, O ES CML 2001 (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3254, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 923, "book_page": 919, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Passarini et al. (2012) Int Automotive shredder residue HT, GW, ET, AC, EU, LU, RD IT Ecoindicator Perugini et al. (2005) R, I Plastic packaging GW, WA, O IT NS Pires et al. (2011) Int MSW GW, AC, RD, EU, HT, PO PT CML 2000 Pires and Martinho (2012) Int Waste lubricant oil (WLO) GW, AD, AP, EP, HT, ET, ET, POP PT NA Pisoni (2009) Int MSW GW, OD, ET, AC, EU, ET, O IT Ecoindicator Riber et al. (2008) I MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, OD, HT, AET DK EDIP Rieradevall et al. (1997) L Household waste GW, AC, EU, HT, RD ES NS Rigamonti et al. (2009a) R, I MSW GW, HT, AC, PO IT CED, CML Rigamonti et al. (2010) Int Packaging waste, municipal biowaste and MSW CED, GW, HT, AC, PO IT CED, CML Rigamonti et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3255, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 924, "book_page": 920, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2009a) R, I MSW GW, HT, AC, PO IT CED, CML Rigamonti et al. (2010) Int Packaging waste, municipal biowaste and MSW CED, GW, HT, AC, PO IT CED, CML Rigamonti et al. (2009b) Int MSW GW, HT, AC, PO IT CED, CML Rivela et al. (2006) R, I Wood waste GW, HT, RO, RI, ODP, ET, EU, AC, LU, O ES NS Rives et al. (2010) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, OD, PO, HT, TET, EN, O ES CML Rodr\u00edguez-Iglesias et al. (2003) Int Residual MSW GW, AC, EU, O ES IPCC, Ecoindicador Ross and Evans (2003) R Plastics GW, PO, RD AU NA (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3256, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 924, "book_page": 920, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Saft (2007) T Paint waste RD, GW, OD, PO, AET, TET, HT, AC, EU, O NL CML Salhofer et al. (2007) L, I, R Refrigerators, PE films, EPS, paper GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, EN AT CML Santos Vieira and Horvath (2008) R Concrete wastes GW, EN US NS Scharnhorst et al. (2006) I, L, R Antenna rack TET, AET, OD, PO, NEN, GW, O EU IMPACT 2002+ Scipioni et al. (2009) I MSW GW, OD, AC, PO, HT, ET, IR, PM, RD, LU IT Ecoindicator Shen et al. (2010) R PET GW, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET, RD, EN EU CML, IPCC Sonesson et al. (1997) C, L Organic GW, AC, EU, PO,OD, EN SE CML Sonesson et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3257, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 925, "book_page": 921, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010) R PET GW, AC, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET, RD, EN EU CML, IPCC Sonesson et al. (1997) C, L Organic GW, AC, EU, PO,OD, EN SE CML Sonesson et al. (2000) Int Organic GW, AC, EU, PO, RD, EN, EI SE NA Stichnote and Schuchardt (2010) C, B Empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) RD, AC, EU, AET, GW, HT, OD, PO, TET ID CML 2001 Tabata et al. (2010) Col MSW GW, AC, O JP IPCC, NEDO Tan et al. (2006) Int MSW GW, AC, ET, RD SG NA Tarantini et al. (2009) Int MSW GW, AP, EP, ET, HT, POP, EN IT NA Toller et al. (2009) R, L Wood ash, MSWI bottom ash NR SE NR Tonini et al. (2012) I, R, T, B Residual MSW GW, AC, EU, AET, HT DK EDIP 1997 Tukker (1999) I, T Hazardous waste HT, GW, OD, PO, AC, EU, LW, EN, O NL CML Tunesi (2011) I, T MSW GW, AC, AD UK NA (continued) LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3258, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 925, "book_page": 921, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Turconi et al. (2011) I Residual MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, ET, HT IT/DK EDIP 1997 Van-Haaren et al. (2010) C Yard wastes GW, AC, EU, O US Ecoindicator Welsh Assembly Gvt (2003) Int C&D, industrial, commercial, municipal waste GW, OD, AC, EU, HT, RD UK CML, IPCC, WMO Wenisch et al. (2004) I Household waste GW, AC, HT, RD, WA, LW FR NA Werner et al. (2007) R, I Creosote-treated beech-wood railway sleeper GW, AC, OD, PO, EU, HT, TET, AET, RD CH CML Winkler et al. (2007) L, I, R Household waste GW, HT, AC DE CML Wollny et al. (2002) I, R, T Mixed plastic waste packaging GW, AC, EN, EI DE NA WRAP (2008) L, I, R Mixed waste plastic GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, RD, LW, EN UK CML 2002 W\u00e4ger et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3259, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 926, "book_page": 922, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) I, R, T Mixed plastic waste packaging GW, AC, EN, EI DE NA WRAP (2008) L, I, R Mixed waste plastic GW, OD, AC, EU, PO, HT, RD, LW, EN UK CML 2002 W\u00e4ger et al. (2011) R, I, L WEEE GW, AC, EU, PO, OD, ARD, ET, HT CH CML 2002, Ecoindicator Yi et al. (2011) L, R, I, B MSW Midpoint: GW, OD, RD, HT, AC, EU, PO, O Endpoint: human health, social assets, biodiversity and primary production KR NA Zaman (2010) I, L, T MSW GW, AP, EP, ABD, ODP, HT, ET, POP SE CML (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3260, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 926, "book_page": 922, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 35.3 (continued) References/sources (short; details to be provided in spreadsheet \u2018LCA studies list\u2019) Technology assessed Type of waste (e.g. only organic waste included in study) Impact coverage (e.g. GW only) (use glossary in first spreadsheet) Geographical coverage LCIA method used Zhang et al. (1999) I, R PCB and plastics contained in dismantled non-nuclear components GW, AC, OD, EU, PO, HT, AET, TET, EI, O US EDIP 1997 Zhao et al. (2009a) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, OD CN EDIP 1997 Zhao et al. (2012) Int MSW GW, AC, EU, PO, OD CN EDIP 1997 Zhao et al. (2009b) I Medical waste RD, GW, OD, HT, AET, TET, PO, AC, EU NA CML 1999 \u00d6zeler et al. (2006) Int MSW GW, AP, EP, HTP, CED TR NS The studies on sewage sludges are excluded from the table as the focus is on solid waste management systems LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3261, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 927, "book_page": 923, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bakas, I., Hauschild, M.Z., Astrup, T.F., Rosenbaum, R.K.: Preparing the ground for an operational handling of long-term emissions in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 1444\u20131455 (2015) Bakas, I., Hauschild, M.Z., Rosenbaum, R.K., Astrup, T.F., McKone, T.E.: Assessing Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Impacts of Long-Term Metal Emissions from Landfills in LCA\u2014An Operational Methodology. Submitted to IJLCA (2017) Christensen, T.H., Gentil, E., Boldrin, A., Larsen, A., Weidema, B.: Hauschild M (2009) C balance, carbon dioxide emissions and global warming potentials in LCA-modelling of waste management systems. Waste Manag. Res. 27, 707\u2013715 (2009) Christensen, T.H.: Solid Waste Technology & Management. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Chichester (2011) Clavreul, J., Baumeister, H., Christensen, T.H., Damgaard, A.: An environmental assessment system for environmental technologies. Environ. Model Softw", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3262, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 928, "book_page": 924, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Chichester (2011) Clavreul, J., Baumeister, H., Christensen, T.H., Damgaard, A.: An environmental assessment system for environmental technologies. Environ. Model Softw. 60(2014), 18\u201330 (2014) Cleary, J.: Life cycle assessments of municipal solid waste management systems: a comparative analysis of selected peer-reviewed literature. Environ. Int. 35, 1256\u20131266 (2009) (Coelho, A., de Brito, J., 2) Doka, G.: Life Cycle Inventories of Waste Management Treatment Services. Ecoinvent report No. 13. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, St. Gallen (2009) Ekvall, T., Assefa, G., Bjorklund, A., Eriksson, O., Finnveden, G.: What life-cycle assessment does and does not do in assessments of waste management. Waste Manage. 27, 989\u2013996 (2007) EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3263, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 928, "book_page": 924, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010a) EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014 Framework and requirements for LCIA models and indicators. First edition March 2010. EUR 24586 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2010b) EC-JRC: European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Waste Management\u2014A Technical Guide to Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for Waste Experts and LCA Practitioners. EUR 24916 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2011) European Environment Agency: Waste Prevention in Europe\u2014The Status in 2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3264, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 928, "book_page": 924, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EUR 24916 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2011) European Environment Agency: Waste Prevention in Europe\u2014The Status in 2013. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg (2014) Gala, A.B., Raugei, M., Fullana-i-Palmer, P.: Introducing a new method for calculating the environmental credits of end-of-life material recovery in attributional LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 645\u2013654 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0861-3 Gentil, E., Damgaard, A., Hauschild, M., Finnveden, G., Barlaz, M., Thorneloe, S., Kaplan, P.O., Eriksson, O., Matsui, Y., Ii, R., Thomas, B., Jones, R., Christensen, T.H.: Models for waste life cycle assessment: review of technical assumptions. Waste Manag. 30, 2636\u20132648 (2010) Goedkoop, M., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., De Schryver, A., Struijs, J., van Zelm, R.: ReCiPe 2008; a life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level\u2014report I: characterisation. Minist", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3265, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 928, "book_page": 924, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Minist. van VROM, Den Haag (2009) Goedkoop, M., Spriensma, R.: The Eco-indicator 99; a damage oriented method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment\u2014Methodology Report. PR\u00e9 Consult. Amersfoort, Netherlands (2001) Hauschild, M., Olsen, S.I., Hansen, E., Schmidt, A.: Gone...but not away\u2014addressing the problem of long-term impacts from landfills in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 547\u2013554 (2008). doi:10.1007/s11367-008-0039-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3266, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 928, "book_page": 924, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hischier, R., Weidema, B., Althaus, H.-J., Bauer, C., Doka, G., Dones, R., Frischknecht, R., Hellweg, S., Humbert, S., Jungbluth, N., K\u00f6llner, T., Loerincik, Y., Margni, M., Nemecek, T.: Implementation of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methods; Ecoinvent Report No. 3, v2.2. Swiss Cent. Life Cycle Invent, D\u00fcbend (2010) Hoornweg, D., Bhada-Tata, P.: What a Waste\u2014A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. World Bank, Washington DC (2012) ISO: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006) Karak, T., Bhagat, R.M., Bhattacharyya, P.: Municipal solid waste generation, composition, and management: the World Scenario. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 1509\u20131630 (2012) Laurent, A., Bakas, I., Clavreul, J., Bernstad, A., Niero, M., Gentil, E., Hauschild, M.Z., Christensen, T.H.: Review of LCA studies of solid waste management systems\u2014part I: lessons learned and perspectives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3267, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 929, "book_page": 925, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Waste Manag. 34(2014), 573\u2013588 (2014a) Laurent, A., Clavreul, J., Bernstad, A., Bakas, I., Niero, M., Gentil, E., Christensen, T.H., Hauschild, M.Z.: Review of LCA studies of solid waste management systems\u2014part II: methodological guidance for a better practice. Waste Manag. 34(2014), 589\u2013606 (2014b) Niero, M., Negrelli, A.J., Boas, S.H., Olsen, S.I., Birkved, M.: Closing the loop for aluminium cans: life cycle assessment of progression in Cradle-to-Cradle certification levels. J. Clean. Prod. 126, 352\u2013362 (2016) Schrijvers, D.L., Loubet, P., Sonnemann, G.: Developing a systematic framework for consistent allocation in LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. (2016). doi:10.1007/s11367-016-1063-3 Author Biographies Ioannis Bakas LCA expert focusing on environmental impacts from solid waste management systems. Developed method for accounting long-term emissions from landfilling. Interested in LCA modelling of soil emissions, integrated waste systems\u2019 evaluation and policy assessments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3268, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 929, "book_page": 925, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Developed method for accounting long-term emissions from landfilling. Interested in LCA modelling of soil emissions, integrated waste systems\u2019 evaluation and policy assessments. Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Julie Clavreul LCA expert since the early 2010s. Her background is with a focus on the modelling and life cycle assessment of waste management systems and the analysis of uncertainties. Interest in the EU environmental footprint methodology. Anna Bernstad Saraiva has been working with environmental engineering since 2008. Has done Post-doctoral studies on LCA of biorefinery processes and biomaterials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3269, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 929, "book_page": 925, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Anna Bernstad Saraiva has been working with environmental engineering since 2008. Has done Post-doctoral studies on LCA of biorefinery processes and biomaterials. Research focus is on solid waste management, co-treatment of household waste flows, sustainable materials and chemicals and sustainable urban development. Monia Niero background as chemical engineer, LCA expert since late 2000s. Involved in several LCA industrial projects. Main areas of expertise are LCI modelling and LCM in waste management, packaging and agri-food sectors. Interested in developing decision support tools for circular economy implementation at product and organization levels. Emmanuel Gentil has been working in life cycle thinking, related to waste management systems since 1999, where he was involved in the development of a life cycle assessment software. LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3270, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 929, "book_page": 925, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Research focus and consultancy services on life cycle assessment for waste management policy for the European Commission. Teaching LCA for American undergraduates studying abroad in Denmark. Michael Z. Hauschild involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3271, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "35 LCA of Solid Waste Management Systems", "pdf_page": 930, "book_page": 926, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation Gitte Lemming S\u00f8ndergaard and Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Abstract Today, there is increasing interest in applying LCA to support decision-makers in contaminated site management. In this chapter, we introduce remediation technologies and associated environmental impacts, present an overview of literature findings on LCA applied to remediation technologies and present methodological issues to consider when conducting LCAs within the area. Within the field of contaminated site remediation, a terminology distinguishing three types of environmental impacts: primary, secondary and tertiary, is often applied. Primary impacts are the site-related impacts due to the contamination in the ground, secondary impacts are the impacts related to clean-up of the site, and tertiary impacts are the impacts associated with the future use of the site", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3272, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 931, "book_page": 927, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The major methodological issues to consider when conducting LCA are: (i) defining a functional unit that considers time frame and efficiency of remediation, which are important for assessment or primary impacts; (ii) robust assessment of primary impacts using site-specific fate and exposure models; (iii) weighting of primary and secondary (or tertiary) impacts to evaluate trade-offs between life cycle impacts from remediation and reduced pressure locally; and (iv) comparison with a no action scenario to determine whether there is a net environmental benefit from remediation. Overall, LCA is an important tool for the assessment of the secondary environmental impacts of remediation, and occasionally it has also been used to assess primary and tertiary impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3273, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 931, "book_page": 927, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Overall, LCA is an important tool for the assessment of the secondary environmental impacts of remediation, and occasionally it has also been used to assess primary and tertiary impacts. In order to obtain robust decisions for the management of contaminated sites, the combination of LCA with other tools is necessary, including multi-criteria decision analysis tools, site-specific fate and exposure models and consideration of stakeholders\u2019 views. G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard (&) Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: gile@env.dtu.dk M. Owsianiak Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_36", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3274, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 931, "book_page": 927, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "36.1 Many sites around the world require clean-up due to the risk they pose to humans and ecosystems. It was estimated that in the US, a total of 300,000 sites will need clean-up during the next 35 years (US EPA 2004). In the EU member states, out of nearly 3 million sites with potentially polluting activities approximately 250,000 sites require clean-up (EEA 2007). Remediation technologies have been and are continuously being developed, but the main focus has thus far been put on technological aspects, such as design and optimisation of a technology for the contaminant of interest. Environmental impacts associated with remediation of contaminated sites activities are rarely evaluated, and only recently life cycle based approaches were considered as tools to support decision on the choice of a remediation technology among available alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3275, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 932, "book_page": 928, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this chapter, we introduce remediation technologies and associated environmental impacts, present an overview of literature findings on LCA applied to remediation technologies and present methodological issues to consider when conducting LCAs. We focus mainly on environmental life cycle impacts from remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater, but due to the similarity in the nature of the problems, we also include studies concerning remediation of contaminated sediments, sludge and wetlands. 36.1.1 Remediation Technologies Remediation technologies can be divided into in situ and ex situ technologies respectively, depending on where the remediation takes place (Collaran 1997; US EPA 2000). In situ remediation technologies target the contamination in the subsurface, i.e. without extracting or excavating contaminated soil or groundwater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3276, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 932, "book_page": 928, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In situ remediation technologies target the contamination in the subsurface, i.e. without extracting or excavating contaminated soil or groundwater. Examples of technologies that can be used in situ are bioremediation, chemical degradation (oxidation or reduction), phytoremediation, thermally enhanced remediation and permeable reactive barriers. Some in situ remediation methods (thermal remediation and soil vapour extraction) require a treatment system for extracted vapours and are therefore not strict in situ methods. Ex situ remediation technologies involve the excavation of contaminated soil or extraction of contaminated groundwater followed by a treatment either on-site, e.g. in biopiles or an on-site groundwater treatment unit, or the soil can be transported to an off-site treatment facility. Ex situ remediation technologies cover biological, chemical and thermal remediation methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3277, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 932, "book_page": 928, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ex situ remediation technologies cover biological, chemical and thermal remediation methods. Moreover, containment methods exist, which are remediation methods that seek to establish a barrier to immobilise contaminants and cut off the exposure routes instead of removing the contamination source. Surface capping and barrier installations, e.g. sheet piling, as well as placement in secured landfills are examples of containment methods. While ex situ remediation G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3278, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 932, "book_page": 928, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "technologies or containment methods were traditionally applied at contaminated sites, in situ remediation technologies were developed as alternatives that required less intrusion at the site and less disturbance of site residents and neighbours. However, in situ remediation causes a lower level of nuisance during the remediation it may have a longer timeframe and a higher uncertainty related to reaching the remedial clean-up target (Caliman et al. 2011). Out of all ca. 2400 remediation projects applied in the US Superfund programme in years 1982\u20132008 (US EPA 2010), most (nearly 800) technologies was applied to ex situ groundwater treatment (pump-and-treat). There were nearly 600 projects on ex situ source control (dominated by solidification/stabilisation, with smaller contribution of incineration, thermal desorption and bioremediation). In situ source control technologies (ca", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3279, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 933, "book_page": 929, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In situ source control technologies (ca. 540 projects) were dominated by soil vapour extraction, followed by a smaller number of projects that used bioremediation. Bioremediation, however, was the most frequently used methods for in situ groundwater treatment (in total 350 projects) followed by air sparging and chemical treatment. 36.1.2 Environmental Impacts from Remediation Technologies Within the field of contaminated site remediation, a terminology distinguishing three types of environmental impacts, primary, secondary and tertiary, is often applied (Lesage et al. 2007a; Sparrevik et al. 2011). The primary impacts are the environmental impacts caused by the on-site contamination and cover human toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts due to the potential exposure via soil, groundwater and air. The primary impacts will most often be local in nature and may be difficult to assess with existing generic LCIA methodologies because these impacts are strictly site-specific (Lesage et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3280, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 933, "book_page": 929, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The primary impacts will most often be local in nature and may be difficult to assess with existing generic LCIA methodologies because these impacts are strictly site-specific (Lesage et al. 2007a; Lemming et al. 2010c). Secondary impacts are the environmental impacts associated with the intervention at the site, i.e. the remediation technology. The remediation of the site may for example include heavy machinery work on-site such as excavation and drilling, the use of materials for installations, e.g. polymers, steel and concrete as well as activated carbon for water or air treatment. In addition, electricity is often applied at the site for pumping, heating or injection. Moreover, transportation of soil, equipment and personnel can be a significant activity. All of these remediation activities cause environmental impacts both at the local, regional and global scale due to the emissions taking place in many geographical locations. Lesage et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3281, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 933, "book_page": 929, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All of these remediation activities cause environmental impacts both at the local, regional and global scale due to the emissions taking place in many geographical locations. Lesage et al. (2007a, b) took a consequential LCA approach (see Sect. 8.5.3) and introduced the term \u2018tertiary impacts\u2019 to account for the environmental impacts related to the fate of a brownfield site after the treatment. The future use of a site will depend on the state in which it is left after the remediation. If the exposure risk is not sufficiently reduced, it may not be possible later to use the site for residential/commercial LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3282, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 933, "book_page": 929, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "purposes. Consequently, suburban greenfield may need to be developed depending on the local situation and demand for new land. The environmental impacts related to the development of greenfield is covered in the tertiary impacts in the study by Lesage et al. (2007a, b). 36.2 Literature Review Table 36.2 in the Appendix gives an overview of existing LCA studies regarding remediation of contaminated sites, including the covered technologies and contaminants, types of impacts assessed (primary, secondary, tertiary), definition of the functional unit, time boundary for remediation and a main result or conclusion. Among the main findings from earlier reviews on this topic by Lemming et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3283, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 934, "book_page": 930, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Among the main findings from earlier reviews on this topic by Lemming et al. (2010a) and Morais and Delerue-Matos (2010), covering all studies published until 2009, were that the majority of the LCA studies dealt with ex situ remediation methods and soil contaminants (mainly metals and hydrocarbons), while only few studies dealt with in situ remediation of groundwater and common contaminants (such as chlorinated ethenes). Furthermore, their reviews identified a need for more site-specific assessment of primary impacts as the existing LCIA models do not take the groundwater compartment into account and will only provide a crude assessment of primary impacts due to the generic nature of the models. Here, we present recent trends in application of LCA to remediation technologies, corroborating the two earlier reviews and an earlier viewpoint article on this topic published by Owsianiak et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3284, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 934, "book_page": 930, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here, we present recent trends in application of LCA to remediation technologies, corroborating the two earlier reviews and an earlier viewpoint article on this topic published by Owsianiak et al. (2013), by including more studies, followed by recommendation for better and consistent use of LCA-based methods in the future. 36.2.1 Contaminants and Technologies Assessed in LCA Studies The majority of studies on LCA applied to remediation technologies for contaminated sites deal with soil remediation, with excavation combined with treatment and/or disposal the most investigated technology, followed by bioremediation. A significant number of studies deal with groundwater remediation, where mainly pump-and-treat or permeable reactive barriers (PRB) technologies are in scope. Interestingly, two studies that focus on remediation of contaminated sediment and wetland have recently been published, whereas one study compared bioremediation methods for contaminated sludge at a lab-scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3285, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 934, "book_page": 930, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most studies cover technologies that are well established and have already found field-scale applications. An exception is the recent paper by Lubrecht (2012), who analysed the performance of horizontal directional drilling (HDD), a relatively new drilling technique that can be used as an alternative to traditional vertical wells used for groundwater treatment. G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3286, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 934, "book_page": 930, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, some of the relatively widely applied technologies have only been assessed a few times in a life cycle perspective, if at all (Fig. 36.1a). In addition, most studies focus on recognised contaminants, such as metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrocarbon mixtures or polychlorinated biphenyls. However, there is an increase in number of studies dealing with chlorinated hydrocarbons. Pesticides or nutrients were rarely a scope of the study, while no studies deal with emerging threats such as pharmaceuticals or nanomaterials. These trends may reflect limited availability of data needed to carry out an LCA for emerging technologies and emerging contaminants, both on the life cycle inventory and impact assessment sides", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3287, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 935, "book_page": 931, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These trends may reflect limited availability of data needed to carry out an LCA for emerging technologies and emerging contaminants, both on the life cycle inventory and impact assessment sides. This is supported by the fact that heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs are the main contaminants found in soil, whereas petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents are the main groundwater contaminants (EEA 2007), and these are also the most frequently studied compounds in LCA literature (Fig. 36.1b). The lag between the occurrence of pollutants in the environment and their occurrence in case studies indicates that achieving environmental sustainability goals for remediation of emerging contaminants and technologies can be challenged. Even if inventories are made for the relevant remediation processes, characterisation factors (CFs) for some pollutants may not be available (see Chap. 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3288, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 935, "book_page": 931, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Even if inventories are made for the relevant remediation processes, characterisation factors (CFs) for some pollutants may not be available (see Chap. 10). 36.2.2 Impact Assessment Methods Employed in LCA Studies Out of 32 studies, 15 evaluated primary impacts (in addition to secondary impacts), while only two studies (Lesage et al. 2007a, b; Hou et al. 2014b) evaluated all three (a) (b) Fig. 36.1 Correlation between number of applications of remediation technologies and number of remediation technologies assessed in reviewed LCA studies (a); and percentage contribution of types of contaminants assessed in LCA studies in years 1999\u20132012 (b) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3289, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 935, "book_page": 931, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "types of impacts. While earlier studies often covered both primary and secondary impacts, the recent ones, with few exceptions, focus solely on secondary impacts. This can be considered as a drawback that may bias a comparison, as it has been demonstrated that primary impacts can contribute substantially to human health impact categories (Lemming et al. 2010c, 2012) and their inclusion in the assessment can change the comparative ranking among alternatives (Sparrevik et al. 2011). Comparing to the earlier reviews by Lemming et al. (2010a) and Morais and Delerue-Matos (2010), a few observations can be made with respect to methodology employed in the assessment. While papers published in the 90s and in the following decade were expected to report the use of earlier impact assessment methods, such as EDIP97, TRACI or IMPACT2002+, these methodologies are still being widely employed today. More recent methodologies such as ReCiPe or USEtox are occasionally used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3290, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 936, "book_page": 932, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "More recent methodologies such as ReCiPe or USEtox are occasionally used. Overall, there is an increasing number of studies which use LCA-based assessment tools, or link full LCAs with other assessment tools to support decisions. For example, Evans and Wilkie et al. (2010) assessed the performance of nutrient remediation, focusing on balance between bioenergy produced and consumed, and fossil fuel energy expenditures avoided and consumed by the remediation process (the so called net energy balance ratio, NEBR). They showed net energy benefits when biomass was used for biogas production or compost production. In addition, both utilisation pathways showed monetary benefits, as calculated using a benefit\u2013cost ratio (BCR) life cycle-based analysis. Cappuyns et al. (2011) used LCA-based risk reduction, environmental merit and costs (REC) and demonstrated that in situ thermal treatment of soil has lower global environmental impacts than soil excavation and off-site treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3291, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 936, "book_page": 932, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They also concluded that non-LCA-based assessment tools such as best available technology not entailing excessive costs (BATNEEC) analysis could be used as a primary screening among remediation alternatives, followed by a full LCA for selected technologies. Inoue and Katayama (2011) compared the performance of life cycle costing (LCC) (see Chap. 15) and economic input\u2013output LCA (see Chap. 14) with a rescue number for soil (RNSOIL) representing the risk reduction obtained using each remediation technology, and demonstrated that different rankings appear between the remediation options depending on whether the ranking was based on the risk\u2013cost, the risk\u2013energy consumption or the risk\u2013CO2 emission scale. Sparrevik et al. (2012) have developed a method that integrates risk assessment (RA), LCA, and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) into a common framework for decision support, and demonstrated its applicability to selection of the best sediment management alternative. Hou et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3292, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 936, "book_page": 932, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hou et al. (2014a) showed how life cycle impacts of remediation depend on site conditions and proposed a framework to select the most environmentally sustainable technology under various site conditions. A recent study (Beames et al. 2015) included land use in their impact assessment. In addition to land use related to production, they added the land use occupation as a consequence of remediation reflecting the duration of the different remediation techniques. Hybrid LCA (see Chap. 14) was used in one of the studies (Hou et al. 2014b). The hybrid LCA was built on the UK 123 sector national input\u2013 output table, which includes environmental and socio-economic data. The study G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3293, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 936, "book_page": 932, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "claims that the use of hybrid LCA reduced the truncation errors and gave more complete system boundary than a process-based LCA. In some cases the assessment is limited to energy demand and/or CO2 emissions (Witters et al. 2012). For example, Lubrecht (2012), employed the SiteWise method (based on summing up GHG, NOx, SOx and PM10 emissions, arriving at four types of impact scores) to compare two groundwater remediation alternatives. The comparison, showed only modest reduction in included substances, which was sufficient for the author to claim the technology was sustainable, even though no definition of the functional unit was provided (the comparison was based on target depth of the plume only), system boundaries were not clearly defined, and only few impact categories were considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3294, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 937, "book_page": 933, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We note that analyses of this kind have little in common with LCA, at least according to requirements presented in ISO standards or other authoritative guidelines (ISO 2006a, b; ILCD 2010), and should not be used to draw any conclusions about better or worse environmental performance of one remediation technology over other. 36.2.3 Main Drivers of Environmental Impacts Our results tend to confirm earlier observations (Lemming et al. 2010a) that the main processes contributing to secondary impacts are on-site electricity/energy use for thermal remediation, as well as steel use for on-site installations. For ex situ remediation involving excavation and transport of the contaminated soil, the transportation processes also contribute significantly to secondary impacts, especially in cases where a remotely located site is remediated (Sanscartier et al. 2010). Beames et al. (2015) focused on land use impacts in their study of in situ versus ex situ methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3295, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 937, "book_page": 933, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2010). Beames et al. (2015) focused on land use impacts in their study of in situ versus ex situ methods. The study demonstrated that there is a trade-off between energy use and land use in remediation. Energy-intensive methods such as excavation will use a high amount of energy, but will occupy the contaminated land for a shorter period, resulting in lower impacts on land use. On the other hand, less energy-intensive methods will have longer timeframes and therefore higher impact on land use. Agents used in chemical oxidation typically generate high impacts due to the large requirements for production and transportation of the chemical, which is applied in very large quantities (Cadotte et al. 2007; Lemming et al. 2012). On the other hand, bioremediation technologies are the most favourable among remediation alternatives. However, Lemming et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3296, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 937, "book_page": 933, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2007; Lemming et al. 2012). On the other hand, bioremediation technologies are the most favourable among remediation alternatives. However, Lemming et al. (2010c, 2012) demonstrated that enhanced bioremediation of chlorinated ethenes can have very long duration (several decades) in low-permeability media and that the higher toxicity of chlorinated intermediates can potentially lead to a larger primary toxic impact to the groundwater aquifer than if no remediation was initiated (Lemming et al. 2012). These findings highlight the need for employing site-specific fate and exposure models for assessment of primary impacts. LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3297, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 937, "book_page": 933, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Phytoremediation of soil or wetlands appears to be an attractive remediation alternative, particularly when combined with energy recovery combustion of the biomass (Evans and Wilkie 2010; Witters et al. 2012; Vigil et al. 2015). In these cases, the environmental benefits were mainly associated with reduced CO2 emissions. Similarly, the use of biomass-derived activated carbon for sediment capping was shown to perform better than other capping materials especially due to the CO2 sequestration effect when this material is added to the seafloor (Sparrevik et al. 2011). Some of the recent studies that compared bioremediation alternatives focus on use of different substrates or electron donors. For example, lab-scale analysis has shown that methanol was the best alternative among electron donors in anaerobic dechlorination of pentachloroaniline (PCA), and that the environmental burden was reduced when the concentration of electron donors were reduced (Hong and Li 2012)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3298, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 938, "book_page": 934, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Extrapolation of these results to field-scale applications has not been addressed by the authors, but Lemming et al. (2010c) have also noted that substrate demand for enhanced reductive dechlorination was an important contributor to global warming. 36.3 Specific Methodological Issues Our earlier analysis of studies on LCA applied to remediation technologies (including all the studies published until 2012 presented in Appendix, Table 36.2), showed an increasing frequency of examples with serious methodological problems compared to requirements in ISO standards or authoritative guidelines (ISO 2006a, b; JRC 2010; Owsianiak et al. 2013). Here, we present methodological issues that need to be considered when conducting LCA-based comparison of remediation alternatives. 36.3.1 Issues in Goal and Scope Definition In comparative assessments, remediation alternatives must be compared based on a function they provide, that is clean-up of a contaminated site", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3299, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 938, "book_page": 934, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "36.3.1 Issues in Goal and Scope Definition In comparative assessments, remediation alternatives must be compared based on a function they provide, that is clean-up of a contaminated site. Even for the same site, there are many means by which the function can be fulfilled, depending on the type of the technology. It is often the case that the two performance parameters, i.e. remediation efficiency and remediation time frame, differ considerably between technologies. For example, monitored natural attenuation often takes more time and sometimes does not allow reaching clean-up levels that can be obtained using faster, invasive methods. Notably, these two parameters are often used by remediation practitioners as arguments for choosing a technology to clean-up a site (if there are no economic constraints). LCA practitioners however, are met with challenges because the functional unit should consider both the efficiency and time horizon aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3300, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 938, "book_page": 934, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA practitioners however, are met with challenges because the functional unit should consider both the efficiency and time horizon aspects. The inclusion of performance parameters in the definition of the functional G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3301, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 938, "book_page": 934, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "unit is important because they directly decide on the magnitude of primary impacts. We, thus, recommend defining a functional unit that only includes remediation efficiency, and subsequently determine time frames for each compared option. Alternatively, a functional unit can only include time frame for remediation and then option-specific efficiencies can be determined. Only in very rare cases when both performance parameters are the same, the function is the same and the alternatives can be compared without specifying efficiency and time horizon in the functional unit definition. Appendix Table 36.2 shows that there is little consideration of time and efficiency of remediation when defining the functional unit. In many studies, the functional unit (clearly defined in 26 out of all 32 studies), is based on the treatment of a certain volume or mass, without considering the performance aspects. This is an incorrect definition and a source of potential bias", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3302, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 939, "book_page": 935, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is an incorrect definition and a source of potential bias. Its magnitude will depend on the contribution of primary impacts to total impacts in the remediation life cycle. To qualify the timeframe prediction for long-term remediation scenarios (and for better assessment of primary impacts, as will be discussed later) site-specific, remediation performance models should be employed. If these models are not available and little is known about performance of a technology from a practical side, remediation alternatives can still be compared if they all provide an acceptable minimum level of remediation efficiency; for example: (i) reduction of contaminant mass to 99% of its initial value, or (ii) reduction of contaminant concentration to the level posing no risk. Note however, that even a small difference in remediation efficiency between two techniques that both satisfy the no risk level criterion can cause a difference in primary impacts that may influence the comparison", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3303, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 939, "book_page": 935, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This aspect is particularly important when the difference in remediation time frames between two alternatives is large. If such is the case, uncertainty scenarios about remediation efficiency and/or time frame should be considered when conducting an LCA and interpreting results. 36.3.2 Issues in Life Cycle Inventory Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) compiles all relevant environmental exchanges to and from the assessed remediation system during its lifecycle, i.e. energy and material inputs and outputs (Chap. 9). The majority of the reviewed studies made use of commercially available LCI databases, such as ecoinvent (Frischknecht et al. 2007) and the US LCI databases (NREL et al. 2004) to model inventories, depending on the location of the project. The use of these generic databases was sometimes combined with additional data collection for remediation-specific processes not included in the databases, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3304, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 939, "book_page": 935, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The use of these generic databases was sometimes combined with additional data collection for remediation-specific processes not included in the databases, e.g. production of activated carbon, chemical analyses and production of specific remedial soil amendments. These technology-specific processes must be included in the assessment if they are shown or expected to be important contributors to secondary impacts. According to the ILCD requirements (JRC 2010), attributional LCA is recommended for micro-level decision support (decision context-situation A) related to LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3305, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 939, "book_page": 935, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "specific products and for accounting purposes, i.e. descriptive documentation of a system, assuming average technological conditions (Sect. 8.5). Situation A assumes that remediation activity will not result in structural changes in the analysed system. Consequential LCA is recommended by ILCD for decision support on the meso or macro scale related to the strategic level, e.g. raw material strategies, technology scenarios, and policy options (decision context-situation B) (see Sect. 7.5). Remediation projects fall somewhere between the micro scale and the meso scale, depending on the size of the project. Both attributional and consequential approaches can, therefore, be argued for. Our review shows that all studies, except Lesage et al. (2007a, b) who conducted a consequential LCA, take an attributional approach to inventory modelling. Lesage et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3306, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 940, "book_page": 936, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Our review shows that all studies, except Lesage et al. (2007a, b) who conducted a consequential LCA, take an attributional approach to inventory modelling. Lesage et al. demonstrated how the consequential approach and inclusion of tertiary impacts influences LCA results; a brownfield rehabilitation scenario was favoured over the risk minimisation scenario due to the need for the development of suburban residential sites if the brownfield site was not remediated sufficiently for rehabilitation. The main driver of tertiary impacts from the development of suburban sites was the increased person car transport from the suburban areas during the 40-year timeframe of the analysis. 36.3.3 Issues in Life Cycle Impact Assessment In the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) phase the emissions and resource consumption collected in the LCI are translated to environmental impacts using LCIA models (Chap. 10)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3307, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 940, "book_page": 936, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). Below, methodological issues regarding assessment of primary, secondary and tertiary impacts are discussed. Table 36.1 shows the applied impact assessment methods. While a large part of the earlier studies (before 2010) included the assessment of both primary and secondary impacts of site remediation, the newer studies generally focus on the secondary impacts with a few exceptions (Lemming et al. 2010b, c, 2012; Sparrevik et al. 2011; Hou et al. 2014b). This is a drawback as primary impacts can contribute substantially to human health impact categories and their inclusion in the assessment can change the comparative ranking among remediation alternatives. The reason for not including primary impacts may be that their quantification is not straight forward", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3308, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 940, "book_page": 936, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reason for not including primary impacts may be that their quantification is not straight forward. Assessing the primary impacts most often requires site-specific fate and exposure models, while existing toxicity models, which are well suited to generic LCIA, employ generalised box models and exposure scenarios that in many cases are not representative of the specific conditions at the contaminated site. Furthermore, deep soil layers and the groundwater compartment are usually disregarded in the generic models, which make it questionable to use them for sites where groundwater contamination is the main concern. Earlier studies used the generic LCIA toxicity models for the evaluation of primary impacts, whereas newer studies (Lemming et al. 2010c, 2012; Sparrevik G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3309, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 940, "book_page": 936, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.1 LCIA methodologies used in LCA studies applied to remediation technologies Reference Life cycle impact assessment Comment Midpoint Endpoint Diamond et al. (1999) X Page et al. (1999) x Volkwein et al. (1999) X ScanRail Consult et al. (2000) x (EDIP97) Vignes (2001) LCIA based on pollution factors for each emission relative to the limit value for each emission Ribbenhed et al. (2002) x (USES-LCA + other) Blanc et al. (2004) Intentionally terminated at inventory level Godin et al. (2004) x (EDIP97) Toffoletto et al. (2005) x (EDIP97) Bayer and Finkel (2006) X Cadotte et al. (2007) x (TRACI) Lesage et al. (2007a, b) x (IMPACT2002+) Higgins and Olson (2009) x (TRACI) Lemming et al. (2010b) x (EDIP97) Lemming et al. (2010c) x (EDIP2003 + USEtox) Evans and Wilkie (2010) Study uses only on net energy balance ratio (NEBR) and benefit\u2013 cost ratio (BCR) Sanscartier et al. (2010) x (IMPACT2002+) Cappuyns et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3310, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 941, "book_page": 937, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010c) x (EDIP2003 + USEtox) Evans and Wilkie (2010) Study uses only on net energy balance ratio (NEBR) and benefit\u2013 cost ratio (BCR) Sanscartier et al. (2010) x (IMPACT2002+) Cappuyns et al. (2011) LCA-based REC (risk reduction, environmental merit and costs) (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3311, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 941, "book_page": 937, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.1 (continued) Reference Life cycle impact assessment Comment Midpoint Endpoint Hu et al. (2010) x (IMPACT 2002 + + IPCC + Ecoindicator 99) x (IMPACT 2002 +) Inoue and Katayama (2011) Energy consumption and CO2 emissions determined applying economic input\u2013output LCA Mak and Lo (2011) x (TRACI) Sparrevik et al. (2011) x (ReCiPe) Suer and Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld (2011) x (EPD) x (ReCiPe) Busset et al. (2012) x (CML2001) Hong and Li (2012) x (IMPACT 2002+) x (IMPACT 2002 +) Lubrecht (2012) SiteWise method\u2014 emission summed up and expressed as mass (GHG, NOx, SOx, PM10) Witters et al. (2012) \u201cAnalysis is limited to the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of CO2\u201d Lemming et al. (2012) X (EDIP2003 + USEtox) Hou et al. (2014a) x (TRACI) Hou et al. (2014b) x (ReCiPe) Beames et al. (2015) x (ReCiPe) Includes modification to the land use impact Vigil et al. (2015) x (ReCiPe) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3312, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 942, "book_page": 938, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "et al. 2011) included site-specific fate and exposure models. As none of the existing LCIA toxicity models takes formation of metabolites into account, these should also be addressed using site-specific models. Alternatively, metabolites can be included in life cycle inventory and characterised in the LCIA phase. Again, attention must be paid to representativeness of the (generic) CF to site conditions which are often far from the average situation conditions, for which CF are developed. Overall, we recommend using site-specific models to quantify primary impacts. Of the reviewed LCA studies of site remediation published before 2010, all except Lesage et al. (2007b) applied midpoint characterisation models (Chap. 10). Within the recent 5-year period, endpoint characterisation has gained a larger application and was used in seven studies published after 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3313, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 943, "book_page": 939, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10). Within the recent 5-year period, endpoint characterisation has gained a larger application and was used in seven studies published after 2010. Midpoint characterisation models are probably sufficient to assess environmental impacts, given that no endpoint characterisation approaches are mature enough to be recommended by ILCD (Hauschild et al. 2013). A number of studies applied simplified methodologies, focusing either solely on the global warming impact (Inoue and Katayama 2011; Witters et al. 2012) and/or the energy use (Inoue and Katayama 2011; Evans and Wilkie 2010) or using one of the simplified screening tools REC (Cappuyns et al. 2011) or Sitewise (Lubrecht 2012). The REC tool (Beinat et al 1997) focuses mainly on energy-related impacts combined with some local impacts (water use, soil quality), but exclude material manufacturing from the inventory. The SiteWise tool (NAVFAC et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3314, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 943, "book_page": 939, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The SiteWise tool (NAVFAC et al. 2011) only employs an actual impact assessment for the global warming impact, whereas emissions of NOx, SOx and PM10 are not characterised, but only presented as the summed mass of each emission type. A major drawback of these simplified screening tools is the incompleteness of the assessment and the limited impact focus. Such assessments may bias the comparison of remediation alternatives or result in burden-shifting due to the exclusion of potentially relevant impact categories and incomplete characterisation of emissions. In this context, it is important to note here that LCA applied to remediation technologies are subjected to similar constraints as LCAs applied to other systems; in all cases normative choices with respect to the applied LCIA methodology can influence the results and their interpretation (Dreyer et al. 2003)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3315, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 943, "book_page": 939, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2003). Care must be taken to base decisions on results without quantifying the associated uncertainties, particularly if some, potentially important, impact categories are not assessed. To complement site-specific assessment of primary impacts, we thus recommend including all life cycle impact categories in assessment of secondary impacts. In addition, we also advocate including a no action scenario as a reference point to which any remediation option should be compared to illustrate if there is net-benefit from remediation. LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3316, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 943, "book_page": 939, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Assessment of tertiary impacts was done in the study be Lesage et al. (2007a, b) as a part of the consequential LCA taking the future use of the site into account and also done in the study by Hou et al. (2014b). The assessment of tertiary impacts also is not straight forward as it requires assumptions to be made for the unknown future. The assessment needs to answer questions such as \u201cif this site is not cleaned up, which land (if any) will then be used instead?\u201d The answer to this question may depend on many factors such as the local land market and demand as well as political decisions on urban development. One solution for dealing with this uncertainty is to include different future scenarios for use of the site and the possible new sites developed as a consequence of not remediating the contaminated site. In the study by Hou et al. (2014b), the assessment of the tertiary impact shifted the overall net-benefit of the remediation project to being positive. Hou et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3317, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 944, "book_page": 940, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In the study by Hou et al. (2014b), the assessment of the tertiary impact shifted the overall net-benefit of the remediation project to being positive. Hou et al. (2014b) therefore concludes that it is important to include all three types of impacts in order to assess the overall benefit of a remedial measure. 36.4 Conclusions Today, there is increasing interest in applying LCA to support decision-makers in contaminated site management (Holland et al. 2009, 2011; Holland 2011). Indeed, the extent of soil and groundwater pollution globally suggests that even if a fraction of all sites is cleaned up in the future, a selection of less polluting technologies can potentially lead to reduction of environmental impacts from remediation. The most important question in this context are: (i) Is there a net-benefit from remediation? (ii) Do primary, secondary and tertiary impacts have equal weight? The limited number of studies without serious methodological problems (see Owsianiak et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3318, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 944, "book_page": 940, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013 for statistics) and only occasional comparisons with no action scenario suggest that the answer to the first question cannot yet be given with certainty. The answer to the second question will depend on stakeholder views and perspectives, and may vary depending on the site and its future application (e.g. providing access to clean water may be more important than providing clean land for housing). In conclusion, LCA is an important tool for the assessment of the secondary environmental impacts of remediation. However, in order to obtain robust decisions for the management of contaminated sites, the combination of LCA with other tools may be necessary (e.g. multi-criteria decision analysis tools, use of site-specific fate and exposure models and consideration of stakeholder views). Appendix See Table 36.2. G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3319, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 944, "book_page": 940, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 Overview of LCA case studies of contaminated site remediation and the impacts included Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 1. Diamond et al. Ex situ Excavation and disposal (S) Soil washing (S) Not specified X X Production of an equivalent amount of treated soil and groundwater (mass/volume) 25 years \u201cThe framework facilitates a methodic investigation of activities associated with site remediation, and guides the analysis of potential environmental, human health, and resource depletion impacts. The framework allows for the consideration of a wide range of potential impacts by expanding consideration beyond a contaminated site itself, and the temporal boundary of on-site activities\u201d In situ No action Soil vapour extraction (S) In situ bioremediation (G) Containment Encapsulation (S) 2. Page et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3320, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 945, "book_page": 941, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Page et al. (1999) Ex situ Excavation and disposal (S) Lead X X Production of an equivalent amount of treated soil and groundwater (mass/volume) 25 years \u201cThe effects of the excavation and disposal remediation option extend beyond the contaminated site itself, and only become evident when analyzed from a life-cycle perspective\u201d 3. Volkwein et al. (1999) Ex situ Excavation and on-site secured disposal (S) Excavation and decontamination (S) PAHs, mineral oil, chromium X The ensemble of activities to achieve a certain risk level Not specified \u201cThe tool supplements the environmental information gained by a risk assessment with information about secondary impacts\u201d Containment Surface sealing with asphalt (S) (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3321, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 945, "book_page": 941, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 4. ScanRail Consult et al. (2000) Ex situ Excavation and external biological treatment (S) Chlorinated ethenes, hydrocarbons X X Not specified Not specified \u201cThe environmental costs of excavation, biosparging, and bioventing were generally of the same order of magnitude, whereas the environmental costs of the reactive wall were higher and the environmental costs of the biological wall lower compared to the other techniques\u201d In situ Biosparging (G) Bioventilation (S) Permeable reactive barrier (G) Biological barrier (G) 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3322, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 946, "book_page": 942, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Vignes (2001) Ex situ Pump-and-treat (on-site vacuum steam stripping) (G) Pump-and-treat (on-site activated carbon treatment) (G) Excavation and thermal treatment (S) 1,2,3-Trichloropropane (TCP) and total xylenes (G) Mix of organic contaminants (S) X x Not specified Not specified \u201cDoing nothing and excavation with thermal treatment are by far the worst options both locally and globally\u201d In situ No action Aerobic bioremediation (S) Anaerobic bioremediation (S) Containment Cap and contain (S) 6. Ribbenhed et al. (2002) Ex situ Thermal treatment (S) Bioslurry (S) Soil washing (S) PAHs, mercury, cadmium x x 1000 kg of dry sediment into treatment Not specified \u201cThe largest environmental impact is caused by the energy and/or electricity consumption and by the transportation of the material in the case where treatment of the material takes place off site\u201d (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3323, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 946, "book_page": 942, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 7. Blanc et al. (2004) Ex situ Excavation and off-site landfilling (S) Excavation and on-site containment (S) Excavation and liming stabilization (S) Excavation and bio-leaching (S) Sulphur X A treatment of the site that allows environmental risks to be reduced to an acceptable level over the short term Short term \u201cOn-site containment appears to be the most environmentally-friendly technique, whereas bio-leaching and off-site landfilling result in the most important environmental burdens\u201d 8. Godin et al. (2004) In situ No action Spent potlining landfill X X The management of 460,000 m3 of wastemix and 200,000 m3 of contaminated soil for a period of 50 years 50 years \u201cThe LCA identified no action as having the least environmental impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3324, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 947, "book_page": 943, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However [...] contaminant concentrations 50 years from the present could be approximately 30\u201340 times the regulatory criteria if this option is retained\u201d Ex situ Excavation and on-site secured disposal (S) Excavation and treatment (S) Excavation and incineration (S) 9. Toffoletto et al. (2005) Ex situ Excavation with on-site biopiles (S) Diesel oil X X Remediation during 2-year period of 8000 m3 of diesel-contaminated soil to the Quebec B criterion 2 years \u201cOne major observation was the fact that the soil itself is responsible for an important fraction of the system\u2019s total impact, suggesting that it is beneficial to reach the highest level of remediation\u201d (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3325, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 947, "book_page": 943, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 10. Bayer and Finkel (2006) Ex situ Pump-and-treat (G) PAHs, Tar X Control of a certain contaminated aquifer zone by complying with a certain concentration level 30 years \u201cA crucial finding that can be applied to any other site is the central role of steel, which particularly derogates the valuation of the funnel-and-gate system due to the associated emissions that are harmful to human health\u201d In situ Permeable barrier (G) (Funnel-and-gate) 11. Cadotte et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3326, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 948, "book_page": 944, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cadotte et al. (2007) Ex situ Pump-and-treat (G) Excavation with on-site biopiles (S) Diesel oil X x Remediation of a 375 m3 diesel-contaminated site to the Quebec B criterion in soil (700 mg kg\u22121) and to the detectable limit of C10\u2013C50 for potable groundwater and surface water (0.1 mg L\u22121) 2\u2013300 years depending on technology \u201cThe all biological in situ scenario showed the least secondary and primary impacts [...]. On the other hand, the in situ biological + chemical scenario produced the most secondary impacts and quickly removed primary impacts\u201d In situ Natural attenuation (S) Bioventing (S) Chemical oxidation (G) Biosparging (G) Oil removal (NAPL) Bioslurping (NAPL) 12. Lesage et al. (2007a, b) Ex situ Excavation and off-site disposal (S) (brownfield rehabilitation) Metals, PAHs, hydrocarbons X x x Legal and appropriate intervention on 1 ha of the tracked brownfield 4 yearsa 44 yearsb \u201cThe ALCAa results show no clear preference for either intervention option [...]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3327, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 948, "book_page": 944, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The CLCAb unequivocally supports rehabilitation if it is followed by residential use, as long as the development of suburban sites is avoided\u201d Containment Covering with 30 cm of clean soil (S) (risk minimization) (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3328, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 948, "book_page": 944, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 13. Higgins and Olson (2009) Ex situ Pump-and-treat (PTS)(G) Chlorinated ethenes and ethanes x The system-specific requirements (energy, materials) needed to provide effective capture of the contaminant plume and treatment for 30 years 30 years \u201cPotential impacts of the model PRB are driven by the ZVI reactive medium and the energy usage during construction, while for PTS they are driven by the operational energy demand\u201d In situ Permeable reactive barrier with zero-valent iron (PRB) (G) 14. Lemming et al. (2010b) Ex situ Excavation, off-site aeration and disposal (S) Perchloroethene (PCE) X x Treatment of the 7500 m3 of contaminated soil within a 30 year timeframe 30 years/100 years \u201cThe most favorable remediation technique was soil vapor extraction when a time boundary of 30 years was used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3329, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 949, "book_page": 945, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[...] If a more realistic time frame (100 years) is used, the soil vapor extraction method becomes less favorable and the thermal method is the preferred option\u201d In situ Soil vapour extraction (S) In situ thermal desorption (S) 15. Lemming et al. (2010c) Ex situ Excavation, off-site treatment and disposal (S) Trichloroethene (TCE) X x Treatment of 700 m3 of contaminated soil resulting in a 98% removal of the contaminant mass within this volume 1200 years \u201cThe primary human toxic impacts were high for ERD due to the formation and leaching of chlorinated degradation products [...]. However, the secondary human toxic impacts of ISTD and excavation are likely to be even higher, particularly due to upstream impacts from steel production\u201d In situ Natural attenuation (S) Enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) (S) In situ thermal desorption (ISTD) (S) (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3330, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 949, "book_page": 945, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 16. Evans and Wilkie (2010) In situ Nutrient remediation by the aquatic plant hydrilla combined with production of biogas and compost (Hydrilla verticillata) (W) Phosphorus and nitrogen x 1 ha of aquatic plant harvesting Not specified \u201cNet energy and economic gains were found using moderate data assumptions, which suggests that plant harvest may be an attractive management strategy for many lakes affected by hydrilla\u201d \u201cThe respective energy and economic value outputs are largely decoupled, as energy output is dominated by biogas and fertiliser output, while economic output is dominated by the value of removing nutrients from aquatic systems and avoiding the use of herbicides\u201d 17. Sanscartier et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3331, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 950, "book_page": 946, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sanscartier et al. (2010) Ex situ Excavation, bioremediation on-site (biopiles) and disposal in an unlined landfill (S) Excavation, mechanical mixing off-site, and disposal in an unlined landfill (S) Diesel oil x Treatment of 112 m3 of soil contaminated with diesel to an acceptable risk level over the short term Not specified \u201cOn-site ex situ bioremediation in a temporary facility, followed by disposal in an unlined landfill, was found to have environmental impacts similar to in situ treatment, but far less than those for off-site treatment\u201d In situ Paving with asphalt and bioventing (S) (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3332, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 950, "book_page": 946, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 18. Cappuyns et al. (2011) Ex situ Excavation and off-site cleaning (S) Exxsol, an aliphatic hydrocarbon (C-13) x Not clearly defined, but the study aims at \u201cremediation values\u201d equal 1500 mg/kg and 500 lg/L of Exxsol in soil and groundwater, respectively Not specified \u201cAccording to the REC analysis, in situ thermal treatment showed a lower global environmental impact than soil excavation and off-site treatment, mainly because there were fewer emissions from the transport of contaminated soil\u201d \u201cWithin the environmental aspects group of the BATNEEC method, soil excavation performed better than thermal soil remediation because it obtained a better score to meet the legal objectives for soil and groundwater quality\u201d In situ Remediation based on thermal conduction (S) 19. Hu et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3333, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 951, "book_page": 947, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hu et al. (2010) Ex situ High Temperature Incineration, IHTI (S) Base catalysed decomposition, BCD (S) Polychlorynated biphenyl (PCB) x Treatment of 10,000 tons of PCB contaminated soil from 800 to 1000 ppm to less than 5 ppm Not specified \u201cBCD potentially has a lower environmental impact than IHTI technology in the PCB contaminated soil remediation process\u201d \u201cThe major environmental impacts through the whole lifecycle arose from energy consumption in both IHTI and BCD processes. For IHTI, primary and secondary combustion (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3334, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 951, "book_page": 947, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter subsystem contributes more than 50% of midpoint impacts concerning with carcinogens, respiratory inorganics, respiratory organics, terrestrial ecotoxity, terrestrial acidification/eutrophication and global warming\u201d 20. Inoue and Katayama (2011) In situ (hypothetical case) Landfarming (S) Dieldrin x To reduce a contaminant concentration below the soil criterion for 1000 m3 soil of agricultural field 15 days\u2013 60 months \u201cEnergy consumption and CO2 emission were determined from a life cycle inventory analysis using monetary-based intensity based on an input\u2013output table. The values of RNSOIL based on risk\u2013cost, risk\u2013 energy consumption and risk\u2013CO2 emission were calculated, and then rankings of the candidates were compiled according to RNSOIL values", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3335, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 952, "book_page": 948, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The values of RNSOIL based on risk\u2013cost, risk\u2013 energy consumption and risk\u2013CO2 emission were calculated, and then rankings of the candidates were compiled according to RNSOIL values. A comparison between three rankings showed the different ranking orders\u201d Ex situ (hypothetical case) Disposal (S) High temperature thermal desorption, HTTD (S) Excavation and biopile (S) 21. Mak and Lo (2011) In situ Permeable reactive barrier (PRB). Construction methods, materials of reactive media, and groundwater Chromium (VI) or chromium (VI) and arsenic (V) x Successful treatment of 20 000 m3 of the contaminated groundwater to the treatment goal, while the temporal boundary is 30 years 30 years \u201cTrench-based construction method can reduce the environmental impacts of the remediation remarkably compared to the (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3336, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 952, "book_page": 948, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter constituents are compared (G) caisson-based method due to less construction material consumption by the funnel\u201d 22. Sparrevik et al. (2011) In situ Natural recovery Capping using clay (SED) Capping using crushed limestone (SED) Capping using fossil anthracite coal-based active carbon (SED) Capping using biomass-based active carbon (SED) Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and \u2014furans (PCDD/Fs) X x Remediation of an area of sediments the same size as to the whole inner fjord (23.4 km2), conservatively assessed for a 90-year time period 90 years \u201cUse of biomass-derived activated carbon, where carbon dioxide is sequestered during the production process, reduces the overall environmental impact to that of natural recovery\u201d 23", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3337, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 953, "book_page": 949, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Suer and Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld (2011) Ex situ Excavation, landfilling and refilling with pristine material (S) Mineral oil x Not specified 20 years and 40 days \u201cThe biofuel remediation had great environmental advantages compared to the ex situ excavation remediation. With the ReCiPe impact assessment method, which included biodiversity, the net environmental effect was even positive, in spite of the fact that the wood harvest was not utilised for biofuel production, but left on the contaminated site\u201d In situ Phytoremediation using willow (Salix viminalis) (S) (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3338, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 953, "book_page": 949, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 24. Busset et al. (2012) Ex situ Bioremediation with mechanical aeration (S) Bioremediation with electric aeration (S) Incineration with natural gas (S) Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) x Treating 600 t of PCB contaminated moist soil (20% moisture) to reduce its PCB concentration from 200 to 50 mg/kg of soil Not specified \u201cIn most compared categories, the bioremediation processes are favourable. Of the bioremediation options, the lowest environmental footprint was observed for electric aeration. Irrespective of the aeration option, bioremediation was better than incineration\u201d 25", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3339, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 954, "book_page": 950, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Of the bioremediation options, the lowest environmental footprint was observed for electric aeration. Irrespective of the aeration option, bioremediation was better than incineration\u201d 25. Hong and Li (2012) Lab-scale Biodechlorination under methanogenic conditions using acetate as electron donor (SLUDGE) Biodechlorination under methanogenic conditions using lactate as electron donor (SLUDGE) Biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions using Pentachloroaniline (PCA) x Dechlorination of 1 lM PCA in sludge Not specified \u201cOptimizing the concentration of amended electron donors and increasing the population size of dechlorinating microorganisms are highly important in reducing the environmental burden by PCA bioremediation\u201d \u201cResults showed that the methanol scenario was the (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3340, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 954, "book_page": 950, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter methanol as electron donor (SLUDGE) Biodechlorination under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions using methanol + glucose as electron donor (SLUDGE) most suitable option determined in this research\u201d 26. Lubrecht (2012) In situ Horizontal directional drilling (HDD) crossing a groundwater plume (G) Auger drilling (wells spread across a plume) (G) Not specified groundwater contaminant x Not specified. The basis for comparison is target depth of the plume. No remediation targets specified Not specified \u201cAlthough both auger and horizontal drilling are considered to be high-emissions activities, comparing the two operations with the SiteWise application confirms that air emissions can be reduced during well construction by using HDD\u201d 27. Witters et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3341, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 955, "book_page": 951, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Witters et al. (2012) In situ Phytoremediation using willow (Salix spp.) combined with digestion and combustion (S) Cadmium x Not clearly defined, but the study focuses on \u201cenergy production and CO2 abatement per hectare per year 1 year \u201cTaking into account the marginal impact of the metals in the biomass on the energy conversion efficiency and on the potential use of (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3342, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 955, "book_page": 951, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter Phytoremediation using silage maize (Zea mays L.) combined with digestion and combustion (S) Phytoremediation using rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) combined with digestion and combustion (S) the biomass and its rest products after conversion, digestion of silage maize with combustion of the contaminated digestate shows the best energetic and CO2 abating perspectives\u201d 28. Lemming et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3343, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 956, "book_page": 952, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Lemming et al. (2012) In situ Enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) Long-term monitoring Long-term monitoring with activated carbon treatment at waterworks Trichloroethene (TCE) X x The management of the target treatment zone leading to a 99% removal of the contaminant mass 830 years \u201cThe aggregated environmental impact generated on the global, regional and local scales was greater than the local environmental impact removed in all the assessed scenarios. Overall, long-term monitoring and ERD were found to be the preferable management options as they resulted in the lowest secondary environmental impacts\u201d [...] \u201cISCO generates especially high levels of secondary impacts due to the applied permanganate\u201d (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3344, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 956, "book_page": 952, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 29. Hou et al. (2014a) In situ Enhanced in situ bioremediation (EIB), permeable reactive barrier (PRB), and in situ chemical reduction (ISCR) Chlorinated ethylene x To to reduce the levels of PCE and its daughter products (i.e. TCE, DCE and vinyl chloride) within the treatment zone of the GSCM to levels below the California Maximum Contaminant Level (Cal-MCL) for drinking water with a 30-year timeframe. The Cal-MCL is 5 mg/L for PCE, 5 mg/L for TCE, 6 mg/L for 1.1-DCE and cis-1.2-DCE, and 0.5 mg/L for vinyl chloride 30 years \u201cIn general source zone treatment technologies (i.e. EIB and ISCR) tend to have less life cycle impact than containment technologies (i.e. P&T and PRB)\u201d \u201cSite-specific parameters can have profound effects on the secondary life cycle impact of remediation alternatives at chlorinated solvent sites", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3345, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 957, "book_page": 953, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "P&T and PRB)\u201d \u201cSite-specific parameters can have profound effects on the secondary life cycle impact of remediation alternatives at chlorinated solvent sites. In evaluating four remediation methods, P&T, PRB, EIB and ISCR, plume dimension parameters and hydrogeological parameters were found to have the most extensive and significant effects\u201d Ex situ Pump\u2013and-treat (P&T) 30. Hou et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3346, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 957, "book_page": 953, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hou et al. (2014b) In situ No action Contaminated sediment containing heavy metals x x x For the studied case, when evaluating the different planning options, the functional unit was managing approximately 2500 m of waterways adjacent to the London Olympic Park for 100 years; when evaluating the different treatment methods, the functional unit was dredging approximately 30,000 m3 of sediment and disposing the sediment in accordance with all applicable regulations 100 years \u201cThe hybrid LCA offers a more complete system boundary than traditional process-based LCA\u201d \u201cIn comparing soil washing with landfilling, the present study found that soil washing was superior to landfilling, in most social, economic, and environmental impact categories\u201d Ex situ Soil washing Landfilling (continued) LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3347, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 957, "book_page": 953, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter 31. Beames et al. (2015) In situ In situ Multiphase Extraction (MPE) Mix of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, mineral oil, chlorinated volatile organic compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls, chlorophenols, phenols and cresol x The functional unit in this study is the removal of approximately 80% of the estimated 500 metric tons of contaminant mass from a subsurface soil volume of approximately 40,000 m3 6 years/15 years \u201cThe results show that there is a trade-off between greenhouse gas emissions and land availability [...]. Excavation leads to greater impacts in all the standard ReCiPe impact categories. The proposed impact assessment amendments show that Excavation yields the benefit of the site itself as a resource being available sooner\u201d Ex situ Excavation and ex situ treatment of soil 32. Vigil et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3348, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 958, "book_page": 954, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Vigil et al. (2015) In situ Phytoremediation and biogas production Phytoremediation and landfill Heavy metals (lead) x One hectare of decontaminated land 40 days/32 years \u201cPhytoremediation can provide a net sustainable benefit when used to recover soils polluted with heavy metals. The production of SNG (synthetic natural gas) is a key factor to the sustainability of a phytoremediation project because while contaminated land is being remediated, Ex situ Excavation and landfill (continued) G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3349, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 958, "book_page": 954, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 36.2 (continued) Reference Technologies included Contaminants Impacts included Functional unit Time boundary for LCI Result or conclusion Pri Sec Ter fossil fuel depletion is avoided and the metal-rich biomass is efficiently managed. A comparison of the same scheme, but with the biomass going to landfill, emphasises that phytoremediation sustainability is compromised when the biomass produced is not valorized in some way\u201d Pri Primary impacts, Sec Secondary impacts and Ter Tertiary impacts. S soil, G groundwater, SED sediment, SLUDGE sludge, W = wetland aAttributional LCA bConsequential LCA LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3350, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 959, "book_page": 955, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bayer, P., Finkel, M.: Life cycle assessment of active and passive groundwater remediation technologies. J. Contam. Hydrol. 83, 171\u2013199 (2006). doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2005.11.005 Beames, A., Broekx, S., Heijungs, R., Lookman, R., Boonen, K., Van Geert, Y., Dendoncker, K., Seuntjens, P.: Accounting for land-use efficiency and temporal variations between brownfield remediation alternatives in life-cycle assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 101, 109\u2013117 (2015). doi:10. 1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.073 Beinat, E., van Drunen, M.A., Janssen, R., Nijboer, M.H., Koolenbrander, J.G.M., Okx, J.P., Sch\u00fctte, A.R.: REC: a methodology for comparing soil remedial alternatives based on the criteria of risk reduction, environmental merit and costs. CUR/Nobis report 95-10-3, Gouda, The Netherlands (1997) Blanc, A., Metivier-Pignon, H., Gourdon, R., Rousseaux, P.: Life cycle assessment as a tool for controlling the development of technical activities: application to the remediation of a site contaminated by sulfur", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3351, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 960, "book_page": 956, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Adv. Environ. Res. 8, 613\u2013627 (2004). doi:10.1016/s1093-0191(03) 00034-0 Busset, G., Sangely, M., Montrejaud-Vignoles, M., et al.: Life cycle assessment of polychlorinated biphenyl contaminated soil remediation processes. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 325\u2013336 (2012). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0366-7 Cappuyns, V., Bouckenooghe, D., van Breuseghem, L., van Herreweghe, S.: Can thermal soil remediation be sustainable? A case study of the environmental merit of the remediation of a site contaminated by a light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL). J. Integr. Environ. Sci. 8, 103\u2013121 (2011). doi:10.1080/1943815x.2011.564187 Cadotte, M., Deschenes, L., Samson, R.: Selection of a remediation scenario for a diesel-contaminated site using LCA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 239\u2013251 (2007). doi:10. 1065/lca2007.05.328 Caliman, F.A., Robu, B.M., Smaranda, C., et al.: Soil and groundwater cleanup: benefits and limits of emerging technologies. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 13, 241\u2013268 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3352, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 960, "book_page": 956, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1065/lca2007.05.328 Caliman, F.A., Robu, B.M., Smaranda, C., et al.: Soil and groundwater cleanup: benefits and limits of emerging technologies. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 13, 241\u2013268 (2011). doi:10.1007/ s10098-010-0319-z Collaran, E. (Ed.).: Methods in Biotechnology, Vol. 2: Bioremediation Protocols. Human Press, Totowa (1997) Diamond, M.L., Page, C.A., Campbell, M., McKenna, S., Lall, R.: Life-cycle framework for assessment of site remediation options: method and generic survey. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18, 788\u2013800 (1999). doi:10.1002/etc.5620180427 Dreyer, L.C., Niemann, A.L., Hauschild, M.Z.: Comparison of three different LCIA methods: EDIP97, CML2001 and Eco-indicator 99\u2014does it matter which one you choose? Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 8, 191\u2013200 (2003). doi:10.1065/lca2003.06.115 EEA: Progress in management of contaminated sites. Report CSI 015", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3353, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 960, "book_page": 956, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Life Cycle Assess. 8, 191\u2013200 (2003). doi:10.1065/lca2003.06.115 EEA: Progress in management of contaminated sites. Report CSI 015. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen (2007) Evans, J.M., Wilkie, A.C.: Life cycle assessment of nutrient remediation and bioenergy production potential from the harvest of hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata). J. Environ. Manag. 91, 2626\u20132631 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.07.040 Frischknecht, R., Jungbluth, N., Althaus, H.J., Doka, G., Heck, T., Hellweg, S., Hischier, R., Nemecek, T., Rebitzer, G., Spielmann, M., Wernet, G.: Overview and methodology. Ecoinvent Report No. 1. Swiss Centre for Life-Cycle Inventories, D\u00fcbendorf (2007) Godin, J., Menard, J.F., Hains, S., et al.: Combined use of life cycle assessment and groundwater transport modeling to support contaminated site management. Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 10, 1099\u20131116 (2004)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3354, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 960, "book_page": 956, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. 10, 1099\u20131116 (2004). doi:10.1080/10807030490887159 Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guinee, J., et al.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013 697 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3355, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 960, "book_page": 956, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Higgins, M.R., Olson, T.M.: Life-cycle case study comparison of permeable reactive barrier versus pump-and-treat remediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 9432\u20139438 (2009). doi:10.1021/ es9015537 Holland, K.S.: A framework for sustainable remediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 7116\u20137117 (2011). doi:10.1021/es202595w Holland, K.S., Favara, P.: The sustainable remediation forum. Remediat J 19, 115\u2013119 (2009). doi:10.1002/rem.20211 Holland, K.S., Lewis, R.E., Tipton, K., et al.: Framework for integrating sustainability into remediation projects. Remediat. J. 21, 7\u201338 (2011). doi:10.1002/rem.20288 Hong, J.L., Li, X.Z.: Life cycle assessment comparison of substrates for the bioremediation of pentachloroaniline under acidogenic/methanogenic conditions. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 79\u201388 (2012). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0338-y Hou, D., Al-Tabbaa, A., Luo, J.: Assessing effects of site characteristics on remediation secondary life cycle impact with a generalised framework. J. Environ. Plan", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3356, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 961, "book_page": 957, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0338-y Hou, D., Al-Tabbaa, A., Luo, J.: Assessing effects of site characteristics on remediation secondary life cycle impact with a generalised framework. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 1\u201318 (2014a). doi:10. 1080/09640568.2013.863754 Hou, D., Al-Tabbaa, A., Guthrie, P., Hellings, J., Gu, Q.: Using a hybrid LCA method to evaluate the sustainability of sediment remediation at the London Olympic Park. J. Clean. Prod. 83, 87\u2013 95 (2014b). doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.07.062 Hu, X.T., Zhu, J.X., Ding, Q.O.: Application of life cycle assessment on technology selection for POPs contaminated sites management and remediation. In: Selected Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Waste Management and Technology (ICWMT 5), pp. 509\u2013513 (2010) Inoue, Y., Katayama, A.: Two-scale evaluation of remediation technologies for a contaminated site by applying economic input\u2013output life cycle assessment: risk-cost, risk\u2013energy consumption and risk\u2013CO2 emission. J. Hazard. Mater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3357, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 961, "book_page": 957, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Hazard. Mater. 192, 1234\u20131242 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011. 06.029 ISO.: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014principles and framework (ISO 14040). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006a) ISO.: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014requirements and guidelines (ISO 14044). ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, Geneva (2006b) JRC.: ILCD Handbook: General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Provisions and Action Steps, 1st edn. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra, Italy (2010) Lemming, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Bjerg, P.L.: Life cycle assessment of soil and groundwater remediation technologies: literature review. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15, 115\u2013127 (2010a). doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0129-x Lemming, G., Friis-Hansen, P., Bjerg, P.L.: Risk-based economic decision analysis of remediation options at a PCE-contaminated site. J. Environ. Manag", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3358, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 961, "book_page": 957, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1007/s11367-009-0129-x Lemming, G., Friis-Hansen, P., Bjerg, P.L.: Risk-based economic decision analysis of remediation options at a PCE-contaminated site. J. Environ. Manag. 91, 1169\u20131182 (2010b) Lemming, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Chambon, J., et al.: Environmental impacts of remediation of a trichloroethene-contaminated site: life cycle assessment of remediation alternatives. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 9163\u20139169 (2010c). doi:10.1021/es102007s Lemming, G., Chambon, J.C., Binning, P.J., Bjerg, P.L.: Is there an environmental benefit from remediation of a contaminated site? Combined assessments of the risk reduction and life cycle impact of remediation. J. Environ. Manage. 112, 392\u2013403 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.jenvman. 2012.08.002 Lesage, P., Ekvall, T., Deschenes, L., Samson, R.: Environmental assessment of Brownfield rehabilitation using two different life cycle inventory models. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 391\u2013398 (2007a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3359, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 961, "book_page": 957, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 391\u2013398 (2007a). doi:10.1065/lca2006.10.279.1 Lesage, P., Ekvall, T., Deschenes, L., Samson, R.: Environmental assessment of Brownfield rehabilitation using two different life cycle inventory models\u2014part 2: case study. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 497\u2013513 (2007b). doi:10.1065/lca2006.10.279.2 Lubrecht, M.D.: Horizontal directional drilling: a green and sustainable technology for site remediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 2484\u20132489 (2012). doi:10.1021/es203765q LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3360, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 961, "book_page": 957, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Mak, M.S.H., Lo, I.M.C.: Environmental life cycle assessment of permeable reactive barriers: effects of construction methods, reactive materials and groundwater constituents. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 10148\u201310154 (2011). doi:10.1021/es202016d Morais, S.A., Delerue-Matos, C.: A perspective on LCA application in site remediation services: critical review of challenges. J. Hazard. Mater. 175, 12\u201322 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009. 10.041 NAVFAC, USACE, Batelle: SiteWiseTM version 2. User guide. UG-2092-ENV. Developed by US Navy\u2014Naval Facilities Engineering command (NAVFAC), United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), and Battelle (2011) NREL, Athena Institute, Franklin Associates, Sylvatica: U.S. LCI Database Project\u2014user\u2019s guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3361, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 962, "book_page": 958, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCI Database Project\u2014user\u2019s guide. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA, Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, Canada, Franklin Associates, Ltd., USA, Sylvatica, USA, NREL/BK-35854 (2004) Owsianiak, M., Lemming, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Bjerg, P.L.: Assessing environmental sustainability of remediation technologies in a life cycle perspective is not so easy. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 1182\u20131183 (2013). doi:10.1021/es305279t Page, C.A., Diamond, M.L., Campbell, M., McKenna, S.: Life-cycle framework for assessment of site remediation options: case study. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18, 801\u2013810 (1999). doi:10. 1897/1551-5028(1999)018<0801:lcffao>2.3.co;2 Ribbenhed, M., Wolf-Watz, C., Almemark, M., Palm, A., Sternbeck, J.: Livscykelanalys av marksaneringstekniker f\u00e0r f\u00e0rorenad jord och sediment [Life cycle assessment of remediation technologies for contaminated soil and sediment]. IVL Rapport/report B1476", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3362, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 962, "book_page": 958, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IVL Rapport/report B1476. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd., Stockholm, Sweden (2002) Sanscartier, D., Margni, M., Reimer, K., Zeeb, B.: Comparison of the secondary environmental impacts of three remediation alternatives for a diesel-contaminated site in Northern Canada. Soil Sediment Contam. 19, 338\u2013355 (2010). doi:10.1080/15320381003695256 ScanRail Consult, HOH Water Technology A/S, NIRAS Consulting Engineers and Planners A/S, Revisorsamvirket/Pannell Kerr Forster: Environmental/economic evaluation and optimising of contaminated sites remediation. EU LIFE Project No. 96ENV/DK/0016. Copenhagen, Denmark (2000) Sparrevik, M., Saloranta, T., Cornelissen, G., et al.: Use of life cycle assessments to evaluate the environmental footprint of contaminated sediment remediation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 4235\u20134241 (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3363, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 962, "book_page": 958, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 4235\u20134241 (2011). doi:10.1021/es103925u Sparrevik, M., Barton, D.N., Bates, M.E., Linkov, I.: Use of stochastic multi-criteria decision analysis to support sustainable management of contaminated sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 1326\u20131334 (2012). doi:10.1021/es202225x Suer, P., Andersson-Skold, Y.: Biofuel or excavation? Life cycle assessment (LCA) of soil remediation options. Biomass Bioenergy 35, 969\u2013981 (2011). doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2010. 11.022 Toffoletto, L., Deschenes, L., Samson, R.: LCA of ex situ bioremediation of diesel-contaminated soil. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 10, 406\u2013416 (2005). doi:10.1065/lca2004.09.180.12 US EPA.: Abstracts of remediation case studies, Vol. 4, Federal remediation technologies roundtable, EPA 542-R-00-006 (2000) US EPA.: Cleanup of the nation\u2019s waste sites: markets and technology trends. EPA 542-R-04-015. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. U. S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3364, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 962, "book_page": 958, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EPA 542-R-04-015. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington (2004) US EPA: Superfund Remedy Report, Thirteenth edn. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington (2010) Vigil, M., Marey-P\u00e9rez, M.F., Martinez Huerta, G., \u00c1lvarez Cabal, V.: Is phytoremediation without biomass valorization sustainable? Comparative LCA of landfilling vs. anaerobic co-digestion. Sci. Total Environ. 505, 844\u2013850 (2015). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.047 Vignes, R.P.: Use limited life-cycle analysis for environmental decision-making. Chem. Eng. Prog. 97, 40\u201354 (2001) Volkwein, S., Hurtig, H.-W., Kl\u00f6pffer, W.: Life cycle assessment of contaminated sites remediation. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 4, 263\u2013274 (1999). doi:10.1007/bf02979178 G.L. S\u00f8ndergaard and M. Owsianiak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3365, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 962, "book_page": 958, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Witters, N., Mendelsohn, R.O., Van Slycken, S., et al.: Phytoremediation, a sustainable remediation technology? Conclusions from a case study. I: energy production and carbon dioxide abatement. Biomass Bioenergy 39, 454\u2013469 (2012). doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.08. Author Biographies Gitte Lemming S\u00f8ndergaard LCA expert with a focus on remediation of contaminated sites. Main LCA interests are combining LCA of contaminated site remediation with remediation performance modelling, and integrating LCA into multi-criteria decision support models for contaminated site management. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3366, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "36 LCA of Soil and Groundwater Remediation", "pdf_page": 963, "book_page": 959, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part IV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3367, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 964, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 37 Michael Z. Hauschild and Anders Bj\u00f8rn Abstract The LCA cookbook presents the provisions and actions from the ILCD Handbook that are central in the performance of an LCA. The selection is intended to cover all those activities that an LCA practitioner needs to undertake in a typical process-LCA, and the presentation follows the normal progression of the LCA work according to the ISO framework. For explanation of the reasoning behind the actions, the reader is referred to the presentation of the methodological elements in Part 2 of the book. 37.1 This chapter is a cookbook with recipes on how to perform an LCA. It is intended to guide the LCA practitioner through the many steps, activities and decisions (\u201cactions\u201d) that are needed to perform an LCA according to the ILCD Handbook (EC-JRC 2010). The cookbook follows the main structure of the ISO 14044 standard and gives detailed and concrete instructions on the main steps and activities that are relevant for most LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3368, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 965, "book_page": 963, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The cookbook follows the main structure of the ISO 14044 standard and gives detailed and concrete instructions on the main steps and activities that are relevant for most LCAs. The instructions are based on provisions and actions in the ILCD Handbook that are needed in order to perform an LCA. We have chosen to base the cookbook on the ILCD Handbook since it is the most recent detailed LCA guideline, based on the body of existing LCA methods, developed through an extensive public-, expert- and stakeholder consultation process. The ILCD Handbook offers very detailed guidance and requirements to the LCA practitioner, so detailed that the important provisions sometimes drown in the detail that is offered in the documentation of less important provisions. For the cookbook, we have therefore performed a selection of those provisions and M.Z. Hauschild (&) \u0001 A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3369, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 965, "book_page": 963, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the cookbook, we have therefore performed a selection of those provisions and M.Z. Hauschild (&) \u0001 A. Bj\u00f8rn Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: mzha@dtu.dk A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_37", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3370, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 965, "book_page": 963, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "recommended actions under each provision that are most important and that need to be considered in the majority of LCA studies. We also find that the ILCD Handbook is useful as a reference for documentation of the applied methodology in a way that increases the transparency and reproducibility of an LCA study. There may be reasons why an LCA practitioner wishes to deviate from the guidelines of the ILCD Handbook, just as the chapters of Part II of this book sometimes do. In such cases the guidelines are still useful for the documentation of the methodology applied in the LCA study to be able to state where provisions have been followed, where deviations were made and what actions were taken instead. The focus of the cookbook is on answering the \u201cwhat\u201d and \u201chow\u201d questions to carrying out an LCA study. The reader is referred to the presentation and discussion of the methodological elements of LCA in Chaps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3371, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 966, "book_page": 964, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The reader is referred to the presentation and discussion of the methodological elements of LCA in Chaps. 7\u201313, for answer to any \u201cwhy\u201d questions that may arise during the use of the cookbook, and indeed, it is advisable to read these chapters prior to attempting to use the recipes of the cookbook. With respect to the reporting of an LCA study, the reader is referred to Chap. 38, which offers a template for an LCA report based on the reporting provisions of the ILCD Handbook. The intended use of this chapter is thus to serve as a quick reference for the practitioner who is already familiar with the rationale behind the different elements of the LCA methodology and simply needs guidance on which steps to undertake and how to do them in order to perform an LCA. It can also be used as a checklist to ensure that all needed activities have been performed. As illustrated in Fig. 37.1 and explained in Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3372, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 966, "book_page": 964, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It can also be used as a checklist to ensure that all needed activities have been performed. As illustrated in Fig. 37.1 and explained in Sect. 6.3, the performance of an LCA involves several iterations where earlier phases are revisited and refined based on the insights gained in later phases and the use of sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. This iterative approach should be followed, also when you use the cookbook. Fig. 37.1 Framework of LCA based with the main phases (modified from the ISO 14040 standard) M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3373, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 966, "book_page": 964, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Inspired by the ISO standard, the ILCD Handbook operates with three degrees of strength in the requirements: \u201cShall\u201d, \u201cShould\u201d and \u201cMay\u201d. \u2022 \u201cShall\u201d means that the provision is a mandatory requirement that must be followed \u2022 \u201cShould\u201d is a weaker requirement where the provision must be followed but deviations are allowed if they are clearly justified in the report. A justification can be that the provision or parts of it are not applicable, or that another solution can be demonstrated to be more appropriate \u2022 \u201cMay\u201d means that the provision is to be seen as a recommendation only (sometimes the term \u201crecommended\u201d is used instead of \u201cmay\u201d) The guidelines in the ILCD Handbook follow the ISO standard but in some provisions, the ILCD requirement is stronger than the requirement in the ISO standard. There are also cases where the ILCD provision addresses an aspect that is not covered by the ISO standard. These deviations from the standard are marked with [ISO!] and [ISO+], respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3374, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 967, "book_page": 965, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "There are also cases where the ILCD provision addresses an aspect that is not covered by the ISO standard. These deviations from the standard are marked with [ISO!] and [ISO+], respectively. Each set of provisions has a number that refers to the section of the ILCD Handbook where it is discussed. This reference has been kept to allow the reader the possibility to consult the Handbook for further in-depth explanation of the requirements. 37.2 Goal Definition The goal definition is discussed in Chap. 7 of this book. It is the first phase of the LCA, where the purpose of the study is defined and described. The goal definition is decisive for all following phases of the LCA. It guides the details of the scope definition, which sets the scene for both the inventory analysis and the impact assessment and determines the quality and level of precision that is needed from these phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3375, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 967, "book_page": 965, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finally, it frames the interpretation phase where the questions posed in the goal definition are attempted answered based on the outcome of the other methodological phases. 37.2.1 The Seven Aspects of Goal Definition The central provisions and actions from the ILCD guideline on the seven1 aspects of goal definition are the following: 1In the introduction to goal definition in Chap. 7, only six aspects are discussed because aspects IV and V are combined under one\u2014\u201cTarget audience\u201d.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3376, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 967, "book_page": 965, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Seven aspects of goal definition (Provisions 5.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Intended applications: Unambiguously identify the intended applications of the deliverable of the LCI or LCA study. 2. SHALL\u2014Limitations of study: Unambiguously identify and detail any initially set limitations for the use of the LCI/LCA study. These can be caused by the following: 2:1. Impact coverage limitations such as in Carbon footprint calculations 2:2. Methodological limitations of LCA in general or of specific method approaches applied 2:3. Assumption limitations: Specific or uncommon assumptions/scenarios modelled for the analysed system [ISO+] Note that the initially identified limitations may need to be adjusted during the later LCA phases when all the related details are clear. Other possible limitations due to lack of achieved LCI data quality may also restrict the applicability; these are identified in the later interpretation phase of the study. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3377, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 968, "book_page": 966, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Other possible limitations due to lack of achieved LCI data quality may also restrict the applicability; these are identified in the later interpretation phase of the study. 3. SHALL\u2014Reasons for study: Unambiguously identify the internal or external reason(s) for carrying out the study and the specific decisions to be supported by its outcome, if applicable. 4. SHALL\u2014Target audience of study: Unambiguously identify the audience(s) to whom the results of the study are foreseen to be communicated. 5. SHALL\u2014Type of audience: Classify the targeted audience(s) as being \u201cinternal\u201d, \u201crestricted external\u201d (e.g. specific business-to-business customers) or \u201cpublic\u201d. Differentiate also between \u201ctechnical\u201d and \u201cnon-technical\u201d audience. [ISO+] 6. SHALL\u2014Comparisons involved? Unambiguously state whether the study involves comparisons or comparative assertions across systems (e.g. products) and whether these are foreseen to be disclosed to the public. [ISO!] 7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3378, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 968, "book_page": 966, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "products) and whether these are foreseen to be disclosed to the public. [ISO!] 7. SHALL\u2014Commissioner: Identify the commissioner of the study and all other influential actors such as co-financiers, LCA experts involved, etc. Each of the seven aspects must be considered when performing an LCA. While aspects 1 and 3 are central for doing an LCA because they have pervasive influence on decisions made in later LCA phases, aspects 2, 4, 5 and 6 mainly relate to communicating the results of an LCA, and aspect 7 addresses the organisational setup of the study. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3379, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 968, "book_page": 966, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.2.2 Determining the Decision Context The decision context of the LCA influences some of the later actions of the LCA, in particular related to the handling of multifunctional processes and modelling of the background system during the inventory analysis. The decision context is determined according to the following provision: Classifying the decision context (Provisions 5.3) Table 37.1 gives an overview of the resulting, practically relevant three archetype goal situations that will be referred to throughout this document to provide the required, differentiated methodological guidance. This relates to the subsequent provisions on classifying the decision context of the LCA study: 1. SHALL\u2014Identify applicable goal situation: Identify the type of decision context of the LCI/LCA study, i.e. to which of the archetype goal situations A, B, C1 or C2 the study belongs. Draw on the goal aspects \u201cintended applications\u201d and \u201cspecific decisions to be supported\u201d), as follows: [ISO!] 1:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3380, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 969, "book_page": 967, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to which of the archetype goal situations A, B, C1 or C2 the study belongs. Draw on the goal aspects \u201cintended applications\u201d and \u201cspecific decisions to be supported\u201d), as follows: [ISO!] 1:1. Situation A\u2014\u201cMicro-level decision support\u201d: Decision support, typically at the level of products, but also single process steps, sites/companies and other systems, with no or exclusively small-scale consequences in the background system or on other systems, i.e. the consequences of the analysed decision alone are too small to overcome thresholds and trigger structural changes of installed capacity elsewhere via market mechanisms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3381, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 969, "book_page": 967, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation A covers among others the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to another goal situation than A shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions (see also the specific provisions below for differentiating between Situation A and B, and between Situation C and A/B): \u2022 Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign/simplified LCA \u2022 Weak point analysis of a specific product \u2022 Detailed Ecodesign/Design-for-recycling Table 37.1 Combination of two main aspects of the decision context: decision orientation and kind of consequences in background system or other systems Decision support? Yes Kind of process-changes in background system/other systems None or small-scale Large-scale Situation A \u201cMicro-level decision support\u201d Situation B \u201cMeso/macro-level decision support\u201d No Situation C \u201cAccounting\u201d (with C1: including interactions with other systems, C2: excluding interactions with other systems)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3382, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 969, "book_page": 967, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA/Ecodesign study \u2022 Comparison of specific goods or services \u2022 Benchmarking of specific products against the product group\u2019s average \u2022 Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) \u2022 Development of life cycle-based Type I Ecolabel criteria \u2022 Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group \u2022 Development of a life cycle-based Type III environmental declaration (e.g. Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service \u2022 Development of the \u201cCarbon footprint\u201d, \u201cPrimary energy consumption\u201d or similar indicator for a specific product \u2022 Greening the supply chain \u2022 Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use \u2022 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) \u2022 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation A 1:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3383, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 970, "book_page": 968, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation B\u2014\u201cMeso/macro-level decision support\u201d: Decision support for strategies with large-scale consequences in the background system or other systems. The analysed decision alone is large enough to result via market mechanisms in structural changes of installed capacity in at least one process outside the foreground system of the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3384, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 970, "book_page": 968, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation B covers among others the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to a goal situation other than B shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions (see also the specific provisions below for differentiating between Situation A and B and between Situation C and A/B): \u2022 Policy development: Forecasting and analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies and related policy development \u2022 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential \u2022 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation B It is important to note that the LCI modelling provisions for Situation B refer exclusively to those processes that are affected by these large-scale consequences. The other parts of the background system of the life cycle model will later be modelled as \u201cSituation A\u201d, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3385, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 970, "book_page": 968, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The other parts of the background system of the life cycle model will later be modelled as \u201cSituation A\u201d, i.e. typically all the processes with a smaller contribution to the overall results. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3386, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 970, "book_page": 968, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:3. Situation C\u2014\u201cAccounting\u201d: From a decision-making point of view, a retrospective accounting/documentation of what has happened (or will happen based on extrapolating forecasting), with no interest in any additional consequences that the analysed system may have in the background system or on other systems. Situation C has two sub-types: C1 and C2. C1 describes an existing system but accounts for interactions it has with other systems (e.g. crediting existing avoided burdens from recycling). C2 describes an existing system in isolation without accounting for the interaction with other systems. This may cover the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to a goal situation other than C1 or C2 shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions. See also the specific provision below for differentiating between Situation C and A/B: 1:3:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3387, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 971, "book_page": 969, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "See also the specific provision below for differentiating between Situation C and A/B: 1:3:1. Situation C1\u2014\u201cAccounting with interactions\u201d: \u2022 Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group or product \u2022 Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type studies \u2022 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact \u2022 Corporate or site environmental reporting including indirect effects under Environmental Management Systems (EMS) \u2022 Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply chain \u2022 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C1 1:3:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3388, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 971, "book_page": 969, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Situation C2\u2014\u201cAccounting without interactions\u201d: \u2022 Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems \u2022 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C2 Note that any decision support that would be derived needs to employ the methods under Situation A or B, with Situation C having a preparatory role only. Note, however, that due to the simplified provisions of this document, the modelling of Situation A studies (micro-level decision support) is identical to that of Situation C1 studies, but not vice versa. 2. SHALL\u2014Situation A or B: Where a study cannot initially be clearly assigned to either Situation A or B, for example when analysing major strategies of market-dominating companies or product-related questions of market-dominating products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3389, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 971, "book_page": 969, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In this situation, the guiding criteria shall be whether the consequences of the analysed decision alone are big enough to overcome related thresholds and/or other constraints and result in large-scale consequences in the installed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3390, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 971, "book_page": 969, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "production capacity outside the foreground system. Then: Situation B. If not: Situation A. Large-scale consequences shall generally be assumed if the annual additional demand or supply, triggered by the analysed decision, exceeds the capacity of the annually replaced installed capacity of the additionally demanded or supplied process, product or broader function, as applicable. If that percentage is bigger than 5%, 5% should be used instead. [ISO!] 3. SHALL\u2014Situation C1 or A/B: In the case a study cannot initially be clearly assigned to either Situation C1 or A/B, for example when it is a monitoring study but involves a comparative decision support. In this situation, the guiding criteria shall be whether a comparative decision support is to be given by the LCI/LCA study, i.e. whether the study shall be used to support decisions on alternatives with better or worse environmental performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3391, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 972, "book_page": 970, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "whether the study shall be used to support decisions on alternatives with better or worse environmental performance. Then Situation A or B applies, depending on small-scale or large-scale consequences; see related provisions. If not, i.e. the study is only retrospectively informing about better performance in the past, then Situation C applies. [ISO!] Table 37.2 presents the classification to goal situation A, B or C for a wide range of LCA applications. 37.3 Scope Definition The scope definition is discussed in Chap. 8 of this book. It is the phase where the LCA is scoped in accordance with the goal and intended application as formulated in the goal definition. Together with the goal definition it determines how the other LCA phases should be performed (Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation, including uncertainty and sensitivity analysis) and how the reporting of the LCA should be done", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3392, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 972, "book_page": 970, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is an overarching aim of the scope definition to ensure the consistency of the applied methods, assumptions, and data and to strengthen the reproducibility of the study. A scope definition encompasses the following nine scope items2: 1. Deliverables 2. Object of the assessment 3. LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes 4. System boundaries and completeness requirements 5. Representativeness of LCI data 6. Preparation of the basis for the impact assessment 7. Special requirements for system comparisons 8. Needs for critical review 2The ILCD Handbook operates with 10 scope items but here the aspect of data quality requirements, which the handbook proposes as a separate scope item, is considered under scope item 4 and 5. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3393, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 972, "book_page": 970, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 37.2 Most common types of LCI/LCA study deliverables required for specific LCA applications (indicative overview) Application areas/purposes LCA applications (from perspective of life cycle information user or provider) LCI/LCA type of deliverable and/or application required as direct input for the \u201cLCA application\u201d1, 2, 3 Applicable goal situation Related ISO standard (next to 14040 and 14044:2006) Product improvement Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign/simplified LCA d or e or i; and f A Weak point analysis of a specific product f and d A ISO/TR 14062 (2002) Detailed Ecodesign/Design-for-recycling f A ISO/TR 14062 (2002) Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA/Ecodesign study i A Product comparisons and procurement Comparison of specific goods or services e, h, or j A Benchmarking of specific products against the product group\u2019s average e A Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) e, h, or j A ISO 14015 (2001)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3394, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 973, "book_page": 971, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Comparison of specific goods or services e, h, or j A Benchmarking of specific products against the product group\u2019s average e A Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) e, h, or j A ISO 14015 (2001) Communication Development of life cycle-based Type I Ecolabel criteria d, e, g, or i A ISO 14024 (1999) Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group e or d; and f A ISO 14025 (2006) Development of a life cycle-based Type III environmental declaration (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3395, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 973, "book_page": 971, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service d or g; and f A ISO 14025 (2006) Development of the \u201cCarbon footprint\u201d, \u201cPrimary energy consumption\u201d or similar indicator for a specific product d, g, or f A ISO 14025 (2006) Calculation of indirect effects in Environmental Management Systems (EMS) b or d C1 ISO 14001 (2015) Greening the supply chain h, j, or e A ISO 14015 (2001) Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use h, d, or g A (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3396, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 973, "book_page": 971, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 37.2 (continued) Application areas/purposes LCA applications (from perspective of life cycle information user or provider) LCI/LCA type of deliverable and/or application required as direct input for the \u201cLCA application\u201d1, 2, 3 Applicable goal situation Related ISO standard (next to 14040 and 14044:2006) Across several areas Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in different applications a or b A, B, C1, or C2 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) d, h, g, or f A Strategic decision support Policy development: Forecasting & analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3397, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 974, "book_page": 972, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and related policy development e B Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential e B Accounting Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group or product d or b C1 Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type of studies e C1 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact e C1 Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply chain b, d, e, or h C1 Corporate or site environmental reporting d C1 ISO 14015 (2001), ISO 14031 (2013) Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems d C2 1Basic type as input for LCA application: a Unit process data set; b LCI results data set; c LCIA results data set; d LCA study, non-comparative; e Comparative LCA study; f Detailed LCI model of system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3398, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 974, "book_page": 972, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Application as input for other LCA applications: g KEPIs-based tool; h EPD; i Criteria set for life cycle-based Type I Ecolabel; j Life cycle-based Type I Ecolabel of the system 2Several LCA applications typically use at least alternatively the outcome of other LCA applications as input, e.g. Green Procurement often works with KEPI or Type I Ecolabel criteria. This is additionally indicated in table 3Note that LCA studies (d and e) as basic form of application can already directly provide the required LCA application, e.g. a weak point analysis of the specific product or the comparison of products in support of procurement. In that case, the letters d and e are underlined M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3399, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 974, "book_page": 972, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9. Planning reporting of results Items 2\u20136 are central for doing an LCA because these have pervasive influence on decisions made in later LCA phases. Aspects 1, 7, 8 and 9 mainly relate to reporting and communicating an LCA study. 37.3.1 Deliverables The intended deliverable depends on the intended application of the results of the LCA study. Table 37.2 gives an overview of a broad range of applications and the deliverable that is needed from the LCA to support the application. The table also links the application to the goal situation as discussed in Sect. 37.2.2. The following guidance is given on the determination of the type of LCA deliverable and intended application based on the overview given in Table 37.2. Types of LCA deliverables and intended applications (Provisions 6.3) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3400, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 975, "book_page": 973, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Types of LCA deliverables and intended applications (Provisions 6.3) 1. SHOULD\u2014Types of deliverables: Derive from the intended application(s) identified in the goal definition and any potential pre-settings, the appropriate type(s) of deliverable(s) that the LCI/LCA study should provide. Table 37.2 gives an overview. The following types are most common, listed in order of increasing comprehensiveness and/or complexity: [ISO!] 1:1. Life Cycle Inventory (\u201cLCI\u201d) study and/or data set, in the following variants: 1:1:1. Unit process study and/or data set, with two sub-types: 1:1:1:1. Single operation unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) 1:1:1:2. Black box unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) 1:1:2. Partly terminated system data set (variants: fixed or parameterised) 1:1:3. Life Cycle Inventory results (\u201cLCI results\u201d) study and/or data set 1:2. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results (\u201cLCIA results\u201d) study and/or data set 1:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3401, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 975, "book_page": 973, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Inventory results (\u201cLCI results\u201d) study and/or data set 1:2. Life Cycle Impact Assessment results (\u201cLCIA results\u201d) study and/or data set 1:3. Non-comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\u201cLCA study\u201d), i.e. including impact assessment and interpretation 1:4. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\u201cComparative LCA study\u201d), in the following variants: 1:4:1. Non-assertive comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\u201cNon-assertive comparative LCA study\u201d) 1:4:2. Comparative assertion Life Cycle Assessment study (\u201cComparative assertion LCA study\u201d), with superiority, inferiority or equality of any compared alternatives are explicitly concluded 1:5. Detailed LCI model of the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3402, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 975, "book_page": 973, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.3.2 Object of the Assessment The object of the assessment must be defined in a functional unit to ensure comparability of the studied alternatives in the case of a comparative LCA. If the purpose is to develop unit process LCI data or an environmental product declaration, the object of the assessment is defined as a reference flow (typically of one unit of the product, material or service). Function, functional unit and reference flow (Provisions 6.4) 1. SHALL\u2014Identify system or process: Identify in line with the goal and with the other scope settings the to-be-analysed system(s) or process(es) (e.g. good, service, technology, strategy, country, etc.) and describe it/them in an unambiguous way. 2. MAY\u2014Photos, specifications: Provide photos, and/or technical specifications, and/or descriptions of the system(s), if and as appropriate for the addressees. [ISO+] 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3403, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 976, "book_page": 974, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. MAY\u2014Photos, specifications: Provide photos, and/or technical specifications, and/or descriptions of the system(s), if and as appropriate for the addressees. [ISO+] 3. SHALL\u2014Identify function(s) and functional unit(s): One or more function(s) and quantitative, measurable functional unit(s) of each of the system(s) shall be clearly identified, if applicable and appropriate for the type of system. 4. SHALL\u2014Functional unit, details: The functional unit(s) shall be identified and specified in detail across all the following aspects: 4:1. Function provided (what), 4:2. in which quantity (how much), Note that, even though the \u201chow long\u201d information is important, the use intensity and resulting overall quantity of the performed function is key to valid comparisons. 4:3. for what duration (how long), and 4:4. to what quality (in what way and how well is the function provided). 4:5. Changes in the functional performance over time (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3404, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 976, "book_page": 974, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4:3. for what duration (how long), and 4:4. to what quality (in what way and how well is the function provided). 4:5. Changes in the functional performance over time (e.g. due to ageing of the product) shall be explicitly considered and quantified, as far as possible. [ISO+] 5. MAY\u2014Obligatory and positioning properties: If product systems are analysed, it is recommended to use obligatory and positioning properties for the quantitative and qualitative aspects of their function, respectively. [ISO+] 6. SHALL\u2014Measurement methods: ISO or national harmonised standards shall be used as measurement methods, as far as possible and wherever available and appropriate for use in an LCA context. Own measurement methods should only be used in case of unavailable or inappropriate harmonised standards only. They shall be clearly specified and documented and later be subject to critical review. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3405, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 976, "book_page": 974, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7. SHOULD\u2014Alternatives and complements to the functional unit: It is noted that a functional unit cannot always be given or is not appropriate/useful. In such cases, it should be replaced or complemented by another clearly defined, quantitative and measurable item as outlined below; deviations shall be concisely justified: [ISO!] 7:1. Materials and other application-unspecific products: A functional unit cannot generally be given. Only the reference flow that includes the main technical specification of the product should be provided. In this case, the reference flow is also the declared unit, but not the functional unit. 7:2. Multifunctional processes: For each function one functional unit and/or reference flow should be given, as appropriate, depending on the kind of co-function/co-product (see other items in this sub-list). Otherwise the technical specification of the process and functions should be provided in the accompanying documentation. 7:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3406, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 977, "book_page": 975, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Otherwise the technical specification of the process and functions should be provided in the accompanying documentation. 7:3. Monofunctional systems: For systems (e.g. products) with only one relevant function or combination of functions, the functional unit(s) should be specified. In addition, one reference flow with a clear and detailed system name should be provided. The functionally relevant technical specification should be provided as part of the reference flow name and/or in the accompanying documentation. 7:4. Multifunctional systems: For multifunctional systems with multiple, parallel functions, the detailed technical specification should be provided. The corresponding functional units should be given in addition and when appropriate to the given case. One reference flow with a clear and detailed system name should be provided. (This one reference flow can be split up into each one reference flow for each function in case the data set is directly used in comparative studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3407, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 977, "book_page": 975, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(This one reference flow can be split up into each one reference flow for each function in case the data set is directly used in comparative studies. This to allow substitution of single functions to achieve equivalence of compared alternatives). 7:5. Systems with alternative functions: For systems with alternative functions, the most relevant alternative functions and functional units should be specified. In addition, one reference flow with a clear and detailed system name shall be provided. The functionally relevant technical specification should be provided as part of the reference flow name and/or in the accompanying documentation. 8. SHOULD\u2014Highly variable functions: For highly variable functions of processes and systems, the way that the variable and parameters relate to the system\u2019s performance and to its inventory should be documented. This should be in form of mathematical relations or in another suitable form", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3408, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 977, "book_page": 975, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This should be in form of mathematical relations or in another suitable form. The use of parameterised data sets is recommended to support appropriate documentation and efficient use. 9. SHALL\u2014Comparative studies: For comparative studies, see Provisions 6.10 in Sect. 37.3.7. Among others, they shall be compared based on their reference flow.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3409, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 977, "book_page": 975, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.3.3 LCI Modelling Framework and Handling of Multifunctional Processes The choice of LCI modelling framework (attributional or consequential) must be made in accordance with the classification into goal situation A, B or C as described in Sect. 37.2.1. The handling of multifunctional processes must be in accordance with the chosen framework as described in the following provisions. LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B and C (Provisions 6.5.4) 1. SHALL\u2014LCI modelling provisions to be applied: A specific combination of LCI modelling framework (attributional or consequential) and LCI method approaches (allocation or system expansion/substitution) is identified for each of the goal situations A, B, C1 and C2. The provisions cover scenario and uncertainty calculation. The provisions shall be applied as follows: [ISO!] 1:1. Situation A\u2014\u201cMicro-level decision support\u201d (6.5.4.2): 1:1:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3410, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 978, "book_page": 976, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The provisions cover scenario and uncertainty calculation. The provisions shall be applied as follows: [ISO!] 1:1. Situation A\u2014\u201cMicro-level decision support\u201d (6.5.4.2): 1:1:1. Life cycle model: The life cycle model of the analysed system(s) shall be modelled as an attributional model, i.e. depicting the existing supply-chain processes). 1:1:2. Subdivision and virtual subdivision for black box unit processes and multifunctionality: It shall be aimed at avoiding black box unit processes and solving multifunctionality by subdivision or virtual subdivision, as far as possible. The following applies for cases of system\u2013system relationships and cases of multifunctionality, if subdivision/virtual subdivision is not possible or not feasible. 1:1:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3411, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 978, "book_page": 976, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following applies for cases of system\u2013system relationships and cases of multifunctionality, if subdivision/virtual subdivision is not possible or not feasible. 1:1:3. Cases of system\u2013system relationship: if the analysed system\u2019s secondary function acts within a context system, where it only affects the existing processes operation, system expansion shall be performed via substitution with the short-term marginal. Note that the analysed system may also have influenced the installed capacity of the context system, if it had been considered when planning the context system. For example, the heat generated by office equipment may have been considered when dimensioning the heating and cooling system of an office building. Part-system relationships require no specific modelling provision, but the correct identification of the processes within the system boundary. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3412, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 978, "book_page": 976, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:1:4. Cases of multifunctionality\u2014general: 1:1:4:1. Substitution of market mix of specific alternatives: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): If for the not required3 specific co-function, functionally equivalent alternative processes/systems are operated/produced to a sufficient4 extent: the not required co-function shall, as far as possible, be substituted with the average market5 consumption mix of the processes or systems that it supersedes, excluding the to-be-substituted function from this mix. If the to-be-substituted function has a small share in the overall environmental impact of the market mix, the market mix can be used instead, if the results are not relevantly changed. 1:1:4:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3413, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 979, "book_page": 977, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If the to-be-substituted function has a small share in the overall environmental impact of the market mix, the market mix can be used instead, if the results are not relevantly changed. 1:1:4:2. Substitution of market mix of general, wider alternatives: If such alternative processes/systems do not exist6 or are not operated to a sufficient extent, alternative processes/systems of the not required co-function in a wider sense should be used for substitution,7 applying the same provisions as set out in the preceding sub-provision. 1:1:4:3. Situation B? If also such alternative processes/systems for the wider function do not exist or do not meet the named requirements, the study is 3i.e. in contrast to the one that is analysed or within the system boundary in the background system. 4\u201cSufficient\u201d means that the not required co-function can quantitatively be absorbed by the market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3414, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 979, "book_page": 977, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in contrast to the one that is analysed or within the system boundary in the background system. 4\u201cSufficient\u201d means that the not required co-function can quantitatively be absorbed by the market. That shall be assumed to be the case, if the annually available amount of the to-be-substituted co-function is not more than the annual amount produced by the annually replaced installed capacity of the superseded alternative process(es) or system(s). Note that this refers to the amount of co-function provided by the analysed process. E.g. if the study refers to a specific producer that contributes only a small share to the total production of the co-function, only this small amount counts, i.e. it is very likely that it can be absorbed by the market. If the study refers to the total production of a certain product that has the not required co-products, there is the chance that this much larger amount of co-products cannot be absorbed by the market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3415, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 979, "book_page": 977, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5This \u201cmarket\u201d is the market where the secondary function is provided. E.g. for products produced from end-of-life and waste management this is the market of the primary production at the time and the location (e.g. country, region or global etc. market) where the end-of-life product or waste is known or forecasted to undergo recycling, reuse, or energy recovery. If this market cannot be clearly determined, the most likely market shall be assumed and well justified; this most likely market shall be on a continental scale or at least cover a group of countries/markets. 6As is the case e.g. for wheat grain and straw production, many oil refinery products, etc. 7E.g. for NaOH, as co-product of Chlorine production, apart from NaCl electrolysis no alternative route is operated to the sufficient extent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3416, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 979, "book_page": 977, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7E.g. for NaOH, as co-product of Chlorine production, apart from NaCl electrolysis no alternative route is operated to the sufficient extent. However, NaOH provides in a wider sense the function of neutralising agent (next to some other, quantitatively less relevant functions) and hence other, technically equivalent and competing neutralising agents such as KOH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3, etc. can be assumed to be superseded; their mix would be used to substitute the not required NaOH. For the example of a wheat grain study and the not required co-product straw: instead of straw, other dry biomass (e.g. Miscanthus grass, wood for heating, etc.) provides equivalent functions and its market mix can be assumed to be superseded.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3417, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 979, "book_page": 977, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems. 1:1:4:4. Allocation: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): if modelling of substitution is not feasible8 and generic data is not sufficiently accurate to represent the superseded processes/systems: the two-step allocation procedure of Provisions 7.9.3 in Sect. 37.4.4 can be applied instead. Allocation shall, however, not be performed if it would relevantly favour the analysed process/system. This fact shall be argued or approximated. If allocation is performed, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and explicitly be considered later in the result\u2019s interpretation. For multifunctional products and the alternative second step in allocation, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is the preferred alternative to market price allocation. 1:1:4:5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3418, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 980, "book_page": 978, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For multifunctional products and the alternative second step in allocation, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is the preferred alternative to market price allocation. 1:1:4:5. No substitution of main function(s): (Simplification compared to full consequential model): The determining co-function(s) shall not be substituted. In the case the determining and dependent co-functions cannot be clearly identified, the determining co-function(s) should be assumed to be those that jointly contribute more than 50% to the combined market value of all co-functions of the analysed multifunctional process or system.9 (The market value is for this purpose the value of the co-functions as provided by the multifunctional process, i.e. without any further processing). In this case, the two-step allocation procedure shall be applied (see Provisions 7.9.3 in Sect. 37.4.4). 1:1:4:6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3419, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 980, "book_page": 978, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "without any further processing). In this case, the two-step allocation procedure shall be applied (see Provisions 7.9.3 in Sect. 37.4.4). 1:1:4:6. Considering functional differences: Differences in functionality between substituted and superseded function shall be considered either preferably by substituting the actually superseded amounts, or by substituting the market value corrected amount of the function. 1:1:5. Cases of multifunctionality\u2014waste and end-of-life treatment: (note the simplifications given here for Situation A): 1:1:5:1. Recyclability substitution of primary route market mix: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): For waste and end-of-life treatment as cases of multifunctionality: system expansion shall be performed in accordance with the provisions for the cases of general multifunctionality. The avoided primary production of the reused part, recycled good, or recovered energy shall be substituted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3420, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 980, "book_page": 978, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The avoided primary production of the reused part, recycled good, or recovered energy shall be substituted. This shall apply the recyclability 8\u201cnot feasible\u201d refers to cases where many alternative processes/systems or alternatives for the function in a wider sense exist e.g. where over 10 alternative processes/systems make up over 80% of the market for the to-be-substituted function, and/or where the superseded processes/systems themselves have a number of co-functions. 9The reasoning is that in that case it is likely that the determining co-functions would be substituted. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3421, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 980, "book_page": 978, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "substitution approach, with the simplification of substituting the average primary route consumption mix of the market where the secondary good is produced. 1:1:5:2. Recyclability substitution of general, wider alternatives: For \u201copen loop \u2014different primary route\u201d cases, the market consumption mix of alternative goods in a wider sense should be used for substitution, along the same provisions as set out in the preceding sub-provision. 1:1:5:3. Situation B? Especially for the case of \u201copen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d and for secondary goods with relevantly changed/downcycled properties, in addition, verification is needed on whether for the reused part, recycled material, or recovered energy, functionally equivalent, alternative processes or systems, or functional equivalents in a wider sense exist. If this is the case, it needs additional verification whether these are operated to a sufficient extent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3422, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 981, "book_page": 979, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If this is the case, it needs additional verification whether these are operated to a sufficient extent. Otherwise, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems. 1:1:5:4. Allocation: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): if modelling the substitution is not feasible and generic data is not sufficiently accurate to represent the superseded processes/systems, then the two-step allocation procedure applied to waste/end-of-life according to Provisions 7.9.3 in Sect. 37.4.4 can be applied instead. This shall not be done if it would relevantly favour the analysed process/system; this fact shall be argued or approximated. If allocation is performed, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and explicitly be considered later in the results interpretation. 1:1:5:5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3423, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 981, "book_page": 979, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If allocation is performed, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and explicitly be considered later in the results interpretation. 1:1:5:5. Considering functional differences: Differences in functionality between substituted and superseded function shall be considered either and preferably by substituting the actually superseded amounts. As second priority and if the superseded amounts are not known, market value correction of the amount of the substituted function shall be performed. Note that this applies to all cases of waste and end-of-life treatment that generate any valuable secondary good, i.e. \u201cclosed loop\u201d, \u201copen loop\u2014same primary route\u201d and \u201copen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d). 1:1:6. Comparative studies, scenarios, uncertainty calculation: 1:1:6:1. If among the to-be-compared systems, one or more systems have additional functional units, comparability shall be achieved by system expansion. 1:1:6:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3424, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 981, "book_page": 979, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If among the to-be-compared systems, one or more systems have additional functional units, comparability shall be achieved by system expansion. 1:1:6:2. For comparative studies of Situation A, the main model for each of the compared alternatives shall each be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. Optionally further assumption scenarios can be defined. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless it has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst-case scenarios. These scenarios serve to later perform the sensitivity check. The interested parties shall be involved towards a best attainable consensus on the definition of the reasonably best and reasonably worst-case assumption scenarios (and uncertainty calculation) that can in principle vary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3425, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 981, "book_page": 979, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "all data and method provisions and assumptions for Situation A except for the \u201cshall\u201d provisions and assumptions/conventions. It is recommended to also perform and report such assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculations for non-comparative LCI and LCA studies. Note that for LCI data sets that are intended to support comparative studies, the reasonably best and worst-case scenarios may be included within these data sets or be provided as complement. 1:2. Situation B \u201cMeso/macro-level decision support\u201d (6.5.4.3): 1:2:1. Provisions as for Situation A with two differences: The above provisions for Situation A shall also be applied for Situation B, with two differences: 1:2:1:1. Large-scale consequences: Processes that have been identified as being affected by \u201cbig\u201d10 large-scale changes as a consequence of the analysed decision shall be modelled as the expected mix of the long-term marginal processes. 1:2:1:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3426, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 982, "book_page": 980, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:2:1:2. Comparative studies, scenarios, uncertainty calculation: (Additional flexibility for assumption scenarios), for comparative studies of Situation B: The assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation can in principle vary all data and method provisions and assumptions for Situation B including the \u201cshall\u201d provisions and assumptions/conventions of the ILCD Handbook, while not those of ISO 14040 and 14044.11 Note that comparative Situation B studies often include a \u201czero\u201d option, i.e. include a scenario of \u201cno action\u201d (e.g. \u201cno change in existing policy Y\u201d, or \u201cno strategic measure on raw material X security of supply\u201d). 1:3. Situation C\u2014\u201cAccounting\u201d (6.5.4.4): 1:3:1. Provisions as for Situation A with two differences: The provisions for Situation A shall also be applied for Situation C. With two differences: 1:3:2. Remaining cases of multifunctionality: These shall be solved as follows: 1:3:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3427, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 982, "book_page": 980, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "With two differences: 1:3:2. Remaining cases of multifunctionality: These shall be solved as follows: 1:3:3. Situation C1: Multifunctionality of processes and systems shall be solved with substitution via system expansion, as in Situation A, but independently 10Large-scale (\u201cbig\u201d) consequences shall generally be assumed if the annual additional demand or supply that is triggered by the analysed decision exceeds the capacity of the annually replaced installed capacity of the additionally demanded or supplied process, product, or broader function, as applicable. 11i.e. these scenarios and uncertainty calculation allow to apply the full range of method and modelling options of ISO 14044. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3428, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 982, "book_page": 980, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of the absolute amount of the not required co-function(s) that will be substituted.12 The other provisions apply analogously. 1:3:4. Situation C2: General cases of multifunctionality of processes and systems shall be solved with allocation (i.e. applying the two-step allocation procedure; for details see Provisions 7.9.3 in Sect. 37.4.4). Cases of waste and end-of-life treatment shall be solved via allocation. 1:3:5. Comparative studies: Note the restrictions for direct comparative decision support of accounting data. Note that Situation C1 is thereby modelled identically to Situation A, while independently of the size of the system or processes. Note that substitution can lead to negative elementary flows or in rare cases even negative overall environmental impacts of the analysed systems. This must be explicitly addressed in reporting, explaining all implications and helping to avoid misinterpretation and misleading conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3429, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 983, "book_page": 981, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This must be explicitly addressed in reporting, explaining all implications and helping to avoid misinterpretation and misleading conclusions. 37.3.4 System Boundaries and Completeness Requirements The scoping of the system with the setting of the system boundaries and the decision of which processes to include and which not to include needs to be done in a way which is in accordance with the goal definition and in particular the completeness requirements that follows from the intended application. Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) (Provisions 6.6) 1. SHALL\u2014Scope of LCA: The following shall be covered by the LCI or LCA study: 1:1. potential impacts on the three areas of protection Human health, Natural environment and Natural resources, 1:2. that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere, and this 1:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3430, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 983, "book_page": 981, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "potential impacts on the three areas of protection Human health, Natural environment and Natural resources, 1:2. that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere, and this 1:3. during normal and abnormal operation, but excluding accidents, spills and similar.13 12The reasoning is that the effect of superseding alternative processes/systems is existing, other than in Situation A where an additional amount of co-function is pushed into the market, i.e. in Situation C1, the check whether alternative processes/systems are operated or produced to a sufficient extent is unnecessary, as the superseding factually already occurs. 13i.e. excluding accidents, indoor and workplace exposure, as well as impacts related to direct application or ingestion of products to humans.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3431, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 983, "book_page": 981, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:4. other kinds of impacts outside the scope of LCA that are found relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) may be identified and their relevance be justified. [ISO+] 2. SHALL\u2014Processes within the system boundary: The final system boundary/ies of the analysed system(s) shall as far as possible include all relevant life cycle stages and processes that 2:1. are operated within the technosphere, and 2:2. that need to be included along the provisions of identifying to-be-included processes under attributional or consequential modelling, but with the specific provisions and simplifications for the applicable Situation A, B, or C. 2:3. any relevant deviation/omission from the above shall be clearly documented and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3432, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 984, "book_page": 982, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:3. any relevant deviation/omission from the above shall be clearly documented and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation. 3. SHALL\u2014Flows across the system boundary: Next to the reference flow(s) that provide the functional unit(s) and permissible waste flows, no relevant other flows shall cross the boundary between the analysed system(s) and the rest of the technosphere, as far as possible. Only elementary flows (including permissible measurement indicators and flow groups) should cross the boundary between the analysed system(s) and the ecosphere. Any relevant deviation/omission from the above shall be reported and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation. [ISO!] 4. SHALL\u2014System boundary diagram: The extent of the system model shall be identified and a schematic system boundary diagram be prepared.14 Next to the included life cycle stages, the following shall be provided for the different types of deliverables: [ISO!] 4:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3433, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 984, "book_page": 982, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For single operation unit processes: the process step to be represented. 4:2. For black box unit processes: the to-be-represented, e.g. process-chain, plant, site, etc. and the first and last process step included. 4:3. For LCI results, LCIA results and non-comparative LCA studies: the included life cycle stages. Finally, the first and/or last process step included shall be given, unless the life cycle starts or ends with the cradle or grave, respectively. 4:4. For comparative LCA studies: for each of the compared options the included life cycle stages. In addition, for each of the options the first and/or last process steps included shall be given, unless the respective life cycle starts or ends with the cradle or grave, respectively. 4:5 Flow chart: Especially for the foreground system, it is recommended to already prepare technical flow charts on the main process steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3434, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 984, "book_page": 982, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4:5 Flow chart: Especially for the foreground system, it is recommended to already prepare technical flow charts on the main process steps. 14Other systems that become part of the analysed system in case system expansion is applied should not be shown in this diagram, but the quantitatively most relevant cases of multifunctional processes (as identified in the sensitivity analysis) shall be listed. This includes the quantitatively relevant cases of part-system relationships, which only exceptionally require an expanded system boundary diagram (e.g. if the analysed product would be the \u201cpart\u201d of a part-system relationship such shall be provided). M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3435, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 984, "book_page": 982, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5. SHALL\u2014List of exclusions: Prepare an initial list of any types of activities, specific processes, product and waste flows, elementary flows or other parts that would be foreseen to be excluded from the analysed system, if any. [ISO+] Note that this initial list is to be (iteratively) updated to reflect the situation at the end of the study. Note that any final exclusion will need to be justified referring to the cut-off criteria and may limit the applicability of the resulting data set or the conclusions that can be drawn from a comparative study. 6. SHALL\u2014Part-system and system\u2013system relationships: For studies on parts that have a part-system relationship and on systems that have a system\u2013system relationship, obtain data on the effects on the related systems and their data, as far as this is necessary in line with the goal and scope of the study. [ISO!] 7. SHALL\u2014System-external off-setting: Off-set emissions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3436, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 985, "book_page": 983, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] 7. SHALL\u2014System-external off-setting: Off-set emissions (e.g. due to carbon off-setting by the Clean Development Mechanism, system-external carbon credits), and other, similar measures outside the analysed system shall not be included in the system boundaries, as far as they are relevant for the results. The related (reduced) emissions shall not be integrated into the inventory or used in LCA results interpretation. [ISO+] 8. SHALL\u2014Quantitative cut-off criteria: Define the cut-off % value to be applied for the analysed system\u2019s product, waste and elementary flows that cross the system boundary, but that are not quantitatively15 included in the inventory,16 as follows: 8:1. Overall environmental impact: The cut-off % value shall generally relate to the quantitative degree of coverage of the approximated overall environmental impact of the system.17 For comparative studies, the cut-off shall additionally also always relate to mass and energy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3437, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 985, "book_page": 983, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Two alternative options exist how to address the overall environmental impact: [ISO!] 15The respective flows shall, however, be foreseen to be identified and stay in the inventory, but without stating an amount and being marked as \u201cmissing relevant\u201d or \u201cmissing irrelevant\u201d, as applicable. 16Note that co-functions are initially part of the inventory and only later removed via allocation or addressed with system expansion/substitution. 17While the true absolute overall impact (i.e. the \u201c100% completeness\u201d) cannot be known in LCA and other such models, it can be approximated in practice in an iterative manner and with sufficient precision to serve as practical guidance and use for cut-off.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3438, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 985, "book_page": 983, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8:1:1. apply the cut-off individually for each of the to-be-included18 impact categories. This requires that the LCIA methods have been identified at that point. 8:1:2. apply the cut-off for the normalised and weighted overall environmental impact. This requires that the LCIA methods, normalisation basis and the weighting set have been identified at that point. 8:2. Identify the aimed-at% cut-off: The aimed at quantitative cut-off/completeness percentage shall be identified as follows: 8:2:1. For unit processes, LCI results and LCIA results: the cut-off value has either already been defined in the goal phase (e.g. \u201cDevelopment of a single operation unit process data set of 95% completeness\u201d) or is to be derived from the respective completeness need of the intended application in the iterative scope steps. 8:2:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3439, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 986, "book_page": 984, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8:2:2. For non-comparative LCA studies: the cut-off value has been identified depending on the detail of interest when analysing the system for key contributing processes and elementary flows; this has been defined typically in the goal of the study 8:2:3. For comparative LCA studies: the cut-off value is set depending on how much precision, accuracy and completeness is needed to show significant differences between the compared systems. This is done in the iterations of the LCA work after at least an initial LCI model has been modelled and analysed. Note that, unless it was initially defined, the cut-off can only roughly be approximated in the initial scope phase and has to be adjusted iteratively. Note that later deviations from the initially set cut-off criteria, e.g. due to lack of data, are to be identified in the subsequent LCI data collection and modelling and are to be documented at the end of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3440, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 986, "book_page": 984, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "due to lack of data, are to be identified in the subsequent LCI data collection and modelling and are to be documented at the end of the LCI/LCA study. The finally achieved cut-off (and any possible deviations) shall be reported and have to be fully reflected in the interpretation phase, in case of an LCA study. Both may lead to a revision of the supported intended applications of the LCI/LCA study. These issues are to be checked in the respective phase of the LCA work. 37.3.5 Representativeness of LCI Data The representativeness of process data that is collected in the LCI relative to the processes that it is intended to represent the product system is addressed in three dimensions\u2014technological-, geographical\u2014and time-related representativeness. 18For studies with limited impact coverage (e.g. Carbon footprint), only these categories are to be considered, accordingly. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3441, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 986, "book_page": 984, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Technological representativeness (Provisions 6.8.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Good technological representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required technological representativeness, meeting the goal requirements of the study (note that technological, geographical and time-related representativeness are closely interrelated). For both analysed processes and systems, this includes all quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s), and/or technical specification(s). This applies especially for those aspects that matter in terms of leading to relevant differences in the LCI data. 2. SHALL\u2014Specific way or mode of process? Identify along the goal of the study and especially the intended applications whether the data needs to represent a specific way or mode of operating the technology/technique (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3442, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 987, "book_page": 985, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "a specific load factor for transport, or a specific start, closure, cycle step of a process, etc.), if this differs from the average, typical or integrated operation. [ISO+] 3. SHALL\u2014Different technologies for attributional and consequential modelling: Note that attributional and consequential modelling often require very different processes (and to some degree also systems) for the background system. But see the simplifications set for all Situations, except for the processes that face \u201cbig\u201d changes in Situation B: [ISO!] 3:1. Attributional modelling: The following should be used: 3:1:1. Foreground system: Technology-specific primary data for the foreground system and for the specifications of the products and wastes that connect the foreground system with the background system. Secondary data of the actual suppliers/downstream actors should be preferred to other (third-party) secondary data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3443, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 987, "book_page": 985, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Secondary data of the actual suppliers/downstream actors should be preferred to other (third-party) secondary data. Technology-specific, generic or average data from third parties should be used in those parts of the foreground system where this for the given case is of higher quality (i.e. more accurate, precise, complete) than available technology-specific primary or secondary data from suppliers/downstream actors. 3:1:2. Background system: Average technology as market consumption19 mix data. 3:2. Consequential modelling: The following should be used: 3:2:1. Foreground system: The same applies as described above for attributional modelling. Here this includes the suppliers\u2019/downstream actors\u2019 technology-specific secondary data of the contractually fixed or planned supply chain. 3:2:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3444, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 987, "book_page": 985, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here this includes the suppliers\u2019/downstream actors\u2019 technology-specific secondary data of the contractually fixed or planned supply chain. 3:2:2. Background system: The short-term or long-term marginal technology mixes should be used, as appropriate for the applicable Situation A, B, C1 19This also applies if a market production mix data set is developed: the fact that the data set is to represent the production mix would be achieved by combining the representative mix of producing technologies of that market according to their production share. For the data in the background system of the individual routes, nevertheless the respective consumption mix data are to be used.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3445, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 987, "book_page": 985, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and C2. Among these, the named long-term technology mix only applies to those processes under Situation B that face \u201cbig\u201d changes in consequence of the analysed decision, and\u2014optionally\u2014to the assumption scenarios. The technology mix of marginal processes should be identified, depending among others on the market conditions and the cost-competitiveness of the potential marginal processes. 3:3. Using not fully representative data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, not fully technologically representative data can be used only along the following conditions: 3:3:1. For LCI and LCIA data sets/non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully technologically representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully representative data; otherwise, the lower achieved representativeness shall be documented in the data set/report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3446, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 988, "book_page": 986, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For data provided for a competitor\u2019s product, lower representativeness shall not lead to higher overall environmental impacts of the LCIA results calculated for that product. For data provided for own products or for products without any competition situation (e.g. generic data from consultants or research projects for general background use), lower representativeness shall not lead to lower impacts of the overall LCIA results calculated for that product. 3:3:2. For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected, as far as possible. Otherwise the lower achieved technological representativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors\u2019 products to a relevant degree. Note that this can be implemented only in the subsequent iterative steps of the LCA work. 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3447, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 988, "book_page": 986, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that this can be implemented only in the subsequent iterative steps of the LCA work. 4. SHALL\u2014Non-scalable supplies: For the life cycle model of Situation A, B and C1, the following shall be applied: if the supply of a specific required function (e.g. product) cannot relevantly be increased in the analysed market and due to inherent constraints (e.g. as for hydropower in many countries) the market consumption mix of the specific function that the product provides (e.g. electricity in the above example) shall be used as far as possible, and not the data for the specific supplier/product. To not contradict the provisions on solving multifunctionality, this provision does not apply to required co-functions. [ISO!] M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3448, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 988, "book_page": 986, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Geographical representativeness Provisions: 6.8.3) For LCI results, LCIA results, LCA studies: be aware that the declared geographical scope of all later to be used inventory data needs to enable a correct impact assessment. This is to be checked especially carefully if a non-generic impact assessment (e.g. with differentiated characterisation factors by country, region or even site) is applied. 1. SHALL\u2014Good geographical representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required geographical representativeness, according to the goal of the study. This applies especially, where this matters in terms of relevant differences in the LCI data of different geographical scope. 2. SHALL\u2014Different geographical scope for attributional and consequential modelling: Note that attributional and consequential modelling may require processes/products of a different geographical scope in the background system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3449, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 989, "book_page": 987, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "But see the simplifications set for all Situations, except for the processes that face \u201cbig\u201d changes in Situation B: [ISO!] 2:1. Attributional modelling: The following should be used: 2:1:1. Foreground system: Site or producer/provider specific data for the foreground system, supplier-specific data for the products that connect the foreground with the background system. Generic data of geographical mixes can be used also in parts of the foreground system if for the given case justified as being more accurate, precise and complete than available specific data (especially for processes operated at suppliers). 2:1:2. Background system: Average market consumption mix data for the background system. 2:2. Consequential modelling: The following should be used: 2:2:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3450, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 989, "book_page": 987, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:1:2. Background system: Average market consumption mix data for the background system. 2:2. Consequential modelling: The following should be used: 2:2:1. Foreground system: Site or producer/provider specific data for the directly controlled processes of the foreground system, suppliers\u2019 site specific data of the contractually fixed or planned supply chain of the foreground system plus for the products and wastes that connect the foreground with the background system. Generic data of geographical mixes can be used also in parts of the foreground system if for the given case justified as being more accurate, precise and complete than available specific data (especially for processes operated at suppliers). 2:2:2. Background system: The short-term or long-term marginal geographical mixes should be used for the background system, as appropriate for the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and C2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3451, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 989, "book_page": 987, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:2:2. Background system: The short-term or long-term marginal geographical mixes should be used for the background system, as appropriate for the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and C2. The geographical mix of the marginal processes should be identified, depending among others on the market conditions and cost-competitiveness of the potential marginal processes. 2:3. Using not fully representative data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, not fully geographically representative data can be used only along the following conditions:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3452, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 989, "book_page": 987, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2:3:1. For LCI and LCIA data sets/non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully geographically representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully representative data; otherwise the lower achieved representativeness shall be documented in the data set/report. 2:3:2. For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected; otherwise, the lower achieved geographical representativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors\u2019 products in a relevant degree. Time-related representativeness (Provisions 6.8.4) 1. SHALL\u2014Good time-related representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required time-related representativeness, according to the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3453, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 990, "book_page": 988, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHALL\u2014Good time-related representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required time-related representativeness, according to the goal of the study. This applies especially, where this matters in terms of relevant differences in the LCI data that represent a different time. Note that the represented year of a process or system shall refer to the actually represented year and not the year when the data set was calculated or the year of publication of used secondary data sources. 2. SHALL\u2014Specific seasonal or diurnal situation? Check along the goal of the study and the intended applications whether the data needs to represent a specific seasonal or diurnal situation, if this differs from the average annual data. [ISO+] 3. SHOULD\u2014Time-related representativeness of future processes: For processes that run more than 5 years in the future or past from the time of study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3454, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 990, "book_page": 988, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 3. SHOULD\u2014Time-related representativeness of future processes: For processes that run more than 5 years in the future or past from the time of study (e.g. of the use and end-of-life stage of long-living products or in case of backward looking analysis), fully time-representative future/past scenario data should be used, if possible. If this is not possible: [ISO!] 3:1. BAT and recent data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, Best Available Technology (BAT) mix data should be used as second option, if BAT data can be argued to be sufficiently representative for the required time. The most recent data are the third option. 3:2. Using not fully representative data: Not fully time-representative data can be used only along the following conditions: 3:2:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3455, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 990, "book_page": 988, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The most recent data are the third option. 3:2. Using not fully representative data: Not fully time-representative data can be used only along the following conditions: 3:2:1. For LCI and LCIA data sets/non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully time-representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully time- representative data; otherwise the lower achieved time-representativeness shall be documented in the data set/report. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3456, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 990, "book_page": 988, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3:2:2. For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected; otherwise, the lower achieved time-representativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less time-representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors\u2019 products in a relevant degree. 37.3.6 Preparation of the Basis for the Impact Assessment The preparation of the basis of the later impact assessment phase the scope definition serves two main purposes: One is to ensure that the impact assessment is done in accordance with the goal definition and the intended application of the LCA. The other is to prepare the basis to ensure that the inventory analysis compiles the relevant data on elementary flows from the product system to support the assessment of the relevant impact scores", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3457, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 991, "book_page": 989, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The other is to prepare the basis to ensure that the inventory analysis compiles the relevant data on elementary flows from the product system to support the assessment of the relevant impact scores. The ILCD guidance document presents the following provisions for the preparation of the basis of the impact assessment: Preparing the basis for the impact assessment (Provisions 6.7) Note that an impact assessment is required for all types of LCI/LCA studies at least for systematically assessing and improving the overall data quality, including applying the cut-off rules. Impact categories and LCIA methods: 1. SHALL\u2014Goal-conform selection of impact categories and LCIA methods: Select the impact categories to be included and the corresponding LCIA methods in accordance with the goal of the study. [ISO!] 2. SHOULD\u2014Requirements for impact categories: 2:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3458, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 991, "book_page": 989, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] 2. SHOULD\u2014Requirements for impact categories: 2:1. All impact categories that are environmentally relevant20 for the LCI/LCA study shall be included, as far as possible and unless the goal definition would explicitly foresee exclusions (e.g. for Carbon footprint studies). Further ones can be included optionally. 20As this can be judged only in view of the LCIA results, i.e. after LCI data collection, modelling, etc., it is recommended to initially foresee the inclusion of all of the default impact categories (see next action). If the impact assessment later shows irrelevance of one of more impact categories, they can be left out; see also further provisions. For principally restricted assessments (e.g. Carbon footprint), see the respective action below.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3459, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 991, "book_page": 989, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that any relevant exclusion will need to be explicitly considered during interpretation and can lead to limitations for the further use of the data (in case of an LCI study or data set) and in limitations for the conclusions and recommendations (in case of an LCA study). 3. SHALL\u2014Requirements for LCIA methods: All included LCIA methods shall meet the following requirements21: 3:1. They should be internationally accepted and preferably additionally be endorsed by a governmental body of the relevant region where the decision is to be supported (Situation A, B) or where the reference of the accounted system is located (Situation C). 3:2. They shall be scientifically and technically valid, as far as possible; the extent of this fact shall be documented. 3:3. They shall have no relevant gaps in coverage of the impact category they relate to, as far as possible; otherwise the gap shall be approximated, reported and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation, 3:4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3460, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 992, "book_page": 990, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They shall be based upon a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism or reproducible empirical observation, 3:5. They shall be related exclusively to elementary flows (i.e. interventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere) during normal and abnormal operating conditions, but excluding accidents, spills and the like. [ISO!] 3:6. They shall be free of double-counting across included characterisation factors, as far as possible and unless otherwise required by the goal of the study, and 3:7. They shall be free of value choices and assumptions, as far as possible; these shall be appropriately documented and if relevant, they shall explicitly be considered in the results interpretation. The development or identification of LCIA methods that are prepared to meet these requirements is supported with the separate guidance document \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3461, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 992, "book_page": 990, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that for use in comparative assertion studies any used LCIA method and factor may need to undergo a review under ISO in order to be eligible. 4. SHOULD\u2014Default impact categories and category endpoints: The selected LCIA methods in their entirety should by default cover all of the following impact categories and provide characterisation factors on midpoint level. 21Under the ILCD, recommendations are under preparation on a complete set of such LCIA methods that provide characterisation factors for the ILCD reference elementary flows. These will relate to European and/or global scope, depending on their applicability. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3462, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 992, "book_page": 990, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is recommended that they also provide modelled category endpoint factors that are coherent with the midpoint level and that cover all relevant damages to the three following areas of protection: 4:1. Impact categories (\u201cmidpoint level\u201d): Climate change, (Stratospheric) Ozone depletion, Human toxicity, Respiratory inorganics, Ionising radiation, (Groundlevel) Photochemical ozone formation, Acidification (land and water), Eutrophication (land and water), Ecotoxicity (freshwater, marine, terrestrial), Land use, Resource depletion (of minerals, fossil and renewable energy resources, water, ...). [ISO!] 4:2. Category endpoints (\u201cendpoint level\u201d): Damage to human health, Damage to ecosystem, Depletion of natural resources. These relate to the three areas of protection \u201cHuman health\u201d, \u201cNatural environment\u201d and \u201cNatural resources\u201d, respectively. [ISO+] 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3463, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 993, "book_page": 991, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These relate to the three areas of protection \u201cHuman health\u201d, \u201cNatural environment\u201d and \u201cNatural resources\u201d, respectively. [ISO+] 5. SHOULD\u2014Location and time-generic LCIA: The LCIA methods should by default be location-generic and time-generic (but see later provision on derived LCIA methods). [ISO!] 6. MAY\u2014LCIA methodologies: It is recommended to select available LCIA methodologies that provide a complete set of single LCIA methods, rather than selecting and combining individual LCIA methods. [ISO!] 7. SHOULD\u2014Excluding impact categories? Exclusions of any of the above impact categories should be justified as being not relevant for the analysed system(s). This can be done based on experience gained from detailed, complete studies for sufficiently similar systems and/or system group specific/Product Category Rule (PCR) type guidance documents. [ISO+] 8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3464, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 993, "book_page": 991, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 8. SHALL\u2014Adding impact categories? Check for the specific LCI/LCA study whether next to the default impact categories given above, additional, relevant environmental impacts22 need to be included in accordance with the goal and scope. If so, identify or develop23 the relevant LCIA methods to be applied. Note that these shall meet the same requirements as the other included LCIA methods (see above). 9. SHOULD\u2014Impacts outside the scope of LCA: Impacts that are outside the LCA frame24 but for which scientific evidence exists that they are relevant for 22Examples are Noise, Desiccation/Salination, Littering of land and sea, etc. 23ISO 14044 requires that all relevant impacts are to be covered. In practice of performing LCA studies, the development of new LCIA methods is a rare case. The separate guidance document \u201cDevelopment of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models, methods and factors\u201d supports LCIA method developers in this step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3465, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 993, "book_page": 991, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The separate guidance document \u201cDevelopment of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models, methods and factors\u201d supports LCIA method developers in this step. 24The inventory related to impacts that are outside the frame of LCA shall not be mixed with the inventory for LCA impacts, i.e. need separate inventorying as separate items outside the general Inputs/Outputs inventory. The LCA frame covers potential impacts on the named three areas of protection that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere during normal and abnormal operation, i.e. Accidents, indoor and workplace exposure, as well as impacts related to direct application or ingestion of products to humans shall not be mixed but be modelled and inventoried separately.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3466, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 993, "book_page": 991, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the analysed or compared system(s) should be clearly and individually be identified, including in the Summary and Executive summary of the report/data set. Their brief description should be foreseen in the further documentation. If it is foreseen to include them quantitatively, this requires potentially different modelling and analysis approaches and guidance. This should be done jointly with the LCA study, as far as possible, to ensure coherence, but inventory, impact assessment, etc. shall be kept separately for clear interpretation. [ISO!] Note that this step is often possible only after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3467, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 994, "book_page": 992, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] Note that this step is often possible only after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. 10. SHOULD\u2014Missing characterisation factors: If a characterisation factor is missing for an elementary flow of the analysed inventory, and that flow is known to contribute significantly to one or more of the included impact categories, considering the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study: [ISO+] 10:1. Check the potential importance of the missing characterisation factor by assuming a conservative value or reasonably worst-case value based on chemical, physical, biological and/or other similarity to other elementary flows, which contribute to the same impact category/ies in question", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3468, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 994, "book_page": 992, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that this procedure requires expert knowledge of an LCIA method developer, especially on fate and exposure modelling to be able to judge which similarities to consider and how; a good chemical and environmental sciences understanding is equally required. 10:2. Apply the assumed characterisation factor(s) to that elementary flow and investigate whether the total result for the affected impact category/ies is changed to a relevant degree (i.e. depending on the required completeness, accuracy and precision). 10:3. If with this approach the contribution from this elementary flow cannot be classified as being not relevant, it should be attempted to get a more accurate and precise value for the missing characterisation factor and use that one for the further work. Note that this factor will have to fulfil the same conditions as other factors of the respective impact category/method. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3469, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 994, "book_page": 992, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10:4. If the latter is not possible or the whole provision is not feasible (e.g. for cost or timing reasons), the fact of a missing relevant characterisation factor shall be reported and the potential influence of the missing factor shall be considered when reporting the achieved data quality and (for LCA studies) in the interpretation of the results. 10:5. If the conservative or reasonably worst-case value does not show a relevant contribution from that elementary flow, the missing characterisation factor can be disregarded. It is recommended to report the fact of a \u201cmissing factor\u201d nevertheless and marked as \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d, at least for those flows that lack relevance but are not fully negligible. Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. 11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3470, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 995, "book_page": 993, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. 11. SHALL\u2014Location and time non-generic LCIA methods: The potential use of LCIA methods that have been derived from the original, location-generic and time-generic ones (i.e. being not generic but, e.g. spatially or otherwise further differentiated or modified) shall be justified along the goal and scope of the study. It shall be demonstrated that significantly different LCIA results are obtained than with the generic methods. The non-generic methods have to meet the other applicable requirements for selected LCIA methods. [ISO!] Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. Note that for comparative LCA studies also the appropriateness of generic LCIA methods shall be discussed in the interpretation phase of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3471, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 995, "book_page": 993, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that for comparative LCA studies also the appropriateness of generic LCIA methods shall be discussed in the interpretation phase of the study. If a further differentiation can be argued or approximated to lead to significantly different results, this finding may limit the conclusions and recommendations that can be drawn from the study. Note that LCIA results calculated from non-generic LCIA methods are later to be presented separately from the generic ones and discussed jointly. Normalisation and weighting: 12. SHALL\u2014Cut-off criteria: Normalisation and weighting may have been used for defining the cut-off rules. [ISO!] 13. MAY\u2014Results interpretation: Normalisation and weighting are in addition optional steps under ISO 14044:2006 that are recommended to support the results interpretation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3472, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 995, "book_page": 993, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that the normalisation and weighting shall be made in accordance with the intended application of the LCI/LCA study. Note that if the study includes a comparative assertion to be disclosed to the public, quantitative weighting of the published indicator results is not permitted. 14. SHALL\u2014Consistency between cut-off and interpretation: If used in support of results interpretation, the same normalisation and weighting set shall be used as for the cut-off rules. [ISO!] 15. SHALL\u2014Requirements for selecting normalisation basis and weighting set: If used for defining the cut-off and/or in support of the interpretation of the results of the study, select a suitable normalisation basis and weighting set,25 along the following rules: [ISO!] 15:1. Normalisation basis: 15:1:1. As normalisation basis the annual total environmental inventory globally should be preferred", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3473, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 996, "book_page": 994, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation basis: 15:1:1. As normalisation basis the annual total environmental inventory globally should be preferred. Alternatively the territory-based or consumption-based annual total environmental inventory of the country or region should be used where the supported decisions are made (Situations A, B) or in which the accounting reference is located (Situation C). It is recommended to prefer the average citizen as normalisation basis instead of the global, regional or country total (i.e. the global, regional or country total divided by the number of citizen26). 15:1:2. Ensure the relevance of the selected normalisation basis for the intended applications and target audience. 15:1:3. Ensure a high degree of completeness and precision of the overall environmental impact covered and a similar degree of completeness and precision for all covered impact categories. 15:1:4. Ensure a proper link with the used LCIA methods, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3474, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 996, "book_page": 994, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "15:1:4. Ensure a proper link with the used LCIA methods, i.e. relate to the same impact categories/areas of protection and use to a sufficient degree the same elementary flows. 15:1:5. Ensure technical compatibility with the to-be-used weighting set, i.e. relate to the same impact categories/areas of protection. 15:1:6. As year for the normalisation basis the year should be used for which the latest data are available that meet the above requirements. 15:2. Weighting set: 15:2:1. The weighting set should represent the normative and other values globally or of the country or region where the supported decisions are made 25The development of governmentally supported corresponding normalisation and weighting data in the different regions and countries or globally would be beneficial. 26This brings the values of the normalised impacts for goods and services down to a better communicable and interpretable level (typical value range 10\u20130.00001 instead of 1E\u22127 to 1E\u221214). M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3475, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 996, "book_page": 994, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26This brings the values of the normalised impacts for goods and services down to a better communicable and interpretable level (typical value range 10\u20130.00001 instead of 1E\u22127 to 1E\u221214). M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3476, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 996, "book_page": 994, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(Situations A, B), or the reference of the accounting (Situation C). The weighting set should preferably be endorsed by a governmental body of the country or region where the decision is to be supported (Situation A, B) or where the reference of the accounted system is located (Situation C). 15:2:2. Ensure the relevance of the selected weighting set to the intended applications and target audience. 15:2:3. The weighting set shall correctly refer to the used normalisation basis and to the midpoint level or endpoint level indicators of the used LCIA methods, as applied. 15:3. Extension for added impact categories: If in the course of the study a non- default impact category has been additionally included, corresponding data for the normalisation basis and a weighting factor shall be additionally provided and used.27 Documentation of selected LCIA methods, and of decision/selection of normalisation and weighting: 16", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3477, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 997, "book_page": 995, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHALL\u2014Verifiable documentation of decision on LCIA methods, impact level, normalisation and weighting: Decide and document now, during the initial scope definition, bindingly on: [ISO!] 16:1. the LCIA methods to be applied by default, 16:2. the selected impact level to be used for reporting and interpretation (i.e. midpoint and/or endpoint level), and if foreseen to be used, 16:3. the specific normalisation and weighting sets to be used for cut-off and for interpretation. 16:4. These decisions shall be documented or published in an appropriate form and way that allows the critical reviewer to later verify the date when these decisions have been made. 16:5. Permissible adjustments: Adjustments of these decisions shall only be possible: 16:5:1. If impact categories are added in line with the goal of the study and meeting the related provisions for their addition given more above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3478, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 997, "book_page": 995, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If impact categories are added in line with the goal of the study and meeting the related provisions for their addition given more above. This shall result exclusively in an addition to the already selected LCIA methods, normalisation basis and weighting set for the added impact categories. 16:5:2. If using non-generic LCIA methods upon justification as indicated more above. This shall result exclusively in a differentiation of the already selected, generic LCIA methods, unless a best attainable consensus can be found among involved stakeholders on selection of another set of already available non-generic LCIA methods. The normalisation basis and weighting set shall remain unchanged. 27This is not required for use of non-generic LCIA methods and for additionally included single elementary flows/characterisation factors, unless this would relevantly change the results, what by default can be assumed not to be the case.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3479, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 997, "book_page": 995, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.3.7 Special Requirements for System Comparisons When two or more products are compared in an LCA, it is essential that the product systems are modelled consistently in terms of both methodological choices and choices on data to represent the two systems. A qualified consideration of uncertainties is also important when the systems are compared to decide whether one is preferable to the other from an environmental point of view. Particularly strict requirements must be met for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. The provisions from the ILCD guideline for comparisons between systems are the following: Comparisons between systems (Provisions 6.10) These provisions are mandatory (shall) only for comparative LCA studies that analyse more than one system or system variants. It is recommended to also apply them analogously to non-comparative LCA studies that include a system internal contribution/weak point analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3480, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 998, "book_page": 996, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is recommended to also apply them analogously to non-comparative LCA studies that include a system internal contribution/weak point analysis. These provisions also apply to LCI studies and data sets that are intended to be used in context of comparative studies (e.g. as background data). For all comparative studies 1. SHALL\u2014Non-assertive, comparative studies: The ISO 14044:2006 provisions for comparative assertions shall also be applied to non-assertive, comparative studies. Both types together are grouped under the term \u201ccomparisons\u201d here. [ISO!] 2. SHALL\u2014Consistency: All elements of the scope definition shall be addressed consistently for all systems to be compared, as far as possible. Otherwise, the lack of consistency shall be reported and be considered explicitly when interpreting the results, giving conclusions or recommendations. Especially: 2:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3481, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 998, "book_page": 996, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Otherwise, the lack of consistency shall be reported and be considered explicitly when interpreting the results, giving conclusions or recommendations. Especially: 2:1. LCI model: The compared system models shall be constructed in an analogous way applying the same rules for system boundaries, LCI modelling principles and method approaches. 2:2. Assumptions: Methodological and data assumptions shall be made in an analogous way. 2:3. Data quality: The achieved completeness, accuracy and precision of the data shall be sufficiently similar for the compared systems. 3. SHALL\u2014Uncertainty and accuracy calculations: Calculations on the stochastic uncertainty and accuracy shall support this analysis. This is not required if uncertainty calculations have already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3482, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 998, "book_page": 996, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4. SHALL\u2014Completeness/cut-off: The cut-off % that has been defined in the study shall also be met for mass and energy, next to for the overall environmental impact. 5. SHALL\u2014Excluding identical parts: If included processes/systems of the compared systems are identical for all alternatives, they may be left out of all models. Included processes/systems that are similar but not identical shall remain in the model, but their partial correlation shall be considered when interpreting differences. [ISO+] Note that the intended applications may not permit to leave out even identical parts. Note that even apparently identical parts may only be left out of the comparison if they are truly identical. For example, the same amount of the same aluminium alloy used in the same component of two alternative models may be left out. This shall not be done if the alloy is used in different components of these models, as the inventories of the alloys are only partly correlated in the second case. 6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3483, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 999, "book_page": 997, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This shall not be done if the alloy is used in different components of these models, as the inventories of the alloys are only partly correlated in the second case. 6. SHALL\u2014LCIA to be performed: A Life Cycle Impact Assessment shall be performed for LCI or LCA studies intended to support comparative studies that are intended to be published. 7. SHALL\u2014Impact coverage limitations (e.g. Carbon footprint): Comparison studies based on selected indicators or impact categories (e.g. Carbon footprint-based comparisons) shall highlight that the comparison is not suitable to identify environmental preferable alternatives, as it only covers the considered impact(s) (e.g. Climate change). This applies unless it can be sufficiently demonstrated that the compared alternatives do not differ in other relevant environmental impacts to a degree that would change the conclusions and/or recommendations of the comparison if those other impacts would be included in the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3484, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 999, "book_page": 997, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such demonstration should draw on robust approximations for the analysed system and/or robust information derived from detailed and complete LCA studies available for sufficiently similar systems. System/product-group specific guidance document and Product Category Rules (PCR) may provide such robust information. The above shall be investigated in any case and if other environmental impacts were identified as being relevant in the above sense, they shall be named in the report. [ISO!] For studies on systems with similar functional units: Comparisons shall be made based on the system\u2019s reference flows. 8. SHALL\u2014Functional equivalence: The compared systems shall have the same (or only insignificantly different) functional unit in terms of both the primary function and possible secondary functions, as far as possible. In the case that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3485, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 999, "book_page": 997, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "some of the aspects of the functional unit(s) differ significantly between the systems, it shall be ensured that: 8:1. either the functions that the compared systems provide are still seen as sufficiently comparable by the main stakeholders affected by the LCA study, 8:2. or the sufficient comparability is to be achieved by the respective method approaches for consequential modelling or attributional modelling,28 as to be applied for the respective Situation. For consequential modelling this approach is system expansion. 9. SHOULD\u2014Selection of compared alternatives: The study should include\u2014 next to the foreseen alternatives\u2014potentially environmentally better market relevant and available alternatives, as otherwise the study would be considered misleading. If such alternatives are not included, this shall later be highlighted in a prominent place of the conclusions and recommendations, as well as in the executive and technical summary chapters of the report, pointing to this fact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3486, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1000, "book_page": 998, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 10. SHOULD\u2014Selection of production, operation and use scenarios: To ensure a fair comparison, the chosen functional unit should reflect well-justified typical or average production/operation/use scenarios; it shall be agreed with the affected stakeholders in the best attainable consensus. If a typical or otherwise specific scenarios need to be compared in line with to the goal definition, compared, this fact shall later be highlighted in a prominent place of the conclusions and recommendations and executive summary chapter of the report, pointing to this fact. [ISO!] 11. SHOULD\u2014Modelling replacements over time: For cases where a system (e.g. a product) needs to be replaced to meet the required duration of performance of the compared functional unit, the replacement should consider that potentially a newer model or system in general will replace the initially used model. This is unless a different agreement can be achieved among the affected stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3487, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1000, "book_page": 998, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is unless a different agreement can be achieved among the affected stakeholders. This provision analogously relates to the need of repeating a service. 12. SHALL\u2014Indicative only. Situation A\u2014Assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation: For comparative micro-level studies (Situation A): each compared scenario shall be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. This can be optionally extended to further assumption scenarios within the reasonably best and worst cases. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless such has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst-case scenarios. The interested parties shall be involved in achieving a best attainable consensus on the definition of the reasonably best and reasonably worst assumption scenarios. The 28Comparisons also can occur in accounting type studies (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3488, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1000, "book_page": 998, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The 28Comparisons also can occur in accounting type studies (e.g. across product groups in basket-of-product type of studies), while these shall not be used for decision support that would lead to e.g. purchases or policy measures based on superiority or inferiority of the compared alternatives. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3489, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1000, "book_page": 998, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "assumption scenarios can in principle vary all methods, data and assumptions except for the \u201cshall\u201d provisions. 13. SHALL\u2014Indicative only. Situation B\u2014Assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation: For comparative meso/macro-level studies of Situation B: the scenarios for each of the analysed alternatives shall apply the modelling guidance of Situation A, except for process that are affected by large-scale consequences of the analysed decision. The assumption scenarios can in principle vary all methods, data and assumptions including the \u201cshall\u201d provisions, but excluding the shall provisions of ISO 14040 and 14044. 14. SHALL\u2014Involvement of interested parties in review [ISO!]. 37.3.8 Needs for Critical Review The only strict requirement is to decide, based on the goal definition and intended application of the LCA, whether a critical review shall be performed, and if so which type of critical review: Identifying critical review needs (Provisions 6.11) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3490, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1001, "book_page": 999, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHALL\u2014Review? Decide whether a critical review shall be performed and if so: [ISO!] 1:1. Review type: Decide along the provisions of the separate document \u201cReview schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u201d which type of review is to be performed as minimum. Note that an accompanying review can be beneficial. For Situation B, it can moreover help to organise the best attainable consensus among interested parties, which is required for certain scope decisions. 1:2. Reviewer(s): It is recommended to decide at this point, who is/are the reviewer(s). The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification are discussed in Chap. 13 of this book, which also gives an overview of the review requirements. 37.3.9 Planning Reporting of Results The level of reporting that is required by the intended application of the LCA must be determined already at the onset of the study to ensure that the data needed for the reporting is produced during the study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3491, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1001, "book_page": 999, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Planning reporting (Provisions 6.12) 1. SHALL\u2014Reflecting on the main type of deliverable (i.e. study or data set) and in line with the decision on the target audience(s) and intended application(s), decide on form and level of reporting: 1:1. Form of reporting: Decide which form(s) of reporting shall be used to meet the need of the intended application(s) and target audience(s): [ISO!] 1:1:1. detailed report (including non-technical executive summary), 1:1:2. data set, 1:1:3. data set plus detailed report, or 1:1:4. non-technical executive summary (with references to the full report and review reports, if review has been performed). 1:1:5. The electronic ILCD LCA report template and LCI data set format should be foreseen to be used for reporting. Confidential information can be documented in a separate, complementary report that is not published but only made available to the reviewers under confidentiality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3492, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1002, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Confidential information can be documented in a separate, complementary report that is not published but only made available to the reviewers under confidentiality. Note that any form of reporting, also more condensed ones, shall ensure that the contained information cannot easily and unintentionally be misunderstood or misinterpreted beyond what is supported by the study. 1:2. Level of reporting: Decide which level of reporting shall be used in accordance with the defined goal. The main levels are: 1:2:1. internal 1:2:2. external (but limited, well defined recipients) 1:2:3. third-party report, publicly accessible 1:2:4. report on comparisons, publicly accessible 37.4 Inventory Analysis The inventory analysis is discussed in Chap. 9 of this book. It is the third phase of the LCA, where the product system is modelled and elementary flow data is collected for all the processes in the system and scaled according to the reference flow of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3493, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1002, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The resulting life cycle inventory is the basis of the subsequent impact assessment. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3494, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1002, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The inventory analysis comprises the following six steps: 1. Identifying processes for the LCI model 2. Planning and collecting data 3. Constructing and quality checking unit processes 4. Constructing LCI model and calculating LCI results 5. Preparing the basis for uncertainty management and sensitivity analysis 6. Reporting 37.4.1 Identifying Processes for the LCI Model Different approaches are taken for identifying processes for the product system depending on whether an attributional or a consequential modelling approach is taken, as described in Sect. 9.2. The provisions and actions of the ILCD guideline are the following: Identifying processes in attributional modelling (Provisions 7.2.3) Applicable to Situation A and C, as well as the life cycle model(s) of Situation B, except for those process steps that are affected by large-scale consequences. Also applicable to the assumption scenarios under Situation B for which it has been decided to apply attributional modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3495, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1003, "book_page": 1001, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Also applicable to the assumption scenarios under Situation B for which it has been decided to apply attributional modelling. Fully applicable for LCI results, partly terminated systems, LCIA results and LCA studies (and for unit processes only to complete the system model for completeness check and precision approximation). For black box unit processes as deliverable, only those processes that are foreseen to be included are to be identified, as are the product and waste flows that enter or leave the unit process. For single operation unit processes only the product and waste flows that enter or leave the unit process are to be identified and specified; the named technical flow diagram in that case only consists of one process plus product and waste flows. 1. SHALL\u2014Identifying processes within the system boundary: All quantitatively relevant processes shall be identified that are to be attributed to the analysed system(s) and that lay within the system boundary: [ISO+] 1:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3496, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1003, "book_page": 1001, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Start from central process: This identification should start from the system\u2019s functional unit or the reference flow (i.e. from the central process of the foreground system or the analysed system itself). 1:2. Foreground system: Stepwise it should be expanded to the entire foreground system. Following a descriptive \u201csupply chain\u2014use\u2014end-of-life\u201d logic it shall as far as possible identify all relevant product and waste flows (or their functional units) that cross the border to or from the background system.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3497, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1003, "book_page": 1001, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:3. Background system: The processes in the background system shall be identified in the same \u201csupply chain\u2014use\u2014end-of-life\u201d logic as applied in the foreground system. Note that it is established practice to embed the foreground system into a third-party or in-house developed general background system of LCI results and/or unit processes. That means that in practice the identification described above ends with the identification of the product and waste flows that connect the foreground system with the background system. Systems or processes that would be missing in such a general background system are for a given case collected or obtained from third parties as required for the analysed system. 1:4. Justify and document exclusions: Any exclusion of relevant individual processes or activity types shall be justified using the cut-off criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3498, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1004, "book_page": 1002, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:4. Justify and document exclusions: Any exclusion of relevant individual processes or activity types shall be justified using the cut-off criteria. This can build on previous experience including as detailed in related system/product-group specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs). In principle all processes are to be inventoried that are to be attributed to the system, as far as they relevantly contribute to the overall environmental impact of the analysed system. This includes in principle\u2014depending on the included life cycle stages and the system boundary in general\u2014activities such as, e.g. mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services linked to the analysed system, such as, e.g. cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting and business travel, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3499, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1004, "book_page": 1002, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that individual processes within the background system may need to be identified as well\u2014in context of identifying sensitive issues or if required to meet the specific goal of the study. The requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-related representativeness of the scope definition shall be met. Note that the resulting initial list of processes, product and waste flows typically will need a refinement in view of the results of the completed initial life cycle model, impact assessment and interpretation. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3500, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1004, "book_page": 1002, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Identifying processes in consequential modelling (Provisions 7.2.4) Applicable for those processes in Situation B that have large-scale consequences, and for use in assumption scenarios in Situation B (if consequential elements are included in those). Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, except for unit processes. Expertise [ISO+] 1. SHOULD\u2014Required expertise: Experts in the following domains should be involved in the study, especially for identifying and modelling large-scale consequences: 1:1. technology development forecasting (e.g. learning curves, experience curves), 1:2. scenario development, 1:3. market cost and market forecasting 1:4. technology cost modelling, and 1:5. general-equilibrium and partial-equilibrium modelling 2. SHOULD\u2014Policy scenario experts required?: The involvement of domain experts for policy scenarios is recommended regarding their function as setting constraints", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3501, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1005, "book_page": 1003, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHOULD\u2014Policy scenario experts required?: The involvement of domain experts for policy scenarios is recommended regarding their function as setting constraints. In the case policy scenarios are explicitly analysed in the study, such experts should be involved. Identifying consequences and constraints to be considered [ISO+] 3. SHALL\u2014Modelled consequences: Identify among the following ones those consequences that will be modelled; this step may be taken separately case for each process. Their potential exclusion shall justified by demonstrating at least argumentative/semi-quantitative that they are not relevant for the results; otherwise the exclusion shall be considered when reporting achieved accuracy (in case of data sets) and when interpreting the results (in case of LCA studies): 3:1. Primary market consequences: 3:1:1. SHALL\u2014(a) Processes that are operated as direct market consequence of the decision to meet the additional demand of a product (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3502, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1005, "book_page": 1003, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Primary market consequences: 3:1:1. SHALL\u2014(a) Processes that are operated as direct market consequence of the decision to meet the additional demand of a product (i.e. \u201cconsequential modelling of direct consequences; applied for the full system\u201d). This includes among many others also indirect land use effects. 3:1:2. SHALL\u2014(b) Processes that supersede/complement not required co-functions of multifunctional processes that are within the system boundary (i.e. \u201csolving multifunctionality by substitution\u201d, reducing the system boundary to exclude the not required function(s)). 3:2. Secondary market consequences: 3:2:1. SHOULD\u2014Increased demand for a co-product if its market price is reduced. 3:2:2. SHOULD\u2014Incentive-effects on a process to increase its efficiency due to a higher price for its product(s).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3503, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1005, "book_page": 1003, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3:2:3. SHOULD\u2014Decreased demand for competing products of a co-product due to the decreased price of the co-product. 3:2:4. SHOULD\u2014Consumer behaviour changes 3:2:5. SHOULD\u2014Further consequences should only be included if explicitly addressed in the goal of the study. 4. SHALL\u2014Constraints: Identify the constraints that will be included in the model and that may partly or fully prevent that the marginal process mix as identified along the primary and secondary consequences can directly be used in the system model. The likely specific effect of any included constraint shall be considered when identifying the effective marginal process (es). Their potential exclusion shall be justified by demonstrating at least argumentative/semi-quantitative that they are not relevant for the results; otherwise the exclusion shall be considered when reporting achieved accuracy (in case of data sets) and when interpreting the results (in case of LCA studies)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3504, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1006, "book_page": 1004, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following constraints should be considered: 4:1. Existing long-term supply-contracts or co-operations that cannot easily be changed. 4:2. High costs that act as a barrier (e.g. limited mobility of some products due to high transport costs). 4:3. Existing or expected political measures/legal constraints that stimulate perceived positive developments or counteract perceived negative developments. (e.g. a political binding target of X % of energy carrier Y in the fuel mix means that energy carrier X is already pre-set and cannot be assumed to be a long-term marginal product in consequence of the analysed decision.) 4:4. Non-scalability of supply of products or natural resources; including of fully used, dependent co-products of joint production. 4:5. Monopolies, i.e. lack of choice of the supplier or technology. 4:6. It is recommended to also consider other constraints in place or expected to be in place that increase, decrease or block a primary or secondary consequence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3505, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1006, "book_page": 1004, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4:6. It is recommended to also consider other constraints in place or expected to be in place that increase, decrease or block a primary or secondary consequence. Identifying the mix of superseded processes/systems [ISO+] 5. SHOULD\u2014Stepwise identification of the mix of superseded processes/systems: Identify the processes/systems within the system boundary that are superseded as consequence of the analysed decision on the investigated system(s). For each process the following steps should be applied, starting from the system\u2019s functional unit or reference flow to the entire foreground system and following the identified consequences and constraints of a theoretical \u201csupply chain\u2014use\u2014end-of-life\u201d logic to M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3506, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1006, "book_page": 1004, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "include identifying as minimum all product and waste flows (or their functional units) that cross the border to the background system29: 5:1. Primary market consequence and the size of the effect: First step\u2014 consider the primary market consequence and the size of the effect: 5:1:1. Identify the processes that are assumed to be additionally operated or taken out of operation as primary market consequence of the analysed decision and the directly related additional or reduced demand for a function/product, considering the following: 5:1:2. Size of effect:, EITHER 5:1:2:1. \u201csmall\u201d\u2014affecting only the extent of operation of one or more existing processes\u2014the short-term marginal process(es) are the ones that should be assumed to be superseded, OR 5:1:2:2. \u201cbig\u201d\u2014resulting in additionally installed or de-installed capacity \u2013> the long-term marginal processes are the ones that should be assumed to be superseded. 5:1:2:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3507, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1007, "book_page": 1005, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cbig\u201d\u2014resulting in additionally installed or de-installed capacity \u2013> the long-term marginal processes are the ones that should be assumed to be superseded. 5:1:2:3. The effect should generally be considered \u201csmall\u201d, if the annual amount of additional demand or supply is smaller than the average percentage of annual replacement of capacity of the annual supply of that function or system in the given market; if that average percentage is over 5%, 5% should be used instead. Otherwise, it is \u201cbig\u201d. The percentage is for orientation only and can be for a given case changed to be smaller or bigger upon the argumentation that the change in demand or supply is directly triggering changes in demand and not only via a marginal accumulative effect in contribution to the general market demand/signal. 5:2. Secondary consequences and constraints: Second step\u2014consider secondary consequences and constraints: 5:2:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3508, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1007, "book_page": 1005, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5:2. Secondary consequences and constraints: Second step\u2014consider secondary consequences and constraints: 5:2:1. If the size of the effect of the primary market consequence is \u201csmall\u201d, check whether the secondary consequences and constraints in the market counteract the primary consequence (rebound), so that the net effect of the consequences is so small that it is not significantly different from being zero. In that case, the \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d is best represented by the \u201caverage market consumption mix\u201d of the processes/systems (but see next sub-provision). 5:2:2. For the specific case of multifunctionality, a key constraint occurs if the required co-function is an already fully used, dependent co-function of a joint production process (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3509, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1007, "book_page": 1005, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5:2:2. For the specific case of multifunctionality, a key constraint occurs if the required co-function is an already fully used, dependent co-function of a joint production process (e.g. copper ore mining with silver as dependent but fully used co-product, egg-laying chicken with the dependent co- \u201cproduct\u201d chicken being fully used for human food or animal fodder), as additional demand cannot be met by additional supply on a net basis. In that case, the required function/product will have to be produced in another 29It depends on the chosen background system model solution whether the processes of the background system also need to be individually identified or whether\u2014if embedding the foreground system into an existing background system\u2014this work has been already done.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3510, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1007, "book_page": 1005, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "way (e.g. for the above examples: silver from silver mine, or meat-chicken directly raised for food or fodder). 5:2:3. If the size of the effect of the primary market consequence is \u201cbig\u201d, check next whether secondary consequences and market constraints counteract the primary consequence, so that the net overall effect is not \u201cbig\u201d but \u201csmall\u201d. 5:2:4. For those processes that are still facing \u201cbig\u201d effects, explicitly consider that the affected processes might have been changed by the secondary consequences and constraints. This has to be analysed specifically to correctly identify the final effect/superseded processes. 5:3. Market situation and the cost-competitiveness: Third step\u2014market situation and the cost-competitiveness of alternatives: 5:3:1. Market direction, EITHER 5:3:1:1. a \u201cgrowing, stable, slightly declining market\u201d (i.e. declining less than the average equipment replacement rate, OR 5:3:1:2. a \u201cstrongly declining market\u201d (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3511, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1008, "book_page": 1006, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Market direction, EITHER 5:3:1:1. a \u201cgrowing, stable, slightly declining market\u201d (i.e. declining less than the average equipment replacement rate, OR 5:3:1:2. a \u201cstrongly declining market\u201d (i.e. declining faster than the average equipment replacement rate). The above named average displacement rate in % is obtained by dividing 100 years by the average or typical life time of the capital equipment, expressed in years. 5:3:2. Based on this: analyse whether the extent of additional demand or supply for the effect \u201cbig\u201d is changing the direction of the market, i.e. from a \u201cstrongly declining\u201d market to a \u201cslightly declining, stable, or growing\u201d market OR vice versa. 5:3:3. If this is NOT the case, the affected processes/systems are always the \u201clong-term marginal\u201d processes/systems. 5:3:4. For all \u201csmall\u201d and \u201cbig\u201d cases in addition the cost-competitiveness of alternative processes/systems is relevant: 5:3:4:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3512, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1008, "book_page": 1006, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5:3:4. For all \u201csmall\u201d and \u201cbig\u201d cases in addition the cost-competitiveness of alternative processes/systems is relevant: 5:3:4:1. If the market is \u201cgrowing, stable or slightly declining\u201d, the \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d (for \u201csmall\u201d effects) and the \u201clong-term marginal\u201d (for \u201cbig\u201d effects) are the most cost-competitive processes/systems. 5:3:4:2. If the market is \u201cstrongly declining\u201d, the \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d (for \u201csmall\u201d effects) and the \u201clong-term marginal\u201d (for \u201cbig\u201d effects) are the \u201cleast cost-competitive\u201d processes/systems. 5:3:5. If in contrast the market direction IS changing, both the least and the most cost-competitive processes/systems are superseded and their specific type and share needs to be identified individually, drawing on the other provisions of this chapter. 5:4. Identifying the mix of processes/systems: Final step\u2014identifying the mix of \u201cshort-term\u201d or \u201clong-term\u201d marginal processes/systems: M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3513, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1008, "book_page": 1006, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5:4:1. In the consequential model, not only one single, short-term or long-term marginal process should be modelled but a mix of the most likely marginal processes, given the high uncertainty of market price forecasts and the often large differences of the environmental profiles among alternative marginal processes. To restrict the model to a single marginal process or system is only justifiable if there are no other, similarly cost- competitive processes or systems and hence the use of a single one is more appropriate. 5:4:2. The final amount of function (process or system) that is superseded shall be approximated considering the combined effect of primary and secondary consequences and constraints. Note that in case the market direction has changed as consequence of the analysed decision, the superseded processes are a specific combination of the least cost-competitive ones and partly the most cost. Further provisions, comments and recommendation on documentation (7.2.4.5) [ISO+] 6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3514, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1009, "book_page": 1007, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Further provisions, comments and recommendation on documentation (7.2.4.5) [ISO+] 6. SHALL\u2014Observe that: 6:1. Part-system and system\u2013system relationships: These need special attention (e.g. for energy related products) and correct inventorying. Note that these cases are modelled identically in attributional modelling. 6:2. Individual processes within the background system: These may need to be identified as well when identifying significant issues or if required to meet the specific goal of the study. 6:3. Meet representativeness requirements: The requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-related representativeness shall be met. 7. SHOULD\u2014Indirect land use changes: The appropriate way how to consider indirect land use changes should be developed. If done this shall be in line with the general provisions on consequential modelling. This is unless specific provisions would be published under the ILCD. Such provisions might be part of a future supplement. 8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3515, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1009, "book_page": 1007, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is unless specific provisions would be published under the ILCD. Such provisions might be part of a future supplement. 8. MAY\u2014Schematic consequential model diagram: It is recommended using the system boundary scheme for overview. Schematic decision-consequence and flow diagrams of the most relevant consequences and marginal processes of the system(s) may be used to document the main identified consequences and constraints and the resulting resource bases, technologies, affected markets, etc. This can serve as basis for a data collection planning and later documentation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3516, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1009, "book_page": 1007, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note again, that any exclusion of individual processes or activity types shall be justified using the cut-off criteria. In principle all processes are to be inventoried that are operated in consequence of the analysed decision. This includes in principle\u2014depending on the system boundary\u2014activities such as, e.g. mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services such as, e.g. cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting and business travel, etc. 9. MAY\u2014Initial processes\u2019 description: It is recommended to also provide an initial description of the identified unit processes of the foreground system and the detailed functional units of those product and waste flows that link it to the background system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3517, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1010, "book_page": 1008, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This should complement the documentation of the consequences and constraints and be completed with details during the iterations of the LCI work. Solving multifunctionality of processes and systems [ISO!] 10. SHALL\u2014Subdivision and virtual subdivision: Subdivision and virtual subdivision shall be applied in preference to substitution.30 11. SHALL\u2014Combined production: For cases of truly combined production, the determining physical causality (i.e. the first of the two steps of allocation under attributional modelling) equally applies analogously. 12. SHALL\u2014Joint production: For joint production, substitution as a special case of system expansion is the preferred solution to multifunctionality. This shall be done as follows: 12:1. The same provisions shall apply as for general consequential modelling of the system. 12:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3518, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1010, "book_page": 1008, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This shall be done as follows: 12:1. The same provisions shall apply as for general consequential modelling of the system. 12:2. Note the specific constraint for already fully used, dependent co-products of joint production: since their production cannot be increased with that same multifunctional process/technology, their additional provision cannot be modelled. Instead, alternative routes need to be modelled for their supply. 12:3. If for the not required co-function functionally equivalent alternative processes/systems are operated/provided in a commercially relevant extent, the not required co-function shall be substituted with the mix of the superseded marginal processes (excluding the substituted process-route, if quantitatively relevant)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3519, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1010, "book_page": 1008, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Differences in functionality between superseding and superseded function shall be considered by correction of the actually superseded amount of the superseded process(es) or by market price 30Observe that virtual subdivision shall not be done if it \u201ccuts\u201d through physically not separable joint processes, as this would distort the substitution. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3520, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1010, "book_page": 1008, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "correction of the superseded process(es)\u2019 inventory (if the superseded amount is not known in sufficient detail). 12:4. If such alternative processes/systems do not exist31 or are not operated in a commercially relevant extent, the provided function in a wider sense should be used for substitution.32 Note that the substituted processes or products may also have secondary functions. This can theoretically lead to the problem of an eternally self-referring and/or very extensive, multiple extended system. As the amount of these secondary functions and their relevance within the overalls system goes down with each process step, this problem can be avoided/reduced by applying the cut-off rules. Substitution for multifunctional processes and systems in reuse/recycling/ recovery [ISO!] 13. SHALL\u2014Recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: Substitution shall be applied for cases of recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: 13:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3521, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1011, "book_page": 1009, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHALL\u2014Recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: Substitution shall be applied for cases of recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: 13:1. Applying general rules to these cases: Substitution of products recycled or recovered from end-of-life product and waste treatment follows the same rules as for the general cases of multifunctionality. They shall be applied for all cases of waste and end-of-life treatment (i.e. \u201cclosed loop\u201d and of \u201copen loop\u2014same primary route\u201d and \u201copen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d). Subdivision and virtual subdivision shall be applied in preference to substitution. 13:2. Specific aspects and steps (true joint process, interim processes to secondary good, recyclability, ...): Specific for reuse/recycling/recovery is that interim treatment steps occur more regularly and that often no truly equivalent alternative process/system exist.33 In this context, also the true joint process of the secondary good is to be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3522, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1011, "book_page": 1009, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Finally, the steps of reuse/recycling/recovery need to be modelled explicitly until the secondary good is obtained that is actually superseding an alternative process/system. 31E.g. for wheat grain production, many refinery products, etc. 32E.g. as for NaOH apart from NaCl electrolysis, or if for a mobile phone the individual function SMS would not be available as commercially relevant, separate consumer product. NaOH provides the general function of neutralising agent and hence other, technically equivalent and competing neutralising agents, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3, etc. can be assumed to be superseded. For the case of wheat grain and straw production: instead of straw, other dry biomass (e.g. Miscanthus grass, wood for heating, etc.) provides equivalent functions and can be assumed to be superseded. 33This is as secondary goods often have distinctly different properties from primary produced goods (e.g. recycled aged plastics vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3523, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1011, "book_page": 1009, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "33This is as secondary goods often have distinctly different properties from primary produced goods (e.g. recycled aged plastics vs. primary plastics), what makes a clear assignment to the equivalent or most similar process/system more difficult.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3524, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1011, "book_page": 1009, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The actual mix of superseded processes shall be identified for the given case and along the following steps: 13:2:1. The true joint process of the secondary good is that process step in the product\u2019s life cycle that provides the good with the closest technical similarity to the secondary good; the thereby identified primary good shall not have a lower market value than the secondary good.34 13:2:2. The recyclability substitution approach shall be used for substitution. That implies that all interim waste management, treatment, transport, etc. steps are to be modelled and assigned to the analysed system including the step that is producing the valuable co-function (e.g. secondary metal bar). 13:2:3. The amount/degree of recyclability shall refer to the actually achieved recyclability, i.e. accounting for all kinds of losses, e.g. loss due to incomplete collection, sorting, recovery, during recycling processing, rejection, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3525, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1012, "book_page": 1010, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "accounting for all kinds of losses, e.g. loss due to incomplete collection, sorting, recovery, during recycling processing, rejection, etc. In short, the recyclability is the %35 of the amount of end-oflife product or waste that is found in the secondary good(s). For practical reasons and for long-living products this should per convention be the currently achieved recyclability for this product (or for new/projected products the achieved recyclability of comparable products in the same market). This can be another reference if the goal of the study explicitly relates to recyclability scenarios. 13:2:4. The superseded process(es)/system(s) shall be identified applying the general consequential modelling guidance as detailed in the above provisions.36 34This serves to avoid a potentially misleading upscaling of the superseded function's inventory in case of applying market value correction when correcting for the functional differences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3526, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1012, "book_page": 1010, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35Note that this % needs to relate to the appropriate property and unit of the secondary good, e.g. Mass in kg for recycled materials, Lower calorific value in MJ for recovered energy, Pieces in number for reused parts, etc. 36That means that the earlier named constraint for already fully used, dependent co-products of joint production also applies here: since the production of e.g. a recycled metal as dependent co-product cannot be increased with that same multifunctional process/technology (i.e. by producing more e.g. metal goods, what is of course not happening), its additional provision via primary production cannot be assumed. Instead, alternative routes need to be modelled for the supply of the recycled metal. As stated for the general case, the determining co-product shall not be substituted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3527, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1012, "book_page": 1010, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Instead, alternative routes need to be modelled for the supply of the recycled metal. As stated for the general case, the determining co-product shall not be substituted. The following example explains what that means and why for \u201cclosed loop\u201d and \u201copen loop - same primary route\u201d cases nevertheless the primary production is to be substituted: Example: the determining co- product of primary and secondary metal is the primary metal. The secondary metal, after recycling, is the dependent co-product. If this one is fully used in the same or other products and from the perspective of the metal product made of primary metal, recyclability substitution is applied, substituting the secondary good by primary metal. From the perspective of the user of the secondary good \u201crecycled metal\u201d, the metal primary production shall not be substituted, but alternative ways of supplying the recycled metal shall be modelled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3528, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1012, "book_page": 1010, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "From the perspective of the user of the secondary good \u201crecycled metal\u201d, the metal primary production shall not be substituted, but alternative ways of supplying the recycled metal shall be modelled. This alternative way is, however\u2014what makes this case apparently specific\u2014the primary production of that metal as this is the only way to increase the availability of the required metal on a net basis. Hence in both cases, primary production is to be substituted, but for different reasons. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3529, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1012, "book_page": 1010, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "13:2:5. Also here not one marginal process should be used but the average inventories of several of the potential marginal processes. 13:2:6. For application-unspecific secondary goods, any reduced technical properties of the secondary good should be corrected in the accredited inventory by using the market price ratio (value correction) of the secondary good to the primary produced replaced function. 13:2:7. For application-specific uses of the secondary goods, sufficient functional equivalence with the superseded good shall be ensured and the credited inventory be reduced to the amount that is effectively superseded. In the case, this cannot be determined, the market price ratio (value correction) shall be applied as in the application-unspecific case. 13:2:8. Especially for the case of \u201copen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d in addition it is to be checked whether commercially relevant alternative processes are operated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3530, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1013, "book_page": 1011, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "13:2:8. Especially for the case of \u201copen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d in addition it is to be checked whether commercially relevant alternative processes are operated. Otherwise, the provisions for the general case of solving multifunctionality under consequential modelling shall be applied. 13:2:9. The other guidance aspects of this chapter on identifying the superseded processes (e.g. constraints, secondary consequences, etc.) apply analogously. Note that for scenario formation in comparisons, the various primary and secondary consequences and constraints should be varied jointly when defining \u201creasonably best case\u201d and \u201creasonably worst-case\u201d scenarios. In the inventory analysis, the treatment of multifunctional processes deserves special attention and should be decided before collecting the process data to ensure that the relevant processes are considered. A detailed guidance is given on this aspect in the ILCD Guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3531, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1013, "book_page": 1011, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A detailed guidance is given on this aspect in the ILCD Guidelines. Regardless the goal situation, the first choice is to subdivide a multifunctional process into monofunctional processes if that is possible. Avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision (Provisions 7.9.2) Applicable to Situation C2. Applicable to cases of Situation A, B, C1 only if subdivision, virtual subdivision and substitution/system expansion were not possible or feasible, as identified along the specific provisions for these Situations. Applicable only to attributional modelling, unless in consequential modelling substitution is not possible or feasible. 1. SHALL\u2014Analyse whether allocation can theoretically be avoided by subdivision: Investigate whether the analysed unit process is a black box unit process: does it contain other physically distinguishable sub-process steps and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3532, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1013, "book_page": 1011, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "is it theoretically possible to collect data exclusively for those sub-processes? Next, check whether subdivision can solve the multifunctionality of this black box unit process: can a process or process-chain within the initial black box unit process be identified and modelled separately that provides only the one required functional output? 2. SHALL\u2014Aim at avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision: Based on the outcome, the following steps shall be followed: 2:1. Subdivision: If it is possible to collect data exclusively for those included processes that have only the one, required functional output: inventory data should be collected only for those included unit processes. 2:2. Partial subdivision: If this is not possible (i.e. the analysed unit process contains multifunctional single operation unit processes that are attributed to the required functional output) or not feasible (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3533, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1014, "book_page": 1012, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the analysed unit process contains multifunctional single operation unit processes that are attributed to the required functional output) or not feasible (e.g. for lack of access or cost reasons): inventory data should be collected separately for at least some of the included unit processes, especially for those that are main contributors to the inventory and that cannot otherwise (e.g. by virtual subdivision\u2014see later provision) clearly be assigned to only one of the co-functions. [ISO+] 2:3. Virtual subdivision: It should be checked whether it is possible by reasoning to virtually partly or fully subdivide the multifunctional process based on process/technology understanding. This is the case wherever a quantitative relationship can be identified and specified that exactly relates the types and amounts of a flow with at least one of the co-functions/reference flow(s) (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3534, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1014, "book_page": 1012, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the specific mechanical parts or auxiliary materials in a manufacturing plant that are only used for the analysed product can be clearly assigned to that product by subdividing the collected data). For those processes where this can be done, a virtual subdivision should be done, separating included processes as own unit processes. [ISO+] 2:4. Justify need for allocation and document potential distortion: If the preceding sub-steps are not possible and a real or virtual separation is not feasible, allocation is the approach that shall be applied (see next provision). In addition and only if subdivision is theoretically possible but was not performed, it should be demonstrated/argued at least via quantitative approximation or reasoning that the decision for allocation does not lead to relevant differences in the resulting inventory, compared to a subdivision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3535, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1014, "book_page": 1012, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "If it leads to relevant differences, the respective cases shall be documented and shall later be explicitly considered when assessing the achieved accuracy of data sets and when interpreting the final results of LCA studies, respectively. [ISO!] If subdivision is not possible, allocation is the choice for Situation C2 and for those cases in Situation A, B and C, where subdivision, virtual subdivision and substitution/system expansion was not possible or feasible. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3536, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1014, "book_page": 1012, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Solving multifunctionality by allocation (Provisions 7.9.3) 1. SHALL\u2014Share inventory between co-functions by allocation: If allocation is to be done, the environmental burden of the concerned processes shall be shared between the co-function(s) of the process or system by allocation. 2. SHALL\u2014Differentiate multifunctional processes and multifunctional products: These two cases shall be differentiated [ISO!]. 3. SHALL\u2014Two-step procedure for multifunctional processes: The following two-step procedure37 shall be applied [ISO!]: 3:1. First step and criterion \u201cdetermining physical causality\u201d: As first criterion, the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the process shall be identified and used as allocation criterion. This relationship is the one that determines the way in which quantitative changes of the products or functions delivered by the system change the other inputs and outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3537, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1015, "book_page": 1013, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This relationship is the one that determines the way in which quantitative changes of the products or functions delivered by the system change the other inputs and outputs. Within this step, process-related inventory flows (e.g. spontaneous NOx in incineration, consumption of auxiliary materials) should be differentiated from function (product) related inventory flows (e.g. the NOx from the nitrogen in the incinerated fuel, materials or parts ending up at least partly in the co-products). Note that often a combined, multiple allocation of the different non-functional flows to the co-functions is necessary, applying different criteria for the different flows. Note also that the preceding step of virtual subdivision is applying the same logic as physical causality allocation. 3:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3538, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1015, "book_page": 1013, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note also that the preceding step of virtual subdivision is applying the same logic as physical causality allocation. 3:2. Checklist for \u201cdetermining physical causality\u201d criteria: If this is not possible or for any remaining inventory items, the following list gives guidance which criteria should be analysed by default whether they are the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationship\u201d to be used for allocation in different cases of co-servicing and co- production processes: 3:2:1. Services: \u2022 Goods transport: time or distance AND mass or volume (or in specific cases: pieces) of the transported good \u2022 Personal transport: time or distance AND weight of passengers 37The need is seen to develop supplementing practice-manuals in line with the ILCD and with explicit allocation- criteria/rules for main process and product groups, to further enhance practicability and reproducibility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3539, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1015, "book_page": 1013, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This could follow the same general logic as applied when developing Product Category Rules (PCR) in support of Environmental Product Declarations (EPD).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3540, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1015, "book_page": 1013, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Staff business travel: added value of system \u2022 Staff commuting: added value of system \u2022 Retailing: time (duration) of shelf-life AND mass or volume of good \u2022 Storage and shelter, i.e. buildings and other three-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND volume of good OR area occupied by the good \u2022 Storage and other functions provided by places and other two-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND area occupied by the good \u2022 Transport and communication on roads, railways, pipes, cables and other one-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) AND intensity (e.g. road wearing impact by vehicles of different weight) OR bandwidth of use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3541, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1016, "book_page": 1014, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Heating/cooling of space (keeping a temperature): time (duration of heating/cooling) AND area or volume heated/cooled (depending whether the space is used by area such as in offices, or by volume such as in staple storage halls or retail freezers) \u2022 Heating/cooling of goods (reaching a target temperature): heat capacity of good \u2022 Private administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR market value of sales \u2022 Public administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR number of cases serviced \u2022 Cleaning services (of objects of similar cleaning technologies): surface area cleaned (or as fallback option: time (duration) of cleaning) \u2022 Guarding services: share of product\u2019s value among guarded products AND/OR the production/provision facilities\u2019 value of the product among guarded site/object, depending what is the purpose of the guarding \u2022 Marketing services: share of product implicitly or explicitly addressed by marketing (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3542, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1016, "book_page": 1014, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "corporate marketing: share of product\u2019s value in corporate turnover) \u2022 Teaching/training services: person time (duration) of training AND number of individuals taught/trained \u2022 R&D services (of objects of similar R&D): person time OR cost charged for R&D services 3:2:2. Production processes: \u2022 Extraction processes: for process-related flows the market value, for product-related flows the specific physical properties of the co-products \u2022 Chemical conversion and waste processing (including incineration): quantitative change of the to-be-allocated flows in dependency of quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system. If unknown: the chemical or physical properties that determine the amount of the other flows M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3543, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1016, "book_page": 1014, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Manufacturing (including physical transformation processes) and mechanical waste processing: length, surface, volume, or mass OR number of items OR time of processing \u2022 General processes by other capital goods\u2019 input directly to multifunctional processes (e.g. the processing machines themselves, but not buildings, etc.): time (duration) of use OR mass, volume, length of produced good 3:3. Justify selection from checklist: In the case alternatives are given in the above provisions, the chosen alternative shall be concisely justified. 3:4. Justify other criteria: If another specific relationship is applied that is not listed above, that choice shall be concisely justified including explaining why none of the default provisions is applicable or the most suitable ones, along the guidance given in the text. 3:5. Justify non-existence of determining physical causality: If a \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d does not exist (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3544, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1017, "book_page": 1015, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3:5. Justify non-existence of determining physical causality: If a \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d does not exist (i.e. it is not in the above list and no other can be identified), this shall be concisely justified. Only in that case the second allocation step should be applied (see below); otherwise, the resulting lack of accuracy and potential distortion is to be documented and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation. 4. SHOULD\u2014Second step and criterion \u201cmarket price\u201d: As second, general allocation criterion for multifunctional processes, the market price of the co-functions should be applied. If this is done, the price shall refer to the specific condition and at the point the co-functions leave or enter38 the multifunctional unit process or are provided. This means for processes that the known, calculated or approximated market price shall relate to, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3545, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1017, "book_page": 1015, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This means for processes that the known, calculated or approximated market price shall relate to, e.g. the specific technical characteristics in quantity and quality such as purity, compressed or not, packaged or not, etc. as well as bulk or small amounts, etc. at the point it leaves the process. If this cannot be done, the resulting lack in accuracy and potential distortion of the results shall be documented and be considered in the results interpretation. 5. SHOULD\u2014Two-step procedure for multifunctional products (e.g. consumer products): The following two-step procedure shall be applied: [ISO!] 5:1. First step and criterion \u201cdetermining physical causality\u201d: As first criterion, the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the product should be identified and applied. The above guidance for multifunctional flows can be applied analogously. 5:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3546, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1017, "book_page": 1015, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The above guidance for multifunctional flows can be applied analogously. 5:2. Use virtual subdivision principle to perform explicit allocation: As an initial step, analogously as above for multifunctional processes, the logic of virtual subdivision should be applied to virtually subdivide the multifunctional product. 38\u201cEnter\u201d in case of waste and end-of-life treatment services.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3547, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1017, "book_page": 1015, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5:3. Second step and criterion \u201cQFD\u201d or \u201cmarket price\u201d: 5:3:1. Preferred second criterion\u2014Quality Function Deployment: If the above cannot be done, the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) should be used to identify the relevance of the co-function from the user\u2019s perspective. If a QFD does not exist and cannot be developed (e.g. due to cost or timing reasons), the second, general allocation criterion of \u201cmarket price\u201d of equivalent products for the single co-functions can and shall be applied. 5:3:2. Alternative second criterion\u2014market price: If the QFD is not feasible, allocation by market price should be done in analogy to the preceding case for multifunctional processes. For products, the representative price of products that provide an equivalent to each single function should be used to allocate among the co-functions of the multifunctional product. [ISO+] 6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3548, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1018, "book_page": 1016, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For products, the representative price of products that provide an equivalent to each single function should be used to allocate among the co-functions of the multifunctional product. [ISO+] 6. SHALL\u2014Attributional modelling of reuse, recycling and recovery: The following provisions shall be applied in attributional modelling of recycling and related: [ISO!] 6:1. Follow general rules for multifunctionality, observing specific aspects: Allocation of products from end-of-life product and waste treatment shall apply the same general rules as other cases of multifunctionality, with two specific aspects: 6:1:1. Dealing with waste and end-of-life products of negative market value that generate secondary goods: Specific is firstly that in case the market value of the end-of-life product or waste is below zero (e.g. soiled post-consumer packaging waste), the appropriate process step at the system boundary to the next life cycle is to be identified, i.e. where the allocation is to be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3549, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1018, "book_page": 1016, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "soiled post-consumer packaging waste), the appropriate process step at the system boundary to the next life cycle is to be identified, i.e. where the allocation is to be applied. This process step is that one where the valuable co-function is created after one or more initial treatment processes have taken place (e.g. sorted plastic fraction of the above waste). 6:1:2. True joint process to be identified: Specific is secondly that for end-oflife products and waste the true joint process is to be identified, which is separated by various, e.g. manufacturing steps from the step where the end-of-life product occurs: 6:1:2:1. For waste or end-of-life products with a market price equal or above zero, the true joint process is that process earlier in the life cycle of the system, where the good (e.g. an aluminium bar) is technically approximately equivalent to the secondary good of the waste or end-of-life product (e.g. aluminium scrap from construction demolishing)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3550, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1018, "book_page": 1016, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "an aluminium bar) is technically approximately equivalent to the secondary good of the waste or end-of-life product (e.g. aluminium scrap from construction demolishing). Note that for \u201copen loop \u2014different primary route\u201d recycling this step might necessarily involve abstraction to the basic properties of the two products. These two products that have been identified as described above are then considered co-products of the true joint process. 6:1:2:2. For waste and end-of-life products with a market value below zero, the true joint process is that one, which produces that product that is about equivalent to the first valuable product that is produced from the initial waste treatment processes, as described in the preceding provision. These M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3551, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1018, "book_page": 1016, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "two products that have been identified as described above are then considered co-products of the true joint process. 6:1:2:3. In the case of multiple functions from the waste or end-of-life product (e.g. a complex consumer product is discarded for recycling of its many materials and for energy recovery), there is each one true joint process for each of them that shall be identified. 6:2. Provisions: The following provisions can be derived that shall be applied, differentiating between waste/end-of-life products with negative and positive market value: 6:2:1. Negative market value: If the market price of the waste/end-of-life product is below zero: 6:2:1:1. The waste/end-of-life management/treatment processes until excluding the process where the pre-treated waste crosses the \u201czero market value\u201d border (i.e. when a process is generating a function with positive market value) shall be allocated exclusively to the first system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3552, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1019, "book_page": 1017, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "when a process is generating a function with positive market value) shall be allocated exclusively to the first system. In the case the exact process step or the waste and/or secondary good properties cannot be clearly identified, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the results interpretation 6:2:1:2. Subsequently, the two-step allocation procedure shall be applied between the valuable secondary good and its co-product from the true joint process (i.e. see the next provision). This involves a second, additional allocation exclusively of the inventory of that process step that has produced the first valuable product after the initial waste treatment steps, as follows: 6:2:1:3. The inventory exclusively of the process step that produces a valuable product (secondary good) should be allocated with the market value criterion between the secondary good(s) and the (potentially pre-treated) waste/end-of-life product that enters this process step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3553, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1019, "book_page": 1017, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The burdens that are allocated to the pre-treated waste/end-of-life product belong to the first system, the ones assigned to the secondary good(s) to the second system (s). Note that the market value of the pre-treated waste/end-of-life product is below zero and that hence the absolute value of its (negative) market price39 should be used when calculating the allocation key; the rest of the allocation calculation is the same. 6:2:1:4. After that, the two-step allocation is applied between the valuable secondary good and the true joint process, as follows in the next provision, i.e. analogous to the case when the waste or end-of-life product have a positive market price. 6:2:2. Market value equal or above zero: If the market price of the waste/endof-life product is equal or above zero, the two-step allocation procedure shall directly be applied between the process step that generates the waste or end-of-life product and the true joint process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3554, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1019, "book_page": 1017, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following procedure shall be applied: 39E.g. if the market value/gate fee is \u201c\u22121 US$\u201d this would be \u201c1 US$\u201d.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3555, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1019, "book_page": 1017, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6:2:2:1. As first criterion, the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the process shall be identified and applied. This is worked out as follows: 6:2:2:2. Two sub-cases are to be differentiated: the first one is where the secondary good is undergoing none or limited changes in the inherent properties (e.g. metal recycling, fibre recycling) and the second one is where it undergoes relevant changes in the inherent properties (e.g. energy recovery from mixed polymer waste). The first sub-case applies to all \u201cclosed loop\u201d and \u201copen loop\u2014same primary route\u201d situations. The second sub-case applies to all \u201cOpen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d situations. 6:2:2:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3556, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1020, "book_page": 1018, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The first sub-case applies to all \u201cclosed loop\u201d and \u201copen loop\u2014same primary route\u201d situations. The second sub-case applies to all \u201cOpen loop\u2014different primary route\u201d situations. 6:2:2:3. For the first sub-case, the total number of cycles and the therefrom derived total amount of uses (considering the loss at each cycle; concept see text) is determined and used for allocation across the many uses including the initial production up to the true joint process. In result the following formula can be developed for an infinite number of loops (considering the losses at each loop): 6:2:2:4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3557, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1020, "book_page": 1018, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In result the following formula can be developed for an infinite number of loops (considering the losses at each loop): 6:2:2:4. e 1\u20444 P \u00fe W \u00f0 \u00de \u0003 1 \u0004 r \u00f0 \u00de \u00fe R \u0003 r with e average LCI per unit of material, part, or energy carrier r average recycling rate [0...1), incorporating both collection efficiencies and processing efficiencies P LCI of primary production per unit of material, part, or energy carrier W LCI of final waste management per unit of discarded material, part, or energy carrier R LCI of effort for reuse/recycling/recovery per unit of material, part, or energy carrier 6:2:2:5. The allocation formula is to consider in addition the change in the inherent properties of the secondary good. 6:2:2:6. If the above cannot be done because information that is required for applying the formula cannot be obtained or at least approximated, the second step of \u201cmarket value\u201d allocation needs to be applied. In that case, it must be detailed and justified why the above cannot be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3558, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1020, "book_page": 1018, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In that case, it must be detailed and justified why the above cannot be applied. It shall be also demonstrated that the market value allocation is not disfavouring any competitor product, if the results are intended to be used for comparisons. 6:2:2:7. For the second sub-case, i.e. where the recycled/recovered/reused good undergoes relevant changes in the inherent properties, the true joint process is the one along the production chain that produces the minimum required M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3559, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1020, "book_page": 1018, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "quality40 of the good to generate the secondary good. (E.g. in case of soiled low value LDPE post-consumer plastic waste that is incinerated to recover the energy: As the LDPE is incinerated and basically only the lower calorific value is of interest, the minimum required good is even before the production of the LDPE\u2014the crude oil (incl. transport to the country of LDPE production) is meeting the minimum requirements in this case.) Based on this, the general two-step allocation procedure shall be applied between the secondary good and the function(s) or the true joint process. 6:2:2:8. If several functions are generated from the waste/end-of-life product (e.g. different metals recovered), this shall be done individually with each of the true joint processes. 7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3560, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1021, "book_page": 1019, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6:2:2:8. If several functions are generated from the waste/end-of-life product (e.g. different metals recovered), this shall be done individually with each of the true joint processes. 7. SHALL\u2014System-wide consistent application of allocation: Consistency shall be ensured as far as possible, using the same allocation criteria for the different co-functions of any specific process and across all similar processes within the system boundary. Otherwise, the lack of consistency and its effect on accuracy, precision and completeness shall be considered when stating the quality of a data set or when interpreting the results of an LCA study, respectively. 8. SHALL\u2014100% rule: The sum of the inventories allocated to all co-products shall be equal to the inventory of the system before allocation was done", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3561, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1021, "book_page": 1019, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "8. SHALL\u2014100% rule: The sum of the inventories allocated to all co-products shall be equal to the inventory of the system before allocation was done. 37.4.2 Planning Data Collection The planning of the data collection has the purpose of balancing the invested effort against the relevance of the respective data and information in order to avoid wasting time on collecting high quality data that have a low relevance for the LCA results and/or spend too little time on collecting high quality data where it is highly relevant for the results. Planning data collection (Provisions 7.3) 1. SHALL\u2014Identify newly required, study-specific unit processes: Identify for which processes of the analysed system new, study-specific unit processes have to be developed with producer or operator specific primary and secondary data. This is typically the case for the entire foreground system (including for those parts of existing or planned contractual relationships)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3562, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1021, "book_page": 1019, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is typically the case for the entire foreground system (including for those parts of existing or planned contractual relationships). The use of technical process or flow diagrams is recommended. 2. SHALL\u2014Average and generic data: Identify for which parts of the analysed system the use of average or generic LCI data sets is more appropriate. Note that 40Note that this provision ensures fulfilling the ISO 14044 provision on considering the change in inherent properties of the secondary good.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3563, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1021, "book_page": 1019, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for a given case, average or generic data may be more accurate, complete and precise also for some processes of the foreground system. If such will be used, this shall be justified. 3. MAY\u2014Identify data and information sources: It is recommended to systematically identify sources for the required data and information. This includes considering working for the background system primarily with LCI results or with unit process data sets, which both have advantages and disadvantages that are for the given case to be evaluated. Combinations are possible if the data is consistent. Among the LCI data sources, primary and secondary sources can be differentiated. Guiding principle should be the availability and quality of the most appropriate data. Working with well-documented and already reviewed data sets is recommended. This supports a correct use of the data sets, a sound documentation of the analysed system and its review. [ISO+] 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3564, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1022, "book_page": 1020, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Working with well-documented and already reviewed data sets is recommended. This supports a correct use of the data sets, a sound documentation of the analysed system and its review. [ISO+] 4. MAY\u2014SI units: It is recommended to aim at collecting data in the Syst\u00e8me international d\u2019unit\u00e9s (SI) units, to minimise conversion efforts and potential errors. [ISO+] Note that SI units shall be used for reporting. 5. SHOULD\u2014Multi-annual or generic data to be preferred? Evaluate along the goal of the study whether multi-annual average data or generic data should be preferred over annual average data as better representing the process/system. This applies for processes with strong inter-annual variations (e.g. agriculture; producer-specific data in general), to ensure sufficient time-related representativeness. [ISO+] 6. MAY\u2014Relevance-steered data collection: It is recommended to steer the effort for data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3565, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1022, "book_page": 1020, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 6. MAY\u2014Relevance-steered data collection: It is recommended to steer the effort for data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information. Building on existing experience that sufficiently reflects the analysed process or system and that is of high quality is an essential guide. Product Category Rules (PCR) and product-group specific guidance documents can represent this experience. The following is meant to help focusing data collection efforts. The initial data quality and data set quality requirements as identified in the scope definition may need to be fine-tuned/adjusted in subsequent loops as follows: [ISO+] 6:1. For the identification of quantitative LCI data quality needs, determine/estimate the accuracy, completeness and precision of the LCIA results that is required by the intended application (e.g. to allow identifying significant differences among compared alternative products). 6:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3566, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1022, "book_page": 1020, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "to allow identifying significant differences among compared alternative products). 6:2. Translate these requirements to related requirements at the level of elementary flows by taking into account the impact potentials of the individual elementary flows and by disregarding the uncertainties/inaccuracies associated with the characterisation factors. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3567, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1022, "book_page": 1020, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6:3. Use these requirements on the elementary flows to determine the maximum permissible uncertainty, inaccuracy and incompleteness of the overall inventory of the to-be-collected or purchased processes\u2019 or systems\u2019 inventories. Note that this includes systematic uncertainties from LCI methods and models applied and from assumptions made when setting up the system model. 6:4. Use this information as indicative guidance on quality requirements in the collection or purchase of inventory data (i.e. unit process or LCI results and similar data sets). For secondary LCI data sets, it is recommended to consider the following additional quality aspects: appropriate documentation, the use of compatible elementary flows and nomenclature, methodological consistency and a completed qualified external review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3568, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1023, "book_page": 1021, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.4.3 Constructing and Quality Checking Unit Processes The following provisions have the purpose to guide the construction of unit processes and ensure that the process data is appropriate to represent the performance of the model that it represents. Types of input and output flows to collect (Provisions 7.4.2.4) 1. SHALL\u2014Types of input and output flows: Quantitative data of all relevant inputs and outputs that are associated with the unit process shall be collected/modelled, as far as possible. Where not possible, the gaps shall be documented and if they cannot be overcome be considered when reporting the achieved data quality and when interpreting results of a study. These flows typically include, if relevant for the modelled process/system: 1:1. Input of \u201cconsumed\u201d products (i.e. materials, services, parts, complex goods, consumables, etc.), as product flows. 1:2. Input of wastes (only in case of waste servicing processes), as waste flows. 1:3. Input of resources from nature (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3569, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1023, "book_page": 1021, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:2. Input of wastes (only in case of waste servicing processes), as waste flows. 1:3. Input of resources from nature (i.e. from ground, water, air, biosphere, land, etc. and with possible further sub-compartment specifications as required by the impact assessment methodology to be applied), as elementary flows. 1:4. Emissions to air, water and soil (with possible further sub-compartment specifications as required by the impact assessment methodology to be applied), as elementary flows 1:5. Other input and output side interventions with the ecosphere (if required by the applied LCIA methods), as elementary flows.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3570, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1023, "book_page": 1021, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:6. Output of wastes (e.g. solid, liquid, gaseous waste for waste management within the technosphere41), as waste flows. 1:7. Output of valuable goods and services provided by the process, as product flows. Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets (Provisions 7.4.2.5) 1. SHOULD\u2014Raw data types: Raw data types that should be used for the process, as required: [ISO+] 1:1. Measured data collected by/at process operators should be preferred if possible and appropriate. Measurements are not only physical measurements of, e.g. emissions but also other specific information for the operated process such as, e.g. bills and consumption lists, stock/inventory changes and similar. 1:2. Element composition and energy content of product and waste flows. This data should later be inventoried as flow property information for these flows to support interim quality control, review and improving data quality. 1:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3571, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1024, "book_page": 1022, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This data should later be inventoried as flow property information for these flows to support interim quality control, review and improving data quality. 1:3. Various other data can be helpful (also for crosschecks) or even necessary (to fill gaps). These are, e.g. recipes and formulations, part lists, patents, process engineering models, stoichiometric models, process and product specifications and testing reports, legal limits, market shares and sizes, data of similar processes, BAT reference documents, etc. 1:4. Use stage information: For modelling the use stage of consumer products and initial waste management, it is recommended to use surveys and studies that analyse the average or typical user behaviour to complement product specifications and user manuals. Information provided in product category rules (PCR) can be supporting. Representativeness regarding operation conditions (Provisions 7.4.2.7) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3572, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1024, "book_page": 1022, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Information provided in product category rules (PCR) can be supporting. Representativeness regarding operation conditions (Provisions 7.4.2.7) 1. SHALL\u2014Full operational cycle of the process, if required: The collected inventory data for a specific process shall as far as possible and required to meet the goal represent the full operational cycle of the process. This includes all quantitatively relevant steps such as, e.g. preparation, start, operation, closure, standby and cleaning as well as maintenance and repair of the process/system and under normal and abnormal operating conditions. This is unless the data set is meant to represent only a partial cycle. The above applies analogously also to services. The achieved representativeness of the data shall be documented. 2. SHOULD\u2014One full year as data basis: For measured data of operated processes, data for at least one full year should be used as basis for deriving representative average data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3573, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1024, "book_page": 1022, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. SHOULD\u2014One full year as data basis: For measured data of operated processes, data for at least one full year should be used as basis for deriving representative average data. A sufficient number of samples should be taken and the uncertainty be considered when reporting the precision. 41The emissions resulting from waste that is directly discarded into the environment shall be modelled as part of the LCI model, with the processes considered to be part of the technosphere. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3574, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1024, "book_page": 1022, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3. SHOULD\u2014For parameterised processes: The mathematical relations should represent the relevant changes of the inventory in dependency of the influential parameters, which can be, e.g. technical, management, or others. This can include quantitative and qualitative relationships between inventory flows. [ISO+] Note that the mathematical model and its relevant assumptions and limitations later will need to be documented as well. Guidance is also given with hints on how to perform quality control of the collected data for a unit process. Interim quality control (Provisions 7.4.2.11) Many of the following provisions on interim quality control are only recommendations, but the same controls may be part of a subsequent mandatory external review. General approach 1. SHALL\u2014Validity check: A validity check of the collected data shall be performed during the process of data collection and unit process development, to confirm that the data is in line with the goal and scope requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3575, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1025, "book_page": 1023, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The following provisions provides related operational recommendations on this requirement: 2. MAY\u2014Interim quality control as review along \u201cinterpretation\u201d provisions: For the interim quality control on the unit process level, it is recommended to apply the data quality related technical aspects of the critical review regarding the scope and methods of review together with the guidance on interpretation (especially significant issues, sensitivity check, completeness check and consistency check). These steps can, however, be done in a less formal way. Among others, the following may be done at this point: [ISO+] 2:1. All relevant flows? Does the unit process inventory include all relevant product, waste and elementary flows that would be expected based on, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3576, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1025, "book_page": 1023, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "All relevant flows? Does the unit process inventory include all relevant product, waste and elementary flows that would be expected based on, e.g. the input of processed materials, of the nature of transformations occurring in the process, and/or based on experience gained with similar processes? Reflect the required technological, geographical and time-related representativeness. 2:2. Flow amounts are proportionate? Are the amounts of the individual flows and of the chemical elements, energy and parts in the input and output in expected proportion to each other? 2:3. Support control by impact assessment: Controls may also be based on impact assessment results for the process as well as for the whole system. They may reveal errors in the inventory results through showing unexpected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3577, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1025, "book_page": 1023, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "high or low values of contributing elementary flows. Compare the LCIA results with data of the same or similar processes/systems from other sources to identify possible problems. Make sure the other sources are of high quality and especially high completeness. 2:4. Method consistency? On the system level, carefully check that methods have been applied consistently. This especially applies if combining data from different sources. 2:5. Follow up on discrepancies: Check and explain or correct any observed discrepancies in the inventory data by consulting additional data sources or technical experts for the analysed process. 2:6. Report on findings: It is recommended providing for the unit process data set at least a brief internal quality control report on the above findings. 2:7. Reflect findings in data set quality indicators: Make sure that the data set documentation appropriately describes the process and the identified accuracy, precision and completeness as well as any limitations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3578, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1026, "book_page": 1024, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Obtaining better unit process data 3. SHALL\u2014Dealing with initially missing data: The potential importance of initially missing data shall be checked in the following way and relevant gaps shall be filled if possible and as detailed below: [ISO!] 3:1. SHOULD\u2014Identify relevance of initially missing data: A reasonable worst case or at least conservative value for the missing data should be used in a first screening to see if they may influence the overall results of the LCI/LCA study. This reasonable worst case or conservative value may be derived by inference from knowledge of similar or related processes or from correlation or calculation from other flows of the process. This includes identifying and inventorying flows that were initially not known to occur in the analysed process but that could not be excluded entirely. 3:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3579, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1026, "book_page": 1024, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This includes identifying and inventorying flows that were initially not known to occur in the analysed process but that could not be excluded entirely. 3:2. SHOULD\u2014Dealing with relevant, initially missing data: If this screening shows that the missing data may be of importance, in further iterations of the LCA work it should be attempted to first identify whether the flow is actually occurring in the analysed process and if so to get the yet missing data. As second option sufficiently good estimates should be obtained. As third option, if also that is not possible, the gap should be kept and reported. (Details see separate provisions more below): 3:3. SHALL\u2014Filling data gaps with estimates of defined and minimum quality: 3:3:1 SHALL\u2014For each newly modelled unit process any initially missing data should be documented in a transparent and consistent way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3580, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1026, "book_page": 1024, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "At the end of the iterative steps of improving the data set, the finally missing data and the potential use of data estimates to fill data gaps shall be documented in a transparent and consistent way. 3:3:2. MAY\u2014For judging the relevance of an initial data gap, it is necessary to approximate the achieved accuracy, completeness and precision of the M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3581, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1026, "book_page": 1024, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "overall environmental impact on system level. This necessarily needs that the subsequent steps of modelling the life cycle and calculating LCI results and LCIA results need to be done first. It is recommended to do this in parallel to developing the unit process data set. For unit processes this means completing the life cycle model around the unit process with background data. Any limited completeness in the used background data shall be not considered when calculating the achieved degree of completeness for the unit process for the final reporting. 3:3:3. MAY\u2014For filling data gaps for single flows estimate data (sets) may be considered to be used. Such may be, e.g.: 3:3:3:1 generic or average data for missing specific data, 3:3:3:2. average data of a group of similar products for missing inventory data for other, not yet analysed products of that group, 3:3:3:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3582, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1027, "book_page": 1025, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "average data of a group of similar products for missing inventory data for other, not yet analysed products of that group, 3:3:3:3. correlation with other, more complete and high quality data for the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g. industry average data for improving a producer-specific process), 3:3:3:4. justified judgements of technical experts/process operators. 3:3:4. SHALL\u2014Data gaps shall generally be filled with methodologically consistent data. Gaps of low relevance may also be filed with methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data sets while being developed along the guidance of this document and meeting the overall quality requirements as detailed below. 3:3:5. SHALL\u2014Only data that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data/data set\u2019s overall quality (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3583, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1027, "book_page": 1025, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "SHALL\u2014Only data that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data/data set\u2019s overall quality (i.e. combined accuracy, precision, completeness and methodological appropriateness and consistency) shall be equivalent to at least the \u201cData estimate\u201d quality level. Note that this shall include both the quality of the used data estimate and of the amount of the flow. That semi-quantitative approximation of the integrated data estimate plus flow amount quality shall be based at least on an individually, briefly justified expert judgement, explicitly considering the named shortcomings; this may be supported by uncertainty calculation and quantitative calculation of data accuracy. Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps/missing data 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3584, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1027, "book_page": 1025, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps/missing data 4. SHALL\u2014Document remaining data gaps: If data estimates cannot be made available that would meet the above requirements, the data gap shall be kept and be documented instead. The following provisions are made: [ISO!] 4:1. Missing qualitative information for a unit process inventory item: The respective flow should be created and used in the regular inventory only if it is a product or waste flow. Little specified elementary flows (e.g. \u201cMetals to air\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3585, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1027, "book_page": 1025, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "shall not be kept in the regular inventory but this information shall be documented in another way. This can be either as clearly marked flows that shall not be combined with the elementary flows of the regular inventory when aggregating the data sets of the analysed system, The flows can be marked, e.g. as \u201cmissing important\u201d or \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d, as applicable (see more below), and be excluded from the aggregation. Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). 4:2. Missing quantitative information for a unit process inventory item: The flow should be inventoried. If no quantitative information can be given, this has to be documented by marking the flow as \u201cmissing important\u201d to avoid misleading readers, as the true value is not zero. The omission must be explicitly addressed and considered in the interpretation of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3586, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1028, "book_page": 1026, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The omission must be explicitly addressed and considered in the interpretation of the results. If a conservative estimate for a missing data fails to show any quantitative importance, a zero value may be entered for this data, but marking it as \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d. If a mean value or a wide range of values (Min and Max) can be given, this should be entered in the inventory. Uncertainty information such as standard deviation and distribution type should be given if possible and if this information has sufficient precision. For both the above cases, the values shall not be aggregated when calculating LCI results. This can be achieved, e.g. by marking theses inventory items as \u201cmissing important\u201d or \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d, as applicable (see more below), and excluding such flows from the aggregation. Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). 4:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3587, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1028, "book_page": 1026, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). 4:3. Missing qualitative and quantitative information: See preceding two points that are to be combined. 4:4. Missing LCI data for processes/systems in the background system: When aggregating the unit processes of the analysed system to LCI results, product and waste flows for which background data of sufficient quality is not available, these flows shall remain in the aggregated inventory, i.e. making the data set a \u201cpartly terminated system\u201d. The user of such data shall be explicitly informed in a prominent place that these parts of the system need to be still completed or the gap be considered in the further use and interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3588, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1028, "book_page": 1026, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The user of such data shall be explicitly informed in a prominent place that these parts of the system need to be still completed or the gap be considered in the further use and interpretation. Note that any kind of worst case or conservative data and assumptions shall not be kept in the inventory of LCI data that are foreseen to be applicable for comparisons, unless the representing process operators or system producers themselves wish so (e.g. to align LCI data reporting with other values reported on, e.g. site or company level). Note that reasonably worst-case data may, however, be used for scenarios and for checking the robustness of comparisons when doing the sensitivity analysis. Note the specific requirements for product comparisons such as on, e.g. the consistency of methods, data quality, and assumptions across the compared alternatives. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3589, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1028, "book_page": 1026, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Guidance is offered on the handling of potentially problematic types of substance flows in the inventory analysis of processes\u2014measurement indicators and groups of elementary flows, ionic compounds, airborne particle emissions, resource uses and energy use indicators. Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups (Provisions 7.4.3.3) 1. SHALL\u2014Measurement indicator and substance group elementary flows: These shall be inventoried as follows: [ISO!] 1:1. Avoid indicators and flow groups; with permissible exceptions: Measurement indicator and substance group elementary flows shall be avoided in the inventory by splitting them up to single substances. Exclusively the following exceptions are permissible, while they should be split as well: COD59, BOD, AOX, VOC, NMVOC, PAHs, PCBs, TOC, DOC, Nitrogen in Nitrogen compounds (excluding N2, N20), Phosphorus in Phosphorus compounds, Dioxins (measured as 2,3,7,8-TCDD human toxicity equivalents). 1:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3590, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1029, "book_page": 1027, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:2. Restrictions on partial splitting: A partial splitting up of measurement indicators and substance group flows should be avoided. This is except for singling out exclusively elementary flows that have higher impacts than the average of the indicator/group and that should be singled out. Partial splits with singling out elementary flows with less than average impacts shall not be done. If singling out single substance elementary flows from the above indicators/flow groups, only the remainder amount of the indicator or flow group shall be inventoried. 1:3. No double-counting: Double-counting across the above indicators/flow groups and with the contained individual substances shall be avoided (i.e. correct is to inventory either \u201cBOD\u201d or \u201cCOD\u201d42; either \u201cVOC\u201d or \u201cNMVOC\u201d plus \u201cMethane\u201d; either \u201cNitrate\u201d plus \u201cAmmonia\u201d plus ... or \u201cNitrogen in Nitrogen compounds\u201d; etc.). 1:4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3591, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1029, "book_page": 1027, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "correct is to inventory either \u201cBOD\u201d or \u201cCOD\u201d42; either \u201cVOC\u201d or \u201cNMVOC\u201d plus \u201cMethane\u201d; either \u201cNitrate\u201d plus \u201cAmmonia\u201d plus ... or \u201cNitrogen in Nitrogen compounds\u201d; etc.). 1:4. Document composition: If measured composition information of a split measurement indicator or substance flow group is not available, an assumed composition can be used. Approach and assumptions shall be documented. Note that the composition of a measurement indicator or substance flow group can often be derived without direct measurement from process know-how (e.g. processed materials, educts, etc.) or those of sufficiently similar process can be considered.43 42COD = Chemical oxygen demand, BOD = Biological oxygen demand, AOX = Adsorbable organic halogenated compounds, VOC = Volatile organic compounds, NMVOC = Non-methane volatileorganic compounds, PAH = Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PCB = Polychlorinated biphenyls, TOC = Total organic carbon, DOC = Dissolved organic carbon", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3592, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1029, "book_page": 1027, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "43Default-composition tables for different process-types and industries mightbe developed in PCR-type or sector- specific guidance documents.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3593, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1029, "book_page": 1027, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:5. Do not combine measured flows: Individually measured substances shall not be integrated/combined into measurement indicators and elementary flow groups but be inventoried individually. Emission of ionic compounds (Provisions 7.4.3.4) 1. SHALL\u2014Inventory easily water-soluble salts as ions: For data sets as deliverables, emissions to air, water, or soil of easily water-soluble ionic compounds (salts) shall be inventoried as separate ions, unless the selected LCIA methods would require otherwise. As convention, the limit is set at a solubility in water at 20 \u00b0C of 10 lg/l, above which the ions shall be inventoried separately, below which the compound shall be inventoried. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. [ISO!] Emission of particles to air (Provisions 7.4.3.5) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3594, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1030, "book_page": 1028, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. [ISO!] Emission of particles to air (Provisions 7.4.3.5) 1. SHALL\u2014Inventory only poorly water-soluble compounds as particles: Particulate matter (PM) emissions to air shall include only poorly water-soluble compounds below a solubility in water at 20 \u00b0C of 10 lg/l, as far as feasible. Expert judgement may be needed to identify the composition of the particles. [ISO!] 2. SHOULD\u2014Differentiate particle size classes: Particles should be reported split up by particle size class <0.2, 0.2\u20132.5, 2.5\u201310, >10 lm if the information is available. <10 lm may be used alternatively is a more differentiated information below 10 lm is not available. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. [ISO!] 3. SHALL\u2014Inventory particles additionally as the substances they are composed of: Particles shall be inventoried as both PM and additionally as elementary flows of their environmentally relevant components (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3595, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1030, "book_page": 1028, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "metals contributing to cancer effects), i.e. double counting their mass in the inventory, as far as possible. This applies analogously to other emissions with additive action schemes. [ISO!] Resource elementary flows (Provisions 7.4.3.6) 1. SHALL\u2014Provisions for inventorying resource elementary flows: Resource elementary flows shall be inventoried as follows, with exceptions only if necessary to meet the need of the applied LCIA method: [ISO!] 1:1. Energy resources: 1:1:1. Non-renewable: These shall be inventoried as type of energy resource and in few cases (only primary, secondary, tertiary crude oil and open pit or underground mining of hard coal) these should be differentiated exclusively by resource extraction type, if this information is available (e.g. \u201cCrude oil, secondary extraction\u201d but not \u201cCrude, Tia Juana Light\u201d; \u201cHard coal, underground\u201d but not \u201cHard coal, Western Germany; 39.4 MJ/kg\u201d). The energy/mass relationship shall be provided for all energy resource flows M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3596, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1030, "book_page": 1028, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The energy/mass relationship shall be provided for all energy resource flows M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3597, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1030, "book_page": 1028, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "except for nuclear ores. The energy content shall be expressed in the Lower calorific value of the water-free resource, measured in the reference unit MJ. See also separate document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d. Note that peat, biomass of primary forests, and some other biogenic energy resources are \u201cnon-renewable\u201d. 1:1:2. Renewable: Renewable energy resources shall be inventoried as the amount of usable energy extracted from nature, e.g. for solar electricity and heat this relates to the amount of electricity and/or heat captured by the solar cells (i.e. not the total solar energy, but what is delivered directly by the cells as electricity and/or usable heat). For biomass from nature this is the amount physically embodied, measured as Lower calorific value, however, of the water-free substance (i.e. measured as if the, e.g. wood would be oven-dry). Note that biomass from fields and managed forests is no elementary flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3598, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1031, "book_page": 1029, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "measured as if the, e.g. wood would be oven-dry). Note that biomass from fields and managed forests is no elementary flow. In that case, the named energy resources shall be inventoried directly as the respective elementary flows, e.g. \u201cSolar energy\u201d as \u201cRenewable energy resources from air\u201d, expressed as Lower calorific value and measured in the reference unit MJ. 1:2. Avoid geographical differentiation: Resources shall not be inventoried geographically differentiated (i.e. \u201cLignite\u201d but not \u201cLignite, Eastern Germany\u201d). This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. 1:3. Chemical element resources: Resources for production of metals or other chemical elements should be inventoried as chemical element (e.g. \u201cIron\u2014 Resources from ground\u201d elementary flow). 1:4. Functional/material resources: These shall be inventoried as target material resource (e.g. \u201cSchist\u201d, \u201cLime stone\u201d, \u201cAnhydrite\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3599, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1031, "book_page": 1029, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cIron\u2014 Resources from ground\u201d elementary flow). 1:4. Functional/material resources: These shall be inventoried as target material resource (e.g. \u201cSchist\u201d, \u201cLime stone\u201d, \u201cAnhydrite\u201d). Few exceptions exist where the mineral itself is in industry understood to be the target good; these are reflected in the ILCD reference elementary flows (e.g. \u201cRock salt\u201d, etc.). Other exceptions and exclusively for resources not included in the ILCD reference elementary flows shall be justified by following analogous logic. 1:5. Flows for completing mass balance: For completion of the mass balance, a complementary amount of \u201cInert rock\u201d, \u201cWater\u201d, or \u201cAir\u201d (or other, as applicable) shall be inventoried for extracted resources (e.g. 0.96 kg \u201cInert rock\u201d in case of mining 1 kg copper ore with 4% copper content). 1:6. No minerals or ore bodies: Inventorying of other minerals (unless these are functional/material resources such as \u201cGranite\u201d) or of specific ore, bodies shall not be done (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3600, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1031, "book_page": 1029, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:6. No minerals or ore bodies: Inventorying of other minerals (unless these are functional/material resources such as \u201cGranite\u201d) or of specific ore, bodies shall not be done (i.e. \u201cCopper\u201d, but not \u201cMalachite\u201d and not \u201cSulphidic copper\u2013silver ore (3.5% Cu; 0.20% Ag)\u201d).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3601, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1031, "book_page": 1029, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that when applying the above rules double-counting shall be avoided. Newly created elementary flows shall be checked whether they require carrying a characterisation factor for the applied LCIA method. 2. SHALL\u2014Land use and transformation: Direct land use and land transformation shall be inventoried along the needs of the applied LCIA method (if included in the impact assessment).44 3. SHALL\u2014Emissions from land use and transformation: If land use and/or land transformation are modelled, carbon dioxide and other emissions and related effects should be modelled as follows: [ISO!] 3:1. Soil organic carbon changes from land use and transformation: For CO2 release from or binding in soil organic carbon (SOC) caused by land use and land transformation, the use of the most recent IPCC CO2 emission factors shall be used, unless more accurate, specific data is available. 3:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3602, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1032, "book_page": 1030, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3:2. Land use and transformation related CO2 emissions from biomass and litter: For virgin forests and for soil, peat, etc. of all land uses shall be inventoried as \u201cCarbon dioxide (fossil)\u201d. Emissions from biomass and litter of secondary forests shall be inventoried as \u201cCarbon dioxide (biogenic)\u201d. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. 3:3. Nutrient losses: Emissions of nutrients shall be modelled explicitly as part of the land management process. 3:4. Other emissions: Other emissions in result of land transformation (e.g. emissions from biomass burning, soil erosion, etc.) should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources. 4. MAY\u2014Water use: It is recommended to differentiate at least: [ISO+] 4:1. on the input side: surface freshwater, renewable groundwater, fossil/deep ground water, sea water 4:2. on the output side: Emission/discharge of water in liquid form emission in form of steam 4:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3603, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1032, "book_page": 1030, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "on the input side: surface freshwater, renewable groundwater, fossil/deep ground water, sea water 4:2. on the output side: Emission/discharge of water in liquid form emission in form of steam 4:3. other water quality changes, especially by chemical substances shall be inventoried as separate elementary flows. Modelling waste treatment (Provisions 7.4.4.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Waste and end-of-life product deposition: This shall be modelled as follows: [ISO!] 44While this document has been finalised no established and globally applicable practice was available, but several approaches with either only regional applicability or lack of practice experience. These work with fundamentally different inventorying approaches. Any specific recommendation or requirement on inventorying land use and conversion would be implemented and published via revised ILCD reference elementary flows and recommended LCIA methods, and/or a revision of this document. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3604, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1032, "book_page": 1030, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. Model waste management completely: Waste and wastewater treatment shall be modelled consistently to the boundary between technosphere and ecosphere; otherwise, this shall be clearly documented and be explicitly considered in later interpretation. This modelling includes all treatment steps up to and including disposal of any remaining waste-to-waste deposits or landfills and inventorying the emissions from these sites to/from the ecosphere. Two exceptions are radioactive wastes and wastes in underground deposits (e.g. mine filling), which should be kept as specific waste flows in the inventory, unless detailed, long-term management and related interventions have been entirely modelled also for these. 3. Modelling discarding of goods into nature: For unmanaged landfilling, discharge and littering (i.e. discarding goods individually into nature) the related individual interventions that enter the ecosphere shall be modelled as part of the LCI model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3605, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1033, "book_page": 1031, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "discarding goods individually into nature) the related individual interventions that enter the ecosphere shall be modelled as part of the LCI model. This also applies analogously to other interventions than emissions, if the used LCIA method covers such. The littered/landfilled good should be additionally inventoried as reminder flow. 4. Modelling waste as output: Waste flows should be modelled following the material flow logic. That means inventorying the waste on the output side of those processes where it is generated (e.g. production waste or end-of-life product as output of the use stage). For waste management processes that means that the waste flows should accordingly be modelled on the input side if the process, with any potentially produced secondary goods and remaining wastes being on the output side. This eases mass and element balancing. For cost calculation purposes, the cost of the waste treatment service may be assigned to the waste flow as additional flow property", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3606, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1033, "book_page": 1031, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This eases mass and element balancing. For cost calculation purposes, the cost of the waste treatment service may be assigned to the waste flow as additional flow property. Secondary LCI data sets originating in other LCA studies or LCI unit process databases are often extensively used in the inventory analysis, in particular for the modelling of the background system. Guidance is offered on how to select such secondary LCI data sets in order to meet the requirements from the goal and scope definition and ensure consistency in the study. Selecting secondary LCI data sets (Provisions 7.6) 1. SHALL\u2014Use consistent secondary data sets: The secondary data (generic, average or specific data sets) to be used in the system model shall be methodologically sufficiently consistent among each other and with the primary data sets that were specifically collected. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3607, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1033, "book_page": 1031, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. SHOULD\u2014Quality-oriented selection of secondary data sets: Secondary data sets should be selected according to their data quality in a stricter sense, i.e. their technological, geographical and time-related representativeness, completeness and precision. Their reference flow(s) and/or functional unit(s) should moreover be sufficiently representative for the specific processes, good or service that they are meant to represent in the analysed system. 3. MAY\u2014Prefer pre-verified data sets: It is recommended to give preference to already critically reviewed data sets (\u201cpre-verified data\u201d) as this limits the effort for an review of the analysed system: only the appropriate use of these data sets in the analysed system needs to be reviewed. [ISO+]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3608, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1033, "book_page": 1031, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4. MAY\u2014Prefer well-documented data sets: It is recommended to give preference to data sets that are supported by a comprehensive and efficiently organised documentation. This allows the modeller (and later a reviewer) to judge the data set\u2019s quality and its appropriateness for the analysed system. [ISO+] The combined use of data from different sources is facilitated by using either single operation unit process data set background systems that can be adjusted/remodelled by the user to be consistent with the analysed system, or by using LCI results data sets that are consistent with the methodology applied in the analysed system. 37.4.4 Constructing LCI Model and Calculating LCI Results When all unit processes have been constructed or collected from LCI databases the LCI model can be constructed, using the unit processes as building blocks and scaling them according to the reference flow of the study. Modelling the system (Provisions 7.8) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3609, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1034, "book_page": 1032, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Modelling the system (Provisions 7.8) 1. SHALL\u2014Scale inventories correctly: The inventories of all processes within the system boundary shall be correctly scaled to each other and to the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) of the analysed system.45 2. SHALL\u2014Complete system model: No quantitatively relevant product or waste flows shall be left unmodelled/unconnected, with exception of the reference flow(s) that quantitatively represent(s) the system\u2019s functional unit. Otherwise these flows shall be clearly documented and the resulting lack of accuracy and completeness be considered in the interpretation of results. [ISO!] Note that for unit processes all and for partly terminated systems, selected inventories of the corresponding products and/or wastes modelling processes are intentionally left out of the system boundary. Their systems are nevertheless completed, while only for applying the cut-off rules", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3610, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1034, "book_page": 1032, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Their systems are nevertheless completed, while only for applying the cut-off rules. 45This can be visualised by having all processes connected with each other via their reference flows of interim products and wastes, in the correct amounts. Starting from central process and the amount(s) of the system's functional unit(s) or reference flow(s), all other processes are stepwise, relatively scaled. LCA software with graphical modelling interface shows the system in this way and/or the user is modelling the system explicitly by connecting the processes on that interface. Depending on the modelling approach implemented in the software, other mechanisms can be found that serve the same scaling purpose. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3611, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1034, "book_page": 1032, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3. SHALL\u2014Set parameter values: Set the parameter values to the required values in all used parameterised process data sets, if any. [ISO+] 4. MAY\u2014Perform another round of interim quality control: It is recommended to pre-check during modelling whether the data set or system is properly modelled and meets the quality requirements as identified/fine-tuned in the scope phase; the provisions for interim quality control of unit processes apply analogously. For filling initial data gaps of included processes and systems, estimate data sets may be considered to be used. Such may be, e.g. [ISO+] 4:1. generic or average data sets for missing specific processes/systems, 4:2. average data sets of a group of similar processes or systems (e.g. products) for missing processes/systems for other, not yet analysed processes or systems of that group 4:3. correlation with other, more complete and high quality process data sets for the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3612, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1035, "book_page": 1033, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "correlation with other, more complete and high quality process data sets for the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g. industry average data for improving a producer-specific process). 5. SHALL\u2014Use consistent data to fill data gaps: Data gaps shall be filled with methodologically consistent data sets, while gaps of low relevance may also be filed with methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data sets while being developed along the guidance of this document and meeting the overall quality requirements as detailed below. [ISO!] 6. SHALL\u2014Use sufficiently quality LCI data sets to fill gaps: Only data and data sets that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data or data set\u2019s quality shall be equivalent to at least the \u201cData estimate\u201d quality level. Remaining data gaps shall be reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3613, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1035, "book_page": 1033, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "That means that the individual data or data set\u2019s quality shall be equivalent to at least the \u201cData estimate\u201d quality level. Remaining data gaps shall be reported. [ISO!] Note that both the approach(es) used to fill initial data gaps and the resulting lack of representativeness, precision and methodological consistency of the whole data set is later to be clearly documented and explicitly considered when declaring the achieved data set quality or when drawing conclusions or recommendations from an LCA study. Note that the final check on the achieved overall environmental completeness/cut-off is detailed in Sect. 37.6.2. Note that decisions on any omissions of life cycle stages, types of activities, individual processes or elementary flows must be clearly reported and should be justified by the fact that they do not contribute significantly to the LCI results in view of the intended application(s) of the outcome of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3614, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1035, "book_page": 1033, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Otherwise they need to be reported and considered when declaring the achieved data set quality and/drawing conclusions and recommendations from the study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3615, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1035, "book_page": 1033, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Calculating LCI results (Provisions 7.10) 1. SHALL\u2014Apply calculation procedures consistently: The same calculation procedures shall be applied consistently throughout the analysed system(s) when aggregating the processes within the system boundary for obtaining the LCI results. 2. SHALL\u2014Calculate and aggregate the inventory data of the system(s): (If the model is correctly prepared, the first two following sub-bullets can be skipped): 2:1. Determine for each process within the system boundary how much of its reference flow is required for the system to deliver its functional unit(s) and/or reference flows(s) (i.e. the extent to which the process is involved in the system). 2:2. Scale the inventory of each process accordingly. This way it relates to the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) of the system. Note that if parameterised process data sets are used in the system model, the parameter values are to be set before scaling and aggregation. 2:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3616, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1036, "book_page": 1034, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that if parameterised process data sets are used in the system model, the parameter values are to be set before scaling and aggregation. 2:3. The correctly scaled inventories of all processes within the system boundary shall be aggregated (summed up) for that system. 2:4. If the intended application of the results requires a location non-generic impact assessment, aggregation of the elementary flows above the required location type or level (e.g. the level of a single site/plant, a region, a country, an environmental sub-compartment, etc.) should be avoided in the LCI results calculation. The same applies for other differentiations (e.g. of environmental sub-compartments or archetypes of emission situations) if those are required for the intended application and impact assessment methods to be used. [ISO +] 2:5. If the disaggregated data cannot be publicly disclosed (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3617, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1036, "book_page": 1034, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO +] 2:5. If the disaggregated data cannot be publicly disclosed (e.g. for confidentiality reasons), it is recommended to foresee performing the impact assessment on the disaggregated level and providing the LCIA results together with the aggregated LCI results. [ISO+] Note that also in this case (as in all cases) the reviewers shall have (at least confidential) access to all underlying data. 2:6. If the disaggregated data cannot be publicly disclosed (e.g. for confidentiality reasons), it is recommended to foresee performing the impact assessment on the disaggregated level and providing the LCIA results together with the aggregated LCI results. [ISO+] M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3618, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1036, "book_page": 1034, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that also in this case (as in all cases) the reviewers shall have (at least confidential) access to all underlying data. 3. SHOULD\u2014Ensure that reference flow(s) is/are only product and waste flow(s): Note that after aggregation, the reference flow(s) is/are the only product and/or waste flow(s) that should remain in the LCI results inventory, with two exceptions: 3:1. For partly terminated systems: The inventories of selected products and/or waste flows were left out of the system boundary\u2014typically intentionally\u2014and the flows are kept in the inventory. Note, however, that for the purpose of quantifying the achieved completeness via the cut-off rules of environmental impact, also these selected product and waste flows are to be considered via integrating the inventories of the respective production and waste treatment processes. 3:2. For radioactive waste and waste in underground waste deposits (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3619, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1037, "book_page": 1035, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3:2. For radioactive waste and waste in underground waste deposits (e.g. mine filling): These waste flows can be kept in the inventory for direct use in interpretation. 4. SHALL\u2014Highlight and explicitly consider remaining non-functional product or waste flows: Any product and waste flows that remain in the inventory and that are non-functional flows shall be highlighted in the report and/or data set: Either they require to be modelled when later using the data set (e.g. by complementing the data set with a yet missing background LCI data set for, e.g. a specific chemical consumed, or modelling the management/ treatment of a specific waste). Alternatively, this gap/missing data needs to be explicitly considered in subsequent interpretation and conclusions drawn. 37.5 Impact Assessment The impact assessment is discussed in Chap. 10 of this book", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3620, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1037, "book_page": 1035, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.5 Impact Assessment The impact assessment is discussed in Chap. 10 of this book. It is the fourth phase of the LCA, where the elementary flows of the life cycle inventory are translated into potential contributions to the different impact categories that are modelled in the study. The impact assessment consists of five steps: 1. Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models 2. Classification\u2014assigning LCI results to impact categories 3. Characterisation\u2014calculating category indicator results for the inventory flows 4. Normalisation\u2014expressing LCIA results for the product system relative to those of a reference system 5. Weighting\u2014prioritising or assigning weights to the each impact category The first three steps are mandatory for any LCA according to the ISO 14040 standard, while the last two steps are optional.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3621, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1037, "book_page": 1035, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.5.1 Selection of Impact Categories, Classification and Characterisation The mandatory first three steps are typically automated through the choice of the LCIA method in the scope definition (see Sect. 37.3.6). Additional provisions for these steps are thus few. Calculation of LCIA results (Provisions 8.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Classification of elementary flows: All elementary flows of the inventory shall be assigned to those one or more impact categories to which they contribute (\u201cclassification\u201d) and that were selected for the impact assessment in the scope definition of the study. 2. SHALL\u2014Characterisation of elementary flows: To all classified elementary flows one quantitative characterisation factor shall be assigned for each category to which the flow relevantly contributes (\u201ccharacterisation\u201d). That factor expresses how much that flow contributes to the impact category indicator (at midpoint level) or category endpoint indicator (at endpoint level)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3622, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1038, "book_page": 1036, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "That factor expresses how much that flow contributes to the impact category indicator (at midpoint level) or category endpoint indicator (at endpoint level). For midpoint level indicators this relative factor typically relates to a reference flow (e.g. it may be expressed in \u201ckg CO2-equivalents\u201d per kg elementary flow in case of Global Warming Potential). For endpoint level indicators it typically relates to a specific damage that relates to the broader area of protection. Examples are, e.g. species loss measured, e.g. as potentially displaced fraction of species for an affected area and duration (pdf*m2*a), or damage to Human health measured, e.g. in Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). 3. SHALL\u2014Calculate LCIA results per impact category: For each impact category separately, calculate the LCIA indicator results by multiplying46 the amount of each contributing (i.e. classified) elementary flow of the inventory with its characterisation factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3623, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1038, "book_page": 1036, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "classified) elementary flow of the inventory with its characterisation factor. The results may be summed up per impact category, but summing up shall not be done across impact categories. Note that this is done with either the midpoint level (impact potential) or the endpoint level (damage) factors, as had to be decided in the scope definition. 4. SHALL\u2014Separately calculate LCIA results of long-term emissions: LCIA results of long-term emissions (i.e. beyond 100 years from the time of the study) shall be calculated separately from the LCIA results that relate to interventions that occur within 100 years from the time of study. [ISO!] 46Certain LCIA methods use non-linear relationships for the characterisation; if such are used the calculation is non-linear. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3624, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1038, "book_page": 1036, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note: Given the different extent of uncertainty, these two sets of results will later be presented separately while discussed jointly. 5. SHALL\u2014Separately calculate non-generic LCIA results, if included: In the case additional or modified, non-generic (e.g. geographically or otherwise differentiated) characterisation factors or LCIA methods are used, the results applying the original, generic LCIA methods shall be calculated (and later be presented and discussed) separately as well. [ISO!] 6. SHOULD\u2014Keep results of non-LCA impacts separate: For LCIA results of impacts that are outside the LCA frame but that were considered relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) and have been included quantitatively, the inventory, impact assessment, etc. shall be kept separately for clear interpretation. [ISO+] Note that classification and characterisation of all elementary flows is typically already done in combined LCI/LCIA database packages or LCA software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3625, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1039, "book_page": 1037, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] Note that classification and characterisation of all elementary flows is typically already done in combined LCI/LCIA database packages or LCA software. In any case, this is to be checked responsibly by the LCA practitioner. The step of manual classification and assigning characterisation factors applies hence especially to newly created or imported elementary flows. It is one of the most widely found errors to not classify and characterise newly introduced flows despite of their environmental relevance. 37.5.2 Normalisation: Expressing LCIA Results Relative to Those of a Reference System Normalisation is an optional step of the LCIA which is performed in order to relate the impact scores from the characterisation to a common reference, to help put them in perspective showing which are large and which are small (compared to that reference) and possibly to prepare for a subsequent weighting. Normalisation (Provisions 8.3) 1. Normalisation is mainly applied for two purposes: 1:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3626, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1039, "book_page": 1037, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation (Provisions 8.3) 1. Normalisation is mainly applied for two purposes: 1:1. MAY\u2014Normalisation to support interpretation: In support of the interpretation of the results of the study, normalisation is an optional step under ISO. The decision whether to include normalisation in the interpretation has been made in the scope definition.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3627, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1039, "book_page": 1037, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:2. MAY\u2014Normalisation use in cut-off quantification: For quantification of the achieved completeness/cut-off, in a first step the indicator results for the different impact categories may be normalised by expressing them relative to a common reference, the normalisation basis (\u201cnormalisation\u201d). [ISO+] The decision whether to include normalisation in the cut-off has been made in the scope definition where the specific normalisation basis has also been identified. 2. SHALL\u2014Calculate normalised LCIA results per impact category: If normalisation is applied, the \u201cnormalised LCIA results\u201d shall be calculated by dividing the LCIA results by the normalisation basis. This shall be done separately for each impact category (for midpoint level approaches) or area of protection (for endpoint level approaches). Note that normalised results shall not directly be summed up across different impact categories, as this would imply an even weighting of all impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3628, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1040, "book_page": 1038, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that normalised results shall not directly be summed up across different impact categories, as this would imply an even weighting of all impact categories. This is unless this even weighting is intended and identified explicitly as weighting when communicating the results. 37.5.3 Weighting Weighting is the last and optional step of the LCIA and it may be used in order to allow aggregation of multiple impact category results into one score or help identify the impact scores that are most important based on a preselected set of values. Weighting (Provisions 8.4) 1. Weighting is mainly applied for two purposes: 1:1. MAY\u2014Weighting to support interpretation: In support of the interpretation of the results of the study, as an additional, optional element one may perform a \u201cweighting\u201d or other valuation of the\u2014method-wise normalised or not normalised\u2014indicator results. The decision whether to include weighting in the interpretation has been made in the scope definition. M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3629, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1040, "book_page": 1038, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The decision whether to include weighting in the interpretation has been made in the scope definition. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3630, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1040, "book_page": 1038, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:2. MAY\u2014Weighting use in cut-off quantification: For quantification of the achieved completeness/cut-off, as second47 step the normalised indicator results for the different impact categories may be weighted across the indicators (\u201cweighting\u201d). [ISO+] The decision whether to include weighting in the cut-off has been made in the scope definition where the specific weighting set has also been identified 2. SHALL\u2014Calculate weighted LCIA results per impact category: If weighting is applied, to obtain \u201cweighted LCIA results\u201d, the (typically normalised) LCIA results shall be multiplied by the weighting set, separately for each impact category (for midpoint level approaches and in case of having calculated category-wise endpoint results) or Area of protection (for endpoint results that cover each a whole area of protection). The resulting weighted LCIA results can be summed up across the impact categories or areas of protection, respectively. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3631, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1041, "book_page": 1039, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The resulting weighted LCIA results can be summed up across the impact categories or areas of protection, respectively. 3. SHALL\u2014No weighting in published comparative assertions: Weighting shall not be used in studies leading to comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. Note that the setting or selection of weighting factors necessarily involves value choices. 37.6 Interpretation The interpretation is discussed in Chap. 12 of this book. It is the fifth phase of the LCA, where the results of the other phases are considered together and analysed in the light of the uncertainties of the applied data and the assumptions that have been made and documented throughout the study. The interpretation involves the following five activities: 1. Identification of significant issues 2. Completeness check 3. Sensitivity analysis 4. Consistency check 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3632, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1041, "book_page": 1039, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The interpretation involves the following five activities: 1. Identification of significant issues 2. Completeness check 3. Sensitivity analysis 4. Consistency check 5. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations 47Note that some weighting methods work without a separate, preceding normalisation, as the normalisation is part of the weighting step.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3633, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1041, "book_page": 1039, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.6.1 Identification of Significant Issues The process of interpretation starts with identification of potentially significant issues in the goal and scope definition, inventory analysis and impact assessment phases, understood as methodological choices, assumptions and specific data used in the model that have a potential to influence the outcome of the study in a significant way. Identification of significant issues (Provisions 9.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Identify significant issues: These can be among the following: 1:1. Inventory items: Main contributing \u201ckey\u201d life cycle stages, processes, product, waste and elementary flows, parameters. This part is also known as weak point analysis or gravity analysis. Use contribution analysis techniques. 1:2. Impact categories: Main contributing \u201ckey\u201d impact categories (only identifiable if weighting was applied). Use contribution analysis techniques. 1:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3634, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1042, "book_page": 1040, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Use contribution analysis techniques. 1:2. Impact categories: Main contributing \u201ckey\u201d impact categories (only identifiable if weighting was applied). Use contribution analysis techniques. 1:3. Modelling choices and method assumptions: Relevant modelling choices, such as applied allocation criteria/substitution approaches in the inventory analysis, assumptions made when collecting and modelling inventory data for key processes and flows, selecting secondary data, systematic choices on technological, geographical and time-related representativeness, methodological consistency, extrapolations, etc. Use scenario analysis techniques. 1:4. Commissioner and interested parties: The influence of the commissioner and interested parties on decisions in goal and scope definition, modelling choices, weighting sets and the like", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3635, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1042, "book_page": 1040, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:4. Commissioner and interested parties: The influence of the commissioner and interested parties on decisions in goal and scope definition, modelling choices, weighting sets and the like. Discuss influences on final results and recommendations [ISO!] Note: For analysing the significant issues of unit processes and partly terminated systems, complete the system model as appropriate (e.g. cradle-to-gate) with a background system before the contribution analysis is done. Focus the contribution analysis to the unit process/partly terminated system itself (i.e. the significant flows, assumptions, parameters, processes, etc. within the original system boundary). The identification of significant issues is followed by an evaluation of these issues through a check of completeness and consistency in the handling of the issues and an analysis of the sensitivity of the outcome of the study to the significant issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3636, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1042, "book_page": 1040, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The outcome of the evaluation is used to inform previous methodological phases on the needs for strengthening the data basis of the study, driving the iterative approach that is inherent to LCA. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3637, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1042, "book_page": 1040, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "37.6.2 Completeness Check Completeness checks are performed for the inventory and the impact assessment in order to determine the degree to which the available data is complete for the processes and impacts, which were identified as significant issues. Completeness check (Provisions 9.3.2) 1. SHALL\u2014Evaluate LCI model completeness (cut-off): The cut-off rules as defined in the scope phase shall be systematically applied to ensure that the final data set inventory/ies meets the predefined or goal-derived data quality requirements. Evaluate the completeness of the inventory data in relation to the initially defined cut-off criteria in terms of: 1:1. Process coverage: Coverage of all relevant processes in the system 1:2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3638, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1043, "book_page": 1041, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Evaluate the completeness of the inventory data in relation to the initially defined cut-off criteria in terms of: 1:1. Process coverage: Coverage of all relevant processes in the system 1:2. Elementary flow coverage: Coverage of all relevant elementary flows in the inventories for the processes of the system (and in particular the key processes identified under Significant issues), that have characterisation factors for the relevant impact categories (according to the goal of the LCI/LCA study) 1:3. Operationalise cut-off approximation: The cut-off criteria/approach and percentage as defined in the scope phase shall be used. This may be operationalised using stepwise the following cut-off rules for flow properties, pre-checking property by property the achieved completeness across all flow types and balancing the aggregated numbers in the inputs against those of the outputs: [ISO+] 1:3:1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3639, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1043, "book_page": 1041, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For product flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements), \u201cenergy content\u201d, \u201cmarket value\u201d (or \u201cproduction/provision cost\u201d, especially for purchased services). 1:3:2. For waste flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements), \u201cenergy content\u201d, \u201ctreatment cost\u201d. 1:3:3. For elementary flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements and only for the environmentally relevant flows, i.e. excluding not or less relevant flows such as, e.g. incineration air consumed and waste steam leaving the process as emission to air), \u201cenergy content\u201d. 1:4. Cut-off for comparative assertions: The cut-off shall always be met also by mass and energy, in addition to environmental impact. 1:5. Additional relevance criteria for elementary and waste flows: Also those emissions and wastes should be include in the data collection that have a low mass and energy content but a known relevance for the respective type of processes or industry (using, e.g. legal limits and expert judgement). [ISO +] 1:6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3640, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1043, "book_page": 1041, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "legal limits and expert judgement). [ISO +] 1:6. Approximating the 100% value: The 100% reference of completeness may be approximated by using \u201cbest approximation\u201d values for all initially missing information and data, using among others information from similar", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3641, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1043, "book_page": 1041, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "processes and expert judgement. This missing information and data can be especially: [ISO+] 1:6:1. kind and quantity of initially missing flows, 1:6:2. element composition and energy content of all flows that relevantly contribute to the total mass of the flows, 1:6:3. cost of all goods and services that relevantly contribute to the total production cost and production value 1:6:4. environmental impact of yet missing background data sets for consumed goods and services. 1:7. Estimating precision of 100% value approximation: The precision of the 100% approximation may be judged from analysing the share of the different quality levels of the data that make up the inventory: a higher share of low quality data also makes the 100% approximation less precise. [ISO+] 1:8. Completeness of impact: As last step, and using the quantitative cut-off value decided upon in the scope definition, approximate the achieved degree of completeness/cut-off. [ISO+] 1:9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3642, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1044, "book_page": 1042, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 1:8. Completeness of impact: As last step, and using the quantitative cut-off value decided upon in the scope definition, approximate the achieved degree of completeness/cut-off. [ISO+] 1:9. Leaving out negligible flows: It is an option to leave out negligible flows that jointly make up less than 10% of the share of impact that is cut-off (e.g. if the completeness is 95%, 5% are cut-off. 10% of these 5% are 0.5% that are considered negligible.) It is recommended, however, to not leave them out. [ISO+] Note that the LCIA methods and (potentially) normalisation and weighting for use in defining the cut-off was decided in the scope phase. Note that for unit processes and partly terminated systems the completeness is to be judged in relation to the unit process and partly terminated system itself, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3643, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1044, "book_page": 1042, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that for unit processes and partly terminated systems the completeness is to be judged in relation to the unit process and partly terminated system itself, i.e. any lack of completeness of other processes that were added exclusively to complete the system model for the completeness check shall be disregarded when quantifying the achieved completeness. 2. SHOULD\u2014Improve completeness, if needed: In the case of insufficient completeness, the inventory analysis (and sometimes the impact assessment) phases should be revisited to increase the degree of completeness. It is recommended to focus on the key life cycle stages, processes and flows identified as significant issues. This improvement of the LCI data is, however, to be started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3644, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1044, "book_page": 1042, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This improvement of the LCI data is, however, to be started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration. 3. SHALL\u2014Report final completeness; potentially revise scope or goal: If the aimed at completeness has been achieved, or if it cannot be increased further, the finally achieved degree of completeness shall be reported (as % degree of completeness/cut-off). For LCA studies, it shall be considered when later formulating the limitations in the conclusions and recommendations. If the aimed M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3645, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1044, "book_page": 1042, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "at or necessary completeness cannot be achieved, it shall be decided whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or redefined. 37.6.3 Sensitivity Analysis Sensitivity analysis has the purpose of identifying the key processes and most important elementary flows as those elements which contribute most to the overall impacts from the product system. Sensitivity check (of accuracy and precision) (Provisions 9.3.3) 1. SHALL\u2014Check sensitivity of results: Check to what extent the accuracy and precision of the overall results meets the requirements posed by the intended applications. Aim at improving it to the required level, as follows: 1:1. Sensitivity of significant issues: Identify the most sensitive among the significant issues identified earlier and analyse the sensitivity of these for the overall results, along with their stochastic and systematic uncertainty estimates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3646, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1045, "book_page": 1043, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The outcome is determining for the accuracy and precision of the overall results and the strength of the conclusions, which can be drawn from the LCI/LCA study and must be reported together with these. Be aware that calculated uncertainty figures may not include the often-determining systematic uncertainties caused by model assumptions, data gaps and lack of accuracy. 1:1:1. Sensitivity of LCI items: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) to key flows, process parameter settings, flow properties and other data items such as recyclability, life-time of goods, duration of services steps and the like. Assess how sensitive inventory items influence the data representativeness, and precision. [ISO!] 1:1:2. Sensitivity of LCIA factors: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) considering the often widely differing uncertainty of the results due to uncertainties in the impact assessment (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3647, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1045, "book_page": 1043, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Human toxicity, Ecotoxicity, etc. with high uncertainties and Global warming, Acidification, etc. with lower uncertainty). [ISO!] 1:1:3. Sensitivity of modelling choices and assumptions: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) to different modelling choices and method assumptions (\u201cmethod issues\u201d), e.g. quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit, superseded processes, allocation criteria, etc. [ISO!] 1:2. Improve robustness of sensitive issues data, parameters, impact factors, assumptions, etc. as possible: In the case of lack of quality for some of the significant issues, revisit the inventory analysis and/or the impact assessment phases to improve the concerned data (for data issues), impact factors (for LCIA issues), or try to qualify and discuss the sensitive assumption or", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3648, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1045, "book_page": 1043, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "choice (for method issues). As for data completeness, also the improvement of the LCI data precision is, however, to be started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration. 1:3. Report final achievements; potentially revise scope or goal: If the certainty of key issues does not meet the needs, or if it cannot be increased to obtain the accuracy and precision that is required by the application of the LCI/LCA study, it shall be decided whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or redefined. This shall be reported and for LCA studies later be considered when formulating the limitations in the conclusions and recommendations from the LCA. 37.6.4 Consistency Check A consistency check is performed to investigate whether the assumptions, methods and data, which have been applied in the study, are consistent with the goal and scope and whether they have been performed consistent for the compared product systems in comparative studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3649, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1046, "book_page": 1044, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consistency check (Provisions 9.3.4) For partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets these provisions serve in addition to ensure method consistency across the processes of the model. For LCA studies, they serve in addition to ensure method consistency across the models of the compared systems. 1. SHALL\u2014Data quality sufficiently consistent? Check whether any differences in data quality per se (i.e. accuracy, completeness and precision) and in the selected data sources for the different processes in the system(s) are consistent with the goal and scope of the study. This is especially relevant for comparative studies. 2. SHALL\u2014Method choices consistent? Check whether all methodological choices (e.g. LCI modelling principles, allocation criteria or system expansion/substitution approach, system boundary, etc.) are consistent with the goal and scope of the study including the intended applications and target audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3650, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1046, "book_page": 1044, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This shall be judged by checking whether the method provisions have been met that are given in relation to the applicable Situation A, B, or C1/C2. [ISO!] M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3651, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1046, "book_page": 1044, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that method consistency applies on both unit process level (i.e. consistent approach to develop unit process from raw data) and system level (i.e. consistently modelling the system). This aspect is especially relevant when combining data from different sources. 3. SHALL\u2014Consistent impact assessment? Check whether the steps of impact assessment (including normalisation and weighting, if included) have been consistently applied and in line with goal and scope. 4. SHALL\u2014Evaluate relevance of inconsistencies: Evaluate the relevance/significance of any identified inconsistencies (as above) for the results and document them, including when reporting the achieved method consistency and appropriateness. For LCA studies additionally consider these findings when drawing conclusions or recommendations from the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3652, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1047, "book_page": 1045, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For LCA studies additionally consider these findings when drawing conclusions or recommendations from the results. 37.6.5 Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations Building on the outcome of the other elements of the interpretation, and drawing on the main findings from the earlier phases of the LCA, the final element of the interpretation has to draw conclusions and identify limitations of the study, and develop recommendations to the intended audience in accordance with the goal definition and the intended applications of the results. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations (Provisions 9.4) Note the limitations for Situation C1 and C2 studies in their use for direct decision support. These provisions apply only to comparative and non-comparative LCA studies. 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3653, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1047, "book_page": 1045, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These provisions apply only to comparative and non-comparative LCA studies. 1. SHALL\u2014Analyse the results in a systems perspective: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results obtained in the main system(s) model(s) and\u2014 if performed\u2014with the corresponding reasonably worst and best case assumption scenarios and possibly further assumption scenarios. Integrate the results of any potentially performed uncertainty calculations into the analysis. [ISO!] 1:1. Items that require special or separate analysis: 1:1:1. Non-generic LCIA: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results obtained with the default LCIA methods and those obtained including any", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3654, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1047, "book_page": 1045, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "potential additional or modified/non-generic (e.g. spatially or otherwise differentiated) LCIA methods. 1:1:2. Long-term emissions: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results for interventions within the first 100 years from the time of the study and those beyond that time limit. 1:1:3. Carbon storage and delayed emissions: Only if such is included in line with an explicit goal requirement: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results including and excluding carbon storage and delayed emissions/reuse/recycling/reuse credits. 1:2. Draw conclusions, if foreseen: Take into account the findings of the earlier elements of the interpretation phase. Draw conclusions in accordance with the goal defined for the LCA study and with the definitions of the scope, in particular those related to data quality requirements, and with the predefined assumptions and known limitations in the methodology and its application in the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3655, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1048, "book_page": 1046, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Consider all assumptions and related limitations that were noted down in the course of the study. 1:3. Address impacts outside the LCA scope, if any: Name any potential or actual effects on the three areas of protection that are based on other mechanisms than those covered by LCA (e.g. accidents, direct application of products to humans, etc.) and that are considered relevant by the interested parties. Clarify that these are outside the scope of LCA. Note that within the ILCD Handbook, not quantified effects outside the scope of LCA cannot be explicitly or implicitly assessed regarding their relevance in comparison to the LCA results.48 1:4. Conclusions for comparisons: Differences in data quality and methodological choices between compared systems shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the study, especially: 1:4:1. The functional unit of the compared alternatives shall be sufficiently similar to allow for comparisons, especially in view of stakeholders and potential users", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3656, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1048, "book_page": 1046, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The functional unit of the compared alternatives shall be sufficiently similar to allow for comparisons, especially in view of stakeholders and potential users. 1:4:2. The setting of system boundaries shall be consistently applied to all systems. 1:4:3. The inventory data should be of comparable quality (i.e. accuracy, completeness, precision, methodological consistency) for all compared alternatives. 48Effects outside the scope of LCA may be\u2014if available and quantified in a comparable manner (e.g. quantitatively related to the functional unit, considering the whole life cycle etc.)\u2014integrated with LCA results in an additional evaluation and report beyond the scope of LCA and outside the scope of the ILCD. This should consider the relative accuracy and precision of the different approaches and effects. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3657, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1048, "book_page": 1046, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1:4:4. The steps of impact assessment shall be consistently applied for all systems. 1:4:5. The significance of any above identified inconsistencies to the results of the comparison shall be evaluated and considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations from the results. 2. SHALL\u2014Recommend strictly based on conclusions and limitations: 2:1. Base any recommendations made in the LCA study exclusively on these conclusions and respecting the limitations. Derive recommendations unambiguously and in a stepwise logical and reasonable consequence of the conclusions. Do so in accordance with the defined goal of the LCA study and specially the intended applications and target audience. 2:2. Recommendations shall be made in a conservative way, only based on significant findings. Any relevant limitations found during the study are to be stated explicitly and clearly in the key message of the LCA study including in the executive summary. [ISO!] 2:3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3658, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1049, "book_page": 1047, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Any relevant limitations found during the study are to be stated explicitly and clearly in the key message of the LCA study including in the executive summary. [ISO!] 2:3. Special care must be taken to avoid misinterpretations also by a non-technical audience, to avoid interpretation beyond the scope of the LCA study and beyond what is supported by its outcome. 2:4. Equality of compared alternatives shall not be stated, unless it has been shown to be significant: the lack of significant differences alone shall not be misinterpreted as equality of the analysed options. It shall only be stated that with the given data restrictions and/or uncertainties or other causes no significant differences could be identified. [ISO!] 3. SHALL\u2014Comparisons of systems with dominant subjective preference: The results and recommendations of comparative studies on not objectively comparable alternatives (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3659, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1049, "book_page": 1047, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] 3. SHALL\u2014Comparisons of systems with dominant subjective preference: The results and recommendations of comparative studies on not objectively comparable alternatives (e.g. personal services, fashion items, jewellery) shall be presented with the explicit statement that comparability is not assumed per se, but lies with the individual preference and judgement. [ISO!] 4. SHALL\u2014Conclusions on basket-of-product type of studies: For studies that analyse several processes or systems in a non-competitive manner, i.e. processes/systems that perform clearly different functions (e.g. basket-ofproducts, identifying priority products) it shall be clearly reported that no comparability exists in terms of preferability among the processes/systems. EC-JRC European Commission-Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability.: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3660, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1049, "book_page": 1047, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union (2010) ISO 14001:2015.: Environmental Management Systems\u2014Requirements with Guidance for Use. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO 14015:2001.: Environmental Management\u2014Environmental Assessment of Sites and Organizations (EASO). The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3661, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1049, "book_page": 1047, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "ISO 14024:1999.: Environmental labels and declarations\u2014type I environmental labelling\u2014 principles and procedures. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO 14025:2006.: Environmental Labels and Declarations\u2014Type III Environmental Declarations \u2014Principles and Procedures. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO 14031:2013.: Environmental Management\u2014Environmental Performance Evaluation\u2014 Guidelines. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO 14040:2006.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Principles and Framework. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO 14044:2006.: Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO/TR 14062:2002.: Environmental management\u2014Integrating Environmental Aspects into Product Design and Development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3662, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1050, "book_page": 1048, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva ISO/TR 14062:2002.: Environmental management\u2014Integrating Environmental Aspects into Product Design and Development. The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva Author Biographies Michael Z. Hauschild involved in development of LCIA methodology since the early 1990s. Has led several SETAC and UNEP/SETAC working groups and participated in the development of the ISO standards and the ILCD methodological guidelines. Main LCA interests are chemical impacts, spatial differentiation and science-based boundaries in LCIA. Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bj\u00f8rn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3663, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "37 LCA Cookbook", "pdf_page": 1050, "book_page": 1048, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Part V", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3664, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Annexes", "pdf_page": 1051, "book_page": null, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 38 Report Template Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Alexis Laurent and Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Abstract To ensure consistent reporting of life cycle assessment (LCA), we provide a report template. The report includes elements of an LCA study as recommended but the ILCD Handbook. Illustrative case study reported according to this template is presented in Chap. 39. The following LCA report template presents the structure and summarised content of an LCA report that is recommended in the ILCD Handbook1. The content should be covered by any LCA report, but the proposed sub-subsections (level 3) may be merged or divided and their sequence may be changed if appropriate. The ILCD Handbook operates with three reporting levels: 1. Internal use by commissioner of study. 2. Third party, i.e. a limited, well-defined list of recipients with at least one organisation that has not participated in the study. 3. Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3665, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1052, "book_page": 1051, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2. Third party, i.e. a limited, well-defined list of recipients with at least one organisation that has not participated in the study. 3. Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public. There are no formal ILCD reporting requirements for level 1, but ILCD recommends following the requirements of level 2. More requirements apply to level 3 than to level 2. The following template applies to both level 2 and level 3 studies (special requirements for level 3 are highlighted here for the reader). The reporting template has been used in the reporting of the illustrative case on window frames in Chap. 39. A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 M. Owsianiak Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3666, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1052, "book_page": 1051, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39. A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 A. Laurent \u0001 M. Owsianiak Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark A. Bj\u00f8rn (&) CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montreal, QC, Canada e-mail: anders.bjoern@polymtl.ca 1EC-JRC (2010) European Commission\u2014Joint Research Centre\u2014Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook\u2014General guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union. \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_38", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3667, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1052, "book_page": 1051, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "38.1 Executive Summary Summarises in a non-technical language the key elements of the goal and scope of the studied system (including the definition of functional unit), the main results from the inventory analysis (including data sources for the foreground system) and the impact assessment components and major conclusions and/or recommendations made. 38.2 Technical Summary Summarises in a technical language the goal and scope, with relevant limitations and assumptions, a flow diagram of the studied system, the main results from the inventory and impact assessment components (including data sources, major assumptions, and key figures or tables) with consideration of the sensitivity and uncertainty analyses and conclusions and/or recommendations made. 38.3 Main Report 38.3.1 Goal Definition 38.3.1.1 Intended Application(s) States in a precise and unambiguous way the intended application (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3668, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1053, "book_page": 1052, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "38.3 Main Report 38.3.1 Goal Definition 38.3.1.1 Intended Application(s) States in a precise and unambiguous way the intended application (e.g. comparison of specific goods or services, weak point analysis of a specific product or greening the supply chain). 38.3.1.2 Method Assumptions and Impact Limitations States limitations of the study\u2019s usability due to (1) choice of methods implying, for example, a limited representation of temporal/spatial variations, and (2) limited impact coverage, e.g. only performing carbon footprinting. 38.3.1.3 Reasons for Carrying Out the LCA Study and Decision Context Explains why the study was commissioned and classifies its decision context to Situation A, B, C1 or C2.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3669, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1053, "book_page": 1052, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "38.3.1.4 Target Audience States to whom the results of the study are intended to be communicated in order to help identifying the requirements to a critical review (if any) and the appropriate form and technical level of reporting. 38.3.1.5 Comparative Assertions to be Disclosed to the Public States if the LCA study includes a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public, since stricter reporting requirements exist for such studies compared to studies only intended for internal use by the commissioner or for specified third parties. 38.3.1.6 Commissioner of the LCA Study and Other Influential Actors Identifies commissioner(s), including co-financers, and other actors having an influence on the study. 38.3.2 Scope Definition 38.3.2.1 Deliverables Lists the required deliverables of the study (typically LCI and LCIA results), which should be derived from the intended application (Sect. 3.1.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3670, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1054, "book_page": 1053, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "38.3.2 Scope Definition 38.3.2.1 Deliverables Lists the required deliverables of the study (typically LCI and LCIA results), which should be derived from the intended application (Sect. 3.1.1). 38.3.2.2 Function, Functional Unit and Reference Flows States the function(s) of the assessed product system(s), associated functional unit (\u201cwhat\u201d, \u201chow much\u201d, \u201chow well\u201d, \u201cwhere\u201d and \u201chow long/many times\u201d?) and derived reference flow(s), to which all other flows quantitatively relate. 38.3.2.3 LCI Modelling Framework Based on the identified decision context (Sect. 3.1.1), it is specified whether an attributional or consequential modelling framework (or a combination of the two) is to be followed in the inventory analysis. Report Template", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3671, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1054, "book_page": 1053, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "38.3.2.4 System Boundaries and Completeness Requirements Presents system boundaries, including a schematic representation and associated choices of completeness requirements, that are used to determine which processes should be within the system boundaries and which may be excluded. 38.3.2.5 Representativeness of LCI Data Describes the requirements of inventory data with respect to spatial, temporal and technological representativeness in accordance with the goal of the study. 38.3.2.6 Basis for Impact Assessment Describes the selection of impact categories and corresponding LCIA models in accordance with the goal of the study for which compatible inventory data is collected. 38.3.2.7 Requirements for Comparative Studies Only applicable to level 3 studies according to ISO standards. However, in line with ILCD requirements, we recommend to include this section for all comparative studies. It presents special considerations for comparative studies related to, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3672, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1055, "book_page": 1054, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, in line with ILCD requirements, we recommend to include this section for all comparative studies. It presents special considerations for comparative studies related to, e.g. data quality requirements, exclusion of identical processes and interpretation in light of affected stakeholders. 38.3.2.8 Critical Review Needs Describes the requirements for critical review (for example in case of public disclosure), the form of the review and who is eligible to perform it. 38.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 38.3.3.1 LCI Model at System Level Presents one or more flow diagrams that clearly describe the details of the foreground system and links to the background system, and all major inputs and outputs. For simple systems, such a diagram may already have been presented in sufficient detail under \u201cSystem boundaries and completeness requirements\u201d (Sect. 3.2.4), in which case, it should be skipped here. For complex systems, the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3673, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1055, "book_page": 1054, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "use of an Annex can be useful to detail graphically the different parts of the system (so as not to overload the main report); cross-references to the Annex should be made when describing the system modelling and inventory building. 38.3.3.2 Data Collection Presents in a table format a synthetic overview (1 page max.) of the data sources in terms of specificity, type, source and access. This part can provide the reader with a brief overview of the data collected and processed in the modelling of the system. Dividing the table between the different life cycle stages can help structuring this overview and outline the different elements to address in Sect. 3.3.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3674, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1056, "book_page": 1055, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Dividing the table between the different life cycle stages can help structuring this overview and outline the different elements to address in Sect. 3.3.3. 38.3.3.3 System Modelling Per Life Cycle Stage Details in plain text for each life cycle stage (raw materials stage, production stage, use stage, disposal stage, etc.) the data collected and their further treatment, including main assumptions and evaluations of their reliability (based on data sources used) and uncertainty (to prepare the basis of sensitivity and uncertainty analyses). For clarity, a division of this section into subsections is advocated: a subsection addressing each life cycle stage, and possibly others focusing on key modelling aspects (e.g. electricity supply modelling, when complex scenarios are analysed). From this section, the reader should be able to get a clear and comprehensive overview of the system modelling over its entire life cycle, including all the major assumptions and underlying uncertainties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3675, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1056, "book_page": 1055, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To make the study fully reproducible, it is recommended to complement this part with an Annex detailing all the assumptions (including minor assumptions), calculations made, detailed unit process data collected for the foreground system, detailed data for modelling of the background system (e.g. detailed scenario description for the disposal stages or for energy systems), and any other relevant information for the system modelling. Cross-references to those different elements in Annex should be made in the main report. 38.3.3.4 Calculated LCI Results Contains the final LCI results at a level of aggregation required for the intended applications. This section is particularly relevant for studies only aiming at deriving LCI results, where the LCI results should provide a comprehensive listing of elementary flows for the entire system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3676, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1056, "book_page": 1055, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This section is particularly relevant for studies only aiming at deriving LCI results, where the LCI results should provide a comprehensive listing of elementary flows for the entire system. For studies performing an impact assessment, this section may still be relevant to capture the resulting LCI results for the foreground system that may not be available in existing LCI databases and may thus serve as input data for other LCA studies. Tables detailing these LCI results for Report Template", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3677, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1056, "book_page": 1055, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "each process should be documented in Annex and cross-references should be done in this brief section. 38.3.3.5 Basis for Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses Describes how sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are conducted. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses should be documented by listing the different parameters tested and describing their uncertainty characteristics such as statistical distribution and variance (for example in a table format), and the methods adopted to conduct these analyses. This section can then be referenced in other sections of the report (e.g. sensitivity check) as the place to find all the methodological details for the sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. 38.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Presents characterised, normalised (optional) and weighted (optional) results graphically or in table format at a level and type of aggregation that reflects the goal and scope of the study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3678, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1057, "book_page": 1056, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "results split per life cycle stage, product flows or elementary flows of interest, as relevant). It is often beneficial to merge this section with the section \u201cInterpretation\u201d (see Sect. 3.5) to improve the readability of the report. The results can then be displayed alongside their interpretation and associated intermediate conclusions. 38.3.5 Interpretation 38.3.5.1 Significant Issues Identifies the issues (e.g. methodological choices and assumptions, inventory data, and characterisation or normalisation factors), which have the potential to change the final results of the LCA. The identification of issues often relies on contribution analyses, at a process level (which process contributes the most to the impact indicators?) and/or at a substance level (which substance is the largest contributor to a given impact indicator result?). Such analysis should be documented here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3679, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1057, "book_page": 1056, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such analysis should be documented here. 38.3.5.2 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses Checks Quantify the sensitivity of results to different elements of the LCA based on information about the uncertainties of significant issues among inventory data, impact assessment data and methodological assumptions and choices. Calculate the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3680, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1057, "book_page": 1056, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "uncertainty of the study\u2019s central conclusions (e.g. how certain is it that Product A has a lower environmental impact than Product B?). Cross-references to the Sect. 3.3.5 can be made to ease the readability and understanding of the uncertainty and sensitivity analyses. 38.3.5.3 Completeness and Consistency Checks Consists in two separate sub-sections that briefly document that both completeness and consistency checks have been done. The completeness check aims to ensure, in light of the goals and scope of the study, a sufficient completeness of the inventory and impact assessment data that have been identified as necessary for performing the LCA study. The consistency check investigates whether the assumptions, methods and data have been applied in a consistent way, e.g. consistent choice of the LCI modelling framework, well-argued setting of system boundaries, consistence across all LCIA steps (characterisation, normalisation, weighting), etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3681, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1058, "book_page": 1057, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "consistent choice of the LCI modelling framework, well-argued setting of system boundaries, consistence across all LCIA steps (characterisation, normalisation, weighting), etc. 38.3.6 Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations Presents conclusions encompassing the entire study, limitations for the usability of these conclusions, based on the above interpretation sections, and resulting recommendations, based on the intended application of the study. Annex (Public) Serves to document elements that would inappropriately interrupt the reading flow of the main part of the report and should include questionnaire/data collection template and raw data, full list of all assumptions and full LCI details and results. Cross-references to the different elements of the Annex should be made in the main report. Note that only non-confidential data should be reported in this appendix", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3682, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1058, "book_page": 1057, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Cross-references to the different elements of the Annex should be made in the main report. Note that only non-confidential data should be reported in this appendix. Annex (Confidential) This Annex is complementary to the main Annex (public), and only applicable in case confidential data were used in the study. This confidential Annex contains all those data and information that are sensitive or proprietary and cannot be made externally available (only available to the critical reviewers under confidentiality agreements). Report Template", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3683, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1058, "book_page": 1057, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "List of all sources referred to in the report Author Biographies Anders Bj\u00f8rn part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Alexis Laurent working with LCA since 2010 with a strong LCIA focus, particularly on normalisation aspects. Main LCA interests include development of LCIA methods, LCA applications and footprinting of large-scale systems for policy-making (e.g. nations, sectors), and LCA applied to various technology domains, including energy systems. Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3684, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "38 Report Template", "pdf_page": 1059, "book_page": 1058, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak, Anders Bj\u00f8rn, Heidi B. Bugge, S\u00f3nia M. Carvalho, Leise Jebahar, Jon Rasmussen, Caroline M. White and Stig Irving Olsen Abstract This report serves as an example report on how to perform an LCA according to the guidance given in Chap. 37 and how to structure the report according to the reporting template in Chap. 38. The goals of the LCA were (i) to perform a benchmarking of a prototype wood/composite (W/C) window made out of glass fibre against three alternative window types currently offered in the market (made of wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), and PVC) and (ii) to identify environmental hotspots for each window system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3685, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1060, "book_page": 1059, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.1 Executive Summary Nor-win, a Danish-based windows manufacturer, commissioned an LCA study with the goals (i) to perform a benchmarking of a prototype wood/composite (W/C) window made out of glass fibre against three alternative window types currently offered in the market (made of wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), and PVC) and (ii) to identify environmental hotspots for each window system. The compared windows differ regarding their ability to prevent heat from escaping the building (insulation performance). The four window types are compared on the basis of their main function, which is allowing daylight inside the building. The functional unit is thus \u201cAllow daylight M. Owsianiak (&) \u0001 A. Bj\u00f8rn \u0001 S.M. Carvalho \u0001 L. Jebahar \u0001 J. Rasmussen \u0001 C.M. White \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: miow@dtu.dk A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3686, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1060, "book_page": 1059, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "White \u0001 S.I. Olsen Division for Quantitative Sustainability Assessment, Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: miow@dtu.dk A. Bj\u00f8rn CIRAIG, Polytechnique Montr\u00e9al, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada H.B. Bugge Ecolabelling Denmark, Danish Standards Foundation, G\u00f6teborg Plads 1, Nordhavn, Denmark \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_39", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3687, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1060, "book_page": 1059, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "into a residential building through a physical barrier, equivalent to light being transmitted through an area of 1.82 m2 with visible light transmittance of at least 0.6, for 20 years\u201d. System boundaries comprise all life cycle stages from cradle to grave, including transportation and provision of utilities (electricity or heat). The manufacturing technology for all four windows, including the elements composing the pane and the frame, represent the technology, which is currently used by Nor-win and its suppliers. Nor-win is the provider of primary data used in the product system model. Generic databases were used for background processes and for some foreground processes for which no primary data could be retrieved from the suppliers. The results show that for most impact categories the impact scores follow the order W/C < W = W/ALU < PVC", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3688, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1061, "book_page": 1060, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The results show that for most impact categories the impact scores follow the order W/C < W = W/ALU < PVC. The W/C window has the lowest environmental impact in all 14 impact categories, while the PVC window system has the highest impact for 10 impact categories. For nearly all the non-toxicity-related impact categories, the life cycle impacts of the four windows correspond to approximately 10% of the total annual average impacts of an average EU27 citizen in the year 2010. The main contributor of environmental impacts is the generation of indoor heating to compensate for heat losses through the window. The contribution of this process to the total life cycle impact is for all four windows around 90% for climate change, freshwater eutrophication, or resource depletion, and above 50% for nearly all other impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3689, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1061, "book_page": 1060, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The manufacturing stage is relevant for impacts on stratospheric ozone depletion, and ionising radiation (human health) across all windows, for impacts on freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity (PVC window), and land use (W window). Several assumptions had to be made for the modelling of the product systems. While most of them were not found to be important for our conclusions, the modelling of chromium steel and galvanised steel using the same processes may influence impact scores in the categories human health (cancer effects) and freshwater ecotoxicity due to associated differences in emissions of chromium (VI) and zinc (II). The impact scores were the most sensitive to the insulation capacity (Uvalue) of the window, and the ranking of the window alternatives does not change when the EU27 heat mix is used instead of the Danish mix. Overall, results show that there is a trade-off between types of material used and improved insulation properties of windows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3690, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1061, "book_page": 1060, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Overall, results show that there is a trade-off between types of material used and improved insulation properties of windows. The use of glass fibre-based composite in the W/C has some contribution (up to 12%) to total impacts, depending on the impact category, but the use of the composite substantially improves insulation properties causing an overall reduction in environmental impacts, and leading to the superiority of this window type. The design of windows to ensure better environmental performance should focus on optimising insulation properties of windows, which can be done either by improving the design of the frame or by introducing an additional pane that helps improving insulation properties of the whole window.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3691, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1061, "book_page": 1060, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.2 Technical Summary Nor-win, a Danish-based windows manufacturer, wishes to position itself as a proactive company on the market in terms of environmental sustainability, with the ambition to attract customers demanding more environmentally friendly products. For this purpose, an LCA study was commissioned with the goals (i) to perform a benchmarking of a prototype of a wood/composite (W/C) window made out of glass fibre against three window types currently offered in the market (made of wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), and PVC) and (ii) to identify environmental hotspots for each window system. The deliverables include (i) detailed life cycle inventory model of the compared systems, including unit process data; (ii) life cycle impact assessment results (in both characterised and normalised forms). We follow EU-recommended practice for characterisation modelling at midpoint to quantify life cycle impacts of four window alternatives, referred to as ILCD", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3692, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1062, "book_page": 1061, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "We follow EU-recommended practice for characterisation modelling at midpoint to quantify life cycle impacts of four window alternatives, referred to as ILCD. Normalisation was carried out using a set of normalisation references for the year 2010. The functional unit is \u201cAllow daylight into a residential building through a physical barrier, equivalent to light being transmitted through an area of 1.82 m2 with visible light transmittance of at least 0.6, for 20 years\u201d. Decision context is micro-level, product or process-related decision support studies, i.e. situation A of the ILCD guideline (EC-JRC 2010). Consequently, the attributional principle was chosen as LCI modelling principle. Major properties of the four window alternatives are presented in Table 39.1. The window\u2019s ability to prevent heat from escaping the building is described by its heat transfer coefficient\u2014the U-value (W m\u22122 K\u22121)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3693, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1062, "book_page": 1061, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The window\u2019s ability to prevent heat from escaping the building is described by its heat transfer coefficient\u2014the U-value (W m\u22122 K\u22121). The fraction of light that enters through the window into the building is characterised by its visible light transmittance (Tvis)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3694, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1062, "book_page": 1061, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The fraction of light that enters through the window into the building is characterised by its visible light transmittance (Tvis). Table 39.1 Major properties of the four window alternatives Properties Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Frame material Mainly wood Mainly wood and aluminium Mainly polyvinyl chloride and galvanised steel Mainly wood and polyamide/glass fibre composite Glass material 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon U-value (W m\u22122 K\u22121) 1.29 1.31 1.36 1.08 Tvis (fraction) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 Glass dimensions (m) 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 Wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and wood/composite (W/C) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3695, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1062, "book_page": 1061, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The analysis comprises all life cycle stages from cradle to grave, including transportation and provision of utilities (electricity or heat). The manufacturing technology for all four windows, including the elements composing the pane and the frame, represent the technology, which is currently used by Nor-win and its suppliers. Nor-win is the supplier of primary data used to model the LCI. Ecoinvent and Plastics Europe databases were used for background processes and as source of data for some foreground processes for which no primary data could be retrieved from the suppliers (PlasticsEurope Database 2016; Ecoinvent 2010)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3696, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1063, "book_page": 1062, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The major assumptions made in inventory modelling include (i) the wood-based windows are sold mainly in Scandinavian countries and Germany, but the use and disposal stages for all windows are modelled using data from processes representative for Denmark; (ii) windows are used only in buildings that are heated by district heating (in Denmark district heating delivers ca", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3697, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1063, "book_page": 1062, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "55% of the total heat demand for buildings); (iii) processes used to model the district heat mix technologies were representative for Norway (except for incineration of bio-waste, which was representative for Switzerland); (iv) energy used for operation of the manufacturing and disassembly facilities for the W/C window is assumed equal to those for other windows, while energy requirements for window disassembly are assumed equal to 1 MJ per kg of dismounted window; (v) losses of materials during production are not considered and all recycled materials replace virgin materials in Extraction of crude oil Extraction of bauxite Refining Chemicals & polymers Forestry Production of aluminium Aluminium parts Production of wood Wooden parts Mining of silica Mining of iron Surface treatment Production of chrom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3698, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1063, "book_page": 1062, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "steel Steel parts Production of glass Extraction of argon Window frame Window assembly Use (heat loss) Dissasembly Recycling of glass Recycling of aluminium Recycling of steel Landfilling Incineration Window pane Packaging Production of cardboard Production of GFK Heat and power Glass cullets Steel billet Aluminium ingot background processes foreground processes Fig. 39.1 Flow diagram for the wood/composite window (W/C) product system. Red line indicates foreground processes. Grey boxes indicate avoided processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3699, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1063, "book_page": 1062, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the market at a 1:1 ratio without considering any loss of material functionality in the recycling; and (vi) production of chromium steel and galvanised steel was modelled using the same process, while landfilling of EDPM rubber was modelled as that of polypropylene. The flow diagram of the prototype W/C window is presented in Fig. 39.1. All four window alternatives have impacts within the same order of magnitude, and for most impact categories the impact scores follow the order W/C < W = W/ALU < PVC (Table 39.2). The W/C window has the lowest environmental impact in all 14 impact categories, while the PVC window system has the highest impact scores for 10 impact categories. For nine out of these 10 impact categories the differences in impact scores between the W/C and PVC windows are deemed statistically significant (i.e. the calculated 95% probability ranges of the impact scores do not overlap)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3700, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1064, "book_page": 1063, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the calculated 95% probability ranges of the impact scores do not overlap). For nearly all the non-toxicity-related impact categories, the life cycle impacts of the four windows correspond to approximately 0.1 person equivalents. Process contribution analysis showed that the main driver of environmental impacts was the production of house heating to compensate for heat losses through the window. The contribution of this process to the total impact is around 90% for climate change, freshwater eutrophication, or resource depletion across all four windows, and above 50% for nearly all other impact categories. The manufacturing stage was relevant for impacts on stratospheric ozone depletion, and ionising radiation (human health) across all windows, and for the impacts on freshwater ecotoxicity, human toxicity (PVC window), and land use (W window)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3701, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1064, "book_page": 1063, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Most of the assumptions made when modelling the LCI were not found to be important for the conclusions, except that modelling of chromium steel and galvanised steel using the same processes may influence impact scores in human health (cancer effects) and freshwater ecotoxicity due to associated differences in emissions of chromium (VI) and zinc (II). The impact scores were the most sensitive to the U-value of the window, and the ranking of window alternatives does not change when the EU27 heat mix is used instead of the Danish mix. Overall, the major conclusions of this LCA are: I. The W/C window performs significantly better compared to its alternatives in all 14 impact categories. The W/C window is thus the preferable option from an environmental perspective. II. The PVC window is the least preferred option, as it performs the worst in 11 out of 14 impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3702, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1064, "book_page": 1063, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The W/C window is thus the preferable option from an environmental perspective. II. The PVC window is the least preferred option, as it performs the worst in 11 out of 14 impact categories. This conclusion, however, might change if land use, freshwater ecotoxicity and human health (non-cancer) (where the W window performs significantly worse) are given a higher weight than the rest of the impact categories. III. The overall environmental performance of the windows is mainly determined by the demand for heat to compensate for heat losses through the window during its use stage. This is true for nearly all impact categories. The U-value determines demand for heat, and can thus be considered a key environmental performance indicator of windows. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3703, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1064, "book_page": 1063, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.2 Characterised impacts and accompanying 95% probability ranges from Monte Carlo simulations, expressed in category-specific units for each window alternative Impact category Unit Impact score (95% probability range) W W/ALU PVC W/C Climate change kg CO2 eq. 1162 (1134\u20131189) 1158 (1129\u20131188) 1232 (1203\u20131260) 978 (933\u20131023) Stratospheric ozone depletion kg CFC-11 eq. 1.9e\u22125 (1.8e\u22125\u20131.9e\u22125) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.6e\u22125) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.6e\u22125) 1.4e\u22125 (1.4e\u22125\u20131.4e\u22125) Photochemical ozone formation kg NMVOC eq. 1.59 (1.55\u20131.63) 1.57 (1.53\u20131.61) 1.72 (1.67\u20131.76) 1.33 (1.26\u20131.4) Terrestrial acidification AE 2.00 (1.95\u20132.04) 2.00 (1.95\u20132.05) 2.31 (2.26\u20132.36) 1.67 (1.6\u20131.75) Terrestrial eutrophication AE 7.14 (6.94\u20137.35) 7.04 (6.83\u20137.24) 7.79 (7.56\u20138.02) 5.96 (5.61\u20136.32) Freshwater eutrophication kg P eq. 0.042 (0.041\u20130.043) 0.043 (0.041\u20130.044) 0.046 (0.044\u20130.047) 0.035 (0.033\u20130.037) Marine eutrophication kg N eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3704, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1065, "book_page": 1064, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "0.042 (0.041\u20130.043) 0.043 (0.041\u20130.044) 0.046 (0.044\u20130.047) 0.035 (0.033\u20130.037) Marine eutrophication kg N eq. 0.65 (0.63\u20130.67) 0.62 (0.60\u20130.64) 0.68 (0.66\u20130.7) 0.54 (0.51\u20130.57) Freshwater ecotoxicity CTUe 2675 (2605\u20132745) 1755 (1706\u20131805) 1852 (1809\u20131895) 1545 (1461\u20131630) Human toxicity (cancer) CTUh 2e\u22125 (1.9e\u22125\u20132e\u22125) 1.8e\u22125 (1.8e\u22125\u20131.9e\u22125) 3.4e\u22125 (3.3e\u22125\u20133.5e\u22125) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.7e\u22125) Human toxicity (non-cancer) CTUh 1.5e\u22124 (1.5e\u22124\u20131.6e\u22124) 1.3e\u22124 (1.2e\u22124\u20131.3e\u22124) 1.3e\u22124 (1.3e\u22124\u20131.3e\u22124) 1.0e\u22124 (9.9e\u22125\u20131.1e\u22124) Particulate matter formation kg PM2.5 eq. to air 0.085 (0.083\u20130.087) 0.082 (0.080\u20130.084) 0.116 (0.114\u20130.119) 0.070 (0.067\u20130.073) Ionising radiation (human health) kBq U235 eq. 7.69 (7.56\u20137.81) 7.99 (7.86\u20138.12) 8.63 (8.49\u20138.77) 6.26 (6.07\u20136.45) Land use kg C year 657 (646\u2013668) 405 (399\u2013410) 386 (384\u2013387) 364 (351\u2013377) Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) kg Sb eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3705, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1065, "book_page": 1064, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7.69 (7.56\u20137.81) 7.99 (7.86\u20138.12) 8.63 (8.49\u20138.77) 6.26 (6.07\u20136.45) Land use kg C year 657 (646\u2013668) 405 (399\u2013410) 386 (384\u2013387) 364 (351\u2013377) Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) kg Sb eq. 0.0072 (0.0070\u20130.0073) 0.0074 (0.0072\u20130.0076) 0.0081 (0.0080\u20130.0083) 0.0063 (0.0060\u20130.0066) W Wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite The probability ranges represent the modelled inventory uncertainty, as the uncertainties in the characterisation factors were not known", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3706, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1065, "book_page": 1064, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "IV. In addition to processes for generation of heat, other environmental hotspots in the product systems are: production of timber and paint for the W window; the injection moulding process of PVC and production of steel in the PVC window. V. The use of glass fibre-based composite has some contribution (up to 12%) to total impacts, depending on the impact category, but cannot be considered a hot spot given that the composite substantially improves insulation properties causing an overall reduction in environmental impacts. VI. Similarly, the use of 3-layered glass instead of 2-layered improves insulation properties resulting in an overall reduction in environmental impacts with the respective heating mix. VII. The trade-off between impacts from the material used and the improved insulation properties that the material may give the window has to be considered when assessing environmental performance of windows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3707, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1066, "book_page": 1065, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Recommendations are given to the commissioner to support eco-design of the new window and greening of the whole value chain: A. The design of windows to ensure better environmental performance should focus on optimising insulation properties of windows. This can be done by introducing a 3-layered pane, or improving the design of the frame. If the latter is considered, the choice of frame material is important and in each case where new frame material is used in the design of a frame we recommend evaluating (using tools like LCA) whether environmental benefits achieved by improved insulation properties are really sufficient to outweigh potential environmental burden from the use of novel materials. Indeed, if the heat mix changes substantially within the lifetime of the window this could potentially move the hot spots from the use stage to manufacturing and end-of-life stages in which case our recommendations for design of the windows might not hold. B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3708, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1066, "book_page": 1065, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "B. Selection of new materials for frame design should consider functional properties of materials in a window design context, i.e. the focus should not be on selection of materials that perform environmentally best per unit mass of the materials, but on selection of materials that perform best considering insulation properties and the amount applied when used in the frame. C. For the existing W-based windows, improvement potentials lie in selection of paints with lower environmental impact. For the paint applied for maintenance in the use stage, this may be outside the influence of the producer, because it is the window users who will select the type of paint. Our recommendation is to provide information to the users about recommended types of paint. D. Finally, we recommend to phase-out the PVC window as the option with likely the highest environmental burden overall", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3709, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1066, "book_page": 1065, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "D. Finally, we recommend to phase-out the PVC window as the option with likely the highest environmental burden overall. If this is not possible, we recommend its redesign through the introduction of a 3-layered pane to improve its insulation properties. Further improvement potentials for the PVC window system lie mainly in selection of cleaner technology for production of PVC frame elements. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3710, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1066, "book_page": 1065, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The major limitations of the LCA are: 1. Our findings about major drivers of environmental impacts apply to windows where crystal glass is used in the panes with a relatively large (>0.6) visible light transmittance coefficient. They are not thought to be applicable for windows, which change their transparency in response to light intensity (e.g. photochromic windows) where the need for electricity to provide lighting indoor may become an important factor contributing to impacts in the use stage. 2. The disregard of changes in heat mix and heat demand in the future and potential development of more efficient heat supply technologies is another potential limitation. It is uncertain to what extent these will become effective within the time frame of the study (25\u201330 years)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3711, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1067, "book_page": 1066, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is uncertain to what extent these will become effective within the time frame of the study (25\u201330 years). If such is the case, impacts from the manufacturing stage or disposal will become more important in the future (if there is no development of cleaner manufacturing and waste management technologies, which also is uncertain). They may change both the ranking of window alternatives and recommendations given to the commissioner. We expect, however, that in a 20-year time horizon, the use stage will likely remain the most important contributor to total impacts from the window product system, and efforts to design windows with low U-values should continue. 39.3 Main Report Nor-win, a Danish-based windows manufacturer, produces windows for use in residential buildings in Scandinavia (mainly Denmark and Sweden), and some Western European countries (mainly Germany)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3712, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1067, "book_page": 1066, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Existing Nor-win windows on the market are dominated by windows made of wood, a combination of wood and aluminium, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Nor-win is currently designing a new type of window made of wood and a composite (glass fibre-reinforced polyamide) to be introduced to the market in 1\u20132 years, starting with the home market in Denmark. The new window is expected to gain a share of 20\u201330% of the total current market share of Nor-win. It differs from the existing windows with respect to heat insulation properties, which are improved by combining wood with glass fibre-reinforced plastic in the construction of window frame. The new window is thus expected to have a lower overall environmental impact compared to earlier products from the company. However, a quantitative, life cycle based assessment has not been done yet", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3713, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1067, "book_page": 1066, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The new window is thus expected to have a lower overall environmental impact compared to earlier products from the company. However, a quantitative, life cycle based assessment has not been done yet. 39.3.1 Goal Definition 39.3.1.1 Intended Applications The study aims to perform a benchmarking for internal use of a wood/composite (W/C) window against three window types made of wood (W), wood/aluminium", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3714, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1067, "book_page": 1066, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(W/ALU), and PVC (PVC) used in Danish residences. With this regard, this study is a comparative case study. However, given that Nor-win will use the results as guidance for the ongoing design of the new window, environmental hotspots for each window system will also be identified. One of the aims of this study is to quantify the trade-off that may occur when potentially reduced environmental impacts from better insulation properties are achieved at the expense of increased impacts from higher demand for materials needed for manufacturing. Overall, the results of this LCA are intended to be used to initiate a greening of the value chains of the four window alternatives. 39.3.1.2 Method Assumptions and Impact Limitations We follow best, EU-recommended practice for characterisation modelling to quantify life cycle impacts of four window alternatives, referred to as ILCD (EC-JRC 2010; Hauschild et al. 2013). However, even best practice has limitations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3715, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1068, "book_page": 1067, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013). However, even best practice has limitations. The recommended methods currently do not allow for consistent spatially explicit impact assessment. Given that Nor-win operates in Northern Europe, those impacts which occur within this region may be subject to bias, if global-generic characterisation factors are used (Scandinavian soils are for instance quite sensitive to acidification compared to an average European soil). Further, in ILCD, no method has been recommended for dealing with terrestrial and marine ecotoxicity. Thus, impacts on terrestrial and marine ecosystems stemming from emissions of some important stressors, like metals, are not considered in this assessment. In addition, due to insufficient quality of the inventory data, we had to exclude the impact category water use from the set of ILCD methods. Normalisation was done to relate impact scores to background activities of the society in Europe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3716, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1068, "book_page": 1067, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation was done to relate impact scores to background activities of the society in Europe. However, normalisation references are thought to be underestimated for the toxicity-related impact categories due to the insufficient knowledge of total emissions of the thousands of different chemicals with toxicity potentials in Europe, resulting in overestimation of normalised impact scores for the freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity (both cancer and non-cancer effects) impact categories (Laurent et al. 2011). 39.3.1.3 Reasons for Carrying Out the LCA Study and Decision Context Nor-win wishes to position itself as a proactive company on the market in terms of environmental sustainability, with the ambition to attract customers demanding more environmentally friendly products. For that reason, Nor-win is considering to apply for a Nordic Ecolabel for selected windows in its portfolio, to be used for marketing purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3717, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1068, "book_page": 1067, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For that reason, Nor-win is considering to apply for a Nordic Ecolabel for selected windows in its portfolio, to be used for marketing purposes. Furthermore, the company expects that the LCA study will provide valuable information to be incorporated at the early stages in the development of the new composite window. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3718, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1068, "book_page": 1067, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The decision context is situation A as the decisions taken by Nor-win stakeholders will primarily have an internal influence (i.e. in supporting the eco-design of the new type of window) and will not result in structural consequences on the market because the share of Nor-win of total window market in Europe is small (ca. 3%). This is mainly because Nor-win is a relatively minor customer for its suppliers and the market production capacity will not be influenced if changes in the choice of suppliers are introduced based on the LCA results. 39.3.1.4 Target Audience The target audience is environmental and design departments at Nor-win. The company has limited knowledge about life cycle concepts and has neither conducted nor commissioned an LCA before. However, the company has recently employed a designer who is familiar with eco-design principles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3719, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1069, "book_page": 1068, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, the company has recently employed a designer who is familiar with eco-design principles. 39.3.1.5 Comparisons Intended to Be Disclosed to the Public This comparative LCA study is not intended to be a comparative assertion disclosed to the public. 39.3.1.6 Commissioner of the LCA Study and Other Influential Actors This study is commissioned and fully financed by Nor-win. The team carrying out the LCA includes an employee from Ecolabelling Denmark at Danish Standard (Dansk Standard, DS), an organisation that is monitoring and developing ecolabel standards for various products, including windows. Ecolabelling Denmark is thus an influential actor. 39.3.2 Scope Definition 39.3.2.1 Deliverables This is both a comparative LCA study (for internal use) and an environmental hotspot analysis carried out for each window alternative (see Sect. 2.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3720, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1069, "book_page": 1068, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.2 Scope Definition 39.3.2.1 Deliverables This is both a comparative LCA study (for internal use) and an environmental hotspot analysis carried out for each window alternative (see Sect. 2.1). The deliverables include (i) detailed life cycle inventory model of the compared systems, including unit process data; and (ii) life cycle impact assessment results (in both characterised and normalised forms).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3721, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1069, "book_page": 1068, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.2.2 Function, Functional Unit, and Reference Flows Function. The four window types are made of different materials and are compared on the basis of their main function, which is allowing light inside the building. The fraction of light that enters through the window into the building is characterised by a parameter called visible light transmittance (Tvis). Tvis can vary between windows depending on the type and properties of the windowpane, but for windows with panes made of crystal glass it is generally not lower than 0.6. The visible light transmittance is a relevant parameter to consider because light transmittance properties of some windows (like the photochromic or electrochromic ones) may vary, depending on other factors (e.g. light intensity), in which case increased need for indoor lighting should be considered when modelling life cycle inventories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3722, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1070, "book_page": 1069, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "light intensity), in which case increased need for indoor lighting should be considered when modelling life cycle inventories. This was not considered relevant in our case study where all four windows have pane made out of crystal glass of constant (and relatively high, Tvis > 0.6) light transmittance properties. The secondary function of the window (i.e. its ability to transfer heat) was considered by crediting the system for the heat loss in the use stage (as will be explained in detail in Sect. 39.2.3). While all windows must allow daylight into a building (obligatory property), they may differ in some of the positioning properties (Table 39.3). The window\u2019s ability to conduct heat is described by its heat transfer coefficient, the U-value (W m\u22122 K\u22121). The U-value is a measure of how well a window prevents heat from escaping the building. The lower the U-value the lower is the heat loss", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3723, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1070, "book_page": 1069, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The U-value is a measure of how well a window prevents heat from escaping the building. The lower the U-value the lower is the heat loss. The U-value depends on the type of material and design of the window frame, and properties (thickness, coating, and number of layers) of the windowpane and on the properties of the material between the panes. The U-value is usually measured and provided by the manufacturers. The U-value is thus an important parameter because any heat loss through the window must be compensated by providing extra heating to the indoor environment that the window shields. It is estimated that losses through windows can account for 25% of the total heat loss in a residential building (Natural Resources Canada 2015). Note that both window frame and windowpane can be characterised by a U-value. The U-value used here refers the window as a whole. Major properties of the four window alternatives are presented in Table 39.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3724, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1070, "book_page": 1069, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The U-value used here refers the window as a whole. Major properties of the four window alternatives are presented in Table 39.4. Table 39.3 Obligatory and positioning properties of windows in this case study Obligatory property Positioning properties \u2022 Allow daylight into a building through a physical barrier \u2022 Thermal and noise insulation \u2022 Allow ventilation between indoor and outdoor \u2022 Provide aesthetic functionality to the building \u2022 Protection against breaking into the building Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3725, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1070, "book_page": 1069, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Functional unit. All four windows are compared on the basis for the following functional unit: \u201cAllow daylight into a residential building through a physical barrier, equivalent to light being transmitted through an area of 1.82 m2 with visible light transmittance of at least 0.6, for 20 years\u201d. This definition allows for a fair comparison between windows with different U-values. Note, however, that it does not allow for a comparison with an empty hole in the house (which although allows daylight into a building, is not a physical barrier). Reference flows. Considering the different life times for window frames and panes, the reference flows in Table 39.5 are derived as needed to provide the service defined in the functional unit. It is assumed that the pane will be changed once in windows\u2019 lifetime (specifically, after 20 years) and that the window is used for the time equal to the lifetime of the frame", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3726, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1071, "book_page": 1070, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Please note that reference flows for Table 39.4 Major properties of the four window alternatives Properties Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Frame material Mainly wood Mainly wood and aluminium Mainly polyvinyl chloride and galvanised steel Mainly wood and polyamide/glass fibre composite Glass material 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon 2-layered, coated, sealed with silicone, filled with argon U-value (W m\u22122 K\u22121) 1.29 1.31 1.36 1.08 Tvis (fraction) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 Glass dimensions (m) 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 1.23 \u0003 1.48 Wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), PVC or wood/composite (W/C) Table 39.5 Life times and reference flows needed to fulfil the functional unit for the four window alternatives Property/reference flow Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Life time of the window frame (years) Life time of the window pane (years) Reference flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3727, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1071, "book_page": 1070, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "the functional unit for the four window alternatives Property/reference flow Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Life time of the window frame (years) Life time of the window pane (years) Reference flows (numbers) Window frame 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 Window pane Packaging Paint for window frame", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3728, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1071, "book_page": 1070, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "pane and frame would be equal if the whole window is to be replaced after 20 years equal to the expected life time of the pane (and irrespective of the life time of the frame). Whether this is the case will depend on factors like trends in design, the overall state of the building, or the frequency of change in the ownership of the apartment where the window is installed. These factors were not considered here. 39.3.2.3 LCI Modelling Framework Nor-win\u2019s introduction of a new window and improvements in heat insulation properties of existing windows are not expected to have large structural changes on the market (like installation of new composite factories or decommissioning of existing heat pumps). Thus, the decision context is micro-level, product or process-related decision support studies, i.e. situation A in the ILCD Guideline (EC-JRC 2010), suggesting that the attributional principle be chosen as LCI modelling framework", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3729, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1072, "book_page": 1071, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "situation A in the ILCD Guideline (EC-JRC 2010), suggesting that the attributional principle be chosen as LCI modelling framework. This implies that the systems are modelled depicting existing value chains, i.e. using current Danish electricity and heating mix, and Danish recycling rates for end-of-life scenarios. Consistently with the micro-level decision context, system expansion was done to credit for the heat loss in the use stage using average Danish data. Note, that we applied system expansion (through crediting) using average processes in this attributional approach, consistently with both ILCD and the ISO hierarchy to solving multifunctionality, although system expansion using marginal processes has traditionally been considered for the consequential approach to inventory modelling (allocation has traditionally been used for the attributional approach). Apart from the secondary function of the window (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3730, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1072, "book_page": 1071, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Apart from the secondary function of the window (i.e. its ability to transfer heat), other processes downstream can also have secondary functions or co-products, namely recycling operations (producing recycled steel, aluminium, glass, or recycled PVC). As system expansion is the preferred approach to solving multifunctionality, materials produced from recycled content are credited using virgin materials, i.e. aluminium ingots, steel billet, glass cullets (for all windows), and additionally PVC granulate mix (for PVC window), where all virgin materials and PVC granulate are produced using average technologies. Similarly, incineration of some materials in the end-of-life stage produces heat and power, which is credited using average Danish heat and power mixes. Secondary functions in upstream processes also exist (e.g. naphtha cracking, waste incineration), but these secondary functions had to be handled according to how the database (i.e. ecoinvent v.2.1) did it, so using allocation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3731, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1072, "book_page": 1071, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "naphtha cracking, waste incineration), but these secondary functions had to be handled according to how the database (i.e. ecoinvent v.2.1) did it, so using allocation. 39.3.2.4 System Boundaries and Completeness Requirements System boundaries. The analysis includes all life cycle stages from cradle to grave (Fig. 39.2). Processes include for all product systems raw material extraction, primary and secondary material production and upstream processes such as mining Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3732, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1072, "book_page": 1071, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of metal ores and extraction of crude oil within the system boundaries. Raw materials are transported to metal smelters or refineries to produce virgin metals, fuels and plastics. Similarly, forestry is included to produce wood. These materials are used to produce specific parts from which window components (window frame and windowpane) are made. Assembled windows are packaged and transported to retailers, and from there to residential buildings, in which they are mounted and provide their function. The use stage includes maintenance painting of the wood window (W), and cleaning of all windows. At the end of life, windows are dismantled and transported to a waste handling facility for disassembly. Steel, aluminium and glass are mainly recycled. Landfilling and incineration with heat recovery apply to cardboard, wood, and plastics, and to the remaining, non-recycled fractions of steel, aluminium and glass. Completeness requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3733, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1073, "book_page": 1072, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Landfilling and incineration with heat recovery apply to cardboard, wood, and plastics, and to the remaining, non-recycled fractions of steel, aluminium and glass. Completeness requirements. As the LCA includes a hotspot analysis, no processes should ideally be excluded from the system boundaries based on their similarity between the four window systems. Yet, we excluded: (i) Cleaning of windowpane. Although potentially interesting for the hot spot analysis, Nor-win has little control of the cleaning process (e.g. frequency of the cleaning, detergent type). Thus, the inclusion of cleaning is not that important for the goal of the study (that is, to support guidance for the ongoing design of the new window and green supply chain for the existing windows)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3734, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1073, "book_page": 1072, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Extraction of resources: crude oil metal ores wood sand other Production of materials and semi-products: aluminium profiles wood profiles steel profiles glass other Production of window pane Production of window frame Assembly of window Use of window Dissasembly of window Incineration Landfilling Production of heat and power Production of virgin materials: aluminium ingot glass cullets secondary steel avoided products Window packaging Painting of window Recycling foreground processes background processes Provision of heat Fig. 39.2 System boundaries for the product systems of the four window alternatives. Transportation and provision of utilities other than heat (e.g. electricity) are included inside the system boundaries but not shown in the figure in order to make it more legible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3735, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1073, "book_page": 1072, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(ii) Capital equipment such as buildings or machines, unless already integrated in aggregated unit processes of the background system, is excluded. This is common practice in process-based LCA. (iii) Materials contributing to less than 5% of the total mass of the window are cut-off, excepting substances for surface treatment of the window frame, which are expected to be toxic and hence potentially contribute significantly to some impact scores even with much smaller quantities applied. 39.3.2.5 Representativeness of LCI Data Technological representativeness. The manufacturing technology for all four windows, including the elements composing the pane and the frame, should (ideally) represent the technology that is currently used by Nor-win and its primary suppliers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3736, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1074, "book_page": 1073, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This technology is characterised by relatively high efficiency (in terms of material output per day), mainly due to the use of modern (<5 years old) machines and production lines and the employment of relatively new (<7 years old) technological solutions (like those used for impregnating and painting wooden frame, or painting aluminium). Thus, the data for window manufacturing should primarily come from Nor-win and its suppliers. Alternatively, other Scandinavian or European window manufacturers (and European suppliers) that use relatively modern technology can be used as source of data for manufacturing to compensate for missing data. Data for background processes, like extraction of metal ores and production of raw metals, or extraction of fossils, should ideally represent the average technology currently used globally. It is sufficient that this data comes from generic databases. Geographical representativeness. Geographical coverage is similar for all four windows (Table 39.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3737, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1074, "book_page": 1073, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is sufficient that this data comes from generic databases. Geographical representativeness. Geographical coverage is similar for all four windows (Table 39.6). Wood for the frame originates from forest in Finland, while the pane together with the glass is produced in Sweden. Polyvinyl chloride for the PVC window is produced in Germany. Thus, in the absence of Nor-win and supplier-specific data, they should originate from associations and companies located in Europe. End-of-life data should be the average for the main market, which is either Denmark (W, W/ALU and W/C) or Germany (PVC). Temporal representativeness. The data for manufacturing processes should be representative for windows produced from 2015 to 2020, i.e. a 5-year time horizon for window manufacturing (the product development takes about 1 year and is not considered important). The average window lifetime is assumed to be 30 (PVC) or 40 years (W, W/ALU and W/C)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3738, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1074, "book_page": 1073, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The average window lifetime is assumed to be 30 (PVC) or 40 years (W, W/ALU and W/C). However, to comply with the definition of the functional unit, the use stage and end-of-life processes should (ideally) be representative for the 25\u201330 year time horizon, over which the products will be in use or disposed of. Figure 39.3 shows temporal frames of the windows. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3739, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1074, "book_page": 1073, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.2.6 Basis for Impact Assessment ILCD\u2019s recommended practice for characterisation modelling is employed as life cycle impact assessment method (EC-JRC 2012; Hauschild et al. 2013). The ILCD is a combination of state of the art methods for LCIA (as of 2009). Analysis of the sensitivity of the results to alternative LCIA methods was not deemed necessary since the results are for internal use only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3740, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1075, "book_page": 1074, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Analysis of the sensitivity of the results to alternative LCIA methods was not deemed necessary since the results are for internal use only. Modelling impacts at midpoint is considered sufficient given the goal of the study (comparative assessment and Table 39.6 Geographical scope for life cycle stages and central unit processes in the window frames case study Stage Window type Wood Wood/aluminium PVC Wood/composite Materials Metal ores: not known Crude oil: Norway, Russia, Middle East Forestry: Finland \u2013 \u2013 Manufacturing Glass pane: Sweden Wood frame: Scandinavia Wood/aluminium frame: Scandinavia PVC frame: Scandinavia Composite frame: Scandinavia Other elements: mainly Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Other elements: mainly Europe Assembly: Denmark Use (heat supply) Mainly Scandinavia, Germany Mainly Scandinavia, Germany Mainly Germany Mainly Scandinavia Disposal The same as the use stage Development Manufacturing Use Disposal Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3741, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1075, "book_page": 1074, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3 Temporal scope of the W, W/ALU and W/C windows expressed for different life cycle stages. Manufacturing starts in 2015 and continues for 5 years, thus the overall time horizon for the use stage is 5 years longer than the 20-year duration of the use stage for individual window (indicated with a black-white pattern). Similarly, the temporal horizon for the disposal stage may start right after the first window had been produced, and end 2 years after end of the use stage (as indicated with the black-white pattern). The temporal scope for the use and disposal of the PVC window is 10 years shorter compared to the three other windows (not shown). Note that the temporal scope looks at the time horizon of the window life cycle (i.e. 40 years), regardless of the duration considered in the functional unit (in our study equal to 20 years)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3742, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1075, "book_page": 1074, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "identification of hotspots). Normalisation was performed using the set of normalisation references presented for year 2010. The following impact categories are included in the ILCD: climate change (unit: kg CO2 eq.), ozone depletion (kg CFC-11 eq.) photochemical ozone formation (kg NMVOC eq.), terrestrial acidification (AE, accumulated exceedance), terrestrial eutrophication (AE, accumulated exceedance), freshwater eutrophication (kg P eq.), marine eutrophication (kg N eq.), freshwater ecotoxicity (CTUe, comparative toxic unit for ecosystems), ionising radiation (human health, in kBq U235 eq.), particulate matter/(kg PM2.5 eq. to air), human toxicity (cancer effects, in CTUh for human health), human toxicity (non-cancer effects, in CTUh for human health), land use (kg C year), and resource depletion (mineral and fossils, in kg Sb eq.). Product systems were modelled in GaBi, version 4.3 (PE International, Germany; renamed to thinkstep)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3743, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1076, "book_page": 1075, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Product systems were modelled in GaBi, version 4.3 (PE International, Germany; renamed to thinkstep). Because the ILCD LCIA method was not implemented in GaBi at the time of the study, characterisation factors for the ILCD methods (version 1.0.3, 01 March 2012) were downloaded from the Life Cycle website of the European Commission (http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment) and were imported into the software. For those impact categories where ReCiPe 2008 (Goedkoop et al. 2009) is the recommended method (6 categories in total), impact scores were calculated using the original set of ReCiPe (version 1.05) characterisation factors as implemented in GaBi. Normalisation references are for the EU27 in the reference year 2010 as presented in Benini et al. (2014). The LCIA methods and normalisation factors are presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3744, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1076, "book_page": 1075, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Normalisation references are for the EU27 in the reference year 2010 as presented in Benini et al. (2014). The LCIA methods and normalisation factors are presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.1. 39.3.2.7 Requirements for Comparative Studies Although requirements for a comparative study (like quality requirements, exclusion of identical processes and interpretation in light of affected stakeholders) are only applicable to studies reported at level 3 (that is, comparative studies to be disclosed to the public), we note that in our case study comparison has been made using the same functional unit, system boundaries omit common processes only (i.e. window washing), and data quality is the same between the compared windows (e.g. primary data come from manufacturer). Thus, the comparison between the four window systems is fair and requirements for comparative studies are met", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3745, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1076, "book_page": 1075, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "primary data come from manufacturer). Thus, the comparison between the four window systems is fair and requirements for comparative studies are met. The readers should note, however, that although we quantified inventory uncertainties, comparison could not be made taking into account correlation between inventory uncertainties of those inventory processes which are the same for the compared window systems (as will be explained in detail in Sect. 39.3.5). Thus, in some cases there may be statistically significant difference in impact scores between window systems, even if that is not apparent in our analysis. On the other hand, uncertainties in background processes were not considered, which may, at least partially, outweigh a potential decrease in uncertainty due to correlations. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3746, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1076, "book_page": 1075, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.2.8 Critical Review Needs This is a comparative study but since it is not intended for disclosure to the public, there is no obligation for a critical review by a third-party panel. 39.3.3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 39.3.3.1 LCI Model at System Level Flow diagrams show the product systems of the four windows in Figs. 39.4, 39.5, 39.6 and 39.7. Comparison between the flow diagrams shows that many processes are the same for the four windows (e.g. mining of silica and production of glass, or mining of iron and production of chromium steel). Yet, magnitude of flows often varies between the systems (not shown). Extraction of crude oil Extraction of bauxite Refining Chemicals & polymers Forestry Production of aluminium Aluminium parts Production of wood Wooden parts Mining of silica Mining of iron Surface treatment Production of chrom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3747, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1077, "book_page": 1076, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "steel Steel parts Production of glass Extraction of argon Window frame Window assembly Use (heat loss & maintenance) Dissasembly Recycling of glass Recycling of aluminium Recycling of steel Landfilling Incineration Window pane Heat and power Glass cullets Steel billet Aluminium ingot Packaging Production of cardboard foreground processes background processes Fig. 39.4 Product system of the wood window (W). Red line indicates foreground processes. Grey boxes indicate avoided processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3748, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1077, "book_page": 1076, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.3.2 Data Collection Data used to model life cycle inventories for the foreground systems were collected from two sources: (i) Nor-win, who provided primary data related mainly to energy use in the manufacturing and bills of materials and (ii) ecoinvent and Plastics Europe databases for foreground processes where primary data could not be achieved (PlasticsEurope Database 2016; Ecoinvent 2010). The primary data from Nor-win meet the quality requirements given in Sect. 39.3.5. The data are synthesised in Table 39.7. 39.3.3.3 System Modelling Per Life Cycle Stage Below, we present details of the system modelling, the data collected and treatment, and major assumptions. The full list of major and minor assumptions is given in the report Annex, Sect. 39.4.3. Materials stage. Bills of activities required to produce one window are given in Table 39.7, with details on the bill of materials presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2 (Table 39.12)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3749, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1078, "book_page": 1077, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.3. Materials stage. Bills of activities required to produce one window are given in Table 39.7, with details on the bill of materials presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2 (Table 39.12). Amounts of materials in each window are provided by Nor-win. Extraction of crude oil Extraction of bauxite Refining Chemicals & polymers Forestry Production of aluminium Aluminium parts Production of wood Wooden parts Mining of silica Mining of iron Surface treatment Production of chrom. steel Steel parts Production of glass Extraction of argon Window frame Window assembly Use (heat loss) Dissasembly Recycling of glass Recycling of aluminium Recycling of steel Landfilling Incineration Window pane Packaging Production of cardboard Heat and power Glass cullets Steel billet Aluminium ingot foreground processes background processes Fig. 39.5 Product system of the wood/aluminium window (W/ALU). Red line indicates foreground processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3750, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1078, "book_page": 1077, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.5 Product system of the wood/aluminium window (W/ALU). Red line indicates foreground processes. Grey boxes indicate avoided processes Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3751, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1078, "book_page": 1077, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Data for W, W/ALU and PVC windows are precise, because these windows are already on the market and detailed information is available. Data for the W/C window are considered sufficiently accurate to be used in modelling, because the prototype of the window has been produced. Note that based on the outcome of this study, the W/C window may be redesigned, bringing about a change in amounts of some materials in which case the LCA may have to be updated with the new numbers. It is not expected that this change will be higher than 5% for any window frame material. No major assumptions were made for the materials stage. Manufacturing stage. Data on electricity use for production come from measurements of the actual processes and are provided by Nor-win. These data are of high quality and are considered certain. Data on electricity requirements for assembly of the W/C window frame are less certain, and are initial estimates provided by Nor-win", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3752, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1079, "book_page": 1078, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "These data are of high quality and are considered certain. Data on electricity requirements for assembly of the W/C window frame are less certain, and are initial estimates provided by Nor-win. The three major assumptions made in the production stage are (i) losses of materials during production are not considered, (ii) energy used for operation of the manufacturing and window disassembly facilities for the W/C window is assumed equal to numbers for other windows, and (iii) energy requirements for window disassembly are assumed equal to 1 MJ per 1 kg of dismounted window. Extraction of crude oil Extraction of bauxite Refining Chemicals & polymers Production of aluminium Aluminium parts Mining of silica Mining of iron Production of chrom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3753, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1079, "book_page": 1078, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Extraction of crude oil Extraction of bauxite Refining Chemicals & polymers Production of aluminium Aluminium parts Mining of silica Mining of iron Production of chrom. steel Steel parts Production of glass Extraction of argon Window frame Window assembly Use (heat loss) Dissasembly Recycling of glass Recycling of aluminium Recycling of steel Landfilling Incineration Window pane Packaging Production of cardboard Production of galv. steel Production of zinc PCV profiles Recycling of PVC PVC granulate mix Forestry Production of wood Heat and power Glass cullets Steel billet Aluminium ingot foreground processes background processes Fig. 39.6 Product system of the polyvinyl chloride window (PVC). Red line indicates foreground processes. Grey boxes indicate avoided processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3754, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1079, "book_page": 1078, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Use stage. Data on heat use during the use stage are calculated using the U-values and average temperature difference between outdoor and indoor environment (Table 39.7). Several assumptions were made for the use stage. First, we modelled the heat loss based on the annual average temperatures indoor and outdoor, without considering the temperature dynamics during the year. Second, we assumed that there is no shift in the source of heat (e.g. towards wind-driven electricity) over the lifetime of the window. Third, we assumed that the windows are used only in buildings to which heat is provided by district heating. In Denmark, district heating was estimated to deliver 55% of the total heat demand for buildings in 2010 (Dyrelund and Lund 2009)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3755, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1080, "book_page": 1079, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In Denmark, district heating was estimated to deliver 55% of the total heat demand for buildings in 2010 (Dyrelund and Lund 2009). Fourth, processes used to model the district heat mix technologies were representative for Switzerland, or were based on European processes for the generation of heat from the sources included in the study, as no Danish processes were available in ecoinvent 2.2. The fifth assumption is that processes for generation of heat from incineration of straw and non-renewable waste in the Danish heat mix were modelled as incineration of bio-waste, while heat generation from biomass in the EU27 heat mix was modelled as incineration of bio-waste combined with combustion of wood pellets (50:50). Disposal stage. Waste treatment options are based on the data retrieved from Eurostat (2016). Glass, aluminium and steel are mainly recycled, and wood is Fig. 39.7 Product system of the wood/composite window (W/C). Red line indicates foreground processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3756, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1080, "book_page": 1079, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Glass, aluminium and steel are mainly recycled, and wood is Fig. 39.7 Product system of the wood/composite window (W/C). Red line indicates foreground processes. Grey boxes indicate avoided processes Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3757, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1080, "book_page": 1079, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.7 Metadata including model parameters and data sources for foreground processes for the four window alternatives Parameter Value Unit Note Source W W/ALU PVC W/C Materials Frame materials See Annex, Sect. 39.4.2, Table 39.12 kg In addition to materials presented in Table 39.12, other materials used to produce the frames include acrylic binder, triethylene glycol and wood preservative which are used in small amounts (<1% of total frame mass). Bills of materials are retrieved from the producer Measured Pane materials See Annex, Sect. 39.4.2, Table 39.12 kg In addition to materials presented in Table 39.12, synthetic rubber (ethylene propylene diene monomer, EDPM is used in smaller amounts (<2\u20136% of total pane mass). Bills of materials are retrieved from the producer Measured Thickness of glass underlying window pane mm Nominal thickness as provided by the producer Measured Packaging See Annex, Sect. 39.4.2, Table 39.12 kg Packaging is made of polyethylene and recycled cardboard", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3758, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1081, "book_page": 1080, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bills of materials are retrieved from the producer and are presented in Table 39.12 Measured Manufacturing Electricity for production of window frame MJ The data come from measurements of the actual processes and are provided by the producer, apart from the W/C window for which the producer assumed that electricity required for assembly of the frame for the W/C window is 2 times higher than for the W window Measured or assumed Electricity for production of window pane MJ The data come from measurements of the actual processes and are provided by the producer Measured Electricity for mounting window frame and window pane into a window (MJ) MJ The data come from measurements of the actual processes and are provided by the producer, apart from the W/C window for which the producer assumed that electricity required for mounting of thee W/C window is 1.3 times higher than for the W window Measured or assumed (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3759, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1081, "book_page": 1080, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.7 (continued) Parameter Value Unit Note Source W W/ALU PVC W/C Electricity for operation of the manufacturing facility MJ The data is provided by the producer for the plant and is scaled to one window basing on the electricity bills and production capacity while taking into account electricity used for production and mounting Measured Heat demand Heat loss per year MJ/year Heat loss is directly proportional to the U-value and the window area and to the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor environment, and is calculated using the formula Ut 1\u20444 U \u0001 A \u0001 hi \u0004 he \u00f0 \u00de where Ut [W] is the heat loss, U [W m\u22122 K\u22121] is the U-value, A [m2] is the heat exchange area; hi is the indoor temperature (K), and he is the outdoor temperature (K) Calculated Indoor temperature \u00b0C Annual average indoor temperature in residential buildings Assumed Outdoor temperature 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.7 \u00b0C Annual average outdoor temperature in Denmark, calculated based on the temperature data retrieved for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3760, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1082, "book_page": 1081, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "indoor temperature in residential buildings Assumed Outdoor temperature 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.7 \u00b0C Annual average outdoor temperature in Denmark, calculated based on the temperature data retrieved for year 2014 from DMI (2016) Calculated Maintenance of window Painting needed for painting of 1 window 0.6 kg Approximately 1 L of paint is needed for a window frame area of 1 m2 (based on data from a single paint producer) Assumed Transportation distances and means Elements composing window frame and window pane km Distance between suppliers of elements underlying window frame and windowpane and location of the producer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3761, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1082, "book_page": 1081, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Calculated using Google maps. Transport by truck 34\u201340 t, EURO4 Calculated (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3762, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1082, "book_page": 1081, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.7 (continued) Parameter Value Unit Note Source W W/ALU PVC W/C Window from producer to warehouse km Distance between producer and warehouse. Calculated using Google maps. Transport by truck 34\u201340 t, EURO4 Calculated Window from warehouse to residential building km Distance between the warehouse and residential building including retail. The location of final user is unknown and distance had to be assumed. Transport by truck 12\u201314 t, EURO3 Assumed Window from residential building to disposal/ recycling site km Distance between the residential building and disposal/ recycling site. The locations are unknown and thus the distance had to be assumed. Transport by truck 12\u201314 t, EURO3 Assumed Packaging from residential building to the disposal site km Distance between the warehouse and residential building including retail. The location of final user is unknown and distance had to be assumed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3763, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1083, "book_page": 1082, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The location of final user is unknown and distance had to be assumed. Transport by truck 12\u201314 t, EURO3 Assumed Disassembly and disposal Electricity for disassembly of window MJ It is assumed that electricity consumption is equal to 1 MJ per 1 kg of dismounted window Assumed Waste treatment options See Sect. 39.4.2, Table 39.13 % Disposal according to the Danish waste policy (Eurostat 2016). Treatment rates are presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2, Table 39.12 Measured Wood (W), wood/aluminium (W/ALU), PVC or wood/composite (W/C) Note that the values are scaled to one window used for one year, not to the functional unit of the window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3764, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1083, "book_page": 1082, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "incinerated. Other materials are mainly incinerated, or landfilled. PVC is technically recyclable but not to the extent as for other plastics (30%). The remaining part of PVC is landfilled. The composite (glass fibre/polyamide) is technically difficult to recycle, and is assumed 100% incinerated. Details of end-of-life options are presented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2 (Table 39.13). The two major assumptions are (i) all recycled materials replace virgin materials in the market, i.e. glass cullets, aluminium ingot, steel billet, and PVC granulate mix, at a 1:1 ratio, i.e. without considering any loss of material functionality in the recycling; and (ii) although the wood-based windows are sold mainly in Scandinavian countries and Germany, the use and disposal stages for all windows are modelled using data from processes representative for Denmark, e.g. Danish heating and electricity mixes and waste management systems. Transportation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3765, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1084, "book_page": 1083, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Danish heating and electricity mixes and waste management systems. Transportation. Transportation distances and means are either provided by Nor-win or assumed. The data provided by Nor-win are considered sufficiently accurate, whereas the assumed data are considered uncertain. 39.3.3.4 Basis for Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses To test the influence of the assumptions made on the results of the LCA, sensitivity analyses were performed, followed by uncertainty and variability analyses. Sensitivity analyses. First, to identify which of the parameters influence impact scores the most, and to provide a basis for uncertainty and variability analysis, we calculated normalised sensitivity coefficients (XIS,k), according to Eq. 39.1 (e.g. Prommer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3766, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1084, "book_page": 1083, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.1 (e.g. Prommer et al. 2006): XIS;k 1\u20444 DIS=IS Dak=ak \u00f039:1\u00de where XIS,k is the normalised sensitivity coefficient of impact score (IS) for perturbance of a parameter k, ak is the default value of parameter k, Dak is the perturbation of parameter ak, IS is the calculated impact score for parameter value ak, and DIS is the change of the impact score that results from the perturbation of parameter ak. The following parameters were tested: amount of wood, aluminium, steel composite (W/C window only), and PVC (PVC window only) in the window frame, the amount of glass in the pane, amount of paint for manufacturing, electricity needed for assembly, U-value, and transportation distance from Nor-win to retailers. All input parameters were perturbed by 10%, which is a realistic range around the expected values. XIS,k equal to 1 means that a 10% increase in parameter value brings about a 10% increase in the impact score", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3767, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1084, "book_page": 1083, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "XIS,k equal to 1 means that a 10% increase in parameter value brings about a 10% increase in the impact score. Generally, a parameter is considered to have medium sensitivity if XIS,k > 0.3, and large sensitivity if XIS, k > 0.5. In this study, a parameter is considered important when XIS,k > 0.3. Second, in addition to testing sensitivity to individual parameters through computation of normalised sensitivity coefficients, perturbing each parameter at once, a separate sensitivity check was done, where several parameters expected to Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3768, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1084, "book_page": 1083, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "be important were perturbed at once. The overview of the two sensitivity scenarios considered is given in Table 39.8. Scenario 1 reflects a situation where the window is used by an average European residence rather than a Danish residence. Scenario 2 reflects the situation where a 3-layered windowpane is used instead of a 2-layered one, which improves insulation properties of the whole window (without any considerable influence on visible light transmission properties). This scenario was included to identify potential for improvements of existing and new windows. Note, that over the coming 20 years we may see a shift in the heat source (e.g. towards wind-driven electricity) but it is uncertain to what extent these will become effective within the time frame of the study (25\u201330 years). On the other hand, we may also witness the development of cleaner manufacturing and waste management technologies in 20 years (which is also uncertain)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3769, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1085, "book_page": 1084, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, we may also witness the development of cleaner manufacturing and waste management technologies in 20 years (which is also uncertain). Thus, the potential change in heat mix and change in manufacturing and waste management systems were not considered in the sensitivity analysis. Uncertainty and variability analysis. Parameter uncertainties stem from the imprecision in knowledge about the actual value of a parameter, e.g. electricity use during window assembly. By contrast, variability is the inherent variance that will exist between similar processes depending on technological level and spatial location, e.g. transportation distance from factory to retail Steinmann et al. (2014)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3770, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1085, "book_page": 1084, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "transportation distance from factory to retail Steinmann et al. (2014). Table 39.8 Sensitivity scenarios and corresponding model parameters Sensitivity parameters Baseline scenario Sensitivity scenario Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Use locationa DK EU27 DK Disposal routeb,e Heat mixc,f Electricity mixd,g Pane design 2-layered 2-layered 3-layeredh aDK Denmark; EU27 European Union\u2019s 27 member states bPlease see Annex, Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3771, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1085, "book_page": 1084, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.2 (Table 39.13) for details of end-of-life options in DK and EU27 cDanish heating mix in 2010 was based on: natural gas (24%), coal (23%), straw (8%), wood chips (12%), wood pellets (10%), non-renewable waste (17%), oil (2%), and other sources (4%) (Energynet 2012) dDanish electricity mix in 2010 as based on: hard coal (36%), natural gas (14%), wind power (15%), oil (2%), import from Sweden (14%), Norway (10%), Germany (3%), and other sources (6%) (Ecoinvent 2010) eCompared to Danish disposal routes the EU27 disposal routes in 2010 is characterised by lower frequency of recycling and/or incineration, and increased frequency of landfilling (Eurostat 2016). The disposal options are summarised in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2 (Table 39.13) fEU27 heat mix in 2010 was based on: natural gas (57%), oil (21%), biomass (13%), and coal (9%) (Connolly et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3772, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1085, "book_page": 1084, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The disposal options are summarised in Annex, Sect. 39.4.2 (Table 39.13) fEU27 heat mix in 2010 was based on: natural gas (57%), oil (21%), biomass (13%), and coal (9%) (Connolly et al. 2012) gEU27 electricity mix was 2010 is based on: nuclear power (28%), coal and peat (27%), natural gas (27%), hydropower (11%), wind power (4%), oil (3%), biofuels (3%), and non-renewable waste (7%) (Ecoinvent 2010) h3-layered windows have improved insulation properties thanks to smaller U-values, which were reduced by 25% for the W, W/ALU, and PVC windows, and by 30% for the W/C window", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3773, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1085, "book_page": 1084, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Here, parameter uncertainty was assessed together with variability by means of a Monte Carlo simulation. Only parameters that were found important (XIS,k > 0.3) in the sensitivity analysis, for any of the considered impact categories for either window design option, were considered. In total, four parameters where considered (Table 39.9). They were assigned relative standard deviations derived from the expected range of parameter values. The uncertainty ranges and number of uncertain parameters is higher for the W/C window, because this window is still in under development and very accurate bills of materials and performance parameters (U-value) are not known. We assumed normal distributions of all parameters mainly because this is one of two types of distribution implemented in our version of the software, GaBi v. 4.3 (the other being equal distribution). Other distribution types (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3774, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1086, "book_page": 1085, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.3 (the other being equal distribution). Other distribution types (e.g. lognormal) can be used if found more appropriate, provided that such is possible in the modelling software employed. Uncertainties in the background processes were not considered as they were not known and the unit process database did not include them at the time of the study. Differences in impact scores between the compared systems were considered significant if the calculated 95% probability ranges of the impact scores from 1000 iterations did not overlap. Although not deemed necessary in this case study, all other flows and parameters could be ascribed to standard deviations, supporting a more comprehensive uncertainty analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3775, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1086, "book_page": 1085, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although not deemed necessary in this case study, all other flows and parameters could be ascribed to standard deviations, supporting a more comprehensive uncertainty analysis. In such cases, standard deviations for each flow in foreground Table 39.9 Uncertain or variable parameters included in the Monte Carlo simulation and the associated relative standard deviation, expressed in percentage Uncertain or variable parameter Mean (relative standard deviation)a W W/ALU PVC W/C Amount of wood in the frameb 30 (1%) 9.2 (1%) 0 (0%) 9.2 (2.5%) Amount of steel in the frameb 0.5 (1%) 1.2 (1%) 15.1 (1%) 1.2 (2.5%) Amount of glass in the panec 56 (0.5%) 56 (0.5%) 56 (0.5%) 56 (0.5%) U-value of the windowd 1.29 (1.5%) 1.31 (1.5%) 1.36 (1.5%) 1.08 (3%) aRelative standard deviation (also known as coefficient of variation, CV) is equal to sample standard deviation divided by sample mean, expressed in percentage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3776, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1086, "book_page": 1085, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Sample standard deviation was estimated using an empirical rule that the sample standard deviation is equal to one fourth of the whole parameter range (equal to the difference between maximum and minimum value) bChange in amounts of wood and steel in the frame depend mainly on losses in the production, and are expected to be maximum 2% for W, W/ALU and PVC windows, and 5% for the W/C window, because of the ongoing development of the latter. These values are realistic values provided by Nor-win based on the information retrieved from suppliers CChange in the amount of glass is expected to be by maximum 1%. Again, this value was provided by Nor-win dAlthough the U-value is considered as an inherent property of a window, the actual amount of heat exchanged depends on other factors, like the quality of the work during window installation, type and quality of insulation used to install the window in the wall, or type and properties of walls", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3777, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1086, "book_page": 1085, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "To account for this variability, a maximum change in the U-value of 3% was used for W, W/ALU and PVC windows, based on the information from Nor-win. For the W/C window, 6% was used to calculate minimum and maximum U-values (again, because it is ongoing product development) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3778, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1086, "book_page": 1085, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "processes could be computed using the Pedigree matrix approach (Ciroth 2013). Uncertainties in the background processes should be considered based on standard deviations already assigned to flows in processes of the considered unit process database. Newer versions of the database offer such features. The calculated probability ranges represent the modelled inventory uncertainty, but we did not account for covariation between processes that occur in some or all of the compared window systems (e.g. production of heat for the use stage), leading to correlations between uncertainties of those inventory processes. The employed modelling software (GaBi v. 4.3) did not allow taking this into account, but it would have reduced the uncertainty in comparison between the systems (see Sect. 11.4.2). Thus, in some cases there may be statistically significant difference in impact scores, even though that is not revealed by our analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3779, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1087, "book_page": 1086, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "11.4.2). Thus, in some cases there may be statistically significant difference in impact scores, even though that is not revealed by our analysis. On the other hand, uncertainties in background processes were also not considered in our case study, which would increase the uncertainty in the results and may, to some extent, counterbalance this effect. In addition, the characterisation and normalisation factors applied in the impact assessment are accompanied by uncertainties but these were not known to us and we were therefore unable to take them into account in our uncertainty analysis. They are expected to be equal to or higher than the inventory uncertainties. 39.3.3.5 Calculated LCI Results Unit processes and life cycle inventories showing elementary flows for each window product system are documented in Annex, Sect. 39.4.4 (Tables 39.15, 39.16, 39.17, 39.18, 39.19, 39.20, 39.21, 39.22, 39.23, 39.24, 39.25, 39.26, 39.27, 39.28, 39.29, 39.30, 39.31, 39.32, 39.33 and 39.34)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3780, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1087, "book_page": 1086, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.4 (Tables 39.15, 39.16, 39.17, 39.18, 39.19, 39.20, 39.21, 39.22, 39.23, 39.24, 39.25, 39.26, 39.27, 39.28, 39.29, 39.30, 39.31, 39.32, 39.33 and 39.34). 39.3.4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Characterised results. The life cycle impacts are listed in characterised form in Table 39.10. All four window alternatives have impacts within the same order of magnitude. For most impact categories the impact scores follow the order W/C < W = W/ALU < PVC. Ranking of window systems normalised internally to the W window (equal to 100% of impact) is presented in Fig. 39.8. The W/C window has the lowest environmental impact in all 14 impact categories, while the PVC window system has the highest impact scores for 11 impact categories. For these 11 impact categories, the differences in impact scores between the W/C and PVC windows are statistically significant (the calculated 95% probability ranges of the impact scores do not overlap)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3781, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1087, "book_page": 1086, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The PVC window performs better in land use impacts with a significantly lower impact compared to the W and W/ALU window systems, but still slightly higher compared to the W/C window system. By contrast, the W window system performs significantly worse than the other window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3782, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1087, "book_page": 1086, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.10 Characterised impacts and accompanying 95% probability ranges from Monte Carlo simulations for each window alternative Impact category Unit Impact score (95% probability range) W W/ALU PVC W/C Climate change kg CO2 eq. 1162 (1134\u20131189) 1158 (1129\u20131188) 1232 (1203\u20131260) 978 (933\u20131023) Stratospheric ozone depletion kg CFC-11 eq. 1.9e\u22125 (1.8e\u22125\u20131.9e.5) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.6e\u22125) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.6e\u22125) 1.4e\u22125 (1.4e\u22125\u20131.4e\u22125) Photochemical ozone formation kg NMVOC eq. 1.59 (1.55\u20131.63) 1.57 (1.53\u20131.61) 1.72 (1.67\u20131.76) 1.33 (1.26\u20131.4) Terrestrial acidification AE 2.00 (1.95\u20132.04) 2.00 (1.95\u20132.05) 2.31 (2.26\u20132.36) 1.67 (1.6\u20131.75) Terrestrial eutrophication AE 7.14 (6.94\u20137.35) 7.04 (6.83\u20137.24) 7.79 (7.56\u20138.02) 5.96 (5.61\u20136.32) Freshwater eutrophication kg P eq. 0.042 (0.041\u20130.043) 0.043 (0.041\u20130.044) 0.046 (0.044\u20130.047) 0.035 (0.033\u20130.037) Marine eutrophication kg N eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3783, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1088, "book_page": 1087, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "0.042 (0.041\u20130.043) 0.043 (0.041\u20130.044) 0.046 (0.044\u20130.047) 0.035 (0.033\u20130.037) Marine eutrophication kg N eq. 0.65 (0.63\u20130.67) 0.62 (0.60\u20130.64) 0.68 (0.66\u20130.7) 0.54 (0.51\u20130.57) Freshwater ecotoxicity CTUe 2675 (2605\u20132745) 1755 (1706\u20131805) 1852 (1809\u20131895) 1545 (1461\u20131630) Human toxicity (cancer) CTUh 2e\u22125 (1.9e\u22125\u20132e\u22125) 1.8e\u22125 (1.8e\u22125\u20131.9e\u22125) 3.4e\u22125 (3.3e\u22125\u20133.5e\u22125) 1.6e\u22125 (1.5e\u22125\u20131.7e\u22125) Human toxicity (non-cancer) CTUh 1.5e\u22124 (1.5e\u22124\u20131.6e\u22124) 1.3e\u22124 (1.2e\u22124\u20131.3e\u22124) 1.3e\u22124 (1.3e\u22124\u20131.3e\u22124) 1.0e\u22124 (9.9e\u22125\u20131.1e\u22124) Particulate matter formation kg PM2.5 eq. to air 0.085 (0.083\u20130.087) 0.082 (0.080\u20130.084) 0.116 (0.114\u20130.119) 0.070 (0.067\u20130.073) Ionising radiation (human health) kBq U235 eq. 7.69 (7.56\u20137.81) 7.99 (7.86\u20138.12) 8.63 (8.49\u20138.77) 6.26 (6.07\u20136.45) Land use kg C year 657 (646\u2013668) 405 (399\u2013410) 386 (384\u2013387) 364 (351\u2013377) Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) kg Sb eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3784, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1088, "book_page": 1087, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "7.69 (7.56\u20137.81) 7.99 (7.86\u20138.12) 8.63 (8.49\u20138.77) 6.26 (6.07\u20136.45) Land use kg C year 657 (646\u2013668) 405 (399\u2013410) 386 (384\u2013387) 364 (351\u2013377) Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) kg Sb eq. 0.0072 (0.0070\u20130.0073) 0.0074 (0.0072\u20130.0076) 0.0081 (0.0080\u20130.0083) 0.0063 (0.0060\u20130.0066) W/ALU Wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3785, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1088, "book_page": 1087, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for the impact categories freshwater ecotoxicity, human toxicity (non-cancer), stratospheric ozone depletion, and land use. The W and W/ALU window systems rank as second or third for 10 out of 14 impact categories, but for these alternatives, differences between impact scores are only statistically significant in the ionising radiation impact category. Normalised results. Figure 39.9 shows the normalised results. The common unit for indicator scores is person equivalents (pe) representing the annual impact of an average person in the European Union (EU27) in 2010. For nearly all the non-toxicity impact categories, like climate change, the life cycle impacts of the four windows correspond to approximately 10% of the total annual average impacts of an average EU27 citizen in the year 2010. Much smaller normalised impact scores are seen for stratospheric ozone depletion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3786, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1089, "book_page": 1088, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Much smaller normalised impact scores are seen for stratospheric ozone depletion. Normalised results are somewhat higher for freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity impact categories (scoring up to 1 PE for cancer effects), but are smaller for respiratory effects and ionising radiation impacts on human health (around or below 0.1 PE). Normalised impact scores are the highest for human toxicity (cancer), equal to ca. 0.5 PE, but are small for land use (below 0.001 PE). 39.3.5 Interpretation Before providing final recommendations to the commissioner of the study, it is necessary to interpret the results of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3787, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1089, "book_page": 1088, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.5 Interpretation Before providing final recommendations to the commissioner of the study, it is necessary to interpret the results of the LCA. Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score W W/ALU PVC W/C Fig. 39.8 Ranking of the four window options with impact scores scaled to those of the W window (equal to 100% of total impact). Whiskers represent inventory uncertainty stemming from uncertainty and variability in model parameters presented in Table 39.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3788, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1089, "book_page": 1088, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.5.1 Significant Issues Process contribution analysis. To explain differences in window ranking and identify hot spots, a process contribution analysis was conducted, i.e. identifying the processes with the largest environmental burden. Figure 39.10 shows that the main driver of environmental impacts is the production of residential heating to compensate for heat losses through the window. The contribution of this process to total impact is around 90% for climate change, freshwater eutrophication, or resource depletion, and is above 50% for most other impact categories (apart from ozone depletion and ionising radiation, where the contribution is smaller). This trend is consistent across all four window systems. Across all window systems, climate change impacts from the use stage due to combustion of fossil coal and natural gas, which constitute 25 and 31% of total Danish heating mix, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3789, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1090, "book_page": 1089, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Across all window systems, climate change impacts from the use stage due to combustion of fossil coal and natural gas, which constitute 25 and 31% of total Danish heating mix, respectively. The use of fossil fuels in the use stage is also the major driver of impacts related to depletion of resources. For other impact categories where the use stage is important (>50% of total impact score), however, the major driver of environmental impact is the use of other fuels like wood, straw and bio-waste. These processes are important for the impact categories terrestrial and freshwater eutrophication, and all the toxicity related impact categories. Although the use stage is the main driver for the above-mentioned impact categories, for some impact categories the differences between window systems can sometimes be attributed to differences in material composition of the window", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3790, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1090, "book_page": 1089, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The manufacturing stage is important (>50% of total impacts) for impacts on Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) Normalized impact score (PE) 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 W W/ALU PVC WC Fig. 39.9 Normalised impacts and accompanying 95% confidence intervals (log10-scale) in person equivalents (pe) for each window system (W wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite). Whiskers represent inventory uncertainty stemming from uncertainty and variability in model parameters presented in Table 39.8 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3791, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1090, "book_page": 1089, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "stratospheric ozone depletion, and ionising radiation (human health) across all windows, and for impacts on freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity. In addition, the manufacturing processes overall contribute to impacts on land use (around 40% of total impact) and to some extent also to the remaining impact categories (with contributions from 10 to 30%), reflecting that the materials used in the windows are considered part of the manufacturing stage. Substantial contribution to land use impacts in the W window is thus from the production of glue laminated timber. Impacts in these categories are also caused by production of alkyd paint (18 and 13% of total impact, respectively). In addition, the alkyd paint shows contribution of the same order of magnitude for four other impact categories, i.e. aquatic acidification, ionising radiation, ozone layer depletion and photochemical ozone formation. For the W/ALU window system, considerable impacts are caused by production of aluminium", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3792, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1091, "book_page": 1090, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "aquatic acidification, ionising radiation, ozone layer depletion and photochemical ozone formation. For the W/ALU window system, considerable impacts are caused by production of aluminium. This process contributes substantially to terrestrial acidification and stratospheric ozone depletion (20\u201323% of total impacts)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3793, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1091, "book_page": 1090, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note that the introduction of aluminium has negative influence on the window performance in those impact categories that are determined by the use stage, because insulating % of total impact score -100 -50 Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score -100 -50 Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) Materials and manufacturing Transport", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3794, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1091, "book_page": 1090, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) Materials and manufacturing Transport Use Disposal W PVC W/C W/ALU Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3795, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1091, "book_page": 1090, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.10 Contribution of individual life cycle stages to total impact for each impact category for the four window systems (W wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3796, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1091, "book_page": 1090, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "properties are slightly worse than for the W window. Yet, the overall differences in impact scores are not statistically significant. Environmental impacts in the PVC window system in the manufacturing stage originate mainly from the PVC injection moulding process and production of steel. Injection moulding contributes substantially to impacts on human health (42 and 34% for carcinogens and non-carcinogens, respectively) while 94% of total impacts on mineral depletion is caused by the need for chromium; this, however, is not apparent in Fig. 39.10 because the resource depletion impact category is driven by the use of fossils. Given that insulation properties of the PVC window are not improved when PVC and steel are used in the window frame (they even decrease), the PVC window performs the worst among considered alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3797, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1092, "book_page": 1091, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "An exception is an impact on land use, in which the PVC windows performs nearly as good as the best W/C window, which is mainly due to no use of wood in the PVC window. For the W/C window, the composite contributes to some extent (up to 12%) to some impact categories, but environmental benefits are obtained due to improved insulation properties. Across all windows, production of flat glass is a considerable contributor (>25% of total impact) to impacts on ionising radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and respiratory effects. In addition, silicone used as insulating material in the pane contributes substantially to ionising radiation and ozone layer depletion (15 and 32%, respectively). The disposal stage is less important across all windows and impact categories, with contribution from 1 to 20% of the total impacts, depending on the impact category. Benefits are mainly due to recycling of materials, like aluminium in the W/ALU window system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3798, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1092, "book_page": 1091, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Benefits are mainly due to recycling of materials, like aluminium in the W/ALU window system. Transportation is not seen as substantial for any impact category, irrespective of the window system. Substance contribution analysis. To provide further insights into the causes of environmental impacts from the window product systems, the contribution analysis was also conducted at the level of elementary flows, identifying the individual substances that cause the largest environmental burden. The analysis was carried out for the W window system only, because for most impact categories the drivers of environmental impacts are expected to the same across windows. However, differences in contributing substances between the W window and the alternative design options are also discussed, when found important for the interpretation of results. Climate change impacts are mainly driven by emissions of CO2, which contributes to 99% of the total impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3799, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1092, "book_page": 1091, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Climate change impacts are mainly driven by emissions of CO2, which contributes to 99% of the total impacts. This contribution is mainly due to emissions from processes associated with generation of heat. Emissions of other substances from the generation of heat drive impact scores for several other impact categories. Potential impacts of photochemical ozone formation on human health are mainly due to emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which account for 95% of the total impact. Note, that the current implementation of characterisation factors into the modelling software employed omits potential contribution from unspecified emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), which are also reported in life cycle inventories (see Annex, Sect. 39.4.4, Table 39.34) and would be expected to contribute to photochemical ozone formation. Ammonia (NH3), Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3800, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1092, "book_page": 1091, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are the substances that dominate the acidification and eutrophication impacts in terrestrial ecosystems, whereas eutrophication impacts in freshwater and marine ecosystems are mainly due to emissions of NOx and phosphorus (P). By contrast, toxic impacts in freshwater ecosystems are dominated by emissions of metals (again, stemming mainly from processes associated with generation of heat), namely zinc (II) and copper (II). For all window systems except the PVC system, the use stage is also the main contributor to the human health impact categories (carcinogens and non-carcinogens). Again, production of heat from incineration of fossil fuels and biomass, and the associated emissions of metals, are the major contributors to human health impacts; arsenic (V) and zinc (II) emitted to freshwater drive toxic impact scores for non-cancer effects, while chromium (VI) emitted to freshwater is the major driver of cancer effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3801, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1093, "book_page": 1092, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "By contrast, for the PVC window, human health impacts (cancer and non-cancer effects) are mainly driven by substances associated with production of steel in the manufacturing stage. Potential impacts on depletion of resources also vary between windows when only mineral resources are considered (e.g. impacts of the PVC window are dominated by the need for chromium in production of the PVC window frame), but altogether (combining impact scores from depletion of fossils and minerals) this impact category is dominated by the depletion of fossils. 39.3.5.2 Sensitivity and Uncertainty Checks The assumptions and choices that had to be made when modelling window systems can potentially influence conclusions from the study and they were systematically compiled in Table 39.14 of the Annex, Sect. 39.4.3. To determine the extent of this potential influence, we first identified individual parameters that are important for the results. Annex, Sect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3802, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1093, "book_page": 1092, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.3. To determine the extent of this potential influence, we first identified individual parameters that are important for the results. Annex, Sect. 39.4.5, Tables 39.35, 39.36, 39.37, and 39.38 gives details of normalised sensitivity coefficients. Next, we compared the baseline and the two sensitivity scenarios with all uncertain parameters perturbed at once. Thereby, we found that many of the assumptions presented in Table 39.34 did not influence the results in terms of ranking or identification of hot spots to the extent that would change our conclusions. The influence of heat loss. The parameters involved in the modelling of the heat loss compensation are important because their uncertainty can potentially change the results of the comparative part of the LCA (which window performs best?) and the results of the weak point analysis (what are the most environmentally harmful parts of the product life cycle?)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3803, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1093, "book_page": 1092, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Such parameters are the modelled heat loss, the assumed heat mix, the LCI processes used to model the heat mix technologies and the relevant characterisation factors and normalisation references involved in the impact assessment. This was confirmed in sensitivity and uncertainty analyses; impact scores are the most sensitive to the U-value of the window, and furthermore this parameter is the dominant driver of difference in impact scores between the compared window systems. Indeed the differences in impact scores between W and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3804, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1093, "book_page": 1092, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "W/ALU windows are in most cases are not statistically significant when uncertainties in U-values are considered. The assumption about using average indoor and outdoor temperatures when calculating the heat loss was not tested in the sensitivity analysis but is not expected to change our conclusions about which window performs best as heat loss is a linear function of the temperature difference. Similarly, it would not change our conclusion about hot spots; if higher temperature difference was considered (e.g. corresponding to winter temperatures), the contribution of heat to total impact scores would increase due to higher demand for heat. The influence of materials and production. Out of all assumptions in the materials and production stages, the most important one is about modelling of chromium steel and galvanised steel using the same processes (for chromium steel)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3805, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1094, "book_page": 1093, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Out of all assumptions in the materials and production stages, the most important one is about modelling of chromium steel and galvanised steel using the same processes (for chromium steel). This assumption may influence impact scores in human health (cancer effects) and freshwater ecotoxicity, where impact scores might be overestimated (because production of chromium steel is associated with toxic emissions of chromium (VI). In contrast, impacts in human health (non-cancer effects) are expected to increase if process for galvanised steel had been used, due to expected increase in emissions of toxic zinc (II). The contribution of electricity requirements in window manufacturing and disassembly is for most impact categories too small to influence our comparison, and the same is the case for assumptions on transportation distances in these life cycle stages", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3806, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1094, "book_page": 1093, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The exclusion of painting activity (but not production of paint) is also not expected to be important for the result, because impacts are mainly expected to stem from transportation of paint from retailer to the housing (which is small relative to other impacts from the window product systems). The influence of disposal. Assumptions about incineration and landfilling processes for some materials are not expected to influence our conclusions, given that the contribution of disposal to total impact is relatively small (10\u201315%, depending on the impact category). The inclusion of landfilling of copper and zinc used in window frames could potentially influence impact scores for the toxicity-related impact categories (where both copper and zinc are characterised as very toxic), but the amounts of these metals is very small compared to emissions from production of heat in the use stage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3807, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1094, "book_page": 1093, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the same reason, omitting of disposal of wood preservative and acrylic binder in the window frame is not expected to change impact scores. Comparison between the baseline and the two sensitivity scenarios. Figure 39.11 shows the comparison between the baseline scenario and the two sensitivity scenarios. When EU27 average heat mix is used (along with and EU27 electricity mix and EU27 average disposal scenarios), impact scores generally increase compared to the base scenario, apart from the three eutrophication impact categories, and freshwater ecotoxicity. This is because the European heating mix mainly relies on natural gas (57%), with smaller contribution from coal and biomass compared to the Danish mix. On the other hand, a larger proportion of natural gas and oil (57 and 21%, respectively), results in considerably higher impacts in other impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3808, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1094, "book_page": 1093, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, a larger proportion of natural gas and oil (57 and 21%, respectively), results in considerably higher impacts in other impact categories. We also tested a scenario where windowpanes are changed into 3-layered ones, causing a decrease in U-value thereby improving insulation properties of the window. The results show that additional environmental impacts from the extra layer of glass are generally compensated for by the reduced heat loss in the use stage, and the Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3809, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1094, "book_page": 1093, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "% of total impact score base EU27 3-layered pane W % of total impact score base EU27 3-layered pane W/ALU % of total impact score base EU27 3-layered pane PVC Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score base EU27 3-layered pane W/C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3810, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1095, "book_page": 1094, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "overall life cycle impact are smaller compared to the base scenario by up to 20%. High increase for stratospheric ozone depletion is most likely an artefact related to the use of relatively old processes for generation of heat from natural gas and oil in the EU27 system, since ozone-depleting substances have been largely banned for at least a decade. Despite these differences in impact scores, the ranking of window options generally does not change irrespective of the analysed scenarios (Fig. 39.12). As whiskers do not overlap, the results can be considered statistically significant, although we repeat that neither were uncertainties in background processes considered (which would increase the overall inventory uncertainty), nor could correlation between uncertainties in processes that are the same be addressed (which would have an opposite effect)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3811, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1096, "book_page": 1095, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "It is, however, clear that if the heat mix changes substantially within the lifetime of the window as a consequence of the decarbonisation of our energy systems, the hot spots may move from the use stage to manufacturing and end-of-life stages and this would change the ranking of the alternatives and also the recommendations for design of the windows. Uncertainties in characterisation factors and sensitivity to LCIA method chosen. All characterisation factors in ILCD (just as in any other LCIA method) are associated with uncertainties, meaning that the contribution to impacts of different modelled elementary flows and processes (such as heating) display varying uncertainties across impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3812, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1096, "book_page": 1095, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Although the uncertainties in characterisation factors were not considered in this study (they are rarely even known today), we expect that the uncertainty in characterisation factors will result in lack of statistical significance of difference in impact scores for freshwater ecotoxicity and human toxicity across all four windows. These are the impact categories where the uncertainties in individual characterisation factors are the highest (up to a few orders of magnitude) (Rosenbaum et al. 2008). Sensitivity of the results to the chosen LCIA methods is also not considered in this LCA report (because the results are for internal use only). Such a sensitivity analysis could reveal that window ranking generally does not change for most impact categories because it is a few processes, associated with the production of heat, that are driving the main environmental impacts and there is large difference in demand for heat between the compared windows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3813, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1096, "book_page": 1095, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This is expected to be the case for climate change and acidifying and eutrophying emissions where the driving elementary flows are very similar between different impact assessment methods. However, this may not be the case for freshwater and human toxicity, where impact scores can be sensitive to the inclusion of one or few substances with high characterisation factors, depending on the method, as for these impact categories up to 12 orders of magnitude between characterisation factors are observed (Rosenbaum et al. 2008). JFig. 39.11 Comparison between the baseline and two sensitivity scenarios: (i) where EU27 electricity and heating mix and EU27 disposal options are used for each window, and (ii) where 3-layered windowpane used instead of 2-layered one. W wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3814, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1096, "book_page": 1095, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "W wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite. Whiskers represent inventory uncertainty stemming from uncertainty and variability in model parameters presented in Table 39.8 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3815, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1096, "book_page": 1095, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.3.5.3 Completeness and Consistency Checks Completeness check. The cut-off rules have been consistently applied across the whole life cycle for all four window alternatives in order to ensure the completeness of the study. However, two processes had to be left out when modelling life cycle inventories due either to difficulties in finding and approximating data, or they were not thought to be important initially", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3816, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1097, "book_page": 1096, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First, we did not include the coating of glass in the windowpane, where the current Nor-win technology uses nanomaterials because Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score W W/ALU PVC W/C Scenario 1: EU27, 2-layered pane Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Photochemical ozone formation Terrestrial acidification Terrestrial eutrophication Freshwater eutrophication Marine eutrophication Freshwater ecotoxicity Human toxicity (cancer) Human toxicity (non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score W W/ALU PVC W/C Scenario 2: DK, 3-layered pane", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3817, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1097, "book_page": 1096, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(non-cancer) Particulate matter formation Ionising radiation (human health) Land use Resource depletion (mineral, fossils) % of total impact score W W/ALU PVC W/C Scenario 2: DK, 3-layered pane Fig", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3818, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1097, "book_page": 1096, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.12 Ranking of four window options where impact scores are scaled to those of W window (equal to 100% of total impact) for the two sensitivity scenarios presented in Fig. 39.11. W wood, W/ALU wood/aluminium, PVC polyvinyl chloride, W/C wood/composite. Whiskers represent inventory uncertainty stemming from uncertainty and variability in model parameters presented in Table 39.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3819, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1097, "book_page": 1096, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of limited information about input and output flows from nanomaterial production. This is expected to result in underestimation of human health and ecotoxicity impacts (some of the nanomaterials used by Nor-win are recognised to be toxic), and furthermore production of nanomaterials will to some extent contribute to total impact scores for other impact categories (Jolliet et al. 2014). We estimate that this contribution will not be larger than 1\u20132% of total impact scores for all impact categories, apart from the three toxicity-related impact categories where our rough estimate is 2.5\u20135% contribution. Second, we assumed no loss in material functionality in recycling of PVC (for metals and glass this assumption is expected to hold), nor did we assume material loss during recycling or production of the materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3820, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1098, "book_page": 1097, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Assuming that 10% increase in material is sufficient to cover this, total impact scores are expected to be higher by roughly 1\u20135%, depending on the impact category and contribution of manufacturing and disposal to total impacts. Finally, we did not include capital equipment for foreground processes. The contribution of capital equipment can be 10\u201330%, depending on the type of sector (Frischknecht et al. 2007). Given that contribution to overall impact from the materials and production stages is around 30% (although this number varies between windows and impact categories, see Fig. 39.10), the contribution of capital equipment is expected to be equal to ca. 10% to total impact score. Overall, we estimate that the calculated impact scores represent 75\u201385% of the actual total impacts. Consistency check", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3821, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1098, "book_page": 1097, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "10% to total impact score. Overall, we estimate that the calculated impact scores represent 75\u201385% of the actual total impacts. Consistency check. The major source of inconsistency in data quality is the limited knowledge of performance parameters of the prototype W/C window (like the U-values), and we took this into account in the uncertainty and variability analysis. The major source of inconsistency in the applied life cycle impact assessment method is missing characterisation factors for some of the flows, due to incorrect implementation of life cycle impact assessment methods into the modelling software employed. This inconsistency is not expected to change impact scores to an extent that would change our conclusion about window ranking or major drivers of environmental impacts, since the majority of input and output flows are the same for all four windows (see Annex, Sect. 39.4.4, Table 39.34)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3822, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1098, "book_page": 1097, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.4, Table 39.34). Cut-off criteria were applied consistently across the four window product systems and the same processes were omitted. Other assumptions, methods and data (like the attributional principle with credits given to recycling, or the sources and quality of primary and secondary data) have also been applied consistently to all four window options. 39.3.6 Conclusions, Limitations and Recommendations Conclusions: I. The W/C window performs significantly better compared to its alternatives in all 14 impact categories. The W/C window is thus the preferable option from an environmental perspective. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3823, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1098, "book_page": 1097, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "II. The PVC window is the least preferred option, as it performs the worst in 11 out of 14 impact categories. This conclusion, however, might change if land use, freshwater ecotoxicity and human health (non-cancer) (where the W window performs significantly worse) are given a higher weight than the rest of the impact categories. III. The overall environmental performance of the windows is mainly determined by the demand for heat to compensate for heat losses through the window during its use stage. This is true for nearly all impact categories. The U-value determines demand for heat, and can thus be considered a key environmental performance indicator of windows. IV. In addition to processes for generation of heat, other environmental hotspots in the product systems are: production of timber and paint for the W window; the injection moulding process of PVC and production of steel in the PVC window. V", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3824, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1099, "book_page": 1098, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "V. The use of glass fiber based composite has some contribution (up to 12%) to total impacts, depending on the impact category, but cannot be considered a hotspot given that the composite substantially improves insulation properties causing an overall reduction in environmental impacts. VI. Similarly, the use of 3-layered glass instead of 2-layered improves insulation properties resulting in an overall reduction in environmental impacts with the respective heating mix. VII. The trade-off between impacts from the material used and the improved insulation properties that the material may give the window has to be considered when assessing environmental performance of windows. Limitations: The major limitations of the LCA are: 1. Our findings about major drivers of environmental impacts apply to windows where crystal glass is used in the panes with a relatively large (>0.6) visible light transmittance coefficient", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3825, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1099, "book_page": 1098, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Our findings about major drivers of environmental impacts apply to windows where crystal glass is used in the panes with a relatively large (>0.6) visible light transmittance coefficient. They are not thought to be applicable for windows, which change their transparency in response to light intensity (e.g. photochromic windows) where the need for electricity to provide lighting indoor may become an important factor contributing to impacts in the use stage. 2. The disregard of changes in heat mix and heat demand in the future and potential development of more efficient heat supply technologies is another potential limitation. It is uncertain to what extent these will become effective within the time frame of the study (25\u201330 years). If such is the case, impacts from the manufacturing stage or disposal will become more important in the future (if there is no development of cleaner manufacturing and waste management technologies, which also is uncertain)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3826, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1099, "book_page": 1098, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "They may change both the ranking of window alternatives and recommendations given to the commissioner. We expect, however, that in a 25\u201330 year time horizon the use stage will likely remain the most important contributor to total impacts from the window", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3827, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1099, "book_page": 1098, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "product system, and efforts to design windows with low U-values should continue. Recommendations: Recommendations are given to the commissioner to support eco-design of the new window and greening of the whole value chain: A. The design of windows to ensure better environmental performance should focus on optimising insulation properties of windows. This can be done by introducing a 3-layered pane, or improving the design of the frame. If the latter is considered, the choice of frame material is important and in each case where new frame material is used in the design of a frame we recommend evaluating (using tools like LCA) whether environmental benefits achieved by improved insulation properties are really sufficient to outweigh potential environmental burden from the use of novel materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3828, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1100, "book_page": 1099, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Indeed, if the heat mix changes substantially within the lifetime of the window this could potentially move the hotspots from the use stage to manufacturing and end-of-life stages in which case our recommendations for design of the windows might not hold. B. Selection of new materials for frame design should consider functional properties of materials in a window design context, i.e. the focus should not be on selection of materials that perform environmentally best per unit mass of the materials, but on selection of materials that perform best considering insulation properties and the amount applied when used in the frame. C. For the existing W-based windows, improvement potentials lie in selection of paints with lower environmental impact. For the paint applied for maintenance in the use stage, this may be outside the influence of the producer, because it is the window users who will select the type of paint", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3829, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1100, "book_page": 1099, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "For the paint applied for maintenance in the use stage, this may be outside the influence of the producer, because it is the window users who will select the type of paint. Our recommendation is to provide information to the users about recommended types of paint. D. Finally, we recommend to phase-out the PVC window as the option with likely the highest environmental burden overall. If this is not possible, we recommend its redesign through the introduction of a 3-layered pane to improve its insulation properties. Further improvement potentials for the PVC window system lie mainly in selection of cleaner technology for production of PVC frame elements. 39.4 Annex (Public) 39.4.1 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methods and Normalisation Factors See Table 39.11. Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3830, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1100, "book_page": 1099, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.11 ILCD methods and normalisation factors for the impact categories considered in this study (EC-JRC 2011) Impact category Indicator Unit Model reference Normalisation factor [unit/person/year] Climate change Radiative forcing as Global Warming Potential, 100 years horizon (GWP100) kg CO2 eq. Baseline model of 100 years of the IPCC 9.10E+03 Ozone depletion Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) kg CFC-11 eq. Steady-state ODPs 1999 as in WMOassessment 2.16E\u221202 Human toxicity, cancer effects Comparative Toxic Unit for humans CTUh USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) 3.68E\u221205 Human toxicity, non-cancer effects Comparative Toxic Unit for humans CTUh USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) 5.32E\u221204 Particulate matter Intake fraction for fine particles kg PM2.5 eq. RiskPoll model (Rabl and Spadaro 2004) and Greco et al. (2007) 4.82E+00 Ionising radiation (human health) Human exposure efficiency relative to U235 kg U235 eq. Human health effect model as developed by Dreicer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3831, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1101, "book_page": 1100, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2007) 4.82E+00 Ionising radiation (human health) Human exposure efficiency relative to U235 kg U235 eq. Human health effect model as developed by Dreicer et al. (1995), Frischknecht et al. (2000) 1.13E+03 Photochemical ozone formation Tropospheric ozone concentration increase kg NMVOC eq. LOTOS-EUROS (Van Zelm et al. 2008) as applied in ReCiPe 3.18E+01 Acidification Accumulated Exceedance mol H+ eq. Accumulated exceedance (Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 et al. 2006; Posch et al. 2008) 4.72E+01 Terrestrial eutrophication Accumulated Exceedance mol N eq. Accumulated exceedance (Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 et al. 2006; Posch et al, 2008) 1.74E+02 Freshwater eutrophication Residence time of nutrients in freshwater compartment (P) kg P eq. EUTREND model (Struijs et al. 2009) as implemented in ReCiPe 1.48E+00 Marine eutrophication Residence time of nutrients in marine compartment (N) kg N eq. EUTREND model (Struijs et al. 2009) as implemented in ReCiPe 1.68E+01 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3832, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1101, "book_page": 1100, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.11 (continued) Impact category Indicator Unit Model reference Normalisation factor [unit/person/year] Freshwater ecotoxicity Comparative Toxic Unit for ecosystems CTUe USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) 8.71E+03 Land use Soil Organic Matter kg C deficit Model based on Soil organic matter (SOM) (Mil\u00e0 i Canals et al. 2007) 6.30E+05 Water resource depletion Water use related to local scarcity of water kg water eq. Model for water consumption as in Swiss Ecoscarcity (Frischknecht et al. 2006) 7.89E+01 Mineral fossil and renewable resource depletion Scarcity kg Sb eq. CML 2002 (Guin\u00e9e et al. 2002) 1.00E\u221201 Normalisation factors are for EU27 for the reference year 2010 as presented in Benini et al. (2014) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3833, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1102, "book_page": 1101, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.2 Bills of Materials and End-of-Life Options See Tables 39.12 and 39.13. Table 39.12 Amounts of materials (in kg) required to produce one window Material Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Window frame Heartwood 9.2 \u2013 9.2 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Composite \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 3.9 Aluminium 0.2 4.6 \u2013 \u2013 Galvanised steel \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Chromium steel 0.5 1.2 5.1 1.2 Acrylic binder 0.168 0.056 \u2013 0.056 Triethylene glycol 0.00427 0.00142 \u2013 0.00142 Wood preservative 0.000525 0.000175 \u2013 0.000175 Window pane Glass Aluminium 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 Argon 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 Synthetic rubber (EDPM) 3.6 3.6 3.6 Silicone 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 Window packaging Polyethylene 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Cardboard Note, that the amounts are not scaled to the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3834, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1103, "book_page": 1102, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.13 End-of-life options for window materials (percentage recycled/incinerated/landfilled) in Denmark and EU27 (given in brackets) ID Material Window type W W/ALU PVC W/C Window frame Heartwood DK: 90.5/9/0.5 EU27: 47/52/1 Not relevant DK: 90.5/9/0.5 EU27: 47/52/1 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Not relevant Not relevant DK: 93/5/2 EU27: 76/17/7 Not relevant Composite Not relevant Not relevant Not relevant DK: 93/5/2 EU27: 76/17/7 Aluminium DK: 99.987/0.01/0.003 EU27: 99.885/0/0.115 Not relevant Not relevant Steel (galvanised and chromium) DK: 99.987/0.01/0.003 EU27: 99.885/0/0.115 Window pane Glass 99.853/0.018/0.129 Aluminium DK: 99.987/0.01/0.003 EU27: 99.885/0/0.115 Synthetic rubber (EDPM) 99.39/0.604/0.06 Silicone 99.39/0.604/0.06 Window packaging Polyethylene DK: 93/5/2 EU27: 76/17/7 Cardboard DK: 99.32/0.59/0.09 EU27: 98.73/0.93/0.34 Data from Eurostat (2016) for the reference year 2014", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3835, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1104, "book_page": 1103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The options are based on the data retrieved from Eurostat for the categories: metal wastes (mixed ferrous and non-ferrous), glass wastes, paper and cardboard wastes, rubber wastes, plastic wastes, and wood wastes Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3836, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1104, "book_page": 1103, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.3 List of Assumptions See Table 39.14", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3837, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1105, "book_page": 1104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.14 List of assumptions Assumptions Window type W WA PVC W/C Heat loss is based on the annual average temperatures indoor and outdoor in Denmark (7 and 17 \u00b0C, respectively), without considering the dynamics of temperature change during the year x x x x Windows are only used in places covered by district heating x x x x Processes for generation of heat from incinerating straw and incinerating of non-renewable waste in the Danish heat mix were modelled as incineration of bio-waste x x x x Heat generation from biomass in the EU27 heat mix was modelled as incineration of bio-waste combined with combustion of wood pellets (50:50) x x x x Energy consumption for window assembly covers all processes in the factory x x x x Chromium steel and galvanised steel are modelled using the same process x Painting activity of window frame is not modelled (but production of the paint is) x Energy used in disassembly in end of life assumed equal to 1 MJ per 1 kg of window x x x x PVC is 30%", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3838, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1105, "book_page": 1104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "process x Painting activity of window frame is not modelled (but production of the paint is) x Energy used in disassembly in end of life assumed equal to 1 MJ per 1 kg of window x x x x PVC is 30% recycled, and 70% landfilled x Disposal of wood preservative and acrylic binder is not modelled x x Incineration of Aluminium is modelled as municipal solid waste (MSW) x x x x Landfilling of EDPM rubber is modelled as polypropylene (PP) x x x x Incineration of silicone is modelled as incineration of plastic mixture x x x x Argon from window pane is released to the atmosphere during window disassembly x x x x Landfilling of copper and zinc in window frame is not modelled x x x x Transportation distances are the same for all windows in the distribution stage x x x x Transportation distances are the same for all windows in the end-of-life stage x x x x Packaging is the same for all windows x x x x", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3839, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1105, "book_page": 1104, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.15 Inventory of the unit process \u201cUse of window, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Window use, U, MIOW 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 p Process output Other outputs (waste to treatment) Disassembly of window, U, MIOW 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 p See Table 39.19 DE: polyethylene, incineration (PE, Adapted) kg PlasticsEurope DE: paper/cardboard, incineration (Adapted) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 kg PlasticsEurope Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Assembly and packaging of window, U, MIOW 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 p See Table 39.16 Production of window pane, 2-layered, U, MIOW p See Table 39.18 DK: heat mix 14,820 15,040 15,620 12,400 MJ See Table 39.32 RER: alkyd paint, white, 60% in solvent, at plant 4.8 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro4, cargo |>34\u201340 t total cap. /27 t payload capacity 27.3 22.5 26.8 22.4 tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro3, cargo |>12\u201314 t total cap", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3840, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1106, "book_page": 1105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "/27 t payload capacity 27.3 22.5 26.8 22.4 tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro3, cargo |>12\u201314 t total cap. /9.3 t payload capacity 9.1 7.5 8.9 7.5 tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: diesel, low-sulphur, at regional storage 0.703 0.581 0.69 0.803 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 All outputs and inputs are scaled to the functional unit of the window systems, with windows used for 20 years Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3841, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1106, "book_page": 1105, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "39.4.4 Unit Processes and LCI Results See Tables 39.15, 39.16, 39.17, 39.18, 39.19, 39.20, 39.21, 39.22, 39.23, 39.24, 39.25, 39.26, 39.27, 39.28, 39.29, 39.30, 39.31, 39.32, 39.33 and 39.34. 39.4.5 Normalised Sensitivity Coefficients Normalised sensitivity coefficients were computed for the perturbance of the following parameters: amount of wood, aluminium, steel (W/C window only), and PVC (PVC window only) in the window frame, the amount of glass in the pane, amount of paint, electricity needed for assembly, U-value, and transportation distance from Nor-win to retailers. Thereby, we found that impact scores are most sensitive to U-value, and three other parameters (amount of wood and steel in the frame, and amount of glass in the pane). The normalised sensitivity coefficients for these four parameters are presented in Tables 39.35,39.36, 39.37 and 39.38. 39.5 Annex (Confidential) No confidential data were used in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3842, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1107, "book_page": 1106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The normalised sensitivity coefficients for these four parameters are presented in Tables 39.35,39.36, 39.37 and 39.38. 39.5 Annex (Confidential) No confidential data were used in the study. Table 39.16 Inventory of the unit process \u201cAssembly and packaging of window, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Window assembled and packed, U, MIOW p Process output Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Production of window frame, U, MIOW p See Table 39.17 Production of window pane, 2-layered, U, MIOW p See Table 39.18 DK: electricity, production mix DK MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 DK: heat mix MJ See Table 39.32 RER: corrugated board base paper, kraftliner, at plant kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: polyethylene film (PE-LD) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 kg PlasticsEurope Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3843, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1107, "book_page": 1106, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.17 Inventory of the unit process \u201cProduction of window frame, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Window frame, U, MIOW p Process output Inputs (materials, energy, resources) RER: glued laminated timber, outdoor use, at plant [benefication] 0.06 0.0184 0.0184 m3 ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: Truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro4, cargo |>34\u201340 t total cap. /27 t payload capacity 9.2 11.2 10.37 tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: diesel, low-sulphur, at regional storage 0.419 0.129 0.157 0.129 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: Aluminium extrusion profile <agg> 0.2 4.6 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 0.5 1.2 15.1 1.2 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: triethylene glycol, at plant [organics] 0.00427 0.00131 0.00131 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: acrylic binder, 34% in H2O, at plant [manufacturing] <agg> 0.168 0.0515 0.0515 kg ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3844, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1108, "book_page": 1107, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 RER: triethylene glycol, at plant [organics] 0.00427 0.00131 0.00131 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: acrylic binder, 34% in H2O, at plant [manufacturing] <agg> 0.168 0.0515 0.0515 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: wood preservative, organic salt, Cr-free, at plant [manufacturing] <agg> 0.000525 0.000161 0.000161 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 DK: electricity, production mix DK kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: zinc coating, coils 0.151 m2 ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: polyvinylchloride injection moulding part (PVC) PlasticsEurope kg PlasticsEurope RER: glass fibre-reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulding, at plant 3.9 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3845, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1108, "book_page": 1107, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.18 Inventory of the unit process \u201cProduction of window pane, 2-layered, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Window pane, 2-layered, U, MIOW p Process output Inputs (materials, energy, resources) REE: flat glass, coated, at plant kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro4, cargo |>34\u201340 t total cap. /27 t payload capacity tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: diesel, low-sulphur, at regional storage 0.196 0.196 0.196 0.196 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: aluminium extrusion profile <agg> 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 DE: polypropylene-EPDM granulate mix PE kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: silicone product, at plant 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 DE: argon (gaseous) 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 DK: electricity, production mix DK MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3846, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1109, "book_page": 1108, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.19 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisassembly of window, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Window disassembled, U, MIOW p Process output Other outputs (waste to treatment) Disposal of aluminium, U, MIOW 0.6 0.4 0.4 kg See Table 39.20 Disposal of wood, U, MIOW 30.2 9.25 9.25 kg See Table 39.26 Disposal of EPDM, U, MIOW Disposal of silicone, U, MIOW 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 kg See Table 39.22 Disposal of steel, U, MIOW 0.5 1.2 15.1 1.2 kg See Table 39.28 Disposal of polyvinyl chloride, U, MIOW kg See Table 39.30 Disposal of composite, U, MIOW kg See Table 39.31 Disposal of glass, U, MIOW kg See Table 39.23 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) DK: electricity, production mix DK MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro4, cargo |>34\u201340 t total cap. /27 t payload capacity 4.485 3.695 4.4 3.67 tkm ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3847, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1110, "book_page": 1109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 GLO: truck PE <u-so> technology mix, diesel driven, Euro4, cargo |>34\u201340 t total cap. /27 t payload capacity 4.485 3.695 4.4 3.67 tkm ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.20 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of aluminium, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Aluminium recycling, U, MIOW 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 kg See Table 39.21 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of aluminium, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, aluminium, 0% water, to municipal incineration kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, wood untreated, 20% water, to sanitary landfill 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3848, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1110, "book_page": 1109, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.21 Inventory of the unit process \u201cAluminium recycling, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (avoided product or function) DE: Aluminium ingot mix (Inverted) 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2; inverted process Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Aluminium recycling, U, MIOW kg Process input Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.22 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of EPDM, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) RER: EPDM seal PE, p-agg kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of EPDM, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, polypropylene, 15.9% water, to sanitary landfill kg ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3849, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1111, "book_page": 1110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of EPDM, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, polypropylene, 15.9% water, to sanitary landfill kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.23 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of glass, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of glass, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, building, glass pane (in burnable frame), to sorting plant, U, MIOW kg See Table 39.24 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3850, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1111, "book_page": 1110, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.24 Inventory of the unit process \u201cCH: disposal, building, glass pane (in burnable frame), to sorting plant, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) CH: disposal, building, glass pane (in burnable frame), to sorting plant, U, MIOW kg Process output Other outputs (avoided product or function) RER: flat glass, uncoated, at plant (inverted) 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2; inverted process Inputs (materials, energy, resources) CH: disposal, building, glass pane (in burnable frame), to sorting plant 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, glass, 0% water, to inert material landfill kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: glass, cullets, sorted, at sorting plant 0.0071 0.0071 0.0071 0.0071 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: excavation, hydraulic digger 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 m3 ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: electricity, low voltage, at grid 0.00014 0.00014 0.00014 0.00014 MJ ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3851, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1112, "book_page": 1111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 RER: excavation, hydraulic digger 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 7.9E \u221206 m3 ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: electricity, low voltage, at grid 0.00014 0.00014 0.00014 0.00014 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: sorting plant for construction waste 1.8E \u221212 1.8E \u221212 1.8E \u221212 1.8E \u221212 p ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.25 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of silicone, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of silicone, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, plastics, mixture, 15.3% water, to municipal incineration kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3852, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1112, "book_page": 1111, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.26 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of wood, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Wood incineration, U, MIOW kg See Table 39.27 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of wood, U, MIOW kg Process input Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.27 Inventory of the unit process \u201cWood incineration, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) DE: wood (natural) in municipal waste incineration PE, p-agg 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 kg PlasticsEurope Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Wood incineration, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, aluminium, 0% water, to municipal incineration 0.00022 0.00022 0.00022 0.00022 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, copper, 0% water, to municipal incineration 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 kg ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3853, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1113, "book_page": 1112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 CH: disposal, copper, 0% water, to municipal incineration 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 8.8E \u221205 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, zinc in car shredder residue, 0% water, to municipal incineration 0.0041 0.0041 0.0041 0.0041 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, paint, 0% water, to municipal incineration 0.074 0.074 0.074 0.074 kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3854, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1113, "book_page": 1112, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.28 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of steel, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Steel recycling, U, MIOW 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 kg See Table 39.29 Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of steel, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, steel, 0% water, to municipal incineration kg ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: disposal, steel, 0% water, to inert material landfill 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 kg ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3855, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1114, "book_page": 1113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.29 Inventory of the unit process \u201cSteel recycling, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (avoided product or function) DE: steel billet PE (inverted) kg PlasticsEurope, inverted process Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Steel recycling, U, MIOW kg Process input Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.30 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of polyvinyl chloride, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) DE: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PE, p-agg 0.7 kg PE Output (avoided product or function) DE: polyvinylchloride granulate mix (S-PVC) PE (inverted) 0.3 kg PE, inverted process Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of PVC, U, MIOW kg Process input CH: disposal, polyvinyl chloride, 0.2% water, to sanitary landfill kg ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3856, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1114, "book_page": 1113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3857, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1114, "book_page": 1113, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.31 Inventory of the unit process \u201cDisposal of composite, U, MIOW\u201d Activity W W/ALU PVC W/C Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) RER: polyamide (PA) 6.6 GF ELCD/PE-Gabi p-agg kg PE Inputs (materials, energy, resources) Disposal of composite, U, MIOW kg Process input Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems Table 39.32 Inventory of the unit process \u201cHeat, DK, SERF\u201d Activity Value Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Heat, DK, SERF MJ Process output Inputs (materials, energy, resources) CH: heat, wood pellets, at furnace 50 kW 0.0980 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, softwood chips from industry, at furnace 50 kW 0.1257 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, heavy fuel oil, at industrial furnace 1 MW 0.0235 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100 kW 0.2451 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, hard coal briquette, at stove 5\u201315 kW 0.2344 MJ ecoinvent, v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3858, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1115, "book_page": 1114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.2 RER: heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100 kW 0.2451 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, hard coal briquette, at stove 5\u201315 kW 0.2344 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, bio-waste, at waste incineration plant, allocation price 0.25 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, at cogen, biogas agricultural mix, allocation exergy 0.0195 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, at heat pump 30 kW, allocation exergy 0.0005 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, at solar + gas heating, tube collector, one-family house, combined system 0.0033 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems. The Danish heat mix is based on data from Energynet (2012). Processes for generation of heat from incinerating straw (0.077 MJ/MJ heat output) and incinerating of non-renewable waste (0.173 MJ/MJ heat output) are modelled as incineration of bio-waste", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3859, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1115, "book_page": 1114, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.33 Inventory of the unit process \u201cHeat, EU27, MIOW\u201d Activity Value Unit Source/note Output (main product or function) Heat, EU27, MIOW MJ Process output Inputs (materials, energy, resources) CH: heat, wood pellets, at furnace 50 kW 0.065 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, heavy fuel oil, at industrial furnace 1 MW 0.21 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, natural gas, at industrial furnace >100 kW 0.57 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 RER: heat, hard coal briquette, at stove 5\u201315 kW 0.09 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 CH: heat, bio-waste, at waste incineration plant, allocation price 0.065 MJ ecoinvent, v. 2.2 Note that inputs and outputs are not scaled to the functional unit of the window systems. The EU27 heat mix is based on data from Conolly et al. (2012) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3860, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1116, "book_page": 1115, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 LCI results (elementary flows for each window product system) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Emission to air 1,1,1-trichloroethane 8.33E\u221211 1.22E\u221210 1.25E\u221210 6.49E\u221211 1-butanol 1.10E\u221212 5.10E\u221213 5.17E\u221213 4.57E\u221213 Acenaphthene 9.08E\u221211 8.27E\u221211 1.21E\u221210 8.30E\u221211 Acetaldehyde (ethanal) 3.62E\u221204 3.61E\u221204 3.70E\u221204 3.03E\u221204 Acetic acid 7.42E\u221204 6.45E\u221204 6.28E\u221204 5.81E\u221204 Acetone (dimethylcetone) 9.99E\u221205 1.02E\u221204 1.02E\u221204 8.42E\u221205 Acetonitrile 7.05E\u221208 6.35E\u221208 6.58E\u221208 6.21E\u221208 Acrolein 4.24E\u221208 3.26E\u221208 5.05E\u221208 2.75E\u221208 Acrylic acid 1.70E\u221208 7.91E\u221209 7.98E\u221209 7.09E\u221209 Aldehyde (unspecified) 1.61E\u221206 1.51E\u221206 3.28E\u221207 7.39E\u221206 Alkane (unspecified) 2.51E\u221202 4.60E\u221203 1.02E\u221202 3.97E\u221203 Alkene (unspecified) 8.42E\u221203 8.44E\u221203 8.73E\u221203 6.94E\u221203 Aluminium 1.56E\u221202 1.60E\u221202 1.80E\u221202 1.31E\u221202 Ammonia 6.25E\u221202 5.94E\u221202 7.32E\u221202 4.94E\u221202 Ammonium 7.86E\u221211 1.22E\u221210 2.85E\u221211 9.58E\u221211 Ammonium carbonate 9.60E\u221208 3.32E\u221208 4.78E\u221208 3.41E\u221208 Ammonium nitrate 4.55E\u221211 4.89E\u221211 3.64E\u221211 4.02E\u221211", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3861, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1117, "book_page": 1116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Ammonia 6.25E\u221202 5.94E\u221202 7.32E\u221202 4.94E\u221202 Ammonium 7.86E\u221211 1.22E\u221210 2.85E\u221211 9.58E\u221211 Ammonium carbonate 9.60E\u221208 3.32E\u221208 4.78E\u221208 3.41E\u221208 Ammonium nitrate 4.55E\u221211 4.89E\u221211 3.64E\u221211 4.02E\u221211 Anthracene 1.98E\u221209 2.18E\u221209 2.11E\u221209 1.79E\u221209 Antimony 5.81E\u221206 7.24E\u221206 7.61E\u221206 6.32E\u221206 Aromatic hydrocarbons (unspecified) 9.28E\u221205 7.22E\u221205 3.22E\u221204 1.12E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 3.53E\u221205 3.66E\u221205 4.83E\u221205 2.84E\u221205 Arsenic trioxide 2.27E\u221212 3.45E\u221212 2.41E\u221212 2.80E\u221212 Barium 7.00E\u221205 8.79E\u221205 7.78E\u221205 6.89E\u221205 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3862, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1117, "book_page": 1116, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Benzal chloride 7.62E\u221215 3.04E\u221214 1.99E\u221214 5.85E\u221215 Benzaldehyde 1.29E\u221208 6.91E\u221209 1.59E\u221208 6.26E\u221209 Benzene 3.97E\u221203 3.91E\u221203 4.15E\u221203 3.32E\u221203 Benzo(a)anthracene 9.99E\u221210 1.10E\u221209 1.06E\u221209 9.00E\u221210 Benzo(a)pyrene 1.98E\u221206 2.21E\u221206 2.15E\u221206 1.59E\u221206 Benzo(ghi)perylene 8.91E\u221210 9.80E\u221210 9.46E\u221210 8.03E\u221210 Benzofluoranthene 1.78E\u221209 1.96E\u221209 1.89E\u221209 1.61E\u221209 Beryllium 3.57E\u221207 3.89E\u221207 4.30E\u221207 2.97E\u221207 Boron 1.26E\u221203 1.23E\u221203 1.40E\u221203 1.04E\u221203 Boron compounds (unspecified) 6.89E\u221204 7.32E\u221204 7.25E\u221204 5.80E\u221204 Boron trifluoride 1.42E\u221215 6.22E\u221216 6.24E\u221216 5.62E\u221216 Bromine 5.25E\u221204 5.37E\u221204 5.58E\u221204 4.38E\u221204 Butadiene 2.88E\u221210 2.12E\u221210 1.38E\u221210 1.78E\u221210 Butane 2.20E\u221203 2.28E\u221203 2.21E\u221203 1.95E\u221203 Butane (n-butane) 1.18E\u221203 1.22E\u221203 1.24E\u221203 9.94E\u221204 Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) 3.06E\u221205 1.42E\u221205 1.44E\u221205 1.28E\u221205 Butene 1.94E\u221205 1.37E\u221205 1.75E\u221205 2.17E\u221205 Butylene glycol (butane diol) 3.53E\u221210 1.65E\u221210 1.67E\u221210 1.47E\u221210 butyrolactone", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3863, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1118, "book_page": 1117, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "9.94E\u221204 Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) 3.06E\u221205 1.42E\u221205 1.44E\u221205 1.28E\u221205 Butene 1.94E\u221205 1.37E\u221205 1.75E\u221205 2.17E\u221205 Butylene glycol (butane diol) 3.53E\u221210 1.65E\u221210 1.67E\u221210 1.47E\u221210 butyrolactone 1.02E\u221210 4.76E\u221211 4.82E\u221211 4.27E\u221211 Cadmium (+II) 8.00E\u221206 7.30E\u221206 8.45E\u221206 6.08E\u221206 Carbon dioxide 8.39E+02 8.36E+02 8.90E+02 7.10E+02 Carbon dioxide (biotic) 2.47E+02 2.46E+02 2.56E+02 2.03E+02 Carbon dioxide (biotic) 4.94E\u221201 4.76E\u221201 4.69E\u221201 4.15E\u221201 Carbon dioxide, land transformation 2.68E\u221203 2.18E\u221203 3.00E\u221203 2.16E\u221203 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3864, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1118, "book_page": 1117, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Carbon disulphide 3.22E\u221204 3.66E\u221204 3.59E\u221204 2.27E\u221204 Carbon monoxide 3.35E\u221201 3.22E\u221201 2.82E\u221201 2.57E\u221201 Carbon monoxide (biotic) 2.18E\u221201 2.18E\u221201 2.25E\u221201 1.79E\u221201 Carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane) 5.56E\u221207 1.21E\u221207 1.66E\u221207 1.05E\u221207 Chloride (unspecified) 2.75E\u221205 5.97E\u221205 2.88E\u221205 2.75E\u221205 Chlorine 5.43E\u221204 5.27E\u221204 1.74E\u221203 4.37E\u221204 Chloromethane (methyl chloride) 5.16E\u221205 3.29E\u221205 3.29E\u221205 3.29E\u221205 Chlorosilane, trimethyl3.06E\u221210 1.42E\u221210 1.43E\u221210 1.27E\u221210 Chromium (+III) 1.20E\u221208 1.28E\u221208 1.26E\u221208 1.03E\u221208 Chromium (+VI) 2.93E\u221206 4.09E\u221206 4.94E\u221205 3.98E\u221206 Chromium (unspecified) 1.33E\u221204 1.77E\u221204 1.99E\u221203 1.72E\u221204 Chrysene 2.45E\u221209 2.70E\u221209 2.60E\u221209 2.21E\u221209 Cobalt 1.05E\u221205 1.05E\u221205 3.20E\u221205 9.73E\u221206 Copper (+II) 1.17E\u221204 1.08E\u221204 2.09E\u221204 9.33E\u221205 Cumene (isopropylbenzene) 2.52E\u221205 1.38E\u221205 1.64E\u221205 3.48E\u221205 Cyanide (unspecified) 3.03E\u221203 3.09E\u221203 3.25E\u221203 2.54E\u221203 Cycloalkanes (unspec.) 5.15E\u221206 2.46E\u221207 3.28E\u221207", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3865, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1119, "book_page": 1118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.08E\u221204 2.09E\u221204 9.33E\u221205 Cumene (isopropylbenzene) 2.52E\u221205 1.38E\u221205 1.64E\u221205 3.48E\u221205 Cyanide (unspecified) 3.03E\u221203 3.09E\u221203 3.25E\u221203 2.54E\u221203 Cycloalkanes (unspec.) 5.15E\u221206 2.46E\u221207 3.28E\u221207 3.89E\u221206 Cyclohexane (hexahydro benzene) 1.68E\u221207 1.95E\u221207 1.27E\u221207 1.39E\u221207 Dibenz(a)anthracene 5.55E\u221210 6.11E\u221210 5.90E\u221210 5.00E\u221210 Dichlorobenzene (o-DCB; 1,2-dichlorobenzene) 4.75E\u221208 2.21E\u221208 2.24E\u221208 1.98E\u221208 Dichloroethane (1,2-dichloroethane) 4.74E\u221206 3.03E\u221206 8.26E\u221206 3.55E\u221205 Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) 1.01E\u221209 1.01E\u221209 4.53E\u221204 1.01E\u221209 Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 2.79E\u221209 2.73E\u221209 2.93E\u221206 9.60E\u221209 Diethylamine 1.97E\u221215 3.04E\u221215 7.13E\u221216 2.40E\u221215 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3866, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1119, "book_page": 1118, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Dioxins (unspec.) 1.95E\u221214 2.89E\u221214 2.74E\u221209 2.46E\u221214 Dust (>PM10) 2.68E\u221201 2.57E\u221201 2.89E\u221201 2.19E\u221201 Dust (PM10) 2.76E\u221203 3.21E\u221203 1.98E\u221202 2.40E\u221203 Dust (PM2,5\u2013PM10) 2.45E\u221202 1.66E\u221202 3.42E\u221202 1.83E\u221202 Dust (PM2.5) 6.70E\u221202 6.42E\u221202 8.51E\u221202 5.52E\u221202 Dust (unspecified) 3.19E\u221202 4.03E\u221202 3.41E\u221202 2.71E\u221202 Emissions to air 4.94E+03 5.01E+03 5.08E+03 4.16E+03 Ethane 6.12E\u221203 6.76E\u221203 6.37E\u221203 5.71E\u221203 Ethanol 1.79E\u221204 1.92E\u221204 1.90E\u221204 1.57E\u221204 Ethene (ethylene) 2.36E\u221204 1.75E\u221204 4.25E\u221204 1.71E\u221204 Ethine (acetylene) 1.36E\u221204 1.25E\u221204 1.37E\u221204 1.24E\u221204 Ethyl benzene 7.63E\u221204 8.04E\u221204 7.95E\u221204 6.36E\u221204 Ethyl cellulose 6.19E\u221208 2.87E\u221208 2.90E\u221208 2.57E\u221208 Ethylene acetate (ethyl acetate) 3.06E\u221205 1.42E\u221205 1.44E\u221205 1.28E\u221205 Ethylene oxide 4.42E\u221207 2.31E\u221207 2.30E\u221207 4.25E\u221207 Ethylenediamine 6.52E\u221210 6.50E\u221210 6.58E\u221210 6.50E\u221210 Exhaust 3.54E+03 3.58E+03 3.61E+03 2.97E+03 Fluoranthene 6.46E\u221209 7.11E\u221209 6.86E\u221209 5.82E\u221209 Fluorene 2.05E\u221208", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3867, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1120, "book_page": 1119, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.42E\u221207 2.31E\u221207 2.30E\u221207 4.25E\u221207 Ethylenediamine 6.52E\u221210 6.50E\u221210 6.58E\u221210 6.50E\u221210 Exhaust 3.54E+03 3.58E+03 3.61E+03 2.97E+03 Fluoranthene 6.46E\u221209 7.11E\u221209 6.86E\u221209 5.82E\u221209 Fluorene 2.05E\u221208 2.26E\u221208 2.18E\u221208 1.85E\u221208 Fluoride 6.62E\u221205 3.09E\u221204 5.60E\u221205 5.62E\u221205 Fluorine 1.26E\u221204 1.25E\u221204 1.36E\u221204 1.08E\u221204 Formaldehyde (methanal) 2.81E\u221203 2.34E\u221203 2.20E\u221203 1.97E\u221203 Formic acid (methane acid) 5.10E\u221207 4.42E\u221207 4.58E\u221207 4.31E\u221207 Furan 1.34E\u221207 1.21E\u221207 1.25E\u221207 1.18E\u221207 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3868, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1120, "book_page": 1119, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Group NMVOC to air 2.74E\u221201 2.30E\u221201 2.40E\u221201 2.05E\u221201 Group PAH to air 5.33E\u221205 7.66E\u221205 5.71E\u221205 4.82E\u221205 Halogenated hydrocarbons (unspecified) 1.93E\u221207 1.93E\u221207 1.39E\u221204 1.93E\u221207 Halogenated organic emissions to air 4.40E\u221204 4.85E\u221204 2.23E\u221203 4.06E\u221204 Halon (1211) 5.52E\u221207 4.23E\u221207 5.58E\u221207 3.93E\u221207 Halon (1301) 5.67E\u221207 4.17E\u221207 5.54E\u221207 3.69E\u221207 Heavy metals to air 2.45E\u221203 2.73E\u221203 5.25E\u221203 2.07E\u221203 Heavy metals to air (unspecified) 7.49E\u221210 6.98E\u221210 \u22122.10E\u221208 2.78E\u221210 Helium 5.92E\u221205 4.77E\u221205 5.33E\u221205 4.14E\u221205 Heptane (isomers) 2.05E\u221204 1.56E\u221204 1.73E\u221204 1.38E\u221204 Hexachlorobenzene (Perchlorobenzene) 8.38E\u221207 8.51E\u221207 9.04E\u221207 7.00E\u221207 Hexafluorosilicates 1.22E\u221206 9.74E\u221207 1.19E\u221206 9.21E\u221207 Hexamethylene diamine (HMDA) 4.53E\u221212 6.95E\u221212 2.48E\u221212 5.52E\u221212 Hexane (isomers) 1.21E\u221203 4.15E\u221204 4.93E\u221204 3.79E\u221204 Hydrocarbons (unspecified) 9.01E\u221204 9.01E\u221204 3.36E\u221202 9.01E\u221204 Hydrocarbons, aromatic 1.33E\u221204 1.10E\u221204 1.88E\u221204 9.60E\u221205", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3869, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1121, "book_page": 1120, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.48E\u221212 5.52E\u221212 Hexane (isomers) 1.21E\u221203 4.15E\u221204 4.93E\u221204 3.79E\u221204 Hydrocarbons (unspecified) 9.01E\u221204 9.01E\u221204 3.36E\u221202 9.01E\u221204 Hydrocarbons, aromatic 1.33E\u221204 1.10E\u221204 1.88E\u221204 9.60E\u221205 Hydrocarbons, chlorinated 3.25E\u221204 3.09E\u221204 2.17E\u221204 2.45E\u221204 Hydrogen 2.51E\u221203 2.17E\u221203 4.33E\u221202 2.33E\u221203 Hydrogen arsenic (arsine) 1.89E\u221210 2.86E\u221210 2.00E\u221210 2.32E\u221210 Hydrogen bromine (hydrobromic acid) 1.47E\u221208 1.54E\u221208 8.83E\u221209 1.91E\u221208 Hydrogen chloride 7.40E\u221203 8.06E\u221203 1.83E\u221202 6.71E\u221203 Hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid) 4.41E\u221208 7.64E\u221208 \u22121.41E\u221207 2.97E\u221208 Hydrogen fluoride 1.72E\u221203 1.98E\u221203 2.08E\u221203 1.51E\u221203 Hydrogen iodide 1.52E\u221211 1.58E\u221211 8.71E\u221212 2.01E\u221211 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3870, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1121, "book_page": 1120, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Hydrogen phosphorous 5.23E\u221209 2.82E\u221208 4.18E\u221209 4.18E\u221209 Hydrogen sulphide \u22122.82E\u221205 \u22122.63E\u221203 1.71E\u221204 \u22122.80E\u221205 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene 6.63E\u221210 7.29E\u221210 7.04E\u221210 5.97E\u221210 Inorganic emissions to air 1.39E+03 1.42E+03 1.47E+03 1.18E+03 Iodine 1.27E\u221205 9.96E\u221206 1.65E\u221205 9.97E\u221206 Iron 1.05E\u221204 9.55E\u221205 2.77E\u221204 8.44E\u221205 Isocyanide acid 1.20E\u221203 3.67E\u221204 5.38E\u221207 3.67E\u221204 Isoprene 6.21E\u221209 5.59E\u221209 5.80E\u221209 5.47E\u221209 Lanthanides 1.39E\u221210 1.63E\u221210 1.09E\u221210 1.18E\u221210 Lead (+II) 1.62E\u221204 1.74E\u221204 2.80E\u221204 1.31E\u221204 Lead dioxide 5.85E\u221212 9.28E\u221212 4.08E\u221212 5.13E\u221212 Magnesium 2.28E\u221210 8.97E\u221210 5.89E\u221210 1.75E\u221210 Manganese (+II) 4.58E\u221204 4.57E\u221204 4.96E\u221204 3.77E\u221204 Mercaptan (unspecified) 5.80E\u221207 1.09E\u221206 2.97E\u221205 9.46E\u221207 Mercury (+II) 1.66E\u221205 1.62E\u221205 2.24E\u221205 1.32E\u221205 Metals (unspecified) 7.82E\u221206 1.81E\u221205 3.41E\u221204 1.81E\u221205 Methacrylate 1.93E\u221208 8.98E\u221209 9.05E\u221209 8.04E\u221209 Methane 1.86E+00 1.89E+00 2.25E+00 1.63E+00 Methane (biotic) 9.46E\u221203", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3871, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1122, "book_page": 1121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.24E\u221205 1.32E\u221205 Metals (unspecified) 7.82E\u221206 1.81E\u221205 3.41E\u221204 1.81E\u221205 Methacrylate 1.93E\u221208 8.98E\u221209 9.05E\u221209 8.04E\u221209 Methane 1.86E+00 1.89E+00 2.25E+00 1.63E+00 Methane (biotic) 9.46E\u221203 9.04E\u221203 1.08E\u221202 8.00E\u221203 Methanol 7.97E\u221204 4.35E\u221204 4.05E\u221204 4.19E\u221204 Methyl amine 3.69E\u221211 1.72E\u221211 1.74E\u221211 1.54E\u221211 Methyl borate 6.53E\u221215 3.03E\u221215 3.06E\u221215 2.71E\u221215 Methyl bromide 1.65E\u221215 6.86E\u221215 4.46E\u221215 1.26E\u221215 Methyl formate 7.50E\u221211 3.48E\u221211 3.51E\u221211 3.12E\u221211 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3872, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1122, "book_page": 1121, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Methyl tert-butylether 1.94E\u221206 1.00E\u221206 6.17E\u221207 9.31E\u221207 Molybdenum 1.86E\u221206 1.63E\u221206 2.03E\u221206 1.43E\u221206 Monoethanolamine 1.13E\u221205 1.07E\u221205 1.09E\u221205 1.07E\u221205 Naphthalene 2.08E\u221207 2.29E\u221207 2.21E\u221207 1.88E\u221207 Nickel (+II) 8.04E\u221205 6.70E\u221205 1.04E\u221204 5.96E\u221205 Nitrate 1.05E\u221207 1.13E\u221207 1.59E\u221207 8.70E\u221208 Nitrogen (atmospheric nitrogen) 3.42E\u221202 3.74E\u221202 3.24E\u221202 2.93E\u221202 Nitrogen dioxide 9.95E\u221204 9.95E\u221204 7.04E\u221202 9.95E\u221204 Nitrogen monoxide 1.99E\u221209 2.17E\u221209 2.07E\u221209 1.72E\u221209 Nitrogen oxides 1.48E+00 1.46E+00 1.53E+00 1.24E+00 Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) 9.64E\u221202 9.35E\u221202 9.73E\u221202 7.88E\u221202 NMVOC (unspecified) 2.01E\u221201 1.77E\u221201 1.79E\u221201 1.60E\u221201 Octane 6.50E\u221206 1.14E\u221205 8.01E\u221206 9.83E\u221206 Organic chlorine compounds 6.61E\u221210 6.63E\u221210 9.66E\u221205 6.59E\u221210 Organic emissions to air (group VOC) 2.15E+00 2.13E+00 2.54E+00 1.85E+00 Other emissions to air 3.54E+03 3.59E+03 3.61E+03 2.98E+03 Oxygen 2.06E\u221202 2.45E\u221202 1.96E\u221202 1.87E\u221202 Ozone 2.05E\u221204", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3873, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1123, "book_page": 1122, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.59E\u221210 Organic emissions to air (group VOC) 2.15E+00 2.13E+00 2.54E+00 1.85E+00 Other emissions to air 3.54E+03 3.59E+03 3.61E+03 2.98E+03 Oxygen 2.06E\u221202 2.45E\u221202 1.96E\u221202 1.87E\u221202 Ozone 2.05E\u221204 1.54E\u221204 2.46E\u221204 1.49E\u221204 Palladium \u22121.13E\u221214 \u22126.16E\u221214 \u22129.03E\u221215 \u22129.01E\u221215 Particles to air 4.09E\u221201 3.97E\u221201 4.80E\u221201 3.35E\u221201 Pentachlorobenzene 2.05E\u221206 2.09E\u221206 2.18E\u221206 1.71E\u221206 Pentachlorophenol (PCP) 4.09E\u221207 3.76E\u221207 4.67E\u221207 3.32E\u221207 Pentane (n-pentane) 4.00E\u221203 3.84E\u221203 4.10E\u221203 3.23E\u221203 Phenanthrene 6.55E\u221208 7.20E\u221208 6.95E\u221208 5.90E\u221208 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3874, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1123, "book_page": 1122, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Phenol (hydroxy benzene) 4.46E\u221206 3.80E\u221206 6.54E\u221206 1.25E\u221205 Phosphorus 1.69E\u221203 1.71E\u221203 1.78E\u221203 1.41E\u221203 Platinum 1.70E\u221211 1.58E\u221211 2.28E\u221211 1.64E\u221211 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB unspecified) 3.81E\u221208 3.31E\u221208 6.03E\u221208 2.97E\u221208 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (2,3,7,8\u2014TCDD) 6.50E\u221209 6.63E\u221209 6.91E\u221209 5.44E\u221209 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) 5.11E\u221205 7.41E\u221205 5.46E\u221205 4.63E\u221205 Propane 8.26E\u221203 9.58E\u221203 8.81E\u221203 8.00E\u221203 Propanol (iso-propanol; isopropanol) 6.59E\u221206 3.06E\u221206 3.08E\u221206 2.74E\u221206 Propene (propylene) 1.27E\u221204 1.12E\u221204 1.46E\u221204 1.19E\u221204 Propionaldehyde 1.32E\u221208 7.18E\u221209 1.64E\u221208 6.53E\u221209 Propionic acid (propane acid) 5.10E\u221206 4.23E\u221206 5.75E\u221206 3.82E\u221206 Propylene oxide 1.40E\u221206 1.12E\u221206 1.15E\u221206 1.00E\u221206 R 11 (trichlorofluoromethane) 4.22E\u221207 1.16E\u221206 2.11E\u221207 5.00E\u221207 R 113 (trichlorofluoroethane) 8.09E\u221210 3.76E\u221210 3.79E\u221210 3.36E\u221210 R 114 (dichlorotetrafluoroethane) 7.19E\u221207 1.42E\u221206 5.70E\u221207 7.41E\u221207 R 116", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3875, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1124, "book_page": 1123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.22E\u221207 1.16E\u221206 2.11E\u221207 5.00E\u221207 R 113 (trichlorofluoroethane) 8.09E\u221210 3.76E\u221210 3.79E\u221210 3.36E\u221210 R 114 (dichlorotetrafluoroethane) 7.19E\u221207 1.42E\u221206 5.70E\u221207 7.41E\u221207 R 116 (hexafluoroethane) 2.44E\u221206 8.08E\u221206 2.11E\u221206 1.88E\u221206 R 12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) 3.98E\u221206 2.73E\u221206 2.72E\u221206 3.85E\u221206 R 13 (chlorotrifluoromethane) 5.70E\u221208 1.57E\u221207 2.85E\u221208 6.76E\u221208 R 134a (tetrafluoroethane) 2.07E\u221208 1.57E\u221208 2.29E\u221208 1.55E\u221208 R 152a (difluoroethane) 1.91E\u221208 1.51E\u221208 2.42E\u221208 1.51E\u221208 R 21 (dichlorofluoromethane) 1.21E\u221211 6.81E\u221212 7.00E\u221212 6.56E\u221212 R 22 (chlorodifluoromethane) 2.19E\u221206 1.85E\u221206 2.17E\u221206 1.59E\u221206 R 23 (trifluoromethane) 3.84E\u221209 2.17E\u221209 2.23E\u221209 2.09E\u221209 Radioactive emissions to air 5.07E\u221206 4.93E\u221206 6.27E\u221206 4.09E\u221206 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3876, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1124, "book_page": 1123, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Rhodium \u22121.09E\u221214 \u22125.95E\u221214 \u22128.71E\u221215 \u22128.69E\u221215 Scandium 1.90E\u221208 1.69E\u221208 6.06E\u221208 1.52E\u221208 Selenium 7.02E\u221205 7.31E\u221205 7.47E\u221205 5.87E\u221205 Silicium tetrafluoride 2.69E\u221208 1.76E\u221208 1.80E\u221208 1.72E\u221208 Silver 3.57E\u221209 2.90E\u221209 9.33E\u221209 2.93E\u221209 Sodium chlorate 1.21E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 1.16E\u221207 1.05E\u221207 Sodium dichromate 3.44E\u221207 3.37E\u221207 4.66E\u221207 2.83E\u221207 Sodium formate 4.91E\u221207 4.87E\u221207 4.91E\u221207 4.86E\u221207 Sodium hydro 1.71E\u221207 7.94E\u221208 8.02E\u221208 7.11E\u221208 Steam 3.05E+02 3.34E+02 3.22E+02 2.62E+02 Strontium 5.10E\u221206 4.19E\u221206 1.19E\u221205 3.95E\u221206 Styrene 5.06E\u221207 4.23E\u221207 7.34E\u221207 5.74E\u221207 Sulphate 1.99E\u221210 2.91E\u221210 2.99E\u221210 1.55E\u221210 Sulphur dioxide 5.44E\u221201 5.62E\u221201 6.95E\u221201 4.62E\u221201 Sulphur hexafluoride 2.85E\u221206 2.06E\u221206 3.11E\u221206 2.03E\u221206 Sulphuric acid 1.15E\u221207 1.56E\u221207 6.24E\u221208 8.50E\u221208 Tellurium 1.60E\u221209 1.70E\u221209 1.68E\u221209 1.37E\u221209 Terpenes 5.87E\u221208 5.29E\u221208 5.49E\u221208 5.17E\u221208 Tetrachloroethene (perchloroethylene) 1.88E\u221205 4.51E\u221205 7.56E\u221204 4.51E\u221205", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3877, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1125, "book_page": 1124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.56E\u221207 6.24E\u221208 8.50E\u221208 Tellurium 1.60E\u221209 1.70E\u221209 1.68E\u221209 1.37E\u221209 Terpenes 5.87E\u221208 5.29E\u221208 5.49E\u221208 5.17E\u221208 Tetrachloroethene (perchloroethylene) 1.88E\u221205 4.51E\u221205 7.56E\u221204 4.51E\u221205 Tetrafluoromethane 2.14E\u221205 7.25E\u221205 1.88E\u221205 1.67E\u221205 Thallium 1.21E\u221207 1.15E\u221207 7.95E\u221208 9.26E\u221208 Thorium (Th230) 4.10E\u221209 3.44E\u221209 5.17E\u221209 3.05E\u221209 Thorium (Th232) 6.85E\u221207 5.43E\u221207 1.18E\u221206 5.28E\u221207 Tin (+IV) 9.88E\u221205 1.01E\u221204 1.12E\u221204 9.27E\u221205 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3878, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1125, "book_page": 1124, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Tin oxide 5.09E\u221213 8.08E\u221213 3.55E\u221213 4.46E\u221213 Titanium 5.62E\u221206 5.06E\u221206 1.80E\u221205 4.58E\u221206 Toluene (methyl benzene) 2.23E\u221203 2.22E\u221203 2.32E\u221203 1.83E\u221203 Trichloromethane (chloroform) 3.33E\u221208 1.98E\u221208 2.40E\u221208 1.88E\u221208 Trimethylbenzene 4.96E\u221212 7.87E\u221212 3.46E\u221212 4.34E\u221212 Uranium (total) 4.38E\u221206 4.38E\u221206 5.09E\u221206 3.56E\u221206 Used air 7.05E+00 1.56E+01 \u22121.50E+00 1.55E+01 Vanadium (+III) 1.14E\u221204 1.14E\u221204 1.15E\u221204 8.98E\u221205 Vinyl chloride (VCM; chloroethene) 2.91E\u221206 2.07E\u221206 5.86E\u221204 1.84E\u221205 VOC (unspecified) 3.92E\u221205 4.23E\u221205 6.96E\u221204 4.07E\u221205 Wood (dust) 1.88E\u221210 2.98E\u221210 1.31E\u221210 1.65E\u221210 Xylene (dimethyl benzene) 3.37E\u221203 3.51E\u221203 3.57E\u221203 2.82E\u221203 Xylene (meta-xylene; 1,3-dimethylbenzene) 2.97E\u221204 2.96E\u221204 3.07E\u221204 2.44E\u221204 Zinc (+II) 1.02E\u221203 1.27E\u221203 1.40E\u221203 8.37E\u221204 Zinc oxide 1.02E\u221212 1.62E\u221212 7.10E\u221213 8.92E\u221213 Zinc sulphate 4.54E\u221209 6.99E\u221209 4.81E\u221209 5.68E\u221209 Emissions to freshwater 1,2-dibromoethane 3.95E\u221211 4.57E\u221211 2.97E\u221211", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3879, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1126, "book_page": 1125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.27E\u221203 1.40E\u221203 8.37E\u221204 Zinc oxide 1.02E\u221212 1.62E\u221212 7.10E\u221213 8.92E\u221213 Zinc sulphate 4.54E\u221209 6.99E\u221209 4.81E\u221209 5.68E\u221209 Emissions to freshwater 1,2-dibromoethane 3.95E\u221211 4.57E\u221211 2.97E\u221211 3.27E\u221211 1-butanol 1.11E\u221207 5.16E\u221208 5.22E\u221208 4.63E\u221208 Acenaphthene 4.75E\u221209 4.54E\u221209 4.29E\u221209 3.98E\u221209 Acenaphthylene 6.41E\u221210 9.52E\u221210 6.95E\u221210 8.26E\u221210 Acetaldehyde (Ethanal) 2.03E\u221207 9.43E\u221208 9.53E\u221208 8.45E\u221208 Acetic acid 2.31E\u221205 1.56E\u221205 9.00E\u221206 1.72E\u221205 Acetone (dimethylcetone) 1.10E\u221210 4.32E\u221210 2.84E\u221210 8.43E\u221211 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3880, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1126, "book_page": 1125, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Acid (calculated as H +) 9.13E\u221205 4.21E\u221204 2.07E\u221204 1.18E\u221204 Acrylic acid 4.03E\u221208 1.87E\u221208 1.89E\u221208 1.68E\u221208 Acrylonitrile 2.66E\u221210 4.08E\u221210 1.45E\u221210 3.24E\u221210 Adsorbable organic halogen compounds (AOX) 3.90E\u221205 3.41E\u221205 2.47E\u221205 3.23E\u221205 Alkane (unspecified) 7.90E\u221205 5.50E\u221205 6.46E\u221205 4.90E\u221205 Alkene (unspecified) 7.29E\u221206 5.08E\u221206 5.96E\u221206 4.52E\u221206 Aluminium (+III) 6.72E+00 7.10E+00 7.12E+00 5.66E+00 Aluminium (+III) 1.82E\u221203 2.45E\u221203 7.38E\u221203 1.80E\u221203 Ammonia 4.43E\u221207 4.70E\u221207 1.16E\u221207 3.68E\u221207 Ammonium/ammonia 1.64E\u221205 1.25E\u221205 2.79E\u221203 1.34E\u221205 Ammonium/ammonia 1.79E\u221203 1.67E\u221203 3.10E\u221203 5.15E\u221203 Analytical measures to freshwater 4.23E+00 3.85E+00 5.21E+00 3.25E+00 Anthracene 1.56E\u221209 2.98E\u221209 1.87E\u221209 2.49E\u221209 Antimony 3.82E\u221205 1.99E\u221205 6.67E\u221205 7.28E\u221205 Antimony 2.16E\u221205 1.15E\u221205 2.03E\u221205 4.03E\u221205 Aromatic hydrocarbons (unspecified) 3.21E\u221204 2.25E\u221204 2.78E\u221204 2.00E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 9.48E\u221204 9.66E\u221204 1.02E\u221203 7.93E\u221204 Arsenic (+V)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3881, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1127, "book_page": 1126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.67E\u221205 7.28E\u221205 Antimony 2.16E\u221205 1.15E\u221205 2.03E\u221205 4.03E\u221205 Aromatic hydrocarbons (unspecified) 3.21E\u221204 2.25E\u221204 2.78E\u221204 2.00E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 9.48E\u221204 9.66E\u221204 1.02E\u221203 7.93E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 8.62E\u221204 8.71E\u221204 9.34E\u221204 7.20E\u221204 Barium 4.92E\u221204 4.00E\u221204 2.07E\u221203 4.01E\u221204 Barium 5.56E\u221204 4.25E\u221204 9.33E\u221204 3.73E\u221204 Benzene 9.88E\u221205 6.16E\u221205 7.41E\u221205 1.31E\u221204 Benzo(a)anthracene 1.27E\u221210 2.53E\u221210 1.62E\u221210 2.24E\u221210 Benzofluoranthene 5.13E\u221211 1.14E\u221210 7.24E\u221211 1.07E\u221210 Beryllium 3.44E\u221206 2.66E\u221206 7.92E\u221206 2.64E\u221206 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3882, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1127, "book_page": 1126, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Beryllium 1.12E\u221208 1.19E\u221208 1.43E\u221208 9.18E\u221209 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 1.43E\u221201 9.34E\u221202 1.17E\u221201 8.63E\u221202 Boron 6.11E\u221203 6.12E\u221203 6.58E\u221203 5.10E\u221203 Boron 2.23E\u221203 2.28E\u221203 2.38E\u221203 1.88E\u221203 Bromate 6.12E\u221204 5.08E\u221204 5.42E\u221204 4.18E\u221204 Bromine 9.04E\u221204 9.18E\u221204 1.44E\u221203 7.70E\u221204 Bromine 4.69E\u221203 4.63E\u221203 4.93E\u221203 3.89E\u221203 Butene 1.86E\u221207 2.98E\u221207 3.77E\u221206 2.31E\u221205 Butylene glycol (butane diol) 1.41E\u221210 6.58E\u221211 6.67E\u221211 5.90E\u221211 butyrolactone 2.45E\u221210 1.14E\u221210 1.16E\u221210 1.02E\u221210 Cadmium (+II) 2.15E\u221205 2.16E\u221205 4.16E\u221205 1.81E\u221205 Cadmium (+II) 1.19E\u221205 1.22E\u221205 1.17E\u221205 9.81E\u221206 Calcium (+II) 1.74E+01 1.78E+01 1.86E+01 1.46E+01 Calcium (+II) 2.90E\u221201 2.90E\u221201 2.71E\u221201 2.46E\u221201 Carbon, organically bound 3.78E\u221205 6.39E\u221205 4.17E\u221205 5.21E\u221205 Carbonate 4.50E\u221204 6.78E\u221204 7.71E\u221203 7.18E\u221204 Cesium 6.08E\u221207 4.23E\u221207 4.97E\u221207 3.77E\u221207 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 3.71E+00 3.61E+00 4.79E+00 3.00E+00 Chlorate 4.68E\u221203 3.88E\u221203 6.37E\u221203 3.21E\u221203", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3883, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1128, "book_page": 1127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Carbonate 4.50E\u221204 6.78E\u221204 7.71E\u221203 7.18E\u221204 Cesium 6.08E\u221207 4.23E\u221207 4.97E\u221207 3.77E\u221207 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 3.71E+00 3.61E+00 4.79E+00 3.00E+00 Chlorate 4.68E\u221203 3.88E\u221203 6.37E\u221203 3.21E\u221203 Chloride 9.62E\u221202 8.47E\u221202 3.11E+00 7.03E\u221202 Chloride 7.65E+00 7.62E+00 8.42E+00 6.34E+00 Chlorinated hydrocarbons (unspecified) 8.88E\u221208 2.13E\u221207 3.58E\u221206 2.13E\u221207 Chlorine (dissolved) 5.85E\u221205 1.51E\u221204 7.49E\u221205 6.81E\u221205 Chlorobenzene 9.81E\u221207 4.57E\u221207 4.63E\u221207 4.10E\u221207 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3884, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1128, "book_page": 1127, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Chloromethane (methyl chloride) 1.74E\u221208 1.90E\u221208 \u22125.10E\u221209 1.49E\u221208 Chlorous dissolvent 1.11E\u221205 7.31E\u221206 7.49E\u221206 8.47E\u221206 Chromium (+III) 1.40E\u221207 3.34E\u221207 7.86E\u221208 1.58E\u221207 Chromium (+VI) 1.26E\u221203 1.13E\u221203 1.46E\u221203 9.95E\u221204 Chromium (+VI) 4.39E\u221204 3.85E\u221204 4.94E\u221204 3.39E\u221204 Chromium (unspecified) 1.15E\u221205 1.65E\u221205 1.00E\u221204 1.44E\u221205 Chrysene 5.36E\u221210 1.09E\u221209 7.00E\u221210 9.78E\u221210 Cobalt 4.27E\u221203 4.11E\u221203 6.06E\u221203 3.42E\u221203 Cobalt 2.95E\u221205 6.63E\u221206 2.68E\u221205 6.44E\u221206 Copper (+II) 1.42E\u221202 1.35E\u221202 1.56E\u221202 1.13E\u221202 Copper (+II) 2.49E\u221205 2.39E\u221205 7.19E\u221205 4.95E\u221205 Cresol (methyl phenol) 4.50E\u221210 4.65E\u221210 \u22123.99E\u221210 3.44E\u221210 Cumene (isopropylbenzene) 6.06E\u221205 3.31E\u221205 3.95E\u221205 8.35E\u221205 Cyanide 2.20E\u221205 2.53E\u221205 2.65E\u221205 1.94E\u221205 Dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) 1.47E\u221206 5.60E\u221207 1.92E\u221205 6.48E\u221207 Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 1.04E\u221205 6.90E\u221206 8.37E\u221206 6.24E\u221206 Dichloropropane 3.63E\u221215 5.58E\u221215 1.99E\u221215 4.43E\u221215 Dichromate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3885, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1129, "book_page": 1128, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(ethylene dichloride) 1.47E\u221206 5.60E\u221207 1.92E\u221205 6.48E\u221207 Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 1.04E\u221205 6.90E\u221206 8.37E\u221206 6.24E\u221206 Dichloropropane 3.63E\u221215 5.58E\u221215 1.99E\u221215 4.43E\u221215 Dichromate 1.25E\u221206 1.22E\u221206 1.70E\u221206 1.03E\u221206 Dissolved organic carbon, DOC (ecoinvent) 1.40E+00 1.38E+00 2.20E+00 1.14E+00 Ecoinvent long-term to freshwater 2.02E+01 2.06E+01 2.15E+01 1.69E+01 Emissions to freshwater 3.55E+01 3.53E+01 3.90E+01 2.93E+01 Ethanol 2.56E\u221207 1.19E\u221207 1.20E\u221207 1.06E\u221207 Ethene (ethylene) 6.84E\u221205 2.64E\u221205 1.52E\u221205 4.03E\u221205 Ethyl benzene 1.47E\u221205 1.04E\u221205 1.21E\u221205 9.23E\u221206 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3886, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1129, "book_page": 1128, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Ethylene acetate (ethyl acetate) 1.74E\u221211 8.10E\u221212 8.19E\u221212 7.25E\u221212 Ethylene oxide 5.11E\u221208 2.92E\u221208 2.44E\u221208 2.83E\u221208 Ethylenediamine 1.58E\u221209 1.58E\u221209 1.59E\u221209 1.58E\u221209 Fatty acids (calculated as total carbon) 2.24E\u221203 1.56E\u221203 1.83E\u221203 1.39E\u221203 Fluoranthene 1.59E\u221210 3.41E\u221210 1.95E\u221210 2.80E\u221210 Fluoride 4.02E\u221201 4.13E\u221201 4.26E\u221201 3.38E\u221201 Fluorine 1.36E\u221207 1.48E\u221207 1.20E\u221207 1.25E\u221207 Formaldehyde (methanal) 7.18E\u221205 1.95E\u221205 1.57E\u221205 2.17E\u221205 Freshwater 1.94E+01 1.97E+01 2.57E+01 1.61E+01 Halogenated organic emissions to freshwater 2.43E\u221205 1.56E\u221205 1.18E\u221204 1.61E\u221205 Heavy metals to freshwater 2.37E\u221202 2.17E\u221202 3.04E\u221202 1.83E\u221202 Heavy metals to water (unspecified) 2.87E\u221207 3.04E\u221207 2.51E\u221207 2.40E\u221207 Hexafluorosilicates 2.19E\u221206 1.75E\u221206 2.13E\u221206 1.66E\u221206 Hexane (isomers) 4.94E\u221211 5.14E\u221211 \u22124.33E\u221211 3.79E\u221211 Hydrocarbons (unspecified) 8.69E\u221205 7.86E\u221205 3.77E\u221204 1.40E\u221204 Hydrocarbons to freshwater 4.59E\u221202 2.92E\u221202 3.60E\u221202 2.68E\u221202", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3887, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1130, "book_page": 1129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.13E\u221206 1.66E\u221206 Hexane (isomers) 4.94E\u221211 5.14E\u221211 \u22124.33E\u221211 3.79E\u221211 Hydrocarbons (unspecified) 8.69E\u221205 7.86E\u221205 3.77E\u221204 1.40E\u221204 Hydrocarbons to freshwater 4.59E\u221202 2.92E\u221202 3.60E\u221202 2.68E\u221202 Hydrogen chloride 1.21E\u221208 1.29E\u221208 1.24E\u221208 1.04E\u221208 Hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid) 1.23E\u221209 2.42E\u221209 \u22129.55E\u221209 1.96E\u221209 Hydrogen peroxide 2.22E\u221206 1.99E\u221206 2.08E\u221206 1.97E\u221206 Hydrogen sulphide 2.12E\u221203 2.15E\u221203 2.76E\u221203 1.77E\u221203 Hydrogen sulphide 2.66E\u221206 2.23E\u221206 3.36E\u221206 1.99E\u221206 Hydroxide 2.36E\u221204 1.27E\u221203 1.89E\u221204 1.88E\u221204 Hypochlorite 8.90E\u221206 7.61E\u221206 1.17E\u221205 7.73E\u221206 Inorganic emissions to freshwater 1.09E+01 1.07E+01 1.20E+01 8.93E+00 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3888, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1130, "book_page": 1129, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Inorganic salts and acids (unspecified) 7.77E\u221204 1.86E\u221203 3.13E\u221202 1.86E\u221203 Iodide 7.65E\u221211 5.87E\u221211 2.88E\u221210 6.55E\u221211 Iodide 1.08E\u221204 9.05E\u221205 1.01E\u221204 7.74E\u221205 Iron 2.64E\u221201 2.66E\u221201 3.17E\u221201 2.21E\u221201 Iron 1.92E\u221202 1.77E\u221202 2.57E\u221202 1.49E\u221202 Lead (+II) 2.63E\u221203 1.81E\u221203 1.91E\u221203 1.57E\u221203 Lead (+II) 2.57E\u221205 3.13E\u221205 5.79E\u221205 2.32E\u221205 Lithium 1.18E\u221205 4.65E\u221205 3.05E\u221205 9.06E\u221206 Magnesium (+III) 2.24E+00 2.27E+00 2.38E+00 1.87E+00 Magnesium (+III) 3.90E\u221202 3.88E\u221202 4.12E\u221202 3.21E\u221202 Magnesium chloride \u22123.07E\u221209 \u22121.68E\u221208 \u22122.46E\u221209 \u22122.45E\u221209 Manganese (+II) 2.33E\u221202 2.33E\u221202 2.52E\u221202 1.93E\u221202 Manganese (+II) 6.06E\u221204 6.05E\u221204 6.33E\u221204 4.98E\u221204 Mercury (+II) 4.11E\u221206 4.01E\u221206 1.09E\u221205 3.70E\u221206 Mercury (+II) 2.19E\u221206 2.09E\u221206 2.62E\u221206 1.74E\u221206 Metal ions (unspecific) 3.41E\u221202 2.68E\u221203 1.02E\u221202 2.46E\u221203 Metal ions (unspecific) 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 \u22123.56E\u221205 0.00E+00 Metals (unspecified) 1.88E\u221205 4.18E\u221205 1.15E\u221203 4.18E\u221205 Methanol 6.61E\u221204", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3889, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1131, "book_page": 1130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Metal ions (unspecific) 3.41E\u221202 2.68E\u221203 1.02E\u221202 2.46E\u221203 Metal ions (unspecific) 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 \u22123.56E\u221205 0.00E+00 Metals (unspecified) 1.88E\u221205 4.18E\u221205 1.15E\u221203 4.18E\u221205 Methanol 6.61E\u221204 6.35E\u221204 6.29E\u221204 5.82E\u221204 Methyl acrylate 3.78E\u221207 1.75E\u221207 1.77E\u221207 1.57E\u221207 Methyl amine 8.84E\u221211 4.12E\u221211 4.17E\u221211 3.69E\u221211 Methyl isobutyl ketone 4.60E\u221211 1.81E\u221210 1.19E\u221210 3.54E\u221211 Methyl tert-butylether 3.04E\u221208 1.60E\u221208 1.01E\u221208 1.49E\u221208 Methylformate 2.99E\u221211 1.39E\u221211 1.40E\u221211 1.24E\u221211 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3890, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1131, "book_page": 1130, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Molybdenum 3.17E\u221204 2.98E\u221204 3.01E\u221204 2.47E\u221204 Molybdenum 1.01E\u221204 8.97E\u221205 1.00E\u221204 7.74E\u221205 Naphthalene 5.99E\u221208 1.12E\u221207 7.28E\u221208 9.66E\u221208 n-Butyl acetate 1.44E\u221207 6.71E\u221208 6.78E\u221208 6.01E\u221208 Neutral salts 1.60E\u221209 1.07E\u221208 \u22124.77E\u221208 6.87E\u221210 Nickel (+II) 5.30E\u221203 5.47E\u221203 1.22E\u221202 4.62E\u221203 Nickel (+II) 4.41E\u221205 4.63E\u221205 1.04E\u221204 6.68E\u221205 Nitrate 1.21E\u221201 1.24E\u221201 1.29E\u221201 1.02E\u221201 Nitrate 1.66E\u221201 6.13E\u221202 6.94E\u221202 9.12E\u221202 Nitrite 8.93E\u221207 6.79E\u221207 1.52E\u221204 7.30E\u221207 Nitrite 1.97E\u221205 2.02E\u221205 9.74E\u221205 1.84E\u221205 Nitrogen 1.37E\u221203 1.06E\u221203 1.59E\u221203 1.09E\u221203 Nitrogen organic bounded 2.68E\u221205 2.03E\u221205 4.57E\u221203 2.19E\u221205 Nitrogen organic bounded 2.05E\u221204 2.63E\u221204 3.59E\u221204 1.81E\u221204 Oil (unspecified) 4.17E\u221202 2.62E\u221202 3.23E\u221202 2.38E\u221202 Organic chlorine compounds (unspecified) 2.81E\u221209 2.81E\u221209 5.86E\u221206 2.81E\u221209 Organic compounds (dissolved) 2.29E\u221206 2.29E\u221206 1.26E\u221204 2.29E\u221206 Organic compounds (unspecified) 3.31E\u221209 3.31E\u221209 1.47E\u221203", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3891, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1132, "book_page": 1131, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "chlorine compounds (unspecified) 2.81E\u221209 2.81E\u221209 5.86E\u221206 2.81E\u221209 Organic compounds (dissolved) 2.29E\u221206 2.29E\u221206 1.26E\u221204 2.29E\u221206 Organic compounds (unspecified) 3.31E\u221209 3.31E\u221209 1.47E\u221203 3.31E\u221209 Organic emissions to freshwater 4.60E\u221202 2.93E\u221202 3.78E\u221202 2.69E\u221202 Particles to freshwater 1.48E\u221201 1.68E\u221201 2.16E\u221201 1.72E\u221201 Phenol (hydroxy benzene) 6.40E\u221205 4.77E\u221205 5.88E\u221205 5.23E\u221205 Phosphate 1.17E\u221201 1.18E\u221201 1.25E\u221201 9.79E\u221202 Phosphate 7.05E\u221204 3.82E\u221204 1.26E\u221203 3.31E\u221204 Phosphorus 1.73E\u221204 8.25E\u221205 4.12E\u221204 1.37E\u221204 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3892, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1132, "book_page": 1131, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (2,3,7,8\u2014TCDD) 1.80E\u221213 1.80E\u221213 6.17E\u221208 1.80E\u221213 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, unspec.) 4.84E\u221206 4.86E\u221206 3.84E\u221206 3.46E\u221206 Potassium 2.48E+00 2.52E+00 2.63E+00 2.08E+00 Potassium 5.19E\u221201 5.27E\u221201 5.51E\u221201 4.35E\u221201 Propene 2.88E\u221205 1.70E\u221205 2.41E\u221205 6.62E\u221205 Propylene oxide 3.37E\u221206 2.70E\u221206 2.76E\u221206 2.41E\u221206 Rubidium 8.55E\u221206 5.79E\u221206 6.88E\u221206 5.19E\u221206 Scandium 5.89E\u221206 4.50E\u221206 8.90E\u221206 4.41E\u221206 Scandium 1.40E\u221206 1.07E\u221206 2.01E\u221206 1.05E\u221206 Selenium 2.87E\u221204 2.92E\u221204 3.10E\u221204 2.41E\u221204 Selenium 1.42E\u221204 1.44E\u221204 1.51E\u221204 1.19E\u221204 Silicate particles \u22122.87E\u221209 \u22126.82E\u221209 \u22121.21E\u221207 \u22127.04E\u221209 Silicon dioxide (silica) 9.30E\u221221 9.30E\u221221 2.41E\u221219 9.30E\u221221 Silver 1.46E\u221207 1.20E\u221207 7.49E\u221207 1.88E\u221207 Silver 6.25E\u221207 5.22E\u221207 5.59E\u221207 3.99E\u221207 Sodium (+I) 1.05E+00 1.06E+00 1.13E+00 8.76E\u221201 Sodium (+I) 6.63E\u221201 5.79E\u221201 8.14E\u221201 4.96E\u221201 Sodium chloride (rock salt) 3.29E\u221210 1.75E\u221209 \u22125.74E\u221210 3.39E\u221210", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3893, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1133, "book_page": 1132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6.25E\u221207 5.22E\u221207 5.59E\u221207 3.99E\u221207 Sodium (+I) 1.05E+00 1.06E+00 1.13E+00 8.76E\u221201 Sodium (+I) 6.63E\u221201 5.79E\u221201 8.14E\u221201 4.96E\u221201 Sodium chloride (rock salt) 3.29E\u221210 1.75E\u221209 \u22125.74E\u221210 3.39E\u221210 Sodium formate 1.18E\u221206 1.17E\u221206 1.18E\u221206 1.17E\u221206 Sodium hypochlorite 7.30E\u221209 2.43E\u221208 \u22124.24E\u221207 5.77E\u221209 Soil loss by erosion into water 1.56E\u221208 4.54E\u221208 2.09E\u221208 3.93E\u221208 Solids (dissolved) 9.07E\u221202 8.25E\u221202 2.22E\u221201 9.13E\u221202 Solids (suspended) 3.96E+00 3.92E+00 5.63E+00 3.28E+00 Solids (suspended) 1.48E\u221201 1.68E\u221201 2.15E\u221201 1.72E\u221201 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3894, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1133, "book_page": 1132, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Strontium 3.98E\u221204 3.10E\u221204 1.13E\u221203 3.09E\u221204 Strontium 1.91E\u221203 1.62E\u221203 1.76E\u221203 1.38E\u221203 Sulphate 3.58E+00 3.59E+00 3.80E+00 2.97E+00 Sulphate 1.10E+00 1.12E+00 1.29E+00 9.30E\u221201 Sulphide 7.68E\u221205 1.31E\u221204 9.06E\u221205 1.14E\u221204 Sulphite 3.12E\u221204 3.13E\u221204 3.43E\u221204 2.65E\u221204 Sulphur 2.32E\u221204 8.72E\u221205 1.18E\u221204 7.93E\u221205 Sulphuric acid 1.56E\u221206 1.66E\u221206 1.60E\u221206 1.34E\u221206 Suspended solids, unspecified \u22121.91E\u221220 \u22125.54E\u221220 \u22123.19E\u221220 \u22121.06E\u221220 Thallium 2.74E\u221206 2.65E\u221206 5.83E\u221206 2.28E\u221206 Thallium 9.72E\u221208 8.37E\u221208 1.28E\u221207 8.46E\u221208 Tin (+IV) 3.56E\u221203 3.52E\u221203 6.24E\u221203 2.91E\u221203 Tin (+IV) 1.14E\u221206 1.13E\u221206 1.68E\u221206 1.09E\u221206 Titanium 5.92E\u221205 6.31E\u221206 1.01E\u221205 5.80E\u221206 Toluene (methyl benzene) 7.16E\u221205 5.16E\u221205 6.11E\u221205 4.57E\u221205 Total dissolved organic bounded carbon 1.41E\u221201 3.07E\u221202 3.73E\u221202 2.80E\u221202 Total organic bounded carbon 1.44E\u221201 3.37E\u221202 4.14E\u221202 3.83E\u221202 Trichloromethane (chloroform) 2.26E\u221209 1.05E\u221209 1.06E\u221209 9.41E\u221210 Tungsten 3.26E\u221206", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3895, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1134, "book_page": 1133, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "bounded carbon 1.41E\u221201 3.07E\u221202 3.73E\u221202 2.80E\u221202 Total organic bounded carbon 1.44E\u221201 3.37E\u221202 4.14E\u221202 3.83E\u221202 Trichloromethane (chloroform) 2.26E\u221209 1.05E\u221209 1.06E\u221209 9.41E\u221210 Tungsten 3.26E\u221206 2.50E\u221206 4.43E\u221206 2.47E\u221206 Tungsten 1.98E\u221206 1.52E\u221206 2.67E\u221206 1.50E\u221206 Vanadium (+III) 1.07E\u221203 9.44E\u221204 1.66E\u221203 7.94E\u221204 Vanadium (+III) 8.97E\u221206 8.31E\u221206 1.11E\u221205 7.14E\u221206 Vinyl chloride (VCM; chloroethene) 1.71E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 7.84E\u221205 1.13E\u221207 VOC (unspecified) 2.17E\u221204 1.51E\u221204 1.79E\u221204 1.35E\u221204 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3896, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1134, "book_page": 1133, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Xylene (isomers; dimethyl benzene) 5.89E\u221205 4.21E\u221205 4.80E\u221205 3.73E\u221205 Xylene (meta-Xylene; 1,3-Dimethylbenzene) 3.32E\u221210 1.31E\u221209 8.61E\u221210 2.55E\u221210 Xylene (ortho-xylene; 1,2-Dimethylbenzene) 2.42E\u221210 9.54E\u221210 6.27E\u221210 1.86E\u221210 Zinc (+II) 3.46E\u221202 1.27E\u221202 4.05E\u221203 1.23E\u221202 Zinc (+II) 1.78E\u221204 1.43E\u221204 2.18E\u221204 1.21E\u221204 Emissions to agricultural soil 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 2.37E\u221208 2.13E\u221208 2.21E\u221208 2.08E\u221208 Aclonifen 1.38E\u221205 1.49E\u221207 8.68E\u221208 1.37E\u221207 Aldrin 4.38E\u221210 2.04E\u221210 2.05E\u221210 1.82E\u221210 Aluminium 6.80E\u221203 6.79E\u221203 7.08E\u221203 5.60E\u221203 Antimony 1.65E\u221207 1.65E\u221207 1.65E\u221207 1.65E\u221207 Arsenic (+V) 2.26E\u221206 2.26E\u221206 2.34E\u221206 1.87E\u221206 Atrazine 1.15E\u221210 5.34E\u221211 5.39E\u221211 4.78E\u221211 Barium 3.16E\u221206 3.16E\u221206 3.16E\u221206 3.16E\u221206 Benomyl 1.51E\u221210 1.36E\u221210 1.41E\u221210 1.33E\u221210 Bentazone 7.05E\u221206 7.60E\u221208 4.43E\u221208 6.98E\u221208 Cadmium (+II) 5.35E\u221206 4.66E\u221206 4.83E\u221206 3.85E\u221206 Carbetamide 2.50E\u221206 3.17E\u221208 2.06E\u221208 2.95E\u221208 Carbofuran", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3897, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1135, "book_page": 1134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Benomyl 1.51E\u221210 1.36E\u221210 1.41E\u221210 1.33E\u221210 Bentazone 7.05E\u221206 7.60E\u221208 4.43E\u221208 6.98E\u221208 Cadmium (+II) 5.35E\u221206 4.66E\u221206 4.83E\u221206 3.85E\u221206 Carbetamide 2.50E\u221206 3.17E\u221208 2.06E\u221208 2.95E\u221208 Carbofuran 8.26E\u221208 7.44E\u221208 7.72E\u221208 7.28E\u221208 Carbon (unspecified) 4.22E\u221203 4.20E\u221203 4.91E\u221203 3.48E\u221203 Chlorine 1.04E\u221203 1.04E\u221203 1.08E\u221203 8.58E\u221204 Chlorothalonil 4.78E\u221206 4.78E\u221206 4.81E\u221206 4.76E\u221206 Chromium (unspecified) 6.94E\u221205 6.39E\u221205 6.63E\u221205 5.27E\u221205 Cobalt 5.87E\u221206 5.87E\u221206 6.10E\u221206 4.84E\u221206 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3898, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1135, "book_page": 1134, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Copper (+II) 4.97E\u221205 5.40E\u221205 5.68E\u221205 4.46E\u221205 Cypermethrin 6.62E\u221208 1.13E\u221208 1.15E\u221208 1.11E\u221208 Different pollutants 1.48E\u221201 1.48E\u221201 1.53E\u221201 1.22E\u221201 Emissions to agricultural soil 2.36E\u221201 2.14E\u221201 2.29E\u221201 1.80E\u221201 Fenpiclonil 6.65E\u221207 1.93E\u221207 1.92E\u221207 1.92E\u221207 Glyphosate 7.05E\u221207 6.56E\u221207 6.75E\u221207 5.88E\u221207 Heavy metals to agricultural soil 1.54E\u221202 1.53E\u221202 1.63E\u221202 1.26E\u221202 Inorganic emissions to agricultural soil 1.41E\u221202 1.40E\u221202 1.46E\u221202 1.16E\u221202 Iron 7.65E\u221203 7.63E\u221203 8.33E\u221203 6.30E\u221203 Lead (+II) 2.29E\u221205 2.18E\u221205 2.28E\u221205 1.81E\u221205 Linuron 1.06E\u221204 1.15E\u221206 6.69E\u221207 1.05E\u221206 Mancozeb 6.20E\u221206 6.20E\u221206 6.24E\u221206 6.18E\u221206 Manganese (+II) 6.51E\u221203 6.51E\u221203 6.74E\u221203 5.36E\u221203 Mercury (+II) 1.27E\u221207 3.69E\u221208 4.22E\u221208 3.08E\u221208 Metaldehyde 4.72E\u221207 7.20E\u221209 5.10E\u221209 6.78E\u221209 Metolachlor 7.71E\u221204 8.30E\u221206 4.84E\u221206 7.63E\u221206 Metribuzin 2.18E\u221207 2.18E\u221207 2.20E\u221207 2.18E\u221207 Molybdenum 1.21E\u221206 1.21E\u221206 1.27E\u221206 9.99E\u221207 Napropamide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3899, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1136, "book_page": 1135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.72E\u221207 7.20E\u221209 5.10E\u221209 6.78E\u221209 Metolachlor 7.71E\u221204 8.30E\u221206 4.84E\u221206 7.63E\u221206 Metribuzin 2.18E\u221207 2.18E\u221207 2.20E\u221207 2.18E\u221207 Molybdenum 1.21E\u221206 1.21E\u221206 1.27E\u221206 9.99E\u221207 Napropamide 8.36E\u221207 1.27E\u221208 9.03E\u221209 1.20E\u221208 Nickel (+II) 1.74E\u221205 1.83E\u221205 1.90E\u221205 1.51E\u221205 Oil (unspecified) 5.35E\u221202 3.31E\u221202 3.96E\u221202 3.01E\u221202 Orbencarb 1.18E\u221206 1.18E\u221206 1.19E\u221206 1.18E\u221206 Organic emissions to agricultural soil 5.77E\u221202 3.73E\u221202 4.45E\u221202 3.36E\u221202 Other emissions to agricultural soil 1.49E\u221201 1.48E\u221201 1.53E\u221201 1.22E\u221201 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3900, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1136, "book_page": 1135, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Pesticides to agricultural soil 9.18E\u221204 2.31E\u221205 1.91E\u221205 2.22E\u221205 Phosphorus 3.19E\u221203 3.19E\u221203 3.30E\u221203 2.63E\u221203 Pirimicarb 6.67E\u221207 7.19E\u221209 4.19E\u221209 6.61E\u221209 Strontium 2.72E\u221208 2.38E\u221208 2.73E\u221208 2.12E\u221208 Sulphur 3.02E\u221203 3.02E\u221203 3.18E\u221203 2.49E\u221203 Sulphuric acid 2.21E\u221211 1.03E\u221211 1.03E\u221211 9.19E\u221212 Tebutam 1.98E\u221206 3.02E\u221208 2.14E\u221208 2.84E\u221208 Teflubenzuron 1.46E\u221208 1.46E\u221208 1.47E\u221208 1.45E\u221208 Thiram 2.67E\u221210 2.41E\u221210 2.50E\u221210 2.36E\u221210 Tin (+IV) 3.57E\u221207 3.55E\u221207 4.20E\u221207 3.51E\u221207 Titanium 4.49E\u221204 4.49E\u221204 4.65E\u221204 3.70E\u221204 Vanadium (+III) 1.29E\u221205 1.29E\u221205 1.33E\u221205 1.06E\u221205 Zinc (+II) 5.59E\u221204 5.43E\u221204 5.65E\u221204 4.48E\u221204 Emissions to industrial soil Aluminium 4.12E\u221204 2.72E\u221204 3.31E\u221204 2.46E\u221204 Aluminium (+III) 7.37E\u221207 1.52E\u221206 9.21E\u221207 1.28E\u221206 Ammonia 3.45E\u221204 6.98E\u221204 4.33E\u221204 5.95E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 1.65E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 1.33E\u221207 9.90E\u221208 Barium 2.06E\u221204 1.36E\u221204 1.65E\u221204 1.23E\u221204 Bromide 9.86E\u221208 2.03E\u221207 1.25E\u221207 1.73E\u221207 Cadmium", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3901, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1137, "book_page": 1136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1.28E\u221206 Ammonia 3.45E\u221204 6.98E\u221204 4.33E\u221204 5.95E\u221204 Arsenic (+V) 1.65E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 1.33E\u221207 9.90E\u221208 Barium 2.06E\u221204 1.36E\u221204 1.65E\u221204 1.23E\u221204 Bromide 9.86E\u221208 2.03E\u221207 1.25E\u221207 1.73E\u221207 Cadmium (+II) 1.41E\u221208 1.24E\u221208 \u22126.97E\u221208 1.02E\u221208 Calcium (+II) 1.66E\u221203 1.10E\u221203 1.33E\u221203 9.91E\u221204 Carbon (unspecified) 1.24E\u221203 8.17E\u221204 9.92E\u221204 7.39E\u221204 Chloride 1.15E\u221204 2.37E\u221204 1.46E\u221204 2.02E\u221204 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3902, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1137, "book_page": 1136, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Chlorine 2.45E\u221202 2.31E\u221202 3.62E\u221202 2.03E\u221202 Chromium (+III) 1.12E\u221210 1.21E\u221210 1.17E\u221210 9.63E\u221211 Chromium (+VI) 1.01E\u221205 8.42E\u221206 2.51E\u221205 7.67E\u221206 Chromium (unspecified) 2.78E\u221206 2.76E\u221206 2.53E\u221206 2.42E\u221206 Cobalt 1.15E\u221208 2.37E\u221208 1.45E\u221208 2.02E\u221208 Copper (+II) 7.43E\u221206 6.20E\u221206 1.66E\u221205 5.72E\u221206 Different pollutants 4.72E\u221205 3.15E\u221205 4.08E\u221205 2.85E\u221205 Emissions to industrial soil 1.90E\u221201 1.90E\u221201 2.18E\u221201 1.57E\u221201 Fluoride 1.53E\u221201 1.56E\u221201 1.61E\u221201 1.27E\u221201 Glyphosate 2.36E\u221206 2.00E\u221206 2.08E\u221206 1.92E\u221206 Heavy metals to industrial soil 5.69E\u221203 4.93E\u221203 6.12E\u221203 4.65E\u221203 Inorganic emissions to industrial soil 1.83E\u221201 1.84E\u221201 2.10E\u221201 1.52E\u221201 Iron 5.38E\u221203 4.42E\u221203 5.74E\u221203 4.21E\u221203 Lead (+II) 5.66E\u221207 5.11E\u221207 5.24E\u221207 4.55E\u221207 Magnesium (+III) 3.31E\u221204 2.19E\u221204 2.65E\u221204 1.98E\u221204 Manganese (+II) 1.66E\u221205 1.12E\u221205 1.34E\u221205 1.01E\u221205 Mercury (+II) 1.39E\u221211 2.78E\u221211 1.74E\u221211 2.36E\u221211 Nickel (+II) 4.07E\u221207 6.12E\u221207 4.28E\u221207 5.06E\u221207", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3903, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1138, "book_page": 1137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(+III) 3.31E\u221204 2.19E\u221204 2.65E\u221204 1.98E\u221204 Manganese (+II) 1.66E\u221205 1.12E\u221205 1.34E\u221205 1.01E\u221205 Mercury (+II) 1.39E\u221211 2.78E\u221211 1.74E\u221211 2.36E\u221211 Nickel (+II) 4.07E\u221207 6.12E\u221207 4.28E\u221207 5.06E\u221207 Oil (unspecified) 3.21E\u221204 2.24E\u221204 2.26E\u221204 1.98E\u221204 Organic emissions to industrial soil 1.56E\u221203 1.04E\u221203 1.22E\u221203 9.37E\u221204 Other emissions to industrial soil 4.95E\u221205 3.35E\u221205 4.29E\u221205 3.04E\u221205 Pesticides to industrial soil 2.36E\u221206 2.00E\u221206 2.08E\u221206 1.92E\u221206 Phosphorus 5.64E\u221205 8.56E\u221205 6.13E\u221205 7.37E\u221205 Potassium (+I) 2.28E\u221204 2.67E\u221204 2.20E\u221204 2.32E\u221204 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3904, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1138, "book_page": 1137, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Sodium (+I) 1.11E\u221203 1.13E\u221203 9.47E\u221203 1.07E\u221203 Strontium 2.24E\u221204 4.45E\u221204 2.78E\u221204 3.80E\u221204 Sulphate 1.09E\u221205 2.22E\u221205 1.36E\u221205 1.88E\u221205 Sulphide 6.56E\u221205 1.33E\u221204 8.17E\u221205 1.13E\u221204 Sulphur 2.47E\u221204 1.63E\u221204 1.98E\u221204 1.48E\u221204 Zinc (+II) 4.51E\u221205 3.93E\u221205 4.10E\u221205 3.50E\u221205 Emissions to seawater Acenaphthene 5.53E\u221207 5.96E\u221207 5.97E\u221207 4.97E\u221207 Acenaphthylene 2.10E\u221207 2.26E\u221207 2.26E\u221207 1.88E\u221207 Acetic acid 1.04E\u221207 1.96E\u221207 1.41E\u221207 1.82E\u221207 Adsorbable organic halogen compounds (AOX) 9.38E\u221208 5.75E\u221208 6.98E\u221208 5.22E\u221208 Alkane (unspecified) 3.14E\u221205 1.96E\u221205 2.38E\u221205 1.78E\u221205 Alkene (unspecified) 2.90E\u221206 1.81E\u221206 2.20E\u221206 1.65E\u221206 Aluminium (+III) 8.43E\u221205 6.02E\u221205 7.50E\u221205 5.52E\u221205 Ammonia 4.59E\u221208 4.73E\u221208 \u22124.07E\u221208 3.51E\u221208 Ammonium/ammonia 2.93E\u221205 1.77E\u221205 2.15E\u221205 1.60E\u221205 Analytical measures to sea water 2.64E+00 2.58E+00 3.67E+00 2.13E+00 Anthracene 1.22E\u221207 1.33E\u221207 1.32E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 Aromatic hydrocarbons (unspecified) 1.36E\u221204", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3905, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1139, "book_page": 1138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2.93E\u221205 1.77E\u221205 2.15E\u221205 1.60E\u221205 Analytical measures to sea water 2.64E+00 2.58E+00 3.67E+00 2.13E+00 Anthracene 1.22E\u221207 1.33E\u221207 1.32E\u221207 1.10E\u221207 Aromatic hydrocarbons (unspecified) 1.36E\u221204 8.51E\u221205 1.03E\u221204 7.73E\u221205 Arsenic (+V) 1.42E\u221206 1.45E\u221206 1.10E\u221206 1.17E\u221206 Barium 4.15E\u221204 3.63E\u221204 3.83E\u221204 3.13E\u221204 Barytes 4.18E\u221203 2.83E\u221203 3.55E\u221203 2.59E\u221203 Benzene 1.18E\u221204 1.17E\u221204 1.20E\u221204 9.79E\u221205 Benzo(a)anthracene 1.25E\u221207 1.35E\u221207 1.35E\u221207 1.13E\u221207 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3906, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1139, "book_page": 1138, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Benzofluoranthene 1.41E\u221207 1.52E\u221207 1.52E\u221207 1.26E\u221207 Beryllium 3.39E\u221207 3.79E\u221207 3.70E\u221207 3.18E\u221207 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 1.19E+00 1.16E+00 1.43E+00 9.59E\u221201 Boron 2.06E\u221206 1.27E\u221206 1.48E\u221206 1.15E\u221206 Bromine 1.69E\u221204 1.06E\u221204 1.28E\u221204 9.60E\u221205 Cadmium (+II) 1.51E\u221206 1.60E\u221206 1.39E\u221206 1.28E\u221206 Calcium (+II) 1.55E\u221202 7.29E\u221203 8.32E\u221203 6.79E\u221203 Carbonate 1.25E\u221202 1.42E\u221202 1.36E\u221202 1.19E\u221202 Cesium 2.42E\u221207 1.51E\u221207 1.83E\u221207 1.37E\u221207 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 2.89E\u221202 2.01E\u221202 2.43E\u221202 1.80E\u221202 Chloride 1.10E+00 1.19E+00 1.16E+00 9.99E\u221201 Chlorous dissolvent 3.82E\u221213 1.86E\u221213 1.10E\u221213 1.71E\u221213 Chromium (unspecified) 1.28E\u221206 2.37E\u221206 1.31E\u221206 1.59E\u221206 Chrysene 7.11E\u221207 7.66E\u221207 7.67E\u221207 6.39E\u221207 Cobalt 5.94E\u221206 6.63E\u221206 6.48E\u221206 5.56E\u221206 Copper (+II) 4.29E\u221206 4.29E\u221206 3.74E\u221206 3.50E\u221206 Cresol (methyl phenol) 3.46E\u221210 3.56E\u221210 \u22123.07E\u221210 2.65E\u221210 Cyanide 2.77E\u221206 1.41E\u221206 1.53E\u221206 1.27E\u221206 Emissions to sea water 4.03E+00 3.90E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3907, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1140, "book_page": 1139, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Copper (+II) 4.29E\u221206 4.29E\u221206 3.74E\u221206 3.50E\u221206 Cresol (methyl phenol) 3.46E\u221210 3.56E\u221210 \u22123.07E\u221210 2.65E\u221210 Cyanide 2.77E\u221206 1.41E\u221206 1.53E\u221206 1.27E\u221206 Emissions to sea water 4.03E+00 3.90E+00 4.98E+00 3.25E+00 Ethyl benzene 3.36E\u221205 3.26E\u221205 3.41E\u221205 2.72E\u221205 Fatty acids (calculated as total carbon) 1.38E\u221203 8.65E\u221204 1.05E\u221203 7.87E\u221204 Fluoranthene 1.46E\u221207 1.58E\u221207 1.58E\u221207 1.31E\u221207 Fluoride 1.08E\u221204 4.22E\u221205 4.58E\u221205 4.00E\u221205 Glutaraldehyde 5.16E\u221207 3.50E\u221207 4.38E\u221207 3.20E\u221207 Halogenated organic emissions to sea water 3.82E\u221213 1.86E\u221213 1.10E\u221213 1.71E\u221213 (continued) Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3908, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1140, "book_page": 1139, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Heavy metals to sea water 9.17E\u221204 6.89E\u221204 7.79E\u221204 6.09E\u221204 Hexane (isomers) 3.78E\u221211 3.89E\u221211 \u22123.35E\u221211 2.89E\u221211 Hydrocarbons (unspecified) 7.85E\u221205 5.30E\u221205 6.65E\u221205 4.86E\u221205 Hydrocarbons to sea water 1.15E\u221202 8.14E\u221203 9.72E\u221203 7.26E\u221203 Hypochlorite 9.27E\u221206 7.93E\u221206 1.22E\u221205 8.06E\u221206 Inorganic emissions to sea water 1.35E+00 1.28E+00 1.26E+00 1.08E+00 Iodide 2.42E\u221205 1.51E\u221205 1.83E\u221205 1.37E\u221205 Iron 9.41E\u221205 8.97E\u221205 8.95E\u221205 7.58E\u221205 Lead (+II) 2.58E\u221206 1.96E\u221206 2.11E\u221206 1.71E\u221206 Magnesium 1.34E\u221203 8.38E\u221204 1.01E\u221203 7.61E\u221204 Manganese (+II) 1.86E\u221205 1.53E\u221205 1.65E\u221205 1.33E\u221205 Mercury (+II) 5.02E\u221208 5.30E\u221208 5.24E\u221208 4.45E\u221208 Methanol 6.30E\u221206 4.46E\u221206 5.89E\u221206 3.99E\u221206 Methyl tert-butylether 1.62E\u221206 9.82E\u221207 1.19E\u221206 8.92E\u221207 Molybdenum 5.11E\u221208 3.11E\u221208 3.75E\u221208 2.83E\u221208 Naphthalene 1.61E\u221205 1.75E\u221205 1.74E\u221205 1.46E\u221205 Nickel (+II) 3.68E\u221206 3.92E\u221206 3.65E\u221206 3.26E\u221206 Nitrate 1.33E\u221204 1.02E\u221204 1.41E\u221204 9.56E\u221205 Nitrite 1.56E\u221206", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3909, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1141, "book_page": 1140, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.11E\u221208 3.11E\u221208 3.75E\u221208 2.83E\u221208 Naphthalene 1.61E\u221205 1.75E\u221205 1.74E\u221205 1.46E\u221205 Nickel (+II) 3.68E\u221206 3.92E\u221206 3.65E\u221206 3.26E\u221206 Nitrate 1.33E\u221204 1.02E\u221204 1.41E\u221204 9.56E\u221205 Nitrite 1.56E\u221206 1.19E\u221206 1.91E\u221206 1.18E\u221206 Nitrogen 1.17E\u221206 7.45E\u221207 9.09E\u221207 6.75E\u221207 Nitrogen organic bounded 5.62E\u221205 2.75E\u221205 3.35E\u221205 2.55E\u221205 Oil (unspecified) 9.32E\u221203 6.58E\u221203 7.91E\u221203 5.87E\u221203 Organic emissions to sea water 1.15E\u221202 8.16E\u221203 9.74E\u221203 7.27E\u221203 Other emissions to sea water 1.78E\u221206 9.29E\u221207 1.29E\u221206 8.62E\u221207 Particles to sea water 3.82E\u221202 3.54E\u221202 3.72E\u221202 2.99E\u221202 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3910, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1141, "book_page": 1140, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.34 (continued) Substance W W/ALU PVC W/C Pesticides to sea water 1.78E\u221206 9.29E\u221207 1.29E\u221206 8.62E\u221207 Phenol (hydroxy benzene) 1.74E\u221204 1.77E\u221204 1.79E\u221204 1.49E\u221204 Phosphate 3.52E\u221204 1.14E\u221204 1.16E\u221204 1.11E\u221204 Phosphorus 2.00E\u221206 1.22E\u221206 1.49E\u221206 1.11E\u221206 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, unspec.) 1.92E\u221206 1.20E\u221206 1.46E\u221206 1.09E\u221206 Potassium 1.02E\u221203 6.38E\u221204 7.74E\u221204 5.80E\u221204 Selenium 7.64E\u221208 4.64E\u221208 5.63E\u221208 4.22E\u221208 Silver 1.45E\u221207 9.10E\u221208 1.10E\u221207 8.26E\u221208 Sodium (+I) 7.46E\u221202 4.69E\u221202 5.67E\u221202 4.25E\u221202 Solids (suspended) 3.82E\u221202 3.54E\u221202 3.72E\u221202 2.99E\u221202 Strontium 4.40E\u221204 2.75E\u221204 3.33E\u221204 2.50E\u221204 Sulphate 1.35E\u221201 1.47E\u221202 1.48E\u221202 1.33E\u221202 Sulphide 2.01E\u221203 2.31E\u221203 2.20E\u221203 1.94E\u221203 Sulphur 3.78E\u221206 2.40E\u221206 2.89E\u221206 2.17E\u221206 Tin (+IV) 4.71E\u221210 4.85E\u221210 \u22124.18E\u221210 3.60E\u221210 Titanium 2.08E\u221208 1.50E\u221208 1.85E\u221208 1.37E\u221208 Toluene (methyl benzene) 1.14E\u221204 1.05E\u221204 1.10E\u221204 8.81E\u221205 Total dissolved organic bounded carbon 8.89E\u221203 5.95E\u221203 7.29E\u221203 5.36E\u221203 Total", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3911, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1142, "book_page": 1141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "3.60E\u221210 Titanium 2.08E\u221208 1.50E\u221208 1.85E\u221208 1.37E\u221208 Toluene (methyl benzene) 1.14E\u221204 1.05E\u221204 1.10E\u221204 8.81E\u221205 Total dissolved organic bounded carbon 8.89E\u221203 5.95E\u221203 7.29E\u221203 5.36E\u221203 Total organic bounded carbon 1.41E+00 1.39E+00 2.21E+00 1.15E+00 Tributyltinoxide 1.78E\u221206 9.29E\u221207 1.29E\u221206 8.62E\u221207 Triethylene glycol 5.35E\u221206 3.82E\u221206 5.04E\u221206 3.43E\u221206 Vanadium (+III) 4.22E\u221206 4.64E\u221206 4.55E\u221206 3.90E\u221206 VOC (unspecified) 8.45E\u221205 5.28E\u221205 6.41E\u221205 4.80E\u221205 Xylene (isomers; dimethyl benzene) 4.32E\u221205 3.56E\u221205 3.80E\u221205 3.12E\u221205 Zinc (+II) 3.40E\u221204 2.81E\u221204 3.15E\u221204 2.47E\u221204 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3912, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1142, "book_page": 1141, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.35 Normalised sensitivity coefficients computed for 10% perturbance of amount of wood in the frame Impact category Normalised sensitivity coefficient W W/ALU PVC W/C Land use 8.8E\u221201 7.5E\u221201 0.0E+00 7.3E\u221201 Climate change 5.4E\u221202 1.7E\u221202 0.0E+00 1.9E\u221202 Freshwater ecotoxicity 6.3E\u221202 2.0E\u221202 0.0E+00 2.3E\u221202 Freshwater eutrophication \u22127.3E\u221203 \u22122.2E\u221203 0.0E+00 \u22122.7E\u221203 Human toxicity (cancer) 2.0E\u221203 6.2E\u221204 0.0E+00 7.5E\u221204 Ionising radiation (human health) 7.8E\u221202 2.3E\u221202 0.0E+00 2.6E\u221202 Human toxicity (non-cancer) 6.1E\u221202 1.9E\u221202 0.0E+00 2.3E\u221202 Marine eutrophication 9.1E\u221203 2.9E\u221203 0.0E+00 3.2E\u221203 Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) 3.2E\u221202 9.8E\u221203 0.0E+00 8.5E\u221203 Stratospheric ozone depletion 2.4E\u221202 7.6E\u221203 0.0E+00 6.5E\u221203 Particulate matter formation 2.1E\u221202 6.3E\u221203 0.0E+00 7.0E\u221203 Photochemical ozone formation 1.2E\u221202 3.7E\u221203 0.0E+00 4.3E\u221203 Terrestrial acidification 1.7E\u221202 5.0E\u221203 0.0E+00 5.6E\u221203 Values >0.3 are in italics Table 39.36 Normalised sensitivity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3913, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1143, "book_page": 1142, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "0.0E+00 7.0E\u221203 Photochemical ozone formation 1.2E\u221202 3.7E\u221203 0.0E+00 4.3E\u221203 Terrestrial acidification 1.7E\u221202 5.0E\u221203 0.0E+00 5.6E\u221203 Values >0.3 are in italics Table 39.36 Normalised sensitivity coefficients computed for 10% perturbance of amount of steel in the frame Impact category Normalised sensitivity coefficient W W/ALU PVC W/C Land use 1.3E\u221204 9.0E\u221204 6.3E\u221202 8.8E\u221204 Climate change 1.0E\u221203 2.6E\u221203 4.3E\u221202 2.8E\u221203 Freshwater ecotoxicity 5.1E\u221203 1.3E\u221202 1.9E\u221201 1.5E\u221202 Freshwater eutrophication 1.8E\u221204 4.4E\u221204 7.9E\u221203 5.3E\u221204 Human toxicity (cancer) 2.4E\u221204 5.6E\u221204 1.0E\u221202 6.8E\u221204 Ionising radiation (human health) 6.7E\u221203 1.6E\u221202 2.8E\u221201 1.8E\u221202 Human toxicity (non-cancer) 6.0E\u221203 1.5E\u221202 2.2E\u221201 1.7E\u221202 Marine eutrophication 5.1E\u221204 1.2E\u221203 2.3E\u221202 1.4E\u221203 Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) 3.5E\u221202 8.4E\u221202 6.4E\u221201 7.3E\u221202 Stratospheric ozone depletion 2.7E\u221203 6.6E\u221203 1.2E\u221201 5.7E\u221203 Particulate matter formation 2.3E\u221203 5.4E\u221203 9.6E\u221202 6.0E\u221203 Photochemical ozone formation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3914, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1143, "book_page": 1142, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "fossils) 3.5E\u221202 8.4E\u221202 6.4E\u221201 7.3E\u221202 Stratospheric ozone depletion 2.7E\u221203 6.6E\u221203 1.2E\u221201 5.7E\u221203 Particulate matter formation 2.3E\u221203 5.4E\u221203 9.6E\u221202 6.0E\u221203 Photochemical ozone formation 5.6E\u221204 1.3E\u221203 2.4E\u221202 1.5E\u221203 Terrestrial acidification 1.4E\u221203 3.5E\u221203 7.0E\u221202 3.8E\u221203 Values >0.3 are in italics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3915, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1143, "book_page": 1142, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 39.37 Normalised sensitivity coefficients computed for 10% perturbance of amount of glass in the pane Impact category Normalised sensitivity coefficient W W/ALU PVC W/C Land use 6.2E\u221203 1.7E\u221202 6.3E\u221202 2.5E\u221202 Climate change 2.3E\u221202 2.3E\u221202 2.1E\u221202 3.8E\u221202 Freshwater ecotoxicity 8.8E\u221203 9.1E\u221203 7.3E\u221203 1.6E\u221202 Freshwater eutrophication 1.6E\u221203 1.6E\u221203 1.5E\u221203 2.9E\u221203 Human toxicity (cancer) 2.6E\u221203 2.5E\u221203 2.4E\u221203 4.6E\u221203 Ionising radiation (human health) 1.1E\u221201 1.1E\u221201 9.8E\u221202 1.8E\u221201 Human toxicity (non-cancer) 9.1E\u221203 9.4E\u221203 7.3E\u221203 1.7E\u221202 Marine eutrophication 2.8E\u221202 2.9E\u221202 2.7E\u221202 4.8E\u221202 Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) 4.5E\u221201 4.5E\u221201 1.8E\u221201 5.9E\u221201 Stratospheric ozone depletion 6.2E\u221202 6.4E\u221202 6.2E\u221202 8.3E\u221202 Particulate matter formation 5.4E\u221202 5.4E\u221202 4.6E\u221202 9.0E\u221202 Photochemical ozone formation 3.4E\u221202 3.4E\u221202 3.1E\u221202 5.8E\u221202 Terrestrial acidification 5.7E\u221202 5.7E\u221202 4.8E\u221202 9.5E\u221202 Values >0.3 are in italics Table 39.38 Normalised sensitivity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3916, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1144, "book_page": 1143, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "4.6E\u221202 9.0E\u221202 Photochemical ozone formation 3.4E\u221202 3.4E\u221202 3.1E\u221202 5.8E\u221202 Terrestrial acidification 5.7E\u221202 5.7E\u221202 4.8E\u221202 9.5E\u221202 Values >0.3 are in italics Table 39.38 Normalised sensitivity coefficients computed for 10% perturbance of U-values Impact category Normalised sensitivity coefficient W W/ALU PVC W/C Land use 8.2E\u221201 8.6E\u221201 7.9E\u221201 7.7E\u221201 Climate change 9.0E\u221201 9.5E\u221201 7.9E\u221201 9.2E\u221201 Freshwater ecotoxicity 1.0E+00 1.0E+00 9.9E\u221201 1.0E+00 Freshwater eutrophication 9.9E\u221201 9.9E\u221201 9.9E\u221201 9.9E\u221201 Human toxicity (cancer) 5.7E\u221201 5.7E\u221201 5.4E\u221201 5.2E\u221201 Ionising radiation (human health) 9.0E\u221201 9.5E\u221201 7.7E\u221201 9.2E\u221201 Human toxicity (non-cancer) 9.0E\u221201 9.4E\u221201 9.0E\u221201 8.7E\u221201 Marine eutrophication 3.8E\u221201 3.9E\u221201 1.6E\u221201 2.8E\u221201 Resource depletion (minerals, fossils) 5.5E\u221201 5.7E\u221201 5.8E\u221201 4.1E\u221201 Stratospheric ozone depletion 8.3E\u221201 8.5E\u221201 7.5E\u221201 7.7E\u221201 Particulate matter formation 9.1E\u221201 9.2E\u221201 8.8E\u221201 8.7E\u221201 Photochemical ozone formation 8.2E\u221201 8.3E\u221201", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3917, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1144, "book_page": 1143, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "5.7E\u221201 5.8E\u221201 4.1E\u221201 Stratospheric ozone depletion 8.3E\u221201 8.5E\u221201 7.5E\u221201 7.7E\u221201 Particulate matter formation 9.1E\u221201 9.2E\u221201 8.8E\u221201 8.7E\u221201 Photochemical ozone formation 8.2E\u221201 8.3E\u221201 7.3E\u221201 7.6E\u221201 Terrestrial acidification 8.2E\u221201 8.6E\u221201 7.9E\u221201 7.7E\u221201 Values >0.3 are in italics Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3918, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1144, "book_page": 1143, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Benini, L., Mancini, L., Sala, S., Schau, E., Manfredi, S., Pant, R.: Normalisation method and data for environmental footprints. Report EUR 26842 EN. Ispra (2014) doi:10.2788/16415 Ciroth, A.: Refining the pedigree matrix approach in ecoinvent: towards empirical uncertainty factors. LCA Discussion Forum Z\u00fcrich, 13 Sept (2013) Connolly, D., Mathiesen, B.V., \u00d8stergaard, P.A., M\u00f6ller, B., Nielsen, S., Lund, H., et al.: Heat Roadmap Europe 1: First Pre-Study for the EU27 (2012) DMI: Danish Meteorological Institute. Available at http://www.dmi.dk/dmi/index/ (Accessed May 2016) (2016) Dreicer, M., Tort, V., Manen, P.: ExternE, externalities of energy, vol. 5 9 Nuclear, Centre d\u2019\u00e9tude sur l\u2019Evaluation de la Protection dans le domaine 10 nucl\u00e9aire (CEPN). In: European Commission DGXII (ed) Science, 11 Research and development JOULE, Luxembourg (1995) Dyrelund, A., Lund, H.: Danish heating sector can be CO2 neutral before 2030", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3919, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1145, "book_page": 1144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In: European Commission DGXII (ed) Science, 11 Research and development JOULE, Luxembourg (1995) Dyrelund, A., Lund, H.: Danish heating sector can be CO2 neutral before 2030. EuroHeat&Power 6, 34\u201337 (2009) EC-JRC: ILCD Handbook: General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Provisions and Action Steps, 1st edn. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra, Italy (2010) EC-JRC: Recommendations based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors for life cycle assessment in European context. ILCD Handbook\u2014International Reference Life Cycle Data System, European Union EUR24571EN. ISBN: 978-92-79-17451-3. http://lct.jrc.ec. europa.eu/assessment/assessment/projects#consultation_impact (2011). Accessed Jan 2012 EC-JRC: Characterization factors of the ILCD recommended life cycle impact assessment methods. Database and Supporting Information. EUR25167", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3920, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1145, "book_page": 1144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Accessed Jan 2012 EC-JRC: Characterization factors of the ILCD recommended life cycle impact assessment methods. Database and Supporting Information. EUR25167. http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ (2012) Ecoinvent: Ecoinvent Data v2.2.Final reports Ecoinvent v2.2 No. 1\u201325. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, D\u00fcbendorf (2010) Energynet: Technology Data for Energy Plants\u2014Generation of Electricity and District Heating, Energy Storage and Electricity Carrier Generation and Conversion. doi:ISBN: 978-87-7844940-5 (2012) Eurostat: Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste operations [WWW Document]. URL http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-datasets/-/env_wastrt (Accessed 19 Sept 2016) (2016) Frischknecht, R., Braunschweig, A., Hofstetter, P., Suter, P.: Modelling human health effects of radioactive releases in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3921, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1145, "book_page": 1144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 20, 159\u2013189 (2000) Frischknecht, R., Steiner, R., Jungbluth, N.: The Ecological Scarcity Method\u2014Eco-Factors: A method for impact assessment in LCA. 2009, Federal Office for the Environment FOEN: Z\u00fcrich und Bern [WWW Document] (2006) Frischknecht, R., Althaus, H., Bauer, C., Doka, G., Heck, T., Jungbluth, N., Kellenberger, D., Nemecek, T.: The environmental relevance of capital goods in life cycle assessments of products and services. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12, 7\u201317 (2007) Goedkoop, M.J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., De Schryver, A., Struijs, J., Van Zelm, R.:ReCiPe 2008. A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. First edition report I: characterization, 6 Jan 2009. http://www.lcia-recipe.net/", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3922, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1145, "book_page": 1144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "First edition report I: characterization, 6 Jan 2009. http://www.lcia-recipe.net/. Accessed July 2013 (2009) Greco, S.L., Wilson, A.M., Spengler, J.D., Levy, J.I.: Spatial patterns of mobile source particulate matter emissions-to-exposure relationships across the United States. Atmos. Environ. 41, 1011\u20131025 (2007) Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., de Koning, A., Van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H., De Bruijn, J.A., Van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Series: Eco-efficiency in industry and science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-0228-9; Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-0557-1) (2002)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3923, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1145, "book_page": 1144, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guinee, J., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., Jolliet, O., Margni, M., De Schryver, A., Humbert, S., Laurent, A., Sala, S., Pant, R.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683\u2013697 (2013) ISO: ISO 14044:2006 Environmental Management\u2014Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Requirements and Guidelines. International Standards Organization (2006) Jolliet, O., Rosenbaum, R.K., Laurent, A.: Life cycle risks and impacts of nanotechnologies. Chapter 11 In: Malsch I., Emond C. (eds.) Nanotechnology and Human Health, CRC Press pp. 213\u2013278 (2014). Print ISBN: 978-0-8493-8144-7, eBook ISBN: 978-0-8493-8145-4. https:// doi.org/10.1201/b15341-18 Laurent, A., Lautier, A., Rosenbaum, R.K., Olsen, S.I., Hauschild, M.Z.: Normalisation references for Europe and North America for application with USEtox characterisation factors. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3924, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1146, "book_page": 1145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16(8), 728\u2013738 (2011) Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L., Romany\u00e0, J., Cowell, S.: Method for assessing impacts on life support functions (LSF) related to the use of \u201cfertile land\u201d in life cycle assessment (LCA). J. Clean. Prod. 15, 1426\u20131440 (2007) Natural Resources Canada: Improving window energy efficiency. URL http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/ oee.nrcan.gc.ca/files/pdf/residential/personal/documents/windows-eng.pdf (Accessed June 2016) (2015) PlasticsEurope Database. URL: http://www.plasticseurope.org/. Accessed 21 Nov 2016 Posch, M., Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4, J., Hettelingh, J.P., Johansson, M., Margni, M., Jolliet, O.: The role of atmospheric dispersion models and ecosystem sensitivity in the determination of characterisation factors for acidifying and eutrophying emissions in LCIA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3925, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1146, "book_page": 1145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 477\u2013486 (2008) Prommer, H., Tuxen, N., Bjerg, P.L.: Fringe-controlled natural attenuation of phenoxy acids in a landfill plume: integration of field-scale processes by reactive transport modeling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 4732\u20134738 (2006) Rabl, A., Spadaro, J.V.: The RiskPoll software, version is 1.051 (dated August 2004). www. arirabl.com (2004). Accessed Jan 2012 Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z.: USEtox-the UNEP-SETAC toxicity model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3926, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1146, "book_page": 1145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 532\u2013546 (2008) doi:10.1007/s11367-008-0038-4 Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4, J., Posch, M., Johansson, M., Hettelingh, J.P.: Country-dependent characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication based on accumulated exceedance as an impact category indicator. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 403\u2013416 (2006) Steinmann, Z.J.N., Hauck, M., Karuppiah, R., Laurenzi, I.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 1146\u20131155 (2014) Struijs, J., Beusen, A., van Jaarsveld, H., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: ReCiPe 2008 A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. Report I: Characterisation factors, 1st edn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3927, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1146, "book_page": 1145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Report I: Characterisation factors, 1st edn. (2009) The ecoinvent database, v2.2; ecoinvent: Z\u00fcrich (2010) Van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Den Hollander, H.A., Van Jaarsveld, H.A., Sauter, F.J., Struijs, J., Van Wijnen, H.J., Van de Meent, D.: European characterization factors for human health damage of PM10 and ozone in life cycle impact assessment. Atmos. Environ. 42, 441\u2013453 (2008) Disclaimer This report is based on an LCA that was delivered as part of the requirements to pass the MSc course \u201cLife Cycle Assessment of Products and Systems\u201d, given at the Department of Management Engineering of the Technical University of Denmark. The report has been reworked Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3928, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1146, "book_page": 1145, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "somewhat to serve as an example report to illustrate to students how to perform and how to structure the report on an LCA according to the requirements of ISO 14044:2006 (ISO 2006) and the reporting template in Chap. 38 from the ILCD Handbook (EC-JRC 2010). The reader should note that it is not the intention to provide an example of \u201cthe perfect LCA study\u201d or \u201cthe perfect LCA report\u201d. The results of this LCA should not be directly used to inform a choice between windows, not even in Denmark. As a result of students collaborating in project teams of 5\u20136 members during one semester (*13 weeks, 10 ECTS MSc course), this is primarily the result of a well-achieved learning experience from LCA beginners. Its main purpose is to illustrate reporting, not good or best LCA practice, which is why many details are not necessarily handled the way they should be according to part II of the book, because there are many constraints on what can be achieved in one semester of learning LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3929, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1147, "book_page": 1146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCA studies and reports produced by experienced LCA professionals can have a wide range of different structures and follow different emphases depending on the goal of the study. Author Biographies Miko\u0142aj Owsianiak Involved in development and application of life cycle impact assessment methods in sustainability assessment of technologies. Has worked on issues associated with: soils (remediation), metals (toxic impact assessment), biodiesel (fate in the environment), and carbonaceous materials (biochar and hydrochar). Anders Bj\u00f8rn Part of the LCA community since the early 2010s. Main focus is interpretations of sustainability and integration of sustainability targets in LCA to enable absolute sustainability assessments. Heidi B. Bugge Working with life cycle thinking in relation to ecolabeling since mid-2000s. LCA experience mostly by applying LCAs in developing ecolabel criteria for the Nordic Swan", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3930, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1147, "book_page": 1146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Heidi B. Bugge Working with life cycle thinking in relation to ecolabeling since mid-2000s. LCA experience mostly by applying LCAs in developing ecolabel criteria for the Nordic Swan. Here focusing on how to use environmental hot spots in the life cycle to set relevant and steerable ecolabel requirements. S\u00f3nia M. Carvalho Former student at the Technical University of Denmark. Leise Jebahar Engineer specialised in LCA applied on circular economy, focusing mainly on the effect of different end-of-life scenarios and cascading and is working with waste management concerning waste from households, industries and the built environment. Jon Rasmussen Former student at the Technical University of Denmark. Caroline M. White Former student at the Technical University of Denmark. Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3931, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1147, "book_page": 1146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Stig Irving Olsen LCA expert both as researcher and as consultant. Involved in the development of LCA methodologies since mid 1990s. Contributed to UNEP/SETAC working groups on LCIA methodology. Main LCA interest is human toxicity impacts, emerging technologies, and decision making.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3932, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "39 Illustrative Case Study: Life Cycle Assessment of Four Window Alternatives", "pdf_page": 1147, "book_page": 1146, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chapter 40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10 Ralph K. Rosenbaum Abstract The chapter gives an overview and a systematic comparison of a selection of the most used Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) methods, focusing on methods that have been implemented and made available in LCA software. Currently available midpoint and endpoint characterisation methodologies are presented and their specific properties are qualitatively compared in detailed tables", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3933, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1148, "book_page": 1147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Currently available midpoint and endpoint characterisation methodologies are presented and their specific properties are qualitatively compared in detailed tables. Learning objectives After studying this chapter the reader should be able to: \u2022 Name and summarise the LCIA methods most relevant in current LCA practice \u2022 Identify and distinguish their main features, properties, advantages and limitations \u2022 Select one or several adequate LCIA method(s) for a given goal and scope definition \u2022 Discuss the (apparent) developments from earlier LCIA methods to the current state-of-the-art The contents of this chapter have been modified from Rosenbaum, R.K.: Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models in goal and scope definition, appearing as Chapter 2 of Curran MA (ed.) LCA Compendium\u2014The Complete World of Life Cycle Assessment\u2014Goal and scope definition in Life Cycle Assessment pp. 63\u2013122. Springer, Dordrecht (2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3934, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1148, "book_page": 1147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "63\u2013122. Springer, Dordrecht (2017). Most notably, the LCIA method comparison tables have been updated for IMPACT World+ and LC-Impact. R.K. Rosenbaum (&) IRSTEA, UMR ITAP, ELSA Research Group and ELSA-PACT\u2014Industrial Chair for Environmental and Social Sustainability Assessment, 361 rue Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Breton, BP 5095, 34196, Montpellier, France e-mail: ralph.rosenbaum@irstea.fr \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_40", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3935, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1148, "book_page": 1147, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "40.1 An essential element in the choice of category indicators or entire LCIA methods is sufficient knowledge and overview of their (most important) characteristics. However, this knowledge is not easy to come by or readily available in the literature, without having to study the documentation of each method respectively. A profound comparison of existing LCIA methods was performed by Hauschild et al. (2013) for the establishment of recommended LCIA models for the European context. The results can be found in the ILCD handbook on LCIA recommended practice in Europe (EC-JRC 2011) and will provide some helpful guidance, including for the non-European context, as it contains both facts and evaluative expert judgements on the models, with only the latter being partially specific to the European context. Taking Hauschild et al.\u2019s work as a starting point, the following tables provide a complete and updated qualitative comparison of widely used LCIA methods available in current LCA software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3936, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1149, "book_page": 1148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Taking Hauschild et al.\u2019s work as a starting point, the following tables provide a complete and updated qualitative comparison of widely used LCIA methods available in current LCA software. Only models integrated into LCIA methods (and thus readily available for practitioners in LCA software and databases) are represented here with the exception of the latest methods IMPACT World+ and LC-Impact, which by the time of writing (mid 2017) were not yet fully implemented into LCA software but readily available to be imported manually (see respective websites for further information). It is worth mentioning that the authors of the LC-Impact method intend to provide both midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors (CFs). So far, endpoint CFs have been published, while midpoint CFs are not yet available but foreseen for later publication and thus not included in Table 40.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3937, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1149, "book_page": 1148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "So far, endpoint CFs have been published, while midpoint CFs are not yet available but foreseen for later publication and thus not included in Table 40.1. During the finalisation of this chapter, a major update of the ReCiPe 2008 method, called ReCiPe 2016, has been published but could unfortunately not be included in the update of the comparison tables, so that only the latest version of ReCiPe 2008 (from 2013) is described in Tables 40.1 and 40.2. The Japanese LCIA method LIME has been updated to version 3.0, but to the author\u2019s knowledge no documentation in another language than Japanese is available, which is why only version 2.0 is covered here. Further models (published but not yet integrated into LCIA methods) are discussed in the ILCD handbooks on LCIA (EC-JRC 2010, 2011) and of course in current scientific literature", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3938, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1149, "book_page": 1148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Further models (published but not yet integrated into LCIA methods) are discussed in the ILCD handbooks on LCIA (EC-JRC 2010, 2011) and of course in current scientific literature. Models not based on mechanistic cause-effect chain modeling, such as regulatory-based distance-to-target approaches like the Swiss Eco-scarcity method (Frischknecht et al. 2006) or the MEEuP approach based on emission limit values (Kemna et al. 2005) were also excluded from this overview. Such approaches require specific interpretation, different from cause-effect-based methods, due to their non-mechanistic and often policy-priority-based nature. If a potential environmental impact is expressed based on its difference to a political target, the resulting impact score will essentially represent the importance of an emission or resource extraction relative to established political target limits but not necessarily relative to its environmental relevance (depending on how closely R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3939, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1149, "book_page": 1148, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "political targets are related to environmental issues). This is because political targets are established based on a number of influences and lobbies, and will vary substantially from one country to another, especially on a global scale. Compared to a mechanistic modelling approach, political targets are not comprehensive enough and will only cover a selected number of known issues. In other words, a number of potentially important environmental issues may not (yet) be represented in politically set targets and will therefore not be evaluated when applying a distance-to-target approach. Political thresholds for some emissions, e.g. toxic chemicals, may furthermore be established based on risk measures instead of best (average) estimates or potential impacts and thus contain (inconsistent) safety values and other potential biases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3940, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1150, "book_page": 1149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "However, in specific cases, where the goal of a study is to evaluate the environmental profile of a product, service or organisation, or the consequences of an environmental policy towards their relevance regarding political targets, such a method is a meaningful choice among available LCIA methods. An important point to keep in mind is that the implementation of a given LCIA method may vary from one software to another (due to the need to adapt the LCIA method to the architecture and structure of the software, which may in some cases involve a re-interpretation) and not always all options proposed by LCIA developers may be implemented in each software. Hence, depending on which software you are using, you may find smaller (only in rare cases larger) deviations when it comes to implemented archetypes and other details and options. The descriptions in Tables 40.1 and 40.2 are mostly based on the original proposals by the LCIA method developers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3941, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1150, "book_page": 1149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The descriptions in Tables 40.1 and 40.2 are mostly based on the original proposals by the LCIA method developers. The content of these tables is restricted to facts, while judgements on quality etc. were excluded as far as possible. For a further evaluation including expert judgements, e.g. on scientific validity, environmental relevance, or stakeholder acceptance, the reader is referred to the ILCD handbook on LCIA (EC-JRC 2010, 2011). Given the large amount of information contained in these tables, mistakes cannot be excluded, but as much information as possible has been verified in the original documentation of the methods (and if required corrected when taken from the ILCD handbook, which contains a number of small errors in the method descriptions). LCIA methods are under constant improvement and may be updated and corrected over time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3942, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1150, "book_page": 1149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCIA methods are under constant improvement and may be updated and corrected over time. Consequently, the information contained in Tables 40.1 and 40.2 is a snapshot of the situation and available information by the time of writing of this chapter (mid 2017) and is likely to change over time. Tables 40.1 and 40.2 contain a qualitative comparison of a number of specific properties of available LCIA methods. Each column represents an LCIA method, while the rows are structured by impact category. This allows easy identification of the differences (and similarities) in these properties per impact category among methods and choosing the most suitable one for a given goal and scope. Table 40.1 lists the most important midpoint characterisation methods, while Table 40.2 contains methods providing endpoint or damage assessment characterisation factors. A number of methods were published before 2000, but are not included in this Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3943, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1150, "book_page": 1149, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "overview as they have been replaced by their authors with newer versions or must be considered outdated and obsolete for today\u2019s LCA practice. As a support to using and interpreting the tables, a brief description of each property reported in the tables and of its meaning are given hereafter (note that all properties may not necessarily apply to each impact category): \u2022 Aspects/diseases/ecosystems considered: lists which kinds of impacts are considered, e.g. which kinds of resources (for resource use), or which kinds of diseases (for human health), or which ecosystems out of freshwater, marine water, and terrestrial ecosystems are covered by a method. \u2022 Characterisation model: gives the name (if applicable) and points to the main reference(s) for the corresponding characterisation model used to calculate the characterisation factors for a given impact category and LCIA method. \u2022 Human health effects: details about which kind of health effects were included", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3944, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1151, "book_page": 1150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Human health effects: details about which kind of health effects were included. \u2022 Ecosystem effects: details about which kind of effects on ecosystems were included. \u2022 Biotic resources effects: consideration of potential impacts on biotic resources is still a rare property, but is included in some methods and may be an important point for some studies. \u2022 Fate modeling: details about how the modeling of the distribution of an emission in the environment is considered (the concept of fate may also be applied for modeling a part of the cause-effect chain of a resource extraction instead of an emission). \u2022 Exposure modeling: details about how the transfer of a substance from the environment into a given target (e.g. human population or an ecosystem) is considered (the concept of exposure may also be applied for modeling a part of the cause-effect chain of a resource extraction instead of an emission)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3945, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1151, "book_page": 1150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "human population or an ecosystem) is considered (the concept of exposure may also be applied for modeling a part of the cause-effect chain of a resource extraction instead of an emission). \u2022 Effect modeling: details about how the effect(s) of a substance transferred from the environment into a given target (e.g. human population or an ecosystem) is considered (the concept of exposure may also be applied for modeling a part of the cause-effect chain of a resource extraction instead of an emission). \u2022 Marginal/average: these terms are used in different ways and meanings in the LCA context; here they describe two different impact modeling principles or choices: a marginal impact modeling approach represents the additional impact per additional unit emission/resource extraction within a product system on top of an existing background impact which is not coming from the modelled product system. This allows e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3946, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1151, "book_page": 1150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "This allows e.g. considering non-linearities of impacts depending on local conditions like high or low background concentrations to which the product systems adds an additional emission/resource extraction). An average impact modeling approach is strictly linear and represents an average impact independent from existing background impacts, which is similar to dividing the overall effect by the overall emissions. \u2022 Emission compartment(s): for which emission compartment(s) the method provides characterisation factors. R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3947, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1151, "book_page": 1150, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Time horizon: details on the time horizon(s) used to calculate potential impacts. A prominent example are the GWP-time horizons of 20, 100, and until IPCC (2007a) also 500 years. The essential difficulty with time horizons is that a short time horizon may exclude an important amount of future potential impacts from the assessment (risking violating the sustainability principle of inter-generational equality). Whereas, a long time horizon may \u201cdilute\u201d large short-term impacts over a longer time (i.e. making them look smaller), which would give a small but permanently continuing impact a similar impact potential than that of a large impact occurring within a short time. In other words, it would give the same importance to a large impact within one generation as to a small impact affecting several generations of humans for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3948, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1152, "book_page": 1151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In other words, it would give the same importance to a large impact within one generation as to a small impact affecting several generations of humans for example. An important and widely ignored issue in current LCA practice is the inconsistency among time horizons between different impact categories, with some representing 100 years and others several hundreds to even thousands of years. An inconsistency that, in principle, would disallow adding up endpoint scores into areas of protection or normalising and weighting midpoint scores. Its importance, however, needs further study and most likely it is far from being a large source of uncertainty relative to other issues in LCA. \u2022 Region modelled/valid: details on which region(s) has been modelled (i.e. which region is represented by the parameters used in the characterisation model)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3949, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1152, "book_page": 1151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Region modelled/valid: details on which region(s) has been modelled (i.e. which region is represented by the parameters used in the characterisation model). A model may either represent one or several specific region(s) (the larger the region, the more averaging is applied and the less specific the model is representing a region) or a global (or sometimes continental) average, also referred to as generic. \u2022 Level of spatial differentiation: if the characterisation model represents more than one region, it is spatially (or geographically) differentiated. The level of differentiation may range from coarse (e.g. continental, sub-continental, countries, etc.) to fine (e.g. small grid-cells of a few km or sub-watersheds). The finer the spatial differentiation, the better a model captures variability of local conditions which may influence potential impacts by up to several orders of magnitude for some impact categories, such as toxicity or water consumption", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3950, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1152, "book_page": 1151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Number of substances/land use types/resources: the more substances or land-use types/resources are covered by a method, the more likely it will consider all important (=highly contributing to impact) emissions or resource extractions of a product system. A missing characterisation factor for any given elementary flow automatically leads to its omission in the impact profile. \u2022 Unit: the dimension of the indicator. \u2022 \u201cn/a\u201d means that information was not available or that a property is not applicable. Not all these properties may be of equal relevance for choosing an LCIA method for each practitioner or study, but are intended to represent the most relevant and fact-based properties. Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3951, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1152, "book_page": 1151, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 Detailed characteristics of available midpoint characterisation methods [extended and updated from ILCD handbook on LCIA (EC-JRC 2010, 2011; Sala et al. 2016)] CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ Reference Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Bare et al. (2003) Jolliet et al. (2003) Hauschild and Po\u01abng (2005); Po\u01abng and Hauschild (2005)Hauschild and Wenzel (1998) Goedkoop et al. (2012) Bare (2011) EC-JRC (2011) Bulle et al. (in review) Website h\u01a9ps://cml.leiden.edu/ so\u014cware/data-cmlia.html h\u01a9ps://epa.gov/chemicalresearch/tool-reduc\u019fonand-assessment-chemicalsand-other-environmentalimpacts-traci h\u01a9ps://www.quan\u019fsintl.com/pdf/IMPACT2002_ UserGuide_for_vQ2.21.pdf h\u01a9ps://lcia-recipe.net h\u01a9ps://epa.gov/chemicalresearch/tool-reduc\u019fonand-assessment-chemicalsand-other-environmentalimpacts-traci h\u01a9ps://eplca.jrc.ec.europa", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3952, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "eu/?page id=86 h\u01a9ps://impactworldplus.org Update of CML 1992 EDIP 97 CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+, EDIP 2003, and LUCAS Uncertain\u019fes quan\u019ffied Par\u019fally, spa\u019fal variability for each CF1 Normalisa\u019fon factors Netherlands (1997), Europe (1995), World (1995), produc\u019fon-based) (Huijbregts et al. 2003) USA and USA+Canada (produc\u019fon-based) reference year 2005 (Lau\u019fer et al. 2010) Western Europe (produc\u019fon-based) Europe (produc\u019fon-based), reference year 2004 (Laurent et al. 2011) Europe, global (produc\u019fonbased), reference year 2000 (Sleeswijk et al. 2008) USA and USA+Canada (produc\u019fon-based) reference year 2008 (Ryberg et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3953, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011) Europe, global (produc\u019fonbased), reference year 2000 (Sleeswijk et al. 2008) USA and USA+Canada (produc\u019fon-based) reference year 2008 (Ryberg et al. 2014) European, global (produc\u019fon-based) No Normaliza\u019fon recommended at the midpoint level Weigh\u019fng scheme Panel-based (~80 replies), deriving cultural perspec\u019fves: Individualist, Hierarchist, and Egalitarian based on Hofste\u01a9er (1998) For emissions based on poli\u019fcal targets for 2000, expressed as Poli\u019fcal Target Person-Equivalents (PET), for resource consump\u019fon based on person reserves (PR) for known reserves in 1990 Panel-based (~80 replies), deriving cultural perspec\u019fves: Individualist, Hierarchist, and Egalitarian based on Hofste\u01a9er (1998) No weigh\u019fng recommended at the midpoint level Climate change Characterisa\u019fon model GWP2 from IPCC3 (2007a) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2001) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2001) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2001) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2007a) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2007a) GWP2 from IPCC3 (2007a) GWP2 and GTP4 from IPCC3 2013 (Myhre et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3954, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013) Indicator Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Radia\u019fve forcing Marginal/average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Time horizon(s) [y] GWP100 for short-term, GTP100 for long-term impacts Region modelled Global Global Global Global Global Global Global Global No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3955, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances Unit CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents CO2 equivalents Ozone deple\u019fon Characterisa\u019fon model(s) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (1999) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (2003) ODP5 from WMO6 (2014) Indicator Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Global degrada\u019fon in stratospheric O3 concentra\u019fon Marginal/average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Time horizon(s) [y] Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Region modelled Global Global Global Global", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3956, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Average Time horizon(s) [y] Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Region modelled Global Global Global Global Global Global Global Global No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3957, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances Unit 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents 7CFC-11 equivalents (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3958, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1153, "book_page": 1152, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Par\u019fculate ma\u01a9er forma\u019fon / Respiratory inorganics Characterisa\u019fon model PM10 emissions to air considered in human toxicity impact category De Hollander et al. (1999) Hofste\u01a9er (1998) van Zelm et al. (2008) Same as TRACI 1.0 8Humbert (2009) Humbert et al. (2011) for fate and exposure and Gronlund et al. (2015) for effects Fate/exposure modeling CALPUFF model, mechanis\u019fc, closed, mul\u019fmedia LCA model Empirical data Mechanis\u019fc, op\u019fon for low, undefined and high stack emission 8Humbert (2009) (USEtox (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) is used for primary PM and CO, Greco et al. (2007) for secondary PM from SO2 and NOx, Van Zelm et al. (2008) for secondary PM from NH3 and RiskPoll (Rabl and Spadaro 2004) to differen\u019fate among highstack, low-stack, and ground-level emissions of primary PM for urban and rural condi\u019fons, respec\u019fvely) Mechanis\u019fc (same as in ILCD/PEF/OEF but with updated parameters), Humbert et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3959, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1154, "book_page": 1153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2011) Effect modeling endpoint-based indicator, dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity). 10.9 DALY per case mortality is used Dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity) Endpoint-based indicator, dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity); chronic bronchi\u019fs not considered Epidemiological studies (dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity) Epidemiological studies (dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity) Gronlund et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3960, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1154, "book_page": 1153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2015) Marginal/average Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Emission compartment(s) Air (point source (proxy for high stack) and mobile source (proxy for low stack) Air Air (rural, urban, and undefined) Air (high stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement) Air (high stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement) Time horizon, discoun\u019fng Infinite Infinite No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng No \u019fmeframe, 3% discoun\u019fng for future cost No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng Region modelled USA Europe Europe Generic Generic and con\u019fnental Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon Urban and rural archetypes High stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement High stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rural, urban and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3961, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1154, "book_page": 1153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Urban and rural archetypes High stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement High stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rural, urban and undefined environnement No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3962, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1154, "book_page": 1153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 7 (TSP9 , PM10, PM2.5, NO, NO2 NOx/nitrate and SO2/sulfate)10 6 (primary PM10 and PM 2.5, SO2, NO2, secondary PM10 from NO2, SO2)10 4 (primary PM10; secondary PM10 from NH3, NOx, SO2) 10 5 (primary PM2.5, primary PM10, secondary PM from NOx and SO2, and CO) 10 5 (primary PM2.5, primary PM10, secondary PM from NOx and SO2, and CO) 10 Unit PM10 equivalents10 PM2.5 equivalents10 PM10 equivalents10 PM2.5 equivalents10 PM2.5 equivalents10 PM2.5 equivalents10 CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3963, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1154, "book_page": 1153, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Photochemical ozone forma\u019fon / Respiratory organics Characterisa\u019fon model Derwent et al. (1998), Scenario reflec\u019fng realis\u019fc worst case for Bri\u019fsh Isles Norris (2003) POCP11 from Jenkin et al. (1999) Hauschild et al. (2006) van Loon et al. (2007), Vautard et al. (2007), vanZelm et al. (2008) Based on TRACI 1.0 but updated Recommended: LOTOSEUROS fate model as used in ReCiPe, resul\u019fng indicator: tropospheric ozone concentra\u019fon increase (no effects) van Loon et al. (2007), Vautard et al. (2007), vanZelm et al. (2008) Fate modeling POCP11, detailed fate modeling of individual VOCs12 Change in Maximum Incremental Reac\u019fvity (MIR) (Carter 2000), ASTRAP model for source-receptor matrix, factor for NOx based on US average es\u019fmate POCP11 from Jenkin et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3964, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1155, "book_page": 1154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1999) Regression model derived from RAINS LOTOS-EUROS model 2007 Updated MIR (Maximum Incremental Reac\u019fvity) based on Carter (Bare 2011) LOTOS-EUROS model 2007 Exposure modeling Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes and average daily inhala\u019fon Increased exposure of humans or vegeta\u019fon above cri\u019fcal threshold, popula\u019fon density Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes within grid cells, atmospheric concentra\u019fon of O3 and average daily inhala\u019fon Similar to TRACI 1.0 Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes within grid cells, atmospheric concentra\u019fon of O3 and average daily inhala\u019fon Effect modeling Human health only, linear dose-response model Exceedance for exposure above cri\u019fcal level for humans and vegeta\u019fon based on WHO13 guidelines (AOT60 for human health, AOT40 for vegeta\u019fon) Human health only, linearity assumed with no threshold (based on WHO13 recommenda\u019fon) Human health only, linearity assumed with no threshold (based on WHO13 recommenda\u019fon) Marginal/average Marginal (\u0394O3 per marginal \u0394VOC12) Marginal for fate, average for effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3965, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1155, "book_page": 1154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "on WHO13 recommenda\u019fon) Human health only, linearity assumed with no threshold (based on WHO13 recommenda\u019fon) Marginal/average Marginal (\u0394O3 per marginal \u0394VOC12) Marginal for fate, average for effect Marginal and Average give same results Marginal increase in long term ozone levels Marginal (linearity checked up to 10% increase) Marginal (linearity checked up to 10% increase) Emission compartment(s) Air Air Air Air Air Air Region modelled/valid North Western Europe USA Europe Europe Europe Europe Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon US states European countries Global generic Global generic No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3966, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1155, "book_page": 1154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 127 (VOCs12, CH4, SO2, NO, NO2 and CO) ~580 ~130 4 (nmVOC14, CH4, Nox and CO) 2 (nmVOC14 and NOx) ~1200 Unit C2H4 equivalents NOx equivalents ethylene equivalents person*ppm*h and m2*ppm*h kg nmVOC14 equivalents NOx equivalents kg nmVOC14 equivalents CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3967, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1155, "book_page": 1154, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Ionizing radia\u019fon Characterisa\u019fon model Frischknecht et al. (2000) Same as CML-IA, but without effect model, indicator: human exposure level Same as CML-IA, but without effect/damage model, indicator: human exposure level Recommended: Frischknecht et al. (2000) for human health but excluding damage assessment (only effect) Interim use of method by Garnier-Laplace et al. (2008; 2009) for ecosystem impacts possible Same as CML-IA, but without effect model, indicator: human exposure level Garnier-Laplace et al. (2008; 2009) for ecosystem impacts Fate modeling Dreicer et al. (1995), using rou\u019fne atmospheric and liquid discharges into rivers in French nuclear fuel cycle including surrounding condi\u019fons. For globally dispersed radionuclides simplified models are used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3968, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1156, "book_page": 1155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1995), using rou\u019fne atmospheric and liquid discharges into rivers in French nuclear fuel cycle including surrounding condi\u019fons. For globally dispersed radionuclides simplified models are used. Exposure modeling Effec\u019fve dose [Sv] 15 via inhala\u019fon, inges\u019fon, external irradia\u019fon, based on human body equivalence factors for \u03b1-, \u03b2-, \u03b3radia\u019fon, and neutrons Effect modeling Dose-response func\u019fons directly based on human subjects exposed in Nagasaki and Hiroshima (extrapolated to low-dose exposure) Time horizon(s) [y] 100, 100000 Emission compartment(s) Air, water Region modelled/valid Global, Europe (fate based on French condi\u019fons) Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3969, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1156, "book_page": 1155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 31 (21 radionuclides to outdoor air, 13 to water, 15 to ocean) 26 for human health and 13 for ecosystem quality impacts Unit DALY C-14 Bq equivalents16 man.Sv/kBq 15, 16 Bq C-14 equivalents16 CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3970, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1156, "book_page": 1155, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Human toxicity Diseases considered Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer/non-cancer Characterisa\u019fon model USES-LCA 1.0 (Huijbregts et al. 2000) CalTOX 4.0 (Hertwich et al. 2001; McKone et al. 2001) IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005) EDIP (Hauschild and Po\u01abng 2005) USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al. 2009) USEtox 1.0 (Rosenbaum et al. (2008; 2011)) USEtox 1.0 (Rosenbaum et al. (2008; 2011)) USEtox 2.0 (h\u01a9ps://usetox.org) Rosenbaum et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3971, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2008; 2011)) USEtox 1.0 (Rosenbaum et al. (2008; 2011)) USEtox 2.0 (h\u01a9ps://usetox.org) Rosenbaum et al. (2008;2011) Fate modeling Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, closed, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for ERA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Key property, par\u019fal fate Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Exposure modeling Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways, dermal uptake Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon including indoor exposure (Hellweg et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3972, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009; Wenger et al. 2012; Rosenbaum et al. 2015), various inges\u019fon pathways (Rosenbaum et al. 2011) including pes\u019fcide residues in food from Fantke et al. (2011a; 2011b; 2013) Effect modeling 17ED50 linear slope factor based on RfD18 19ED10 19ED10 17ED50 17ED50 17ED50 17ED50 (Rosenbaum et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3973, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011) Marginal/average Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Time horizon Infinite, 100 years for metals Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite, 100 years for metals or all substances in Individualist perspec\u019fve Infinite Infinite Infinite Emission compartment(s) Rural air, urban air, freshwater, agricultural soil, natural soil, industrial soil Air, freshwater, soil Air, freshwater, marine water, soil Air, freshwater, soil Rural air, urban air, freshwater, agricultural soil, natural soil, industrial soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Region modelled Europe, version available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3974, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "agricultural soil, natural soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Region modelled Europe, version available for various con\u019fnents USA Europe Europe Europe Generic Generic Generic global average + 9 parameterised subcon\u019fnents Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon sub-con\u019fnental level (Kounina et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3975, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014) No. of substances ~860 ~380 ~800 ~180 ~1000 ~1250 ~1250 ~1250 Unit 1,4-DCB equivalents20 2,4-D equivalents21 chloroethylene equivalents m3 (volume of poisoned compartment) 1,4-DCB equivalents20 cases or CTUh cases or CTUh cases or CTUh CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3976, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1157, "book_page": 1156, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Ecotoxicity Ecosystems considered Freshwater, freshwater sediment, marine, marine sediment, terrestrial Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, marine, terrestrial Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, marine, terrestrial Freshwater Freshwater Freshwater, interim factors for marine and terrestrial Characterisa\u019fon model USES-LCA 1.0 (Huijbregts et al. 2000) CalTOX 4.0 (Hertwich et al. 2001; McKone et al. 2001; Bare et al. 2003) IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005) EDIP1997, combined with site dependent factors (T\u00f8rsl\u00f8v et al. 2005) USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al. 2009) USEtox 1.0 (Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011) USEtox 1.0 (Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011) USEtox 2.0 (h\u01a9ps://usetox.org) (Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3977, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1158, "book_page": 1157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011) Fate/exposure modeling Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, closed, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for ERA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Key property, par\u019fal fate Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, nested, mul\u019fmedia, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Effect modeling Most sensi\u019fve species Most sensi\u019fve species Average toxicity Most sensi\u019fve species Average toxicity Average toxicity Average toxicity Average toxicity Marginal/average Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3978, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1158, "book_page": 1157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Time horizon Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite, 100 years for metals Infinite Infinite Infinite Emission compartment(s) Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, industrial soil Air, freshwater Air, freshwater, soil Air, freshwater, soil Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, natural soil Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, natural soil Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, natural soil Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, natural soil Region modelled Europe USA Europe Generic Europe Generic Generic Generic global average + 9 parameterised subcon\u019fnents Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon sub-con\u019fnental level (Kounina et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3979, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1158, "book_page": 1157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014) No. of substances ~170 ~160 ~430 ~190 ~2650 ~2550 ~2550 ~2550 Unit 1,4-DCB equivalents20 2,4-D equivalents21 triethylene-glycol equivalents m3 (volume of poisoned compartment) 1,4-DCB equivalents20 PAF24 in [m3*day] or CTUe PAF23 in [m3*day] or CTUe PAF23 in [m3*day] or CTUe CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3980, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1158, "book_page": 1157, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Eutrophica\u019fon Ecosystems considered Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater Freshwater Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, marine Same as TRACI 1.0 but with addi\u019fonal substances covered Freshwater, marine, terrestrial Freshwater, marine Fate modeling No mechanis\u019fc fate model, mineralisa\u019fon with full release of bioavailable nutrients, Redfield ra\u019fo assumed for N/P ra\u019fo, no advec\u019fon, no dis\u019fnc\u019fon between sensi\u019fve and insensi\u019fve recipients Mechanis\u019fc (ASTRAP for atmospheric transport, WSAG topological network for water transport) except for NH3 (NOx matrices have been used as placeholder), no advec\u019fon, no N or P removal, dis\u019fnc\u019fon between sensi\u019fve and insensi\u019fve recipients Same as CML-IA, but dis\u019fnguishing P-limited watershed, N-limited watershed, and undefined watershed (modeled as a 50% P-limited and a 50% Nlimited watershed) Atmospheric fate and transport (RAINS model pre 2000 with detailed transport and fate model (applying EMEP)), no advec\u019fon, removal of nutrients", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3981, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "as a 50% P-limited and a 50% Nlimited watershed) Atmospheric fate and transport (RAINS model pre 2000 with detailed transport and fate model (applying EMEP)), no advec\u019fon, removal of nutrients in hydrological cycle (using CARMEN model as fixed removal ra\u019fo for N- and Pcompounds in different emission scenarios) Mechanis\u019fc fate model EUTREND for atmospheric and CARMEN for waterborne emissions (Struijs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3982, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009), no advec\u019fon leaving Europe, fixed removal ra\u019fo for N and P in different emission scenarios Recommenda\u019fon for freshwater and marine: EUTREND model (Struijs et al. 2009) as implemented in ReCiPe [kg P to freshwater and kg N to freshwater for freshwater and marine respec\u019fvely] Recommendation for terrestrial: Accumulated Exceedance based on Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 et al. (2006), Posch et al. (2008), not included in any other LCIA method Dis\u019fnc\u019fon between exposure of N- and P-limited systems Freshwater: fate transport based on Helmes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3983, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2012) at the 0.5\u00b0x0.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale Marine : GEOSchem model (from NASA h\u01a9p://map.nasa.gov/GEOS_ CHEM.html) for atmospheric fate and transport un\u019fl coastal zones at the 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale Exposure modeling Dis\u019fnc\u019fon of N- and Plimited recipients No dis\u019fnc\u019fon between freshwaters and marine waters, no cri\u019fcal levels in water, exceedance of cri\u019fcal load in soil considered Dis\u019fnc\u019fon between exposure of N- and P-limited systems Dis\u019fnc\u019fon between exposure of N- (marine) and P-limited (freshwater) systems Effect modeling Linear dose-response rela\u019fonship according to limi\u019fng nutrient Marginal/average Marginal Average Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal Emission compartment(s) Air, freshwater, marine water, soil Air, freshwater Air, freshwater Air, freshwater, soil Air, freshwater, marine water Air, freshwater, marine water Time horizon Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Region modelled/valid Global generic USA Europe Europe Europe Global Level of spa\u019fal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3984, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "marine water Air, freshwater, marine water Time horizon Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Region modelled/valid Global generic USA Europe Europe Europe Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon US states European countries Spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon not found important for aqua\u019fc eutrophica\u019fon (factor 3-7 between European countries) Generic, countries for NH3 and NO2 CFs1 available at global, con\u019fnental, country, and fine scale (0.5\u00b0x0.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 for marine eutrophica\u019fon) No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3985, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 13 (8 N-compounds, 4 P compounds, COD25) 11 (to air: NO, NO2, NOx, NH3 to water: NH4 +, N, NO3 -, PO4 3-, P, COD25) Freshw.: 12 (5 to air, 7 to water; 9 N-comp, 3 P-comp); Terrestrial: SO2, SO3,H2SO4, H2S, NO, NO2, NOx, HNO, NH3, HCL, HF 4 (N-total, P-total, NOx and NH3, but differen\u019fa\u019fon of N-total and P-total according to source) Freshwater: P, H3PO4, P-total; marine: NH3, NH4 +, NO3 -, NO2 -, NO2, NO, N-total; terrestrial: NH3, NH4 +, NO2, NO, NO3 - (to air) 8 for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon, 16 for marine eutrophica\u019fon Unit PO4 3- equivalents PO4 3- equivalents Freshwater: NO3 - equivalents; terrestrial: m2 unprotected ecosystem kg P to freshwater, kg N to freshwater (for marine eutrophica\u019fon) kg P to freshwater, kg N to freshwater (for marine eutrophica\u019fon), mol Nequivalents for terrestrial kg PO4 P-lim equivalents for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon, kg N N-lim equivalents for marine eutrophica\u019fon CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3986, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "for terrestrial kg PO4 P-lim equivalents for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon, kg N N-lim equivalents for marine eutrophica\u019fon CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) R.K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3987, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3988, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1159, "book_page": 1158, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Acidifica\u019fon Ecosystems considered Terrestrial Terrestrial Same as CML-IA Terrestrial Terrestrial (forest soil) Same as TRACI 1.0 but with addi\u019fonal substances covered Terrestrial Terrestrial, freshwater, marine Characterisa\u019fon model Huijbregts et al.(2001) Norris (2003) Po\u01abng et al. (1998) van Zelm et al. (2007), EUTREND, SMART 2 Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 et al. (2006) and Posch et al. (2008) Roy et al. (2012a; 2012b; 2014) Fate modeling Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate model (RAINS model dated before 2000), linear increase in sensi\u019fve area change according to emission scenario Atmospheric fate and deposi\u019fon on land (ASTRAP model dated before 2000), no soil sensi\u019fvity to acidifying deposi\u019fon Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate model, linear increase in sensi\u019fve area change, sensi\u019fve areas considered, incl", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3989, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1160, "book_page": 1159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "with limited buffer capacity, discoun\u019fng for deposi\u019fon in area above cri\u019fcal load Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate model (EUTREND model) including deposi\u019fon on land (SMART 2 model) Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate model including deposi\u019fon on land (EMEP model) GEOSchem model (from NASA) for atmospheric fate and transport at the 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale for both terrestrial and freshwater acidifica\u019fon + receiving environment fate model for freshwater acidifica\u019fon Exposure modeling Sensi\u019fve areas considered, incl. with limited buffer capacity, acidifica\u019fon poten\u019fal modelled with slope inversly propor\u019fonal to cri\u019fcal load and applied above and below it Sensi\u019fve areas consider magnitude of deposi\u019fon above cri\u019fcal load and areas with limited buffer capacity for forests (extrapolated to other ecosystems) Linear increase (sensi\u019fve area change), sensi\u019fve areas, incl", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3990, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1160, "book_page": 1159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "with limited buffer capacity, acidifica\u019fon poten\u019fal modelled as the exceedence above the cri\u019fcal load, potency Terrestrial acidifica\u019fon: Soil sensi\u019fvity factor giving the change in soil solu\u019fon H+ concentra\u019fon due to a change in the atmospheric deposits of pollutant using the PROFILE geochemical steady-state model Effect modeling Dose-response slope based on a midpoint hazard risk ra\u019fo, similar to PEC / PNEC, and applied above and below cri\u019fcal load (validity s\u019fll need to be verified as some doubts exist on the relevance of the doseresponse curve, as the slope over buffer capacity depends on the buffer capacity itself Marginal/average Marginal Average Marginal Marginal Marginal Marginal Emission compartments Air, freshwater, soil Air Air Air Air Air Time horizon(s) [y] 1990 and 2010 emission scenario present 1990 and 2010 emission scenario 20, 50, 100 and 500 2002 and 2010 emission scenario 2010 emission scenario Region modelled Europe North America Europe Europe + country specific", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3991, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1160, "book_page": 1159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "scenario present 1990 and 2010 emission scenario 20, 50, 100 and 500 2002 and 2010 emission scenario 2010 emission scenario Region modelled Europe North America Europe Europe + country specific validity Europe Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon European countries US coun\u019fes European countries European countries CFs1 available at global, con\u019fnental, country, and fine scale (2o x 2.5o resolu\u019fon scale) No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3992, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1160, "book_page": 1159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 4 (NH3, NOx (NO2 and NO), SO2) 8 (H2S, SOx, NO, NO2, NOx, HCL, HF, NH3) 11 (SO2, SO3,H2SO4, H2S, NO, NO2, NOx, HNO, NH3, HCL, HF) 4 (NOx (NO, NOx), NH3, SO2) 4 (SO2, NOx (NO, NO2), NH3) Unit kg SO2 equivalents H+ equivalents kg SO2 equivalents BS26 [m2 * y] mol H+ equivalents kg SO2 equivalents CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3993, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1160, "book_page": 1159, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Land use Aspects considered Based on Eco-Indicator 99 endpoints: obtained by dividing damage factors from Eco-Indicator 99 by damage factor of organic arable land from EcoIndicator 99 Land surface used Erosion resistance, mechanical filtra\u019fon, groundwater replenishment, bio\u019fc produc\u019fon; for PEF/OEF recommended to provide net blue water consump\u019fon as addi\u019fonal environmental informa\u019fon Biodiversity, Ecosystem services: erosion resistance capacity/poten\u019fal (ERP), freshwater recharge poten\u019fal (FWRP), mechanical filtra\u019fon poten\u019fal (MWFP), chemical filtra\u019fon poten\u019fal (CWFP), bio\u019fc produc\u019fon poten\u019fal (BPP) Characterisa\u019fon model None, hence no dis\u019fnc\u019fon8 of different species composi\u019fon between land use types LANCA 2.0 (Bos et al. 2016) Biodiversity: de Baan et al. (2013a; 2013b) Ecosystem services: updated models from Saad et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3994, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1161, "book_page": 1160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2016) Biodiversity: de Baan et al. (2013a; 2013b) Ecosystem services: updated models from Saad et al. (2011; 2013), and Brand\u00e3o & Mil\u00e0 i Canals (2013) Marginal/average Average Not described Not described Region modelled Global generic Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon Country, world default and local (site-specific) 16 WWF biomes for biodiversity; 36 Holdridge lifezones for ERP, MWPP, PCWPP, FWRP; 12 IPCC climate zones for BPP No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3995, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1161, "book_page": 1160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of land use types 3 (2 occupa\u019fon (compe\u019f\u019fon in agricultural area, compe\u019f\u019fon in urban area) and 1 transforma\u019fon) Up tp 58, although many highly correlated 8 for biodiversity; 36 for ERP, MWPP, PCWPP, FWRP; 8/26 for BPP Unit m2 equivalents of organic arable land * y m2 occupa\u019fon or transforma\u019fon Erosion resistance in kg/m2 year, mechanical filtra\u019fon in m3/m2 year, groundwater replenishment in m3/m2 year, bio\u019fc produc\u019fon in kg/m2 year Biodiversity in ha equivalents of arable land * y, ERP in ton/ha/y, FWRP in mm/y, MWFP in cm/d, CWFP in cmol/kgsoil, BPP in tC/ha/y CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3996, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1161, "book_page": 1160, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) Resources Aspects considered Abio\u019fc: amount of nonrenewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals) extracted Same as Eco-Indicator 99 endpoint for fossil use only Based on Eco-Indicator 99 endpoints: obtained by dividing damage factors from Eco-Indicator 99 by damage factor of iron in ore from Eco-Indicator 99 Abio\u019fc: amount of nonrenewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals) extracted Bio\u019fc: wood extrac\u019fon Abio\u019fc: non-renewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals), based on change in availability of high grade minerals and fossil resources, mining of bulk res. covered by land use, water only as inventory parameter Bio\u019fc: use of agricultural, silvicultural bio\u019fc resources covered by land use Same as TRACI 1.0 1) Abio\u019fc resource deple\u019fon; 2) Cumula\u019fve Energy Demand (CED); as addi\u019fonal informa\u019fon in PEF: 3) Abio\u019fc and bio\u019fc resource intensity (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3997, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1162, "book_page": 1161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "mass accoun\u019fng of bio\u019fc and abio\u019fc resources; 4) Cri\u019fcality focusing on economic and social aspects Fossil fuels and mineral resources, approaches based on dissipa\u019fon of resource func\u019fonality (instead of deple\u019fon of stocks) assuming that extrac\u019fon does not contribute to func\u019fonality loss and therefore only dissipa\u019fon of a resource has an impact Characterisa\u019fon model Guin\u00e9e and Heijungs (1995) based on extrac\u019fon rates and using ul\u019fmate reserves, average rock is used Hauschild and Wenzel (1998): amount of resource extracted is compared to 1990 extrac\u019fon levels in person equivalents (frac\u019fon of resource which can be exploited economically is used (can be much smaller than the ul\u019fmate reserves)) Kirkham and Rafer (2003) Abio\u019fc resource deple\u019fon: Anthropogenic stock extended Abio\u019fc Deple\u019fon Poten\u019fal (AADP) model (Schneider et al. 2015); CED as in Ecoinvent (Hischier et al. 2010); Cri\u019fcality based on Supply risk_JRC (Mancini et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3998, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1162, "book_page": 1161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2015); CED as in Ecoinvent (Hischier et al. 2010); Cri\u019fcality based on Supply risk_JRC (Mancini et al. 2016) Fossil fuels: primary energy content Minerals: Material compe\u019f\u019fon scarcity index from de Bruille (2014) Time horizion Infinite For renewables annual regenera\u019fon used to determine supply horizon Minerals: infinite Fossil fuels: before and a\u014cer Infinite Infinite Region modelled Global Global Global Global Global No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 3999, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1162, "book_page": 1161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of resource types 82 elements 20 (minerals) + 34 (fossil fuels) n/a n/a Unit Abio\u019fc Deple\u019fon Poten\u019fal (ADP) [dimensionless] kg equivalents of iron in ore Person reserve - quan\u019fty of resource available per person (according to economically exploitable reserve) Marginal increase of extrac\u019fon costs AADP in t Sb-eq/t; CED in MJ; resource intensity in kg; cri\u019fcality dimensionless Fossil fuels: MJ deprived, Minerals: kg deprived Water use Aspects considered Water depriva\u019fon Water depriva\u019fon Characterisa\u019fon model(s) AWARE model represen\u019fng rela\u019fve Available WAter REmaining per area in a watershed a\u014cer demand of humans and aqua\u019fc ecosystems is met; it assesses poten\u019fal of water depriva\u019fon to humans or ecosystems under assump\u019fon that the less water remaining available per area, the more likely another user will be deprived (Boulay et al. 2017)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4000, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1162, "book_page": 1161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2017). AWARE model represen\u019fng rela\u019fve Available WAter REmaining per area in a watershed a\u014cer demand of humans and aqua\u019fc ecosystems is met; it assesses poten\u019fal of water depriva\u019fon to humans or ecosystems under assump\u019fon that the less water remaining available per area, the more likely another user will be deprived (Boulay et al. 2017). Marginal/average Not described Not described Region modelled Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon Country, watershed, global average consump\u019fonweighted; for agricultural, non-agricultural and unknown water use Country, watershed, global average consump\u019fonweighted; for agricultural, non-agricultural and unknown water use Unit m3 world eq. deprived m3 world eq. m3 deprived CML-IA TRACI 1.0 IMPACT 2002+ EDIP 2003 ReCiPe 2008 TRACI 2 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4001, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1162, "book_page": 1161, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.1 (continued) 1Characterisation Factor 2Global Warming Potential 3Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4Global Temperature Potential 5Ozone Depletion Potential 6World Meteorological Organisation 7Chlorofluorocarbon 8The information given in ILCD handbook and related documents is incorrect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4002, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1163, "book_page": 1162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The correct models are given in Humbert (2009)\u2014the ILCD recommended approach\u2014and are reflected here as well 9Total Suspended Particulate matter 10PM\u2014Particulate Matter (with diameters up to 2.5 and 10 \u03bcm respectively) 11Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential 12Volatile Organic Compounds 13World Health Organisation 14Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 15Sievert, unit of ionizing radiation dose 16Becquerel, unit of radioactivity (1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second) 17Effective Dose affecting 50% of tested individuals 18Reference Dose (US-EPA\u2019s acceptable daily oral exposure to the human population likely to be without risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime) 19Effective Dose affecting 10% of tested individuals 20Dichlorobenzene 21Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid 22Comparative Toxic Unit for humans 23Potentially Affected Fraction of species (not an actual unit but a fraction) 24Comparative Toxic Unit for ecosystems 25Chemical Oxygen Demand 26Base Saturation R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4003, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1163, "book_page": 1162, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 Detailed characteristics of available endpoint characterisation methods [extended and updated from ILCD handbook on LCIA (EC-JRC 2010, 2011; Sala et al. 2016)] EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Reference Steen (1999) Goedkoop and Spriensma (2000) Jolliet et al. (2003) Itsubo and Inaba (2003) Itsubo and Inaba (2012) Goedkoop et al. (2012) EC-JRC (2011) Bulle et al. (in review) Verones et al. (in prepara\u019fon), Verones et al. (2016a) Website h\u01a9ps://cpmdatabase.cpm. chalmers.se/AboutData base_2.htm h\u01a9ps://presustainability.com/ecoindicator-99-manuals h\u01a9ps://www.quan\u019fsintl.com/pdf/IMPACT2002_U serGuide_for_vQ2.21.pdf h\u01a9ps://lca-forum.org/english h\u01a9ps://lcia-recipe.net h\u01a9ps://eplca.jrc.ec.europa", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4004, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1164, "book_page": 1163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "eu/?page_id=86 h\u01a9ps://impactworldplus.org h\u01a9ps://lc-impact.eu Update of LIME 1.0 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ in part: ReCiPe 2008 Uncertain\u019fes quan\u019ffied full uncertainty informa\u019fon based on Monte Carlo Analysis Par\u019fally, spa\u019fal variability for each CF2 Qualitative, if possible quan\u019fta\u019fve Normalisa\u019fon factors Integrated in CFs2 Western Europe (produc\u019fon-based) Western Europe (produc\u019fon-based) Integrated in CFs2 Integrated in CFs2 Europe, global (produc\u019fonbased) European, global (produc\u019fon-based) Global Global Weigh\u019fng scheme Integrated in CFs2 Panel-based cultural perspec\u019fves: Individualist, Hierarchist, and Egalitarian Willingness to pay [Yen] (Conjoint analysis of interview survey of ~400 Japanese people (Kanto region) on opinions about environmental policy) Same as LIME 1.0, but for ~1000 people from all over Japan and with improved sta\u019fs\u019fcal analysis Cultural perspec\u019fves: Individualist, Hierarchist, and Egalitarian No recommended weighing factors, but STEPWISE factors (Weidema et", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4005, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1164, "book_page": 1163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "people from all over Japan and with improved sta\u019fs\u019fcal analysis Cultural perspec\u019fves: Individualist, Hierarchist, and Egalitarian No recommended weighing factors, but STEPWISE factors (Weidema et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4006, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1164, "book_page": 1163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2006) are compa\u019fble and thus op\u019fonal Addi\u019fve impacts, including amongst others different \u019fme horizons (CF2 core and CF2 extended) Areas of protec\u019fon Human health [YOLL]3 , biodiversity [NEX]4 , abio\u019fc resources [kg], ecological produc\u019fvity [kg] Human health [DALY]5, ecosystem quality [PDF in km2*y]6, resources [MJ surplus energy] Human health [DALY]5, ecosystem quality [PDF in m2*y]6, resources [MJ surplus energy], climate change [CO2 eq] Human health [DALY]5, social welfare [Yen], biodiversity [EINES]7 , , primary produc\u019fon [kgDW]8 Human health [DALY]5 , social assets [Yen], biodiversity [EINES] primary produc\u019fon [kgDW]8 Human health [DALY]5 , Ecosystems [species*y], resources [surplus cost] Human health [DALY]5, Ecosystems [PDF in m2*y]6, Resources and ecosystem services [$] Human Health [DALY]5, Ecosystems incl. vulnerability of species thus represent global ex\u019fnc\u019fons [PDF] 6, Resources [Surplus Ore Poten\u019fal]. (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4007, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1164, "book_page": 1163, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) Climate change Characterisa\u019fon model(s) (IPCC 1990) GWP9 from IPCC10 (1995) only midpoint CF GWP9 from IPPC10 (2001) GWP9 from IPPC10 (2007b) GWP9 from IPCC10 (2007b), de Schryver et al. (2009) No recommenda\u019fon, but interim use of ReCiPe 2008 model aGTP11 from IPCC10 2013 (Myhre et al. 2013), de Schryver et al. (2009) with corrected values for \u201csemi natural areas\u201d GWP9 from IPCC10 2013 (Myhre et al. 2013), de Schryver et al. (2009; 2011), Hanafiah et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4008, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1165, "book_page": 1164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2013), de Schryver et al. (2009) with corrected values for \u201csemi natural areas\u201d GWP9 from IPCC10 2013 (Myhre et al. 2013), de Schryver et al. (2009; 2011), Hanafiah et al. (2011) Human health effects Thermal stress, flooding, malaria, starva\u019fon (no diarhea) Thermal stress, vector borne diseases, flooding (no starva\u019fon) Heat and cold stress, vector borne diseases, malnutri\u019fon, natural disasters Heat and cold stress, malaria, dengue, disaster damage, malnutri\u019fon, hunger Cardiovascular diseases, malaria, diarrhoea and malnutri\u019fon, flooding Cardiovascular diseases, malaria, diarrhoea and malnutri\u019fon, flooding Cardiovascular diseases, malaria, diarrhoea and malnutri\u019fon, flooding Ecosystem effects Species loss based on global assessment of ecosystem studies in different regions and different species groups Species loss based on global assessment of ecosystem studies in different regions and different species groups Species loss incl. all species for terr. (De Schryver et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4009, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1165, "book_page": 1164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "all species for terr. (De Schryver et al. 2009) and fish as proxy for aqu. (Hanafiah et al. 2011) Bio\u019fc resources effects Decrease in crop produc\u019fon, increase wood produc\u019fon and species loss Links to crop produc\u019fon and fish produc\u019fon Agricultural produc\u019fon, energy consump\u019fon, land disappearance Ecosystem service loss (interim) Marginal/average Average Marginal Average Average Marginal Marginal Marginal Time horizon(s) [y] 100, [100-500] 100, 1000 Region modelled Global Global Global Global Global Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4010, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1165, "book_page": 1164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances n/a n/a Unit Willingness to pay (WTP) DALY5 DALY5 and Yen (crop loss) DALY5 and Yen DALY5 and PDF6 in [m2*y] DALY5, PDF6 in [m2*y] and $ DALY5, PDF6 in [yr/kg] EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Ozone deple\u019fon Characterisa\u019fon model(s) ODP12 from WMO13 (1999) ODP12 from WMO13 (1999) and data from TOMS satelite ODP12 from WMO13 (2003) and US-EPA ODP12 from WMO13 (1999) Same as LIME 1.0 ODP12 from WMO13 (2003) No recommenda\u019fon, but interim use of ReCiPe 2008 model ODP12 from WMO13 (2014) ODP12 from WMO13 (2011), De Schryver et al. (2011) Human health effects Skin cancer Skin cancer and cataract Same as Eco-Indicator 99 (Egalitarian scenario), but with updated ODP Cataract and skin cancer (malignant melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma) Skin cancer and cataract (la\u01a9er not for individualist perspect.) based on the AMOUR 2.0 model (van Dijk et al. 2008; Den Outer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4011, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1165, "book_page": 1164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2008; Den Outer et al. 2008) Skin cancer and cataract based on the AMOUR 2.0 model (van Dijk et al. 2008; Den Outer et al. 2008) Skin cancer, cataract Bio\u019fc resources effects Net primary produc\u019fvity for coniferous forests, agriculture (soybean,rice,greenpea, mustard) and phytoplancton at high la\u019ftudes Marginal/average Average Marginal Marginal Marginal Average Average Time horizon(s) [y] Infinite Infinite Infinite Integrated from 2007 to 100, infinite Region modelled Global Global Global Global Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon No. of substances Unit DALY5as monetary value via willingness to pay DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 , NPP14 and kg Wood DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4012, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1165, "book_page": 1164, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Par\u019fculate ma\u01a9er forma\u019fon / Respiratory inorganics Characterisa\u019fon model Hofste\u01a9er (1998) Same as Eco-Indicator 99 Hofste\u01a9er (1998), Ikeda (2001) Hofste\u01a9er (1998), Ikeda (2001), Pope et al. (2002) van Zelm et al. (2008) Recommenda\u019fon: DALY5 based on Humbert (2009) Humbert et al. (2011) for fate and exposure and Gronlund et al. (2015) for effects van Zelm et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4013, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1166, "book_page": 1165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) van Zelm et al. (2008) Recommenda\u019fon: DALY5 based on Humbert (2009) Humbert et al. (2011) for fate and exposure and Gronlund et al. (2015) for effects van Zelm et al. (2016) Fate/exposure modeling Mechanis\u019fc Mechanis\u019fc Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate (plume model and puff model) dis\u019fnguishing chimneys and vehicles source types Mechanis\u019fc, dis\u019fnguishing low, undefined and high stack emission Mechanis\u019fc (same as in ILCD/PEF/OEF but with updated parameters) TM5-FASST, a global chemistry transport model Effect modeling Dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity, etc.) Dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity, etc.) Similar to LIME 1.0 but disease and death rates were increased for some substances/endpoints according to newer data from Pope et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4014, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1166, "book_page": 1165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Dose-response (chronic mortality, acute mortality, acute respiratory morbidity, acute cardiovascular morbidity) ; chronic bronchi\u019fs not considered Dose-response, massbased, surface-based, and number-based Updated region-specific effect and damage data Marginal/average Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Linear Emission compartment Air Air Air (from chimney, from automobile) Air (for low, undefined and high stack emission) Air (high stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement) Air Time horizon, discoun\u019fng No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng Infinite Same as LIME 1.0 No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng Region modelled Generic con\u019fnent Average atmospheric condi\u019fons for 7 regions of Japan Europe Generic and con\u019fnental World Level of spa\u019fal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4015, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1166, "book_page": 1165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng No \u019fmeframe, no discoun\u019fng Region modelled Generic con\u019fnent Average atmospheric condi\u019fons for 7 regions of Japan Europe Generic and con\u019fnental World Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon 7 Japanese regions high stack, low stack, ground-level, undefined; remote, rura, urban and undefined environnement 56 regions No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4016, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1166, "book_page": 1165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 4 (primary PM10; secondary PM10 from NH3, NOx, SO2; no values for PM2.5)15 6 (primary PM10 and PM 2.5, SO2, NO2, secondary PM10 from NO2, SO2)15 4 (primary PM10; secondary PM10 from NH3, NOx, SO2)15 5 (primary PM2.5, primary PM10, secondary PM from NOx and SO2, and CO)15 PM2.5 (from PM2.5, NH3, NOx and SO2) Unit DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4017, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1166, "book_page": 1165, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Photochemical ozone forma\u019fon / respiratory organics Human health effects Morbidity and severe morbidity Acute mortality Same as Eco-Indicator 99 (Egalitarian scenario) Acute mortality, morbidity, no considera\u019fon of NOx Same as LIME 1.0 Only acute mortality, chronic effects disregarded due to lack of empirical evidence Recommenda\u019fon: ReCiPe 2008 model Constant damage factor for acute mortality, chronic effects disregarded due to lack of empirical evidence van Zelm et al. (2016) Ecosystem effects All relevant mechanisms, no considera\u019fon of NOx Following Van Goethem et al. (2013b) but for the World Characterisa\u019fon model POCP16 (Lindfors et al. 1994) Hofste\u01a9er (1998) Ozone conversion equivalency factors (OCEF), Schere & Demerjian, (1984), corrected by Uno and Wakamatsu (1992) van Loon et al. (2007), Vautard et al. (2007), van Zelm et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4018, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1167, "book_page": 1166, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1994) Hofste\u01a9er (1998) Ozone conversion equivalency factors (OCEF), Schere & Demerjian, (1984), corrected by Uno and Wakamatsu (1992) van Loon et al. (2007), Vautard et al. (2007), van Zelm et al. (2008) van Loon et al. (2007), Vautard et al. (2007), van Zelm et al. (2008) Van Zelm et al. (2008) Van Goethem et al. (2013a; 2013b), van Zelm et al. (2016) Fate modeling Based on old Swedish version of POCP16 (Lindfors et al. 1994) POCP16 from Jenkin et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4019, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1167, "book_page": 1166, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2008) Van Zelm et al. (2008) Van Goethem et al. (2013a; 2013b), van Zelm et al. (2016) Fate modeling Based on old Swedish version of POCP16 (Lindfors et al. 1994) POCP16 from Jenkin et al. (1999) Average atmospheric condi\u019fons for 7 regions of Japan LOTOS-EUROS model 2007 LOTOS-EUROS model 2007 TM5-FASST, a global chemistry transport model Exposure modeling Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes and average daily inhala\u019fon Popula\u019fon distribu\u019fon for human health, integrated in dose-response model for other AOPs17 Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes within grid cells, atmospheric concentra\u019fon of O3 and average daily inhala\u019fon Popula\u019fon densi\u019fes within grid cells, atmospheric concentra\u019fon of O3 and average daily inhala\u019fon Updated region-specific effect and damage data Van Goethem et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4020, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1167, "book_page": 1166, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013a; 2013b) Effect modeling Based on global average situa\u019fon Linear exposure-response func\u019fons Linear exposure-response func\u019fons, also considering crops and natural vegeta\u019fon, wood Linearity assumed, no threshold and only including acute effects Human health only, linearity assumed with no threshold (based on WHO18 recommenda\u019fon) Marginal/average Average Marginal and Average give same results Marginal (\u0394O3 per marginal \u0394VOC19 for 8 VOC19 archetypes) Marginal (linearity checked up to 10% increase) Marginal (linearity checked up to 10% increase) Linear Emission compartment Air Air Air Air Air Air Region modelled/valid Global damage data, European fate data (POCP16) Europe Japan Europe Europe World Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon 56 regions No. of substances 67 (nmVOCs20 and Nox) 8 archetypes from which individual VOCs19 can be es\u019fmated 2 (nmVOC20 and NOx) but factors for individual VOCs19 can be determined applying POCPs16, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4021, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1167, "book_page": 1166, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 67 (nmVOCs20 and Nox) 8 archetypes from which individual VOCs19 can be es\u019fmated 2 (nmVOC20 and NOx) but factors for individual VOCs19 can be determined applying POCPs16, e.g. from CML-IA Ozone (from NOx and NMVOC) Unit DALY5 converted to monetary value using willingness to pay DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 Human health [DALY]5 and Ecosystems [PDF]6 (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4022, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1167, "book_page": 1166, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Ionizing radia\u019fon Characterisa\u019fon model Frischknecht et al. (2000) Same as Eco-Indicator 99 (Egalitarian scenario) Same as Eco-Indicator 99 No recommenda\u019fon, but interim use of Frischknecht et al. (2000) as used in EcoIndicator 99, IMPACT 2002+, ReCiPe Same as CML-IA, but without effect model, indicator: human exposure level Garnier-Laplace et al. (2008; 2009) for ecosystem impacts Same as CML-IA, complemented with De Schryver et al. (2011) Fate modeling Dreicer et al. (1995), using rou\u019fne atmospheric and liquid discharges into rivers in French nuclear fuel cycle including surrounding condi\u019fons. For globally dispersed radionuclides simplified models are used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4023, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1168, "book_page": 1167, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(1995), using rou\u019fne atmospheric and liquid discharges into rivers in French nuclear fuel cycle including surrounding condi\u019fons. For globally dispersed radionuclides simplified models are used. Exposure modeling Effec\u019fve dose [Sv] 21 via inhala\u019fon, inges\u019fon, external irradia\u019fon, based on human body equivalence factors for \u03b1-, \u03b2-, \u03b3-radia\u019fon, and neutrons Effect modeling Dose-response func\u019fons directly based on human subjects exposed in Nagasaki and Hiroshima (extrapolated to low-dose exposure) Time horizon(s) [y] 100, 100000 Emission compartment Air, water Region modelled/valid Global, Europe (fate based on French condi\u019fons) No. of substances 31 (21 radionuclides to outdoor air, 13 to water, 15 to ocean) 26 for human health and 13 for ecosystem quality impacts Unit DALY5 DALY 5 , PDF 6 in [m2*y] DALY5 (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4024, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1168, "book_page": 1167, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Human toxicity Diseases considered Cancer/non-cancer Cancer Cancer/non-cancer Cancer, oral chronic noncancer diseases Cancer, oral and inhalatory chronic non-cancer diseases, sick house syndrome via indoor exposure to formaldehyde, NOx, SO2, PM Cancer/non-cancer Recommenda\u019fon for cancer effects: USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) combined with DALYs 5 from Huijbregts et al. (2005) No recommenda\u019fon for non-cancer effects, but interim use of USEtox model (Rosenbaum et al. 2008) combined with severity factors from Huijbregts et al. (2005) Cancer/non-cancer Same as IMPACT World+ Characterisa\u019fon model None EUSES 1.0 (EC and RIVM 1996) IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005) Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4025, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1169, "book_page": 1168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2005) Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al. 2009) USEtox 2.0 (www.usetox.org) Fate modeling None Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for risk assessment) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) (Rosenbaum et al. 2007; Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011; Fantke et al. 2013) Exposure modeling some pathways missing inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways inhala\u019fon, various inges\u019fon pathways Inhala\u019fon including indoor exposure (Hellweg et al. 2009; Wenger et al. 2012; Rosenbaum et al. 2015), various inges\u019fon pathways (Rosenbaum et al. 2011) including pes\u019fcide residues from Fantke et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4026, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1169, "book_page": 1168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009; Wenger et al. 2012; Rosenbaum et al. 2015), various inges\u019fon pathways (Rosenbaum et al. 2011) including pes\u019fcide residues from Fantke et al. (2011a; 2011b; 2013) Effect modeling RfD22, safety factors Unit-Risk concept ED1023 Unit-risk concept for cancer ED1023 for oral chronic diseases Improved models and data, including inhala\u019fon exposure to heavy metals based on epidemiological data, sick house syndrome effect modeling via indoor inhala\u019fon volumeresponse curve based on clinic survey ED5024 ED5024 (Rosenbaum et al. 2011) combined with severity factors from Huijbregts et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4027, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1169, "book_page": 1168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011) combined with severity factors from Huijbregts et al. (2005) Marginal/average Average, Sweden, Europe or USA taken as reference Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Similar to IMPACT 2002+ Similar to IMPACT 2002+ Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Time horizon n/a Infinite Infinite Infinite, 100 years for metals or all substances in Individualist perspec\u019fve Infinite, \u2264100 y, >100 y for metals Emission compartment n/a Air, water, soil Air, water, soil Rural air, urban air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil rural air, urban air, indoor air, agricultural soil, natural soil, freshwater, marine water Region modelled Global average, calculated based on Swedish data Europe Europe Japan Japan Europe global average, 16 subcon\u019fnental zones, 8 con\u019fnental zones Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon sub-con\u019fnental level (Kounina et al. 2014) No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4028, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1169, "book_page": 1168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014) No. of substances ~57 ~10 ~800 ~800 ~1000 ~1000 ~1250 Unit DALY5 converted to monetary value DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 DALY5 (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4029, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1169, "book_page": 1168, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Ecotoxicity Ecosystems considered n/a Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, marine, terrestrial Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, terrestrial Freshwater, marine, terrestrial No recommenda\u019fon Freshwater, marine, terrestrial Same as IMPACT World+, but with severity factor (PAF-PDF) of 1 and including vulnerability factors for taking species\u2019 vulnerability into account (leading to global ex\u019fnc\u019fons) Characterisa\u019fon model None (red list species pot. threatened by chemicals) EUSES 1.0 (EC and RIVM 1996) IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005) Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4030, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1170, "book_page": 1169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "threatened by chemicals) EUSES 1.0 (EC and RIVM 1996) IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005) Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model Modified version of IMPACT 2002 model USES-LCA 2.0 (van Zelm et al. 2009) USEtox 2.0 (www.usetox.org) Fate/exposure modeling None Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for risk assessment) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) Mechanis\u019fc, mass-balance model (developed for LCA) (Rosenbaum et al. 2007; Rosenbaum et al. 2008; Henderson et al. 2011) Effect modeling None Most sensi\u019fve species Average toxicity Average toxicity Average toxicity (Henderson et al. 2011) with generic severity factor (PAF-PDF) of 0.5 (Jolliet et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4031, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1170, "book_page": 1169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2011) Effect modeling None Most sensi\u019fve species Average toxicity Average toxicity Average toxicity (Henderson et al. 2011) with generic severity factor (PAF-PDF) of 0.5 (Jolliet et al. 2003) Marginal/average Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal and Average give same results Marginal (non-linear effect factor) Marginal and Average give same results Time horizon n/a Infinite Infinite Infinite, 100 years for metals Infinite, \u2264100 y and >100 y for metals Emission compartment n/a Air, water, soil Air, water, soil Air, water, agricultural soil, natural soil Air, freshwater, marine water, agricultural soil, natural soil Region modelled Global average Europe Europe Japan Japan Europe global average, 16 subcon\u019fnental zones, 8 con\u019fnental zones Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon sub-con\u019fnental level (Kounina et al. 2014) No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4032, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1170, "book_page": 1169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2014) No. of substances ~45 ~45 ~430 n/a n/a ~2650 ~3100 Unit NEX4 PDF6 in [m2*y] PDF6 in [m2*y] EINES25 EINES25 PDF6 in [y/t] PDF6 in [m2*y] (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4033, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1170, "book_page": 1169, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Eutrophica\u019fon Ecosystems considered Freshwater, terrestrial Terrestrial (incl. wetlands and swamps) Freshwater Marine (only benthic communi\u019fes in coastal water) Same as LIME 1.0 Freshwater No recommenda\u019fon, but interim use of ReCiPe 2008 model for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon Freshwater, marine Freshwater, marine Fate modeling No mechanis\u019fc fate model, empirical data used, only dis\u019fnc\u019fon between deposi\u019fon on land and water for airborne emissions No atmospheric fate model, assuming 60% of emissions deposited on European natural soil (no advec\u019fon leaving Europe) No mechanis\u019fc fate model, Redfield ra\u019fo assumed for N/P No leaching of N from land, no N or P removal processes, estuarine circula\u019fon modelled Mechanis\u019fc fate model EUTREND for atmospheric and CARMEN for waterborne emissions (Struijs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4034, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2009), fixed removal ra\u019fo for N and P in different emission scenarios Freshwater: fate transport based on Helmes et al. (2012) at the 0.5\u00b0x0.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale Marine: GEOSchem model (from NASA h\u01a9p://map.nasa.gov/GEOS_CH EM.html) for atmospheric fate and transport un\u019fl coastal zones at the 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale Freshwater: fate transport based on Helmes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4035, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2012) Marine: Cosme and Hauschild (2017) Exposure modeling Effects assumed for 90% of N emissions exposing Nlimited ecosystems and 10% of P emissions reaching P-limited ecosystems Change in soil nutrients for a marginal deposi\u019fon increase based on Dutch condi\u019fons Mineralisa\u019fon with full release of nutrients in biologically available form assumed, freshwater ecosystems P-limited Empirical data for four Japanese bays Dis\u019fnc\u019fon between exposure of N- and Plimited systems Dis\u019fnc\u019fon between exposure of N- and P-limited systems Only P-limited systems for freshwater, only N-limited systems for marine Effect modeling No dose-response Linear dose-response rela\u019fonship, endpoint as impacts on higher plants in the Netherlands Linear dose-response rela\u019fonships for different classes of European Plimited freshwater ecosystems Linear dose-response rela\u019fonships for N and P based on empirical observa\u019fons on disappearance of benthic species due to oxygen deple\u019fon Linear dose-response rela\u019fonship", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4036, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Plimited freshwater ecosystems Linear dose-response rela\u019fonships for N and P based on empirical observa\u019fons on disappearance of benthic species due to oxygen deple\u019fon Linear dose-response rela\u019fonship according to limi\u019fng nutrient Freshwater = P limited Generic effect factor from Tirado-Seco (2005) Marine = N limited Generic, empirical effect factor Freshwater: Azevedo et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4037, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013a) Marine: Cosme and Hauschild (2016) Marginal/average Average Marginal Average Marginal Marginal Marginal Both linear/average Emission compartment Air, water Air Air, water, soil Air, water Air, water, soil Air, freshwater, ocean FW: soil, water Marine: air, surface water, groundwater, ocean Time horizon Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Infinite Not relevant Region modelled/valid Global average (extrapolated from Swedish data) Europe + country specific validity/ Dutch validity for midpoint-endpoint modeling Europe Japan Europe Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon CFs2 available at global, con\u019fnental, country, and fine scale (0.5\u00b0x0.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 for marine eutrophica\u019fon Freshwater: 0.5x0.5 arc degrees, countries, con\u019fnents, global average Marine: 215 country to LME values, countries, regions, world average No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4038, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 5 (1 to air, 4 to water) 4 (NH3, NO, NO2, Nox) 4 P compounds and COD26 from CML 5 (2 to air, 3 to water) 4 (N-total, P-total, NOx and NH3) 8 for freshwater eutrophica\u019fon, 16 for marine eutrophica\u019fon Total P for freshwater NH3, NOx to air and N to surface water, ground water and ocean for marine Unit NEX4 PDF6 in [m2*y] PDF6 in [m2*y] NPP14(Loss of Benthic biomass) PDF6 in [y/t] PDF6 in [m2*y] PDF6 for freshwater and marine (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4039, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1171, "book_page": 1170, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Acidifica\u019fon Ecosystems considered Terrestrial (incl. wetlands and swamps) Same as Eco-Indicator 99 (Egalitarian scenario) Terrestrial Terrestrial Terrestrial No recommenda\u019fon, but interim use of ReCiPe 2008 model Terrestrial, freshwater, marine Terrestrial Characterisa\u019fon model SMART, MOVE Hayashi et al. (2004) Hayashi et al. (2004) and others van Zelm et al. (2007), EUTREND, SMART 2 Roy et al. (2012a; 2012b; 2014), Azevedo et al. (2015) Same as IMPACT World+ complemented by Azevedo et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4040, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013b) Fate modeling No atmospheric fate model, assuming 60% of emissions deposited on European natural soil (no advec\u019fon leaving Europe) Atmospheric fate model (mixing mechanis\u019fc and empirical approaches - Euler-type model for SO2 and Nox, empirical values for rest of chemicals with emission and deposi\u019fon data between 1991-1997) including deposi\u019fon on land, domes\u019fc average Similar to LIME 1.0 but dividing Japan into 6 zones, including geographical fluctua\u019fon, calcula\u019fng source a\u01a9ribu\u019fon by zone based on the ra\u019fo of terrestrial area and marine area Mechanis\u019fc atmospheric fate model (EUTREND model) including deposi\u019fon on land (SMART 2 model) GEOSchem model (NASA h\u01a9p://map.nasa.gov/GEOS_CH EM.html) for atmospheric fate and transport at the 2\u00b0x2.5\u00b0 resolu\u019fon scale for both terrestrial and freshwater acidifica\u019fon + receiving environment fate model for freshwater acidifica\u019fon Same as IMPACT World+ Exposure modeling Change in soil pH for a marginal deposi\u019fon increase based on Dutch", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4041, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "and freshwater acidifica\u019fon + receiving environment fate model for freshwater acidifica\u019fon Same as IMPACT World+ Exposure modeling Change in soil pH for a marginal deposi\u019fon increase based on Dutch condi\u019fons Sensi\u019fve areas consider magnitude of deposi\u019fon above cri\u019fcal load and areas with limited buffer capacity for representa\u019fve soils in Japan Naturally produced SO2 excluded from emissions used for calcula\u019fon of source a\u01a9ribu\u019fon of SO2 Sensi\u019fve areas consider magnitude of deposi\u019fon above cri\u019fcal load and areas with limited buffer capacity for forests (extrapolated to other ecosystems) Terrestrial: soil sensi\u019fvity factor giving the change in soil solu\u019fon H+ conc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4042, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "due to a change in the atmos. deposits of pollutant using the PROFILE geochemical steady-state model (Roy et al. 2012a) Effect modeling Linear dose-response rela\u019fonship, endpoint as impacts on higher plants in the Netherlands Change in NPP of forestry plant species per change H+ deposi\u019fon: [NPP] / [H+_dep], linear func\u019fon between H+ deposi\u019fon and NPP, la\u01a9er calculated as a func\u019fon of soil acidifica\u019fon and Al3 + concentra\u019fon Similar to LIME 1.0 but updated modeling and added biodiversity of terrestrial (plant) ecosystems Change in Poten\u019fally Not Occurring Frac\u019fon of forestry plant species per change in Base Satura\u019fon: [PNOF] / [BS], linear func\u019fon for BS > 0.15 based on 240 vascular plants species Terrestrial: site specific effect factor based on biome regr. models from Azevedo et al. (2013b) Freshwater: loca\u019fon-specific effect factor linking change in H+ concentra\u019fon in a lake to change in potentially disappeared frac\u019fon (Roy et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4043, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "models from Azevedo et al. (2013b) Freshwater: loca\u019fon-specific effect factor linking change in H+ concentra\u019fon in a lake to change in potentially disappeared frac\u019fon (Roy et al. 2014) Marine: dose response curve for pH effect on different calcifying organisms using available data to assess EC5027 (Azevedo et al. 2015) Terrestrial: same as IMPACT World+ Marginal/average Marginal Marginal Same as LIME 1.0 Marginal Marginal Same as IMPACT World+ Emission compartment Air Air Air Air Time horizon(s) [y] Infinite Infinite 20, 50, 100 and 500 Infinite Region modelled Europe + country specific validity/ Dutch validity for midpoint-endpoint modeling Japan Europe + country specific validity/ Dutch validity for midpoint-endpoint modeling Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon CFs2 available at global, con\u019fnental, country, and fine scale (2o x 2.5o resolu\u019fon scale) No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4044, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of substances 7 (SO2, SO3, SOx, NH3, NO, NO2, Nox) 5 (SO2, NO, NO2, HCL, NH3) Same as LIME 1.0 4 (Nox (NO, NOx), NH3, SO2) 3 (SOx, NOx, NH3) Unit PDF6 in [m2*y] NPP14 NPP14 and Yen PDF6 in [m2*y] species*y PDF 6 in [m2*y] PDF6 (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4045, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1172, "book_page": 1171, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Land use Aspects considered biodiversity (only red list species) and primary wood produc\u019fvity of forest Biodiversity Same as Eco-Indicator 99 (Egalitarian scenario) Biodiversity and net primary produc\u019fon of an area Similar to LIME 1.0 but with updated data covering 30 types of vegeta\u019fon Biodiversity No recommenda\u019fon due to models\u2019 immaturity, but interim use of Chaudhary et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4046, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1173, "book_page": 1172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2015) model Biodiversity, Ecosystem service loss: erosion resistance capacity/poten\u019fal (ERP), freshwater recharge poten\u019fal (FWRP), mechanical filtra\u019fon poten\u019fal (MWFP), chemical filtra\u019fon poten\u019fal (CWFP), bio\u019fc produc\u019fon poten\u019fal (BPP) Biodiversity global ex\u019fnc\u019fon of species, vulnerability of species communi\u019fes considered taxa-specific Characterisa\u019fon model (Jarvinen and Mie\u01abnen 1987) Koellner (2001), Species richness (based on vascular plants), species-area rela\u019fonship NPP based on Chikugo model. Biodiversity based on red species list and life expectancy (study by Matsuda et al. (2003)) Koellner (2001), Species richness (based on vascular plants), species-area rela\u019fonship Biodiversity: de Baan et al. (2013a; 2013b) Ecosystem services: updated models from Saad et al. (2011; 2013), and Brand\u00e3o & Mil\u00e0 i Canals (2013) Chaudhary et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4047, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1173, "book_page": 1172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2013a; 2013b) Ecosystem services: updated models from Saad et al. (2011; 2013), and Brand\u00e3o & Mil\u00e0 i Canals (2013) Chaudhary et al. (2015) Marginal/average Not described Marginal Marginal Marginal Not described Marginal and average Region modelled Global, but based only on Swedish data Mid Europe, based on Swiss data Japan, for NPP14, overseas areas also considered North West-Europe, based on Bri\u019fsh and Swiss data Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon 16 WWF biomes for biodiversity; 36 Holdridge lifezones for ERP, MWPP, PCWPP, FWRP; 12 IPCC climate zones for BPP 804 terrestrial ecoregions No", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4048, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1173, "book_page": 1172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of land use types 3 (arable land, forest for forest, and forest for roads) 16 land occupa\u019fons + 11 land conversions n/a 18 land occupa\u019fons (including 3 intensi\u019fes for arable areas) + 4 land conversions 8 for biodiversity; 36 for ERP, MWPP, PCWPP, FWRP; 8/26 for BPP 6 (each for occupa\u019fon and transforma\u019fon) Unit For biodiversity: NEX4; for primary produc\u019fon: 1kg dry wood PDF6 in [m2*y] EINES 7 and NPP14 EINES7 and NPP14 PDF6 in [m2*y] Biodiversity affec\u019fng Ecosystem quality endpoint in PDF6 in [m2*y], Ecosystem services (FWRP, MWFP, CWFP, BPP) affec\u019fng all three andpoints given in DALY5 , PDF6 in [m2*y], $, Ecosystem service ERP affec\u019fng Resources and ecosystem services in $ species-eq or PDF6 (aggregated across taxa) (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4049, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1173, "book_page": 1172, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Resources Aspects considered Abio\u019fc: non-renewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals) based on resource in average rock, water extrac\u019fon (irriga\u019fon, drinking) Bio\u019fc: wood extrac\u019fon, fish and meat extrac\u019fon Abio\u019fc: non-renewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals), based on (long term) change in availability of high grade minerals and fossil resources, mining of bulk resources covered by land use Bio\u019fc: use of agricultural, silvicultural bio\u019fc resources covered by land use Abio\u019fc: non-renewable resources: minerals as modelled in Eco-Indicator 99 and fossil fuels modelled in a specific way (no stock size included), mining of bulk resources covered by land use Bio\u019fc: use of agricultural, silvicultural bio\u019fc resources covered by land use Abio\u019fc: minerals, fossil resources, fossil fuels Bio\u019fc: living resources (terrestrial ecosystem) Same as", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4050, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1174, "book_page": 1173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "by land use Bio\u019fc: use of agricultural, silvicultural bio\u019fc resources covered by land use Abio\u019fc: minerals, fossil resources, fossil fuels Bio\u019fc: living resources (terrestrial ecosystem) Same as LIME 1.0 but with improved models and data Abio\u019fc: non-renewable resources (fossil fuels and minerals), based on change in availability of high grade minerals and fossil resources, mining of bulk resources covered by land use, water only as inventory parameter Bio\u019fc: use of agricultural, silvicultural biotic resources covered by land use No recommenda\u019fon due to models\u2019 immaturity, but interim use of Surplus Cost Poten\u019fal SCP model (Vieira et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4051, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1174, "book_page": 1173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "2016) of mining and milling ac\u019fvi\u019fes including all future metal extrac\u019fons and the opera\u019fng mining costs accoun\u019fng for coproduc\u019fon; assuming that mines with lower opera\u019fng costs are explored first; costs assumed as measure of deple\u019fon; unit of SCP is USD2013/kg Endpoint: resources and ecosystem services affected due to func\u019fonal depriva\u019fon of fossil fuels and mineral resources, approaches based on dissipa\u019fon of resource func\u019fonality (instead of deple\u019fon of stocks) assuming that extrac\u019fon does not contribute to func\u019fonality loss and therefore only dissipa\u019fon of a resource has an impact Mineral resources Characterisa\u019fon model Numerous sources from 1990-2000, not all input data is traceable (de Vries 1988) (M\u00fcller-Wenk 1998) For minerals see EcoIndicator 99; for fossils: Ecoinvent database as of n/a Kirkham and Rafel (2003) Func\u019fonality specific effect factor for fossil fuels from Fatemi (2012) and for minerals from de Bruille (2014) Vieira et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4052, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1174, "book_page": 1173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2012; 2017) Time horizon Long \u019fme frame, weigh\u019fng/Normaliza\u019fon based on future technologies 5x the historical extrac\u019fon before 1990 Minerals: 5x the historical extrac\u019fon before 1990. Fossil fuels: infinite n/a Minerals: infinite Fossil fuels: before and a\u014cer 2030 n/a n/a Region modelled Global Global Global n/a Global Global Global No. of resource types 67 (minerals) + 3 (fossils) + 3 (bio\u019fc) + 1 (water) 12 (minerals) + 9 (fossil fuels) 22 (minerals) + 9 (fossil fuels) n/a 20 (minerals) + 34 (fossil fuels) + 5 (water use) n/a 18 minerals Unit kg of element or resource used Surplus energy [MJ] needed to extract one kg extra element or one MJ fuel. Surplus Energy and primary energy [MJ] Yen, EINES7, and NPP14 Marginal increase of extrac\u019fon costs $ Surplus Ore Poten\u019fal (continued) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4053, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1174, "book_page": 1173, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) EPS 2000 Eco-Indicator99 IMPACT 2002+ LIME 1.0 (2003) LIME 2.0 (2008)1 ReCiPe 2008 ILCD/PEF/OEF IMPACT World+ LC-Impact Water use Aspects considered Human health, ecosystem quality, resources and ecosystem services Human health , ecosystem quality Characterisa\u019fon model(s) Boulay et al. (2011), van Zelm et al. (2010), Hanafiah et al. (2011), Verones et al. (2010), Humbert and Maendly (2008) Pfister et al. (2009; 2014), Verones et al. (2016b) Ecosystem effects Terrestrial: van Zelm et al. (2010), regionalised using likelihood of shallow vs. deep groundwater extr. Freshwater: Hanafiah et al. (2011) as global average value, model from Verones et al. (2010) for thermal pollu\u019fon, and model from Humbert and Maendly (2008) for water stream use Terrestrial: Plants and aqua\u019fc: Verones et al. (2016b) Human health effects Human health based on Boulay et al. (2011), represen\u019fng water stress, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4054, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1175, "book_page": 1174, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2016b) Human health effects Human health based on Boulay et al. (2011), represen\u019fng water stress, i.e. level of compe\u019f\u019fon among users (anthropogenic and ecosystems) due to physical stress of the resource, addressing seasonal varia\u019fons, and dis\u019fnguishing between surface and groundwater Pfister et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4055, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1175, "book_page": 1174, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "level of compe\u019f\u019fon among users (anthropogenic and ecosystems) due to physical stress of the resource, addressing seasonal varia\u019fons, and dis\u019fnguishing between surface and groundwater Pfister et al. (2009; 2014) Region modelled Global Global Level of spa\u019fal differen\u019fa\u019fon CFs2 available at global, con\u019fnental, country, and for human health also at fine scale (watershed resolu\u019fon scale) CFs2 for human health: 11050 watersheds, countries, global average CFs2 for ecosystems: 0.05x0.05 arc degrees, coutries, global average Unit DALY5 , PDF6 in [m2*y], $ DALY5, PDF6 Rare or emerging impact categories Noise From transport applying fate (increase in noise levels due to addi\u019fonal cars/km - dis\u019fnguishing day/night and small/large cars), exposure (distribu\u019fon of exposed popula\u019fon with background levels), effect (volume-response curve based on social survey), and damage due to sleep disorder and conversa\u019fon disorder Waste User cost, biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems (continued) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4056, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1175, "book_page": 1174, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Table 40.2 (continued) 1Version 3.0 of LIME, which is currently not documented in english but already available, includes, among other, a water use characterization model, and focuses on global coverage for many impact categories 2Characterization Factor 3Years of Life Lost (actual unit is [year]) 4Normalized Extinction of species 5Disability Adjusted Life Years (actual unit is [year]) 6Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species (not an actual unit but a fraction of 1) 7Expected Increase in Number of Extinct species 8Dry Weight 9Global Warming Potential (a measure of infrared radiative forcing in [W year/m2] or in CO2-eq if normalised to CO2) 10Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 11Absolute Global Temperature Potential 12Ozone Depletion Potential 13World Meteorological Organisation 14Net Primary Productivity 15PM\u2014Particulate Matter (with diameters up to 2.5 and 10 \u03bcm respectively) 16Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential 17Area of Protection 18World Health Organisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4057, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1176, "book_page": 1175, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "14Net Primary Productivity 15PM\u2014Particulate Matter (with diameters up to 2.5 and 10 \u03bcm respectively) 16Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential 17Area of Protection 18World Health Organisation 19Volatile Organic Compounds 20Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 21Sievert, unit of ionizing radiation dose 22Reference Dose (US-EPA\u2019s acceptable daily oral exposure to the human population likely to be without risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime) 23Effective Dose affecting 10% of tested individuals 24Effective Dose affecting 50% of tested individuals 25Expected increase in Number of Extinct Species 26Chemical Oxygen Demand 27Effective Concentration affecting 50% of individuals Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4058, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1176, "book_page": 1175, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Acknowledgements The author is very grateful to C\u00e9cile Bulle (CIRAIG/UQAM) and Francesca Verones (NTNU) who provided very helpful and valuable inputs to this chapter. Azevedo, L.B., Henderson, A.D., van Zelm, R., Jolliet, O., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Assessing the importance of spatial variability versus model choices in life cycle impact assessment: the case of freshwater eutrophication in Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 13565\u201313570 (2013a). doi:10.1021/es403422a Azevedo, L.B., van Zelm, R., Hendriks, A.J., Bobbink, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Global assessment of the effects of terrestrial acidification on plant species richness. Environ. Pollut. 174, 10\u201315 (2013b). doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2012.11.001 Azevedo, L.B., De Schryver, A.M., Hendriks, A.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Calcifying species sensitivity distributions for ocean acidification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 1495\u20131500 (2015)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4059, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1177, "book_page": 1176, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
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{"text": "Sci. Total Environ. 409, 33\u201342 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.09.016 Lindfors, L.G., Christiansen, K., Hoffman, L., Virtanen, Y., Juntilla, V., Leskinen, A., Hanssen, O.-J., R\u00f8nning, A., Ekvall, T., Finnveden, G.: LCA-Nordic, Technical report No 10, Tema Nord 1995:503. Denmark, Copenhagen (1994) Mancini, L., Benini, L., Sala, S.: Characterization of raw materials based on supply risk indicators for Europe. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. In Press (2016) Matsuda, H., Serizawa, S., Ueda, K., Kato, T., Yahara, T.: Assessing the impact of the Japanese 2005 World exposition project on vascular plants\u2019 risk of extinction. Chemosphere 53, 325\u2013336 (2003). doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00013-4 McKone, T.E., Bennett, D.H., Maddalena, R.L.: CalTOX 4.0 technical support document, vol. 1. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA (2001) M\u00fcller-Wenk, R.: Depletion of Abiotic Resources Weighted on the Base of \u201cVirtual\u201d Impacts of Lower Grade Deposits in Future. St", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4081, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1181, "book_page": 1180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA (2001) M\u00fcller-Wenk, R.: Depletion of Abiotic Resources Weighted on the Base of \u201cVirtual\u201d Impacts of Lower Grade Deposits in Future. St. Gallen, Switzerland (1998) Myhre, G., Shindell, D., Br\u00e9on, F.-M., Collins, W., Fuglestvedt, J., Huang, J., Koch, D., Lamarque, J.-F., Lee, D., Mendoza, B., Nakajima, T., Robock, A., Stephens, G., Takemura, T., Zha, H. (2013) Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. In: Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., et al. (eds.) Climate Change 2013 Physics Science Basis. Contribution Working Group I to Fifth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climater Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 659\u2013740 Norris, G.A.: Impact characterization in the tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts: methods for acidification, eutrophication, and ozone formation. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4082, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1181, "book_page": 1180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 6, 79\u2013101 (2003) Pennington, D.W., Margni, M., Ammann, C., Jolliet, O.: Multimedia fate and human intake modeling: spatial versus nonspatial insights for chemical emissions in Western Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 1119\u20131128 (2005) Pfister, S., Bayer, P.: Monthly water stress: spatially and temporally explicit consumptive water footprint of global crop production. J. Clean. Prod. 73, 52\u201362 (2014) Pfister, S., Koehler, A., Hellweg, S.: Assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption in LCA. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 4098\u20134104 (2009) Pope, C.A., Burnett, R.T., Thun, M.J., Calle, E.E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., Thurston, G.D.: Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. J. Am. Med. Assoc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4083, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1181, "book_page": 1180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Am. Med. Assoc. 287, 1132\u20131141 (2002) Posch, M., Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4, J., Hettelingh, J.-P., Johansson, M., Margni, M., Jolliet, O.: The role of atmospheric dispersion models and ecosystem sensitivity in the determination of characterisation factors for acidifying and eutrophying emissions in LCIA. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 477\u2013486 (2008). doi:10.1007/s11367-008-0025-9 Potting, J., Hauschild, M.: Background for spatial differentiation in life cycle impact assessment: the EDIP2003 methodology. Copenhagen (2005) Potting, J., Sch\u00f6pp, W., Blok, K., Hauschild, M.Z.: Comparison of the acidifying impact from emissions with different regional origin in life-cycle assessment. J. Hazard. Mater. 61, 155\u2013162 (1998) Rabl, A., Spadaro, J.V.: The RiskPoll Software, Version 1.051 (2004) R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4084, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1181, "book_page": 1180, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Rosenbaum, R.K., Margni, M., Jolliet, O.: A flexible matrix algebra framework for the multimedia multipathway modeling of emission to impacts. Environ. Int. 33, 624\u2013634 (2007). doi:10.1016/ j.envint.2007.01.004 Rosenbaum, R.K., Bachmann, T.M.K., Gold, L.S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Jolliet, O., Juraske, R., Koehler, A., Larsen, H.F., MacLeod, M., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Payet, J., Schuhmacher, M., Van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z.: USEtox: the UNEP/SETAC-consensus model: recommended characterisation factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 13, 532\u2013546 (2008). doi:10.1007/s11367008-0038-4 Rosenbaum, R.K., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Henderson, A., Margni, M., McKone, T.E., Van de Meent, D., Hauschild, M.Z., Shaked, S., Li, D.S., Slone, T.H., Gold, L.S., Jolliet, O.: USEtox human exposure and toxicity factors for comparative assessment of toxic emissions in life cycle analysis: sensitivity to key chemical properties. Int. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4085, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1182, "book_page": 1181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 710\u2013727 (2011). doi:10.1007/s11367-011-0316-4 Rosenbaum, R.K., Meijer, A., Demou, E., Hellweg, S., Jolliet, O., Lam, N., Margni, M., McKone, T.E.: Indoor air pollutant exposure for life cycle assessment: regional health impact factors for households. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 12823\u201312831 (2015). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b00890 Roy, P.-O., Desch\u00eanes, L., Margni, M.: Life cycle impact assessment of terrestrial acidification: modeling spatially explicit soil sensitivity at the global scale. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 8270\u20138278 (2012a). doi:10.1021/es3013563 Roy, P.-O., Huijbregts, M., Desch\u00eanes, L., Margni, M.: Spatially-differentiated atmospheric source\u2013receptor relationships for nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and ammonia emissions at the global scale for life cycle impact assessment. Atmos. Environ. 62, 74\u201381 (2012b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4086, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1182, "book_page": 1181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Atmos. Environ. 62, 74\u201381 (2012b). doi:10.1016/ j.atmosenv.2012.07.069 Roy, P.-O., Desch\u00eanes, L., Margni, M.: Uncertainty and spatial variability in characterization factors for aquatic acidification at the global scale. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 19, 882\u2013890 (2014). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0683-0 Ryberg, M., Vieira, M.D.M., Zgola, M., Bare, J., Rosenbaum, R.K.: Updated US and Canadian normalization factors for TRACI 2.1. Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 16, 329\u2013339 (2014). doi:10.1007/s10098-013-0629-z Saad, R., Margni, M., Koellner, T., Wittstock, B., Desch\u00eanes, L.: Assessment of land use impacts on soil ecological functions: development of spatially differentiated characterization factors within a Canadian context. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 16, 198\u2013211 (2011) Saad, R., Koellner, T., Margni, M.: Land use impacts on freshwater regulation, erosion regulation, and water purification: a spatial approach for a global scale level. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1253\u20131264 (2013)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4087, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1182, "book_page": 1181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 1253\u20131264 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-013-0577-1 Sala, S., Benini, L., Castellani, V., Vidal-Legaz, B., Pant, R.: Environmental Footprint: Update of Life Cycle Impact Assessment Methods; DRAFT for TAB (Status: May 2, 2016) Resources, Water, Land. Ispra, Italy (2016) Schere, K.L., Demerjian, K.L.: User\u2019s Guide for the Photochemical Box Model (PBM) (1984) Schneider, L., Berger, M., Finkbeiner, M.: Abiotic resource depletion in LCA: background and update of the anthropogenic stock extended abiotic depletion potential (AADP) model. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 20, 709\u2013721 (2015). doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0864-0 Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4, J., Posch, M., Johansson, M., Hettelingh, J.P.: Country-dependent characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication based on accumulated exceedance as an impact category indicator. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4088, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1182, "book_page": 1181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 11, 403\u2013416 (2006) Sleeswijk, A.W., van Oers, L.F.C.M., Guin\u00e9e, J.B., Struijs, J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Normalisation in product life cycle assessment: an LCA of the global and European economic systems in the year 2000. Sci. Total Environ. 390, 227\u2013240 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.040 Steen, B.: A systematic approach to environmental priority strategies in product development (EPS). Version 2000: models and data of the default method. Centre for Environmental assessment of products and material systems. Chalmers University of Technology, Technical Environmental Planning, Gothenburg, Sweden (1999) Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4089, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1182, "book_page": 1181, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Struijs, J., Beusen, A., Van Jaarsveld, H., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Aquatic eutrophication. ReCiPe 2008 A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises Harmon. Category indicator midpoint endpoint level. Rep. I Characterisation factors (2009) Tirado-Seco, P.: Development of damage functions for aquatic eutrophication in life cycle assessment. Universit\u00e9 de Gen\u00e8ve (2005) T\u00f8rsl\u00f8v, J., Hauschild, M.Z., Rasmussen, D.: Ecotoxicity. The Danish Ministry of the Environment, Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen (2005) Uno, I., Wakamatsu, S.: Analysis of winter high-concentration NO2 pollution by the photochemical box model. J. Jpn. Soc. Air Pollut. 27, 246\u2013257 (1992) van Dijk, A., Den Outer, P.N., Slaper, H.: Climate and Ozone change Effects on ultraviolet radiation and Risks (COEUR) using and validating earth observations. Bilthoven, The Netherlands (2008) van Goethem, T.M.W.J., Azevedo, L.B., van Zelm, R., Hayes, F., Ashmore, M.R., Huijbregts, M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4090, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Bilthoven, The Netherlands (2008) van Goethem, T.M.W.J., Azevedo, L.B., van Zelm, R., Hayes, F., Ashmore, M.R., Huijbregts, M. A.J.: Plant species sensitivity distributions for ozone exposure. Environ. Pollut. 178, 1\u20136 (2013a). doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.023 van Goethem, T.M.W.J., Preiss, P., Azevedo, L.B., Roos, J., Friedrich, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., van Zelm, R.: European characterization factors for damage to natural vegetation by ozone in life cycle impact assessment. Atmos. Environ. 77, 318\u2013324 (2013b). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013. 05.009 Van Loon, M., Vautard, R., Schaap, M., Bergstrom, R., Bessagnet, B., Brandt, J., Builtjes, P., Christensen, J.H., Cuvelier, K., Graf, A., Jonson, J., Krol, M., Langner, J., Roberts, P., Rouil, L., Stern, R., Tarrason, L., Thunis, P., Vignati, E., White, L., Wind, P.: Evaluation of long-term ozone simulations from seven regional air quality models and their ensemble average. Atmos. Environ", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4091, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Atmos. Environ. 41, 2083\u20132097 (2007) van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., van Jaarsveld, H.A., Reinds, G.J., de Zwart, D., Struijs, J., van de Meent, D.: Time horizon dependent characterization factors for acidification in life-cycle assessment based on forest plant species occurrence in Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 922\u2013927 (2007). doi:10.1021/es061433q van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., den Hollander, H.A., van Jaarsveld, H.A., Sauter, F.J., Struijs, J., van Wijnen, H.J., van de Meent, D.: European characterization factors for human health damage of PM10 and ozone in life cycle impact assessment. Atmos. Environ. 42, 441\u2013453 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.072 van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Van de Meent, D.: USES-LCA 2.0-a global nested multi-media fate, exposure, and effects model. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4092, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.072 van Zelm, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Van de Meent, D.: USES-LCA 2.0-a global nested multi-media fate, exposure, and effects model. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14, 282\u2013284 (2009) van Zelm, R., Schipper, A.M., Rombouts, M., Snepvangers, J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Implementing groundwater extraction in life cycle impact assessment: characterization factors based on plant species richness for the Netherlands. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 629\u2013635 (2010). doi:10.1021/ es102383v van Zelm, R., Preiss, P., van Goethem, T., Van Dingenen, R., Huijbregts, M.: Regionalized life cycle impact assessment of air pollution on the global scale: damage to human health and vegetation. Atmos. Environ. 134, 129\u2013137 (2016)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4093, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Atmos. Environ. 134, 129\u2013137 (2016). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.044 Vautard, R., Builtjes, P.J.H., Thunis, P., Cuvelier, C., Bedogni, M., Bessagnet, B., Honore, C., Moussiopoulos, N., Pirovano, G., Schaap, M., Stern, R., Tarraso, L., Wind, P.: Evaluation and intercomparison of ozone and PM10 simulations by several chemistry transport models over four European cities within the city delta project. Atmos. Environ. 41, 173\u2013188 (2007) Verones, F., Hanafiah, M.M., Pfister, S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Pelletier, G.J., Koehler, A.: Characterization factors for thermal pollution in freshwater aquatic environments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 9364\u20139369 (2010). doi:10.1021/es102260c Verones, F., Hellweg, S., Azevedo, L., Chaudhary, A., Cosme, N., Fantke, P., Goedkoop, M., Hauschild, M., Laurent, A., Mutel, C., Pfister, S., Ponsioen, T., Steinmann, Z., Van Zelm, R., Vieira, M., Huijbregts, M.: LC-IMPACT Version 0.5\u2014A Spatially Differentiated Life Cycle Impact Assessment Approach (2016a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4094, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "http://www.lc-impact.eu R.K. Rosenbaum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4095, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1183, "book_page": 1182, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Verones, F., Pfister, S., van Zelm, R., Hellweg, S.: Biodiversity impacts from water consumption on a global scale for use in life cycle assessment. Int J Life Cycle Assess. 1\u201310 (2016b). doi:10. 1007/s11367-016-1236-0 Vieira, M.D.M., Goedkoop, M.J., Storm, P., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Ore grade decrease as life cycle impact indicator for metal scarcity: the case of copper. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 12772\u201312778 (2012). doi:10.1021/es302721t Vieira, M.D.M., Ponsioen, T.C., Goedkoop, M.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Surplus cost potential as a life cycle impact indicator for metal extraction. Resources 5, 2 (2016). doi:10.3390/ resources5010002 Vieira, M.D.M., Ponsioen, T.C., Goedkoop, M.J., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Surplus ore potential as a scarcity indicator for resource extraction. J. Ind. Ecol. 21, 381\u2013390 (2017). doi:10.1111/jiec", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4096, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1184, "book_page": 1183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J. Ind. Ecol. 21, 381\u2013390 (2017). doi:10.1111/jiec. 12444 Weidema, B., Hauschild, M., Jolliet, O.: Preparing characterisation methods for endpoint impact assessment (previously submitted under the title: \u201cStepwise 2006: a new environmental impact assessment method\u201d) (2006) Wenger, Y., Li, D.S., Jolliet, O.: Indoor intake fraction considering surface sorption of air organic compounds for life cycle assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17, 919\u2013931 (2012). doi:10. 1007/s11367-012-0420-0 WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project\u2013Report No. 44. Geneva, Switzerland (1999) WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project\u2013Report No. 47. Geneva, Switzerland (2003) WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project\u2013Report No. 52", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4097, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1184, "book_page": 1183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "47. Geneva, Switzerland (2003) WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project\u2013Report No. 52. Geneva, Switzerland (2011) WMO: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014, World Meteorological Organization, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report No. 55. Geneva, Switzerland (2014) Author Biography Ralph K. Rosenbaum LCA expert and environmental modeller focusing on LCIA development since early 2000s. Contributed to several UNEP/SETAC working groups towards global harmonisation of LCA methodology. Interested in LCIA modelling of emissions and water/soil resource use, operationalisation of uncertainty management and spatial differentiation. Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4098, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "40 Overview of Existing LCIA Methods\u2014Annex to Chapter 10", "pdf_page": 1184, "book_page": 1183, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Term Definition Reference Allocation Partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product system between the product under study and one or more other product systems ISO 14044 Ancillary input Material input that is used by the unit process producing the product, but does not constitute part of the product ISO 14044 Area of protection A cluster of category endpoints of recognisable value to society, viz. human health, natural resources, natural environment and sometimes man-made environment Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Attributional modelling (or descriptive book keeping) LCI modelling frame that inventories the inputs and output flows of all processes of a system as they occur. Modelling process along an existing supply chain is of this type ILCD, LCI By-product See also co-product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4099, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1185, "book_page": 1185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Modelling process along an existing supply chain is of this type ILCD, LCI By-product See also co-product. A product from a process that is not the reason why the process is run and that usually has lower value than the main product of the process Own definition Category endpoint Attribute or aspect of natural environment, human health, or resources, identifying an environmental issue giving cause for concern ISO 14044 Category indicator See impact category indicator Cause\u2013effect chain See environmental mechanism Cause\u2013effect network See environmental mechanism Characterisation A step of the impact assessment, in which the environmental interventions assigned qualitatively to a particular impact category (in classification) are quantified in terms of a common unit for that category, allowing aggregation into one figure of the indicator result Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) (continued) \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4100, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1185, "book_page": 1185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) (continued) \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z. Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4101, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1185, "book_page": 1185, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Characterisation factor Factor derived from a characterization model which is applied to convert an assigned life cycle inventory analysis result to the common unit of the category indicator. Note: The common unit allows calculation of the category indicator result ISO 14044 Characterisation model Reflect the environmental mechanism by describing the relationship between the LCI results, category indicators and, in some cases, category endpoint(s). The characterization model is used to derive the characterization factors ISO 14044 Classification A step of impact assessment, in which environmental interventions are assigned to predefined impact categories on a purely qualitative basis Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4102, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1186, "book_page": 1186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Co-function Any of two or more functions provided by the same unit process or system ILCD, LCI Comparative assertion Environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product that performs the same function ISO 14044 Completeness check Process of verifying whether information from the phases of a life cycle assessment is sufficient for reaching conclusions in accordance with the goal and scope definition ISO 14044 Consequential modelling LCI modelling principle that identifies and models all processes in the background system of a system in consequence of decisions made in the foreground system ILCD, LCI Consistency check Process of verifying that the assumptions, methods and data are consistently applied throughout the study and are in accordance with the goal and scope definition performed before conclusions are reached ISO 14044 Co-product Any of two or more products coming from the same unit process or product system ISO 14044", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4103, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1186, "book_page": 1186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "accordance with the goal and scope definition performed before conclusions are reached ISO 14044 Co-product Any of two or more products coming from the same unit process or product system ISO 14044 Critical review Process intended to ensure consistency between a life cycle assessment and the principles and requirements of the International Standards on life cycle assessment ISO 14044 Cut-off criteria Specification of the amount of material or energy flow or the level of environmental significance associated with unit processes or product system to be excluded from a study ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4104, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1186, "book_page": 1186, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Damage approach See endpoint method Data quality Characteristics of data that relate to their ability to satisfy stated requirements ISO 14044 Eco-efficiency Ratio between the value created and the environmental impact caused by an activity Own definition Ecosphere The biosphere of the earth, especially when the interaction between the living and non-living components is emphasised Oxford Dictionary of English Ecosystem quality Area of protection \u201cEcosystem Quality\u201d that deals with damages on the intrinsic value of natural ecosystems. See also natural environment Verones et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4105, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1187, "book_page": 1187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "See also natural environment Verones et al. (2017) Elementary flow/elementary exchange Material or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the environment without previous human transformation, or material or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the environment without subsequent human transformation ISO 14044 Emission See release End-of-life product Product at the end of its useful life that will potentially undergo reuse, recycling, or recovery ILCD, LCI Endpoint See category endpoint Endpoint method/model/indicator The category endpoint is an attribute or aspect of natural environment, human health, or resources, identifying an environmental issue giving cause for concern (ISO 14040)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4106, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1187, "book_page": 1187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hence, endpoint method (or damage approach)/model is a characterisation method/model that provides indicators at the level of Areas of Protection (natural environment's ecosystems, human health, resource availability) or at a level close to the areas of protection level ILCD, LCIA Energy flow Input to or output from a unit process or product system, quantified in energy units. Note: Energy flow that is an input may be called an energy input; energy flow that is an output may be called an energy output ISO 14044 Environmental aspect Element of an organisation's activities, products or services that can interact with the environment ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4107, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1187, "book_page": 1187, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Environmental impact Potential impact on the natural environment, human health or the depletion of natural resources, caused by the interventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere as covered by LCA (e.g. emissions, resource extraction, land use) ILCD, LCI Environmental indicator An environmental indicator can be a measurable feature or features that provide managerially and scientifically useful evidence of the environment and ecosystem quality or reliable evidence of trends in quality. Thus, environmental indicators must be measurable with available technology, scientifically valid for assessing or documenting ecosystem quality, and useful for providing information for management decision-making", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4108, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1188, "book_page": 1188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Indicators can be used to: (1) compare current conditions with desired performance; (2) show trends over time, to allow comparisons between different regions; (3) help judge the sustainability of current practices; and (4) define and publicise new standards and measures for assessing progress toward a sustainable future JRC Environmental intervention A human intervention in the environment, either physical, chemical or biological; in particular resource extraction, emissions (incl. noise and heat) and land use; the term is thus broader than \u201celementary flow\u201d Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4109, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1188, "book_page": 1188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "noise and heat) and land use; the term is thus broader than \u201celementary flow\u201d Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Environmental mechanism System of physical, chemical and biological processes for a given impact category, linking the life cycle inventory analysis results to category indicators and to category endpoints by means of a characterisation model ISO 14044 Environmental life cycle costing Assessment of all costs associated with the life cycle of a product that are directly covered by any one or more of the actors in the product life cycle with complementary inclusion of externalities that are anticipated to be internalised in the decision-relevant future (Hunkeler et al. 2008). The analysis is performed consistent with the system boundaries of the environmental LCA Hunkeler et al. (2008) Environmental process A physical, chemical or biological process in the environment system that is identified as part of the causal chain linking a Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4110, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1188, "book_page": 1188, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference particular environmental intervention to a particular impact, e.g. pollution leaching or bioaccumulation; for a given impact category, the environmental processes together form the environmental mechanism Environmental (impact) profile The result of the characterisation step showing the indicator results for all the predefined impact categories, supplemented by any other relevant information Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4111, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1189, "book_page": 1189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Environmental relevance Degree of linkage between category indicator result and category endpoints ISO 14044 Environmentally extended input\u2013output analysis Linking environmental impacts to economic demand through the use of economic input\u2013 output tables originally developed for macroeconomic systems analysis and planning by combining them with tables that describe how much direct environmental impacts each economic sector causes per economic output during a year of production Own definition Evaluation Element within the life cycle interpretation phase intended to establish confidence in the results of the life cycle assessment. Note: Evaluation includes completeness check, sensitivity check, consistency check, and any other validation that may be required according to the goal and scope definition of the study ISO 14044 Extraction Withdrawal of a biotic or abiotic resource from the environment in a unit process, considered as an environmental intervention Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4112, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1189, "book_page": 1189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Feedstock energy Heat of combustion of a raw material input that is not used as an energy source to a product system, expressed in terms of higher heating value or lower heating value. Note: Care is necessary to ensure that the energy content of raw materials is not counted twice ISO 14044 Functional unit Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference un ISO 14044 Grouping Sorting and possibly ranking of the impact categories ISO 14044 Impact assessment See life cycle impact assessment Impact category Class representing environmental issues of concern to which life cycle inventory analysis results may be assigned ISO 14044 Impact category indicator Quantifiable representation of an impact category ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4113, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1189, "book_page": 1189, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Impact pathway Cause\u2013effect chain of an environmental mechanism linking interventions through midpoint impacts to damages to areas of protection Own definition Impact score See indicator result Indicator result The numerical result of the characterisation step for a particular impact category, e.g. 12 kg CO2-equivalents for climate change Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Input Product, material or energy flow that enters a unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4114, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1190, "book_page": 1190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "12 kg CO2-equivalents for climate change Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Input Product, material or energy flow that enters a unit process. Note: Products and materials include raw materials, intermediate products and co-products ISO 14044 Interested party Individual or group concerned with or affected by the environmental performance of a product system, or by the results of the life cycle assessment ISO 14044 Intermediate flow Product, material or energy flow occurring between unit processes of the product system being studied ISO 14044 Intermediate product Output from a unit process that is input to other unit processes that require further transformation within the system ISO 14044 Interpretation See life cycle interpretation Inventory analysis See life cycle inventory analysis Inventory table See life cycle inventory analysis results Land occupation The unavailability of a given plot of land for alternative uses for a certain period of time Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4115, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1190, "book_page": 1190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Land transformation The change in the quality of a given plot of land due to a particular mode of human use, measured in terms of changes in biodiversity and life support functions Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Land use The impact category land use reflects the damage to ecosystems due to the effects of occupation and transformation of land. Examples of land use are agricultural production, mineral extraction and human settlement. Occupation of land can be defined as the maintenance of an area in a particular state over a particular time period. Transformation is the conversion of land from one state to another state, e.g. from its original state to an altered state or from an altered state to another altered state ILCD-LCIA LCIA method Collection of individual characterisation models (each addressing their separate impact category) Hauschild et al. (2013) (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4116, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1190, "book_page": 1190, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Life cycle Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation from natural resources to final disposal ISO 14044 Life cycle assessment (LCA) Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle ISO 14044 Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) Phase of life cycle assessment aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts for a product system throughout the life cycle of the product ISO 14044 Life cycle impact category indicator See category indicator Life cycle initiative (UNEP/SETAC LCI) An international partnership to enable users around the world to put life cycle thinking into effective practice. Launched in 2002 by The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) www. lifecycleinitiative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4117, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1191, "book_page": 1191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Launched in 2002 by The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) www. lifecycleinitiative. org Life cycle interpretation Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are evaluated in relation to the defined goal and scope in order to reach conclusions and recommendations ISO 14044 Life cycle inventory analysis (LCI) Phase of life cycle assessment involving the compilation and quantification of inputs and outputs for a product throughout its life cycle ISO 14044 Life cycle inventory analysis result Outcome of a life cycle inventory analysis that catalogues the flows crossing the system boundary and provides the starting point for life cycle impact assessment ISO 14044 Life cycle phase Major methodological element of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4118, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1191, "book_page": 1191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The four phases of an LCA are: Goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment, life cycle interpretation Own definition based on ISO 14044 Life cycle stage A stage in the life time of the product/service. Defined by the LCA practitioner, but often considered as stages are: raw materials extraction, manufacturing, distribution, use and disposal Own definition based on ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4119, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1191, "book_page": 1191, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Marginal process Process that is affected (employed or taken out of use) as a response to an increase or decrease in the demand of a product, respectively Own definition Midpoint indicator Impact category indicator located somewhere along the impact pathway between emission and category endpoint Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015) Midpoint method/approach The midpoint method is a characterisation method that provides indicators for comparison of environmental interventions at a level of cause\u2013effect chain between emissions/resource consumption and the endpoint level ILCD, LCIA Multifunctional process Process or system that performs more than one function. Examples: Processes with more than one product as output (e.g. NaOH, Cl2 and H2 from chloralkali electrolysis) or more than one waste treated jointly (e.g. mixed household waste incineration with energy recovery)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4120, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1192, "book_page": 1192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "NaOH, Cl2 and H2 from chloralkali electrolysis) or more than one waste treated jointly (e.g. mixed household waste incineration with energy recovery). See also: \u201cAllocation\u201d and \u201cSystem expansion\u201d ILCD, LCI Natural environment Area of protection that addresses impacts to ecosystems and landscapes. See also ecosystem quality ILCD-LCIA Normalisation Calculation of the magnitude of category indicator results relative to some reference information ISO 14044 Normalisation result/factor/reference See normalised environmental profile Normalised environmental profile The result of the normalisation step: a table showing the normalised indicator results for all the selected impact categories, supplemented by any other relevant information Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Normalised indicator result The numerical result of normalisation for a particular impact category, e.g. 0.02 year for climate change Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4121, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1192, "book_page": 1192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2002) Normalised indicator result The numerical result of normalisation for a particular impact category, e.g. 0.02 year for climate change Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Obligatory property Feature that the product must possess for any user to perceive it as a product valid for fulfilling the desired function. May also include legally required features. Can usually be expressed in technical terms Own definition Output Product, material or energy flow that leaves a unit process. Note: Products and materials include raw materials, intermediate products, co-products and releases ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4122, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1192, "book_page": 1192, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Positioning property Optional feature of a product, which can be used to position it as more attractive to the consumer in the competition with other similar products. In contrast to obligatory properties (see this), positioning properties often vary from consumer to consumer Own definition Potential impact Relative performance indicators which can be the basis of comparisons and optimisation of the system or product Hauschild and Huijbregts (2015) Problem-oriented approach See midpoint approach Process Set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs ISO 14044 Process energy Energy input required for operating the process or equipment within a unit process, excluding energy inputs for production and delivery of the energy itself ISO 14044 Product Any goods or service. Note 1: The product can be categorised as follows: \u2013 services (e.g. transport) Note 2: Services have tangible and intangible elements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4123, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1193, "book_page": 1193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Note 1: The product can be categorised as follows: \u2013 services (e.g. transport) Note 2: Services have tangible and intangible elements. Provision of a service can involve, for example, the following: \u2013 an activity performed on a customer-supplied tangible product (e.g. automobile to be repaired) \u2013 an activity performed on a customer-supplied intangible product (e.g. the income statement needed to prepare a tax return) \u2013 the delivery of an intangible product (e.g. the delivery of information in the context of knowledge transmission) \u2013 the creation of ambience for the customer (e.g. in hotels and restaurants) Software consists of information and is generally intangible and can be in the form of approaches, transactions or procedures. Hardware is generally tangible and its amount is a countable characteristic. Processed materials are generally tangible and their amount is a continuous characteristic: \u2013 software (e.g. computer program, dictionary) \u2013 hardware (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4124, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1193, "book_page": 1193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Processed materials are generally tangible and their amount is a continuous characteristic: \u2013 software (e.g. computer program, dictionary) \u2013 hardware (e.g. engine mechanical part) \u2013 processed materials (e.g. lubricant) ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4125, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1193, "book_page": 1193, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Product category rules Set of specific rules, requirements and guidelines for developing type III environmental declarations for one or more product categories ISO 14025 Product environmental footprint Result of a product environmental footprint study based on the product environmental footprint method 2013/179/EU Product environmental footprint method General method to measure and communicate the potential life cycle environmental impact of a product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4126, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1194, "book_page": 1194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "In EU this methods is detailed in Annex II of COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION of 9 April 2013 on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations 2013/179/EU Product flow Products entering from or leaving to another product system ISO 14044 Product system Collection of unit processes with elementary and product flows, performing one or more defined functions, and which models the life cycle of a product ISO 14044 Raw material Primary or secondary material that is used to produce a product. Note: Secondary material includes recycled material ISO 14044 Recycling, reuse recovery Recovery is any form of recovering value from a waste stream whether in the form of material value (i.e. recycling) or recovery of energy content through incineration. \u201cRecycling\u201d means any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4127, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1194, "book_page": 1194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "\u201cRecycling\u201d means any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances whether for the original or other purposes. It includes the reprocessing of organic material but does not include energy recovery and the reprocessing into materials that are to be used as fuels or for backfilling operations Reuse is a form of waste prevention since the product re-use avoids the need for the manufacture of a new product. A simple example is the direct re-use of containers, bricks or other materials on site Based on EUR 24916 EN (2011) Reference flow Measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit' ISO 14044 Releases Emissions to air and discharges to water and soil ISO 14044 (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4128, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1194, "book_page": 1194, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Scenario Generally, scenarios are different, more or less realistic, descriptions of actions or situations in the future based on certain assumptions and factors Own definition Secondary good Secondary material, recovered energy, reused part or similar as the product of a reuse, recycling, recovery, refurbishing or similar process ILCD, LCI Secondary function Unintended functions that usually have low or no relevance to the users of a product, meaning that they are not contributing to the obligatory or positioning properties Own definition Sensitivity analysis Systematic procedures for estimating the effects of the choices made regarding methods and data on the outcome of a study ISO 14044 Sensitivity check Process of verifying that the information obtained from a sensitivity analysis is relevant for reaching the conclusions and giving recommendations ISO 14044 Subcategory A subdivision of an impact category, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4129, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1195, "book_page": 1195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity as a subcategory of ecotoxicity Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Substitution Solving multifunctionality of processes and products by expanding the system boundaries and substituting the not required function with an alternative way of providing it, i.e. the process(es) or product (s) that the not required function supersedes. Effectively the life cycle inventory of the superseded process(es) or product(s) is subtracted from that of the analysed system, i.e. it is \u201ccredited\u201d. Substitution is a special (subtractive) case of applying the system expansion principle ILCD, LCI System Any good, service, event, basket-of-products, average consumption of a citizen, or similar object that is analysed in the context of the LCA study ILCD, LCI System boundary Set of criteria specifying which unit processes are part of a product system ISO 14044 System expansion Adding specific processes or products and the related life cycle inventories to the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4130, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1195, "book_page": 1195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Used to make several multifunctional systems with an only partly equivalent set of functions comparable within LCA ILCD, LCI (continued)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4131, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Glossary", "pdf_page": 1195, "book_page": 1195, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(continued) Term Definition Reference Technosphere The sphere or realm of human technological activity; the technologically modified environment Oxford Dictionary of English Transparency Open, comprehensive and understandable presentation of information ISO 14044 Uncertainty analysis Systematic procedure to quantify the uncertainty introduced in the results of a life cycle inventory analysis due to the cumulative effects of model imprecision, input uncertainty and data variability. Note: Either ranges or probability distributions are used to determine uncertainty in the results ISO 14044 Unit process Smallest element considered in the life cycle inventory analysis for which input and output data are quantified ISO 14044 Waste Substances or objects which the holder intends or is required to dispose of (ISO 14044, 2008) Output with zero or negative value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4132, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1196, "book_page": 1196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "The moment it gets a value, it turns into a co-product or secondary function and system expansion or allocation become relevant Own definition Weighting Converting and possibly aggregating indicator results across impact categories using numerical factors based on value-choices; data prior to weighting should remain available Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Weighting factor A factor obtained with a weighting method and used to express a particular (normalised) indicator result in terms of the common unit of the weighting result Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) Weighting result The numerical part of the result of weighting and aggregation of all (normalised) indicator results, e.g. 0.08 year (Note: the result may be expressed as more than one numerical value) Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4133, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1196, "book_page": 1196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "0.08 year (Note: the result may be expressed as more than one numerical value) Guin\u00e9e et al. (2002) 2013/179/EU: COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION of 9 April 2013 on the use of common methods to measure and communicate the life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations (2013/179/EU) EUR 24916 EN Supporting Environmentally Sound Decisions for Waste Management\u2014A Technical Guide to Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for Waste Experts and LCA Practitioners (2011)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4134, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1196, "book_page": 1196, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Guin\u00e9e, J.B. (ed.), Gorr\u00e9e, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijn, R., de Koning, A., Van Oers, L., Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., De Bruijn, J.A., Van Duin, R., Huijbregts, M.A.J.: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. In: Eco-Efficiency in Industry and Science. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht (Hardbound, ISBN 1-4020-0228-9; Paperback, ISBN 1-4020-0557-1) (2002) Hauschild, M.Z., Goedkoop, M., Guin\u00e9e, J., et al.: Identifying best existing practice for characterization modeling in life cycle impact assessment. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, 683 (2013). doi:10.1007/s11367-012-0489-5 Hauschild, M.Z., Huijbregts, M.A.J. (eds.): Life Cycle Impact Assessment. Springer, Netherlands (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3 Hunkeler, D.D., Lichtenvort, K., Rebitzer, G., Ciroth, A.: Environmental life cycle costing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4135, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1197, "book_page": 1197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(eds.): Life Cycle Impact Assessment. Springer, Netherlands (2015). doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9744-3 Hunkeler, D.D., Lichtenvort, K., Rebitzer, G., Ciroth, A.: Environmental life cycle costing. CRC Press, Pensacola, Florida (2008) ILCD, LCI: ILCD Handbook: Specific guide for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Data Sets, 1st edn. (2010) ILCD, LCIA: ILCD Handbook: Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European Context, 1st edn (2011), and ILCD Handbook: Framework and Requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment models and Indicators, 1st edn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4136, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1197, "book_page": 1197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "(2010) ISO 14025: Environmental labels and declarations\u2014type III environmental declarations\u2014 principles and procedures (2010) ISO 14044: Environmental management\u2014life cycle assessment\u2014requirements and guidelines (2008) Verones, F., Bare, J., Bulle, C., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Hellweg, S., Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Laurent, A., Liao, X., Lindner, J.P., de Souza, D., Michelsen, O., Patouillard, L., Pfister, S., Posthuma, L., Prado, V., Ridoutt, B., Rosenbaum, R.K., Sala, S., Ugaya, C., Vieira, M., Fantke, P.: LCIA framework and cross-cutting issues guidance within the UNEP-SETAC life cycle initiative (2017) (in review)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4137, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "References", "pdf_page": 1197, "book_page": 1197, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "A Abiotic resource use, 179, 181, 258 Accounting, 14, 18, 32, 51, 99, 187, 197, 232, 235, 243, 262, 382, 385, 408, 414, 451, 500, 502, 512, 598, 622, 641, 651, 653, 700, 707, 711, 715, 765\u2013767, 803, 804, 807, 855, 889, 895, 905, 936, 967, 969, 972, 994, 998, 1010 Accumulated exceedance, 1075, 1100 Accumulative Structural Path Analysis, 363, Accuracy, 276, 278, 279, 281, 286, 296, 301, 317, 351, 403, 408, 411\u2013413, 415, 416, 451, 597, 601, 656, 697, 719, 806, 978, 979, 984, 992, 996, 1003, 1012, 1015, 1019, 1020, 1024, 1025, 1032, 1043, 1044, 1046 Acidification, 21, 176, 184, 185, 187, 214, 216\u2013218, 538, 641, 644, 646, 647, 654, 686, 727, 731\u2013736, 738\u2013740, 742, 743, 746, 748, 760, 791, 821, 848, 865, 866, 871, 883, 898, 947, 991, 1067, 1075, 1090, 1092, 1100 Acidification potential, 219 Actions, 6, 60, 445, 448, 453, 456, 475, 484, 488, 493, 502, 508, 523, 527, 528, 534, 539, 560, 705, 728, 844\u2013846, 963\u2013965, 967, 1001 Acute toxicity, 233, 871 Aerosol, 207 Africa, 436, 440, 453, 454, 457,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4138, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1198, "book_page": 1199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "6, 60, 445, 448, 453, 456, 475, 484, 488, 493, 502, 508, 523, 527, 528, 534, 539, 560, 705, 728, 844\u2013846, 963\u2013965, 967, 1001 Acute toxicity, 233, 871 Aerosol, 207 Africa, 436, 440, 453, 454, 457, 468, 469, 590, 844, 897 Aggregated process, 148, 153 Aggregation error, 351, 361, 367, 371 Agriculture, 22, 207, 208, 214, 218, 220, 223, 237, 246, 248, 251, 254, 257, 369, 426, 452, 623, 625, 723, 724, 736, 739, 741, 743, 744, 746\u2013748, 750, 797, 1020 Agri-production, 796, 797 Air pollution, 46, 79, 207, 215, 391, 706, 785, 791, 897 Albedo, 179, 181, 204, 207, 246, 247, 764, 770, 771 Algal bloom, 221 Allocation, 72, 93, 95, 99, 113, 123, 125, 147, 332, 333, 351, 368, 383, 410, 418, 485, 492, 627, 636, 655, 657, 702, 718, 736, 737, 743, 762, 774, 775, 802, 803, 887, 893, 901, 905, 906, 908 Allocation based on energy, 657 Aluminum, 69, 821 Ammonia, 216, 218, 224, 241, 727, 732, 735, 743, 792, 862, 871, 875, 1027, 1091, 1116, 1138 Analytical, 22, 285, 293, 297, 298, 303, 304, 366, 455, 474, 510,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4139, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1198, "book_page": 1199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "based on energy, 657 Aluminum, 69, 821 Ammonia, 216, 218, 224, 241, 727, 732, 735, 743, 792, 862, 871, 875, 1027, 1091, 1116, 1138 Analytical, 22, 285, 293, 297, 298, 303, 304, 366, 455, 474, 510, 549, 554, 560, 1126, 1138 Anoxia, 220, 224 Antarctic, 204, 209 Aot40, 1151 Application, 4\u20136, 12, 17, 18, 22, 23, 25, 27, 32\u201334, 36, 38, 69, 70, 82, 87, 92, 102, 109, 115, 122, 144, 192, 244, 287, 294, 296\u2013298, 302, 311, 330, 332, 337, 350, 352, 355, 358, 359, 371, 386, 403, 412, 417, 425, 427, 434, 438, 441, 448, 456, 470, 477, 482, 486, 488, 489, 491, 495, 501, 506, 508, 522, 524, 536\u2013538, 541, 543, 560, 571, 588, 613, 633\u2013636, 658, 659, 669, 675, 678, 685, 690, 691, 695, 699, 704, 711\u2013713, 715, 716, 718, 720, 723, 724, 727, 732, 736, 738, 741, 743, 748, 749, 757, 759, 783, 789, 793, 796, 797, 799, 801\u2013803, 811, 817, 818, 821, 842, 861, 864\u2013866, 869, 870, 876, 879, 887, 906, 908, 930, 939, 940, 951, 970, 972, 973, 981, 984, 989, 991, 994, 999, 1011, 1020, 1034, 1044, 1046, 1052 \u00a9 Springer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4140, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1198, "book_page": 1199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "799, 801\u2013803, 811, 817, 818, 821, 842, 861, 864\u2013866, 869, 870, 876, 879, 887, 906, 908, 930, 939, 940, 951, 970, 972, 973, 981, 984, 989, 991, 994, 999, 1011, 1020, 1034, 1044, 1046, 1052 \u00a9 Springer International Publishing AG 2018 M.Z", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4141, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1198, "book_page": 1199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Hauschild et al. (eds.), Life Cycle Assessment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4142, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1198, "book_page": 1199, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Aquatic ecosystem, 181, 215, 219, 234, 253, 254, 585, 806 Arctic, 201, 204, 210 Area of protection, 186, 197, 286, 404, 414, 1036, 1038, 1039 AS/NZS 4536, 374 Asia and pacific, 435 Assignment of LCI results, 82, 118, 152, 154, Atmosphere, 10, 201, 204, 206, 207, 209, 211, 213, 215\u2013217, 221, 223, 225, 227, 246, 250, 251, 278, 279, 361, 724, 756, 757, 765, 766, 1104 Atmospheric fate, 218 Attributional LCI, 94, 125\u2013127 Average, 13, 14, 20, 52, 69, 70, 81, 94, 96, 98, 125, 126, 135, 147, 148, 155, 160, 185, 187, 189\u2013191, 201, 245, 257, 263, 277, 283, 285, 300, 302, 336, 358, 362, 365, 367, 390, 396, 398, 409, 413, 450, 452, 505, 537, 586, 613, 626, 657, 673, 678, 682, 687, 701, 706, 708, 718, 727, 735, 739, 741, 772, 775, 785, 802, 807, 810, 811, 840, 845, 851, 901, 902, 936, 939, 968, 969, 972, 977, 979, 987, 1005, 1006, 1019, 1020, 1022, 1025, 1027, 1033, 1060, 1067, 1071, 1073, 1084, 1088, 1093, 1107, 1173\u20131175 Average process, 95, 99, 123, 138, 658, Avoided against induced impacts,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4143, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1199, "book_page": 1200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "972, 977, 979, 987, 1005, 1006, 1019, 1020, 1022, 1025, 1027, 1033, 1060, 1067, 1071, 1073, 1084, 1088, 1093, 1107, 1173\u20131175 Average process, 95, 99, 123, 138, 658, Avoided against induced impacts, 861, 872 B Background process, 98, 157, 159, 350, 363, 408, 626, 823, 840, 1060, 1062, 1073, 1075, 1086, 1095 Base cations, 215, 235, 403, 536, 612 Battery system, 93, 669, 677\u2013679, 684, 686, Bern carbon cycle climate model, 202 Best estimate, 13, 14, 189, 811 Bias, 73, 110, 189, 192, 198, 317, 333, 640, 870, 932, 939, 1067 Bioaccumulation, 727, 810 Bioavailability, 230, 232, 626, 827 Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD), 867, 870, 877, 883, 1027, 1127, 1139 Biochemicals, 784, 802, 812 Biodegradability, 768, 769 Biodiversity, 11, 179, 184, 220, 230, 246, 249, 251, 363, 391, 467, 469, 611, 617, 623, 625, 708, 741, 742, 744, 749, 750, 764, 770, 807, 922, 949 Bioenergy, 440, 646, 654, 932 Biofuels, 9\u201312, 34, 87, 426, 439\u2013441, 449, 453\u2013455, 625, 635, 646, 755\u2013761, 764, 769, 776, 1084 Biogas, 646,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4144, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1199, "book_page": 1200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "625, 708, 741, 742, 744, 749, 750, 764, 770, 807, 922, 949 Bioenergy, 440, 646, 654, 932 Biofuels, 9\u201312, 34, 87, 426, 439\u2013441, 449, 453\u2013455, 625, 635, 646, 755\u2013761, 764, 769, 776, 1084 Biogas, 646, 730, 731, 768, 777, 862, 863, 919, 932, 946, 1114 Biogenic carbon, 10, 718, 757, 765, 903, 905 Biogenic CO2, 10, 773, 1030 Biological cycle, 609, 610, 616, 621, 624 Biomass, 11, 95, 215, 219, 228, 230, 233, 261, 440, 610, 613, 643, 646, 653, 708, 719, 755\u2013757, 761, 765, 768, 772, 774, 776, 777, 797, 932, 951, 977, 1029, 1030, 1079, 1084, 1092, 1093, 1104 Biomass feedstock, 11, 756, 757, 760, 776, 777, 797 Biomaterials, 121, 123, 426, 625, 718, 755, 757, 759\u2013761, 763\u2013765, 768, 769, 776 Biome, 249, 728 Bio-products, 449, 755\u2013765, 769, 770, 773, 775\u2013778 Biorefinery, 761, 776 Biotope, 179, 181, 202, 230, 232, 246, 251, Blaue engel, 22 Blue water, 36, 253 Bromine, 211, 1117, 1139 Brundtland report, 44, 402 BS 3843, 374 Building design, 699, 700, 702 Buildings, 6, 184, 532, 595, 624, 636,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4145, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1199, "book_page": 1200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "202, 230, 232, 246, 251, Blaue engel, 22 Blue water, 36, 253 Bromine, 211, 1117, 1139 Brundtland report, 44, 402 BS 3843, 374 Building design, 699, 700, 702 Buildings, 6, 184, 532, 595, 624, 636, 695\u2013700, 702\u2013705, 716, 720, 726, 727, 734, 786, 846, 1014, 1062, 1066, 1073, 1079, 1081 Building scenario evaluation, 703 Building service life, 698, 703 Building system LCA, 835 Building temporal scope, 148 Building types, 24 Built environment, 257, 426, 695\u2013699, 706\u2013713, 716, 718\u2013720 Built form, 258, 712 Burden-shifting, 199, 426, 639, 641, 642, 648, 653, 654, 939 C Cancer effects, 1028, 1060, 1063, 1067, 1075, 1088, 1092, 1093, 1100 Capacity building, 432, 438, 440, 442, 452, 453, 457, 469, 477 Capex, 375, 388 Capital expenditures, 375 Capital goods, 148, 644, 726, 734, 736, 864, 896, 905, 906, 1002, 1008, 1015 Carbon cascading, 768", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4146, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1199, "book_page": 1200, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Carbon dioxide, 151, 206, 227, 726, 773, 792, 949, 1030, 1117 Carbon footprint, 36, 60, 69, 114, 197, 198, 287, 298, 356, 357, 360\u2013362, 364, 370, 440, 454, 484, 598, 672, 706, 713, 718, 739, 841\u2013843, 966, 968, 984, 989 Carbon monoxide, 225, 228, 244, 1118 Carbon neutrality, 757 Carbon pools, 772 Carbon sequestration, 179, 181, 250, 757, 772, Carbon storage, 110, 757, 765\u2013767, 772, 1046 Carbon tetrachloride, 213, 1118 Carcinoma, 1161 Carmen, 1155, 1167 Carrying capacity, 49, 51, 185, 191, 431, 627, CAS number, 809 Cataract, 210, 214 Causality between products and social impacts, 408, 409, 415 Cause\u2013effect chain, 169, 177\u2013179, 181, 205, 219, 221, 235, 237, 247, 534, 1148, Cause\u2013effect mechanism, 169, 177, 179, 181 Cause\u2013effect pathway, 179 CED, 196\u2013198 CEDA, 367, 369 CFC, 207, 211 CH4, 142, 207, 213, 663, 727, 845, 862, 863, 871, 873, 883 Characterisation factor, 112, 141, 149, 151, 153, 175, 176, 180, 183, 188, 190, 192, 194, 206, 209, 213, 219, 223, 229\u2013231, 234, 237, 238, 242, 245,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4147, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1200, "book_page": 1201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "207, 213, 663, 727, 845, 862, 863, 871, 873, 883 Characterisation factor, 112, 141, 149, 151, 153, 175, 176, 180, 183, 188, 190, 192, 194, 206, 209, 213, 219, 223, 229\u2013231, 234, 237, 238, 242, 245, 249, 250, 257, 263, 285, 300\u2013302, 312, 314, 318, 325, 327, 341, 371, 705, 716, 731, 734, 804\u2013807, 810, 828, 873, 931, 987, 990, 995, 1037, 1041, 1064, 1067, 1075, 1091, 1092, 1095, 1097, 1174 Characterisation model, 112, 167\u2013169, 171\u2013173, 176, 177, 188, 219, 224, 229, 236, 240, 247, 250, 281, 287, 366, 368, 803, 1174, 1175 Characteristics of LCA, 4, 807 Chemical alternatives assessment, 783, 790, 799, 811 Chemical fate, 809 Chemical footprints, 196, 788 Chemical industry, 365, 756, 776, 784, 785, 793, 803 Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD), 867, 870, 875, 883, 1027, 1139 Chemical processing, 122, 792 Chemical risk assessment (RA), 787, 818 Chemicals, 11, 12, 121, 145, 162, 198, 211, 230, 231, 235, 237, 239, 245, 279, 312, 314, 363, 444, 526, 564, 610, 612, 613, 622, 725\u2013728, 730, 755, 757, 783,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4148, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1200, "book_page": 1201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Chemical risk assessment (RA), 787, 818 Chemicals, 11, 12, 121, 145, 162, 198, 211, 230, 231, 235, 237, 239, 245, 279, 312, 314, 363, 444, 526, 564, 610, 612, 613, 622, 725\u2013728, 730, 755, 757, 783, 784, 786, 788\u2013794, 796, 797, 801, 805, 806, 809\u2013811, 839, 840, 879, 892, 1067 Chemicals management, 783, 786, 787 Chemical synthesis, 783, 793, 794, 796\u2013798, 801, 802 Chlorine, 150, 211 Chronic toxicity, 233 Circular economy, 367, 435, 448, 452, 540, 571, 601, 605\u2013607, 609, 626, 888, 891, Cities, 12, 79, 225, 526, 696, 706, 708, 713\u2013715, 749, 838 City-scale, 697, 698, 708 Classification, 62, 81, 82, 135, 159, 176, 180, 261, 286, 370, 413, 585, 612, 757, 895, 970, 1035\u20131037 Cleaner production, 432, 434, 435, 469, 472, 1066, 1084 Climate change, 10, 12, 18, 69, 82, 110, 114, 169, 176, 181, 191, 197\u2013199, 201, 202, 205, 207, 208, 246, 252, 279, 287, 304, 305, 430, 434, 442, 537, 585, 598, 634, 639\u2013641, 644, 646\u2013649, 654, 659, 669, 688, 727, 728, 743, 757, 760, 766\u2013768, 811, 812, 843, 854, 888,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4149, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1200, "book_page": 1201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "201, 202, 205, 207, 208, 246, 252, 279, 287, 304, 305, 430, 434, 442, 537, 585, 598, 634, 639\u2013641, 644, 646\u2013649, 654, 659, 669, 688, 727, 728, 743, 757, 760, 766\u2013768, 811, 812, 843, 854, 888, 892, 898, 915, 991, 997, 1060, 1063, 1064, 1075, 1087, 1088, 1091, 1100, 1142, 1143 Climate forcing agent, 772 Climate tipping point, 767 Closed loop, 154, 979, 1009, 1010, 1018 CML2002, 60, 125, 236, 245, 262 CML92, 20 CO2, 10, 141, 142, 144, 150, 168, 176, 184, 203, 206, 217, 259, 358, 535, 624, 660, 669, 670, 674, 686, 726, 732, 735, 740, 842, 878, 882, 938, 948, 951, 1030, Coca cola, 21 Code of practice, 23, 337 Co-generation process, 655 Combined impacts, 4, 13, 48, 90, 103, 125, 134, 169, 184 Commissioner, 67, 68, 73, 80, 112, 113, 144, 304, 308, 309, 327, 341\u2013345, 378, 802, 894, 966, 1040, 1051, 1053, 1065, 1066, 1088, 1098 Communication of results, 72, 311", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4150, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1200, "book_page": 1201, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Company, 26, 35, 36, 38, 103, 125, 132, 142, 144, 307, 308, 336, 343, 385, 387, 389, 404, 407, 409\u2013413, 415, 418, 419, 446, 507, 521, 524, 529\u2013533, 536\u2013542, 547, 548, 553\u2013556, 560, 561, 565, 569\u2013571, 578, 601, 609, 614\u2013616, 618, 802, 1026, 1061, 1067, 1068 Comparative assertion, 61, 114, 193, 339, 451, 688, 973, 990, 994, 996, 1039, 1053, Comparative ecotoxicity, 240 Comparative human toxicity, 240 Comparative studies, 67, 68, 73, 84, 102, 110, 113, 115, 419, 652, 872, 975, 979, 980, 983, 996, 997, 1044, 1047, 1054, 1075 Comparative Toxic Unit(CTU), 1075, 1100, Completeness, 100, 104, 105, 118, 119, 121, 173, 287, 292, 294, 325, 327, 333, 359, 362, 371, 445, 708, 712, 716, 719, 804, 939, 970, 983, 984, 996, 1001, 1019, 1023\u20131025, 1032, 1033, 1038, 1040\u20131042, 1057, 1096 Completeness requirements, 76, 100, 103, 104, 118, 119, 121, 981, 1054, 1072 Concentrated solar power, 635 Concentration-response relationship, 232 Conclusion, 22, 38, 59, 63, 93, 108, 114, 115, 155, 173, 177, 199, 273,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4151, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1201, "book_page": 1202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "76, 100, 103, 104, 118, 119, 121, 981, 1054, 1072 Concentrated solar power, 635 Concentration-response relationship, 232 Conclusion, 22, 38, 59, 63, 93, 108, 114, 115, 155, 173, 177, 199, 273, 279, 290, 300, 301, 303, 305, 306, 309, 315\u2013317, 324, 326, 327, 329, 332, 333, 337, 339, 341, 345, 418, 419, 448, 521, 538, 624, 656, 691, 734, 735, 744\u2013746, 761, 762, 776, 806, 828, 850, 930, 940, 941, 1063, 1093, 1097 Confidence interval, 285, 311, 1089 Consequential LCI, 95, 125\u2013129, 131, 132, 134, 161, 163, 976 Consequential modelling, 75, 94, 96, 978, 982, 985, 987, 1001, 1007, 1008, 1011, 1053 Consistency, 5, 18, 23, 76, 156, 184, 190, 239, 257, 325, 331, 332, 339, 381, 415, 496, 581, 583, 599, 601, 651, 656, 690, 718, 786, 803, 900, 906, 970, 996, 1019, 1021, 1026, 1033, 1040, 1044 Consumption-based inventory, 21 Consumptive use, 252 Contaminated site clean-up, 927, 929, 934, 936, 940, 944 Contaminated site remediation, 927, 929, 941 Contaminated sites, 87, 927, 929, 930, 940 Cookbook, 6,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4152, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1201, "book_page": 1202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "inventory, 21 Consumptive use, 252 Contaminated site clean-up, 927, 929, 934, 936, 940, 944 Contaminated site remediation, 927, 929, 941 Contaminated sites, 87, 927, 929, 930, 940 Cookbook, 6, 25, 60, 963, 964 Cornerstone, 508, 513 Corporate responsibility reports, 22 Correlation, 149, 273, 297, 302, 303, 316, 359, 411, 828, 931, 1024, 1025, 1033, 1075, Cost, 10, 37, 52, 53, 118, 123, 125, 129, 130, 134, 137, 142, 186, 194, 259, 303, 336, 337, 362, 364, 367, 374\u2013377, 379, 381\u2013389, 391, 395, 396, 418, 450, 466, 470, 474, 501, 504, 520, 522, 524, 533, 539, 540, 546, 553, 556, 557, 570, 599, 600, 623, 670, 684, 728, 731, 741, 776, 777, 888, 932, 986, 987, 993, 1014, 1031, 1042 Costing, 5, 51, 374\u2013376, 379, 381, 388, 473, 526, 932 Covariance, 296, 303 Cradle to Cradle(C2C), 554, 605\u2013607, 612, Credibility, 114, 345, 410, 446, 578, 581, 599\u2013601, 897, 899, 901, 902, 905 Crediting, 91, 123, 154, 273, 654, 766, 901, Critical load, 46, 217, 219 Critical review, 61, 75, 114, 171, 304, 336\u2013346,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4153, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1201, "book_page": 1202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Credibility, 114, 345, 410, 446, 578, 581, 599\u2013601, 897, 899, 901, 902, 905 Crediting, 91, 123, 154, 273, 654, 766, 901, Critical load, 46, 217, 219 Critical review, 61, 75, 114, 171, 304, 336\u2013346, 633, 973, 974, 999, 1023, 1053, 1054, 1076 Crops, 11, 220, 251, 724, 726\u2013728, 743, 745, 746, 758, 773, 774, 776, 777, 810, 876 Cultural theory, 716, 796, 808, 1149 Cut-off, 103, 147, 148, 154, 326, 329, 349, 350, 359, 363\u2013365, 371, 382, 388, 702, 821, 983, 984, 989, 993, 995, 1002, 1008, 1033, 1041, 1073, 1096, 1097 Cut-off criterion, 104, 350, 382 Cyanobacteria, 220 D Dairy, 92, 95, 450, 719, 726, 734, 735, 739, Damage factor, 231, 238 Data availability, 69, 122, 175, 371, 412, 438, 445, 449, 451, 456, 457, 556, 655, 711, 719, 735, 790, 802, 811, 855 Databases, 20, 62, 64, 73, 81, 82, 121, 123, 147, 152, 153, 251, 317, 337, 344, 350, 351, 360, 368, 371, 385, 391, 408, 412, 413, 415, 438, 442, 449, 451, 452, 456, 457, 467, 468, 470, 560, 718, 748, 785, 802, 803, 829, 852, 854, 871, 893,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4154, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1201, "book_page": 1202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "123, 147, 152, 153, 251, 317, 337, 344, 350, 351, 360, 368, 371, 385, 391, 408, 412, 413, 415, 438, 442, 449, 451, 452, 456, 457, 467, 468, 470, 560, 718, 748, 785, 802, 803, 829, 852, 854, 871, 893, 899, 900, 905, 935, 1031, 1032, 1060, 1062, Data collection, 61, 73, 81, 110, 121, 139, 145, 149, 155, 160, 301, 323, 329, 330, 339, 340, 352, 384, 388, 412, 413, 415, 417, 433, 445, 468, 492, 495, 540, 556, 655,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4155, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1201, "book_page": 1202, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "675, 680, 835, 899, 906, 935, 984, 989, 992, 993, 1007, 1019, 1020, 1023, 1041, 1055, 1057, 1077 Data quality, 76, 113, 140, 142, 287, 293, 294, 330\u2013332, 340, 341, 352, 419, 492, 536, 600, 966, 989, 993, 1020, 1023, 1026, 1031, 1041, 1046, 1075, 1097 Data specificity, 139\u2013141, 144, 159 Decision context, 67, 68, 70, 72, 88, 339, 530, 538, 676, 679, 935, 967 Decision-making, 70, 197, 198, 438, 439, 500, 502, 519\u2013521, 523, 533, 534, 538, 547, 553, 841, 889, 969 Decision support, 4, 22, 34, 38, 63, 70, 72, 98, 272, 303, 311, 401, 415, 416, 446, 448, 452, 500, 510, 676, 838, 842, 869, 932, 936, 967\u2013970, 981, 998, 1045, 1061, Decoupling, 432, 439, 443, 453, 624, 849, 888 Default, 105, 125, 129, 147, 155, 190, 314, 364, 491, 568, 644, 769, 989\u2013991, 995, 1013, 1027, 1045, 1083 Degradation, 17, 178, 211, 219, 224, 230, 232, 251, 431, 432, 434, 439, 443, 696, 728, 772, 774, 777, 805, 928 Degradation products (metabolites), 805, 945 Degradative use, 252, 257 Delphi panels, 505, 511 Depletion,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4156, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1202, "book_page": 1203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "178, 211, 219, 224, 230, 232, 251, 431, 432, 434, 439, 443, 696, 728, 772, 774, 777, 805, 928 Degradation products (metabolites), 805, 945 Degradative use, 252, 257 Delphi panels, 505, 511 Depletion, 12, 184, 210, 259, 261, 264, 359, 363, 367, 434, 546, 634, 641, 644, 646, 647, 650, 654, 687, 726, 738, 777, 786, 791, 821, 853, 863, 867, 868, 883, 991, Desalination, 835, 836, 839\u2013842, 844\u2013846, Design for sustainability, 455 Developing countries, 39, 213, 359, 370, 431\u2013433, 438, 440, 451, 457, 467\u2013471, 473\u2013475, 477, 496, 854 Diabetes, 241 Diet, 252, 723, 731, 739\u2013741 Difference between LCA and s-LCA, 407, 596 Dilution volume, 20, 257, 585 Direct and indirect impacts, 487, 587, 837 Direct emission intensity, 356, 689 Directive, 34, 443, 444, 531, 548, 579, 591, 756, 843, 891 Disability-Adjusted Life Year(DALY), 1036 Discounting, 374, 377, 379\u2013381, 392 Distance to target method, 194, 257, 1148 Distribution, 132, 155, 178, 202, 243, 273, 282, 284\u2013286, 293, 296, 298, 300, 305, 306, 312,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4157, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1202, "book_page": 1203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Life Year(DALY), 1036 Discounting, 374, 377, 379\u2013381, 392 Distance to target method, 194, 257, 1148 Distribution, 132, 155, 178, 202, 243, 273, 282, 284\u2013286, 293, 296, 298, 300, 305, 306, 312, 345, 466, 473, 506, 551, 553, 563, 614, 636, 644, 645, 647, 652, 672, 677, 723, 729, 739, 750, 801, 836, 837, 839, 840, 843, 850, 852, 897\u2013899, 1026, 1174 Dose-response, 237, 240, 241, 787, 820 Drinking water, 239, 426, 613, 706, 835, 837, 839, 842\u2013844, 854 Dust, 336, 1119 Dutch LCA handbook, 24, 743 E Ecobalance, 18, 470, 546 Eco-design, 25, 34, 307, 442, 443, 452, 594, 636, 749, 1065, 1068 Ecodesign implementation, 425, 545, 547, 548, 559, 560 Ecodesign methods and tools, 545, 547\u2013549, Eco-effectiveness, 611, 620, 653 Eco-efficiency, 49, 52, 53, 436, 474, 554, 605, 611, 615, 618, 625, 653, 789 Eco-indicator99, 263, 902, 903, 910, 914, 917, 919, 921, 922 Ecoinvent, 5, 125, 147, 287, 293, 294, 448, 450, 452, 454, 636, 642, 644, 656, 682, 748, 829, 852, 871, 899, 908, 935, 1062, 1077 Eco-label,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4158, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1202, "book_page": 1203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "263, 902, 903, 910, 914, 917, 919, 921, 922 Ecoinvent, 5, 125, 147, 287, 293, 294, 448, 450, 452, 454, 636, 642, 644, 656, 682, 748, 829, 852, 871, 899, 908, 935, 1062, 1077 Eco-label, 22, 25, 36, 417, 571, 577, 579\u2013582, 584\u2013587, 589, 593, 598, 968, 971, 972, 1067, 1068 Ecolabel standardisation, 22, 36, 38, 60, 417 Economic assessment method, 385, 521 Economic growth, 44, 431, 432, 435, 439, 443, 447, 624, 696, 888 Economic impacts, 63, 350, 624, 699 Ecopoints methodology, 555 Eco-scarcity method, 624, 1148 Ecosphere, 77\u201379, 100, 101, 141, 247, 259, 261, 622, 623, 747, 748, 750, 981, 982, 991, 1021, 1031 Ecosystem, 20, 46, 78, 176, 178, 181, 186, 210, 217, 219, 220, 230, 232, 234, 250, 251, 254, 258, 259, 279, 396, 402, 484, 546, 585, 610, 622, 627, 633, 770, 785, 788, 791, 803, 806, 811, 991 Ecosystem impacts, 628, 917 Ecosystem productivity, 546, 554, 880 Ecosystem quality, 181, 247, 250, 254, 257\u2013259, 550 Ecosystem scarcity, 749 Ecosystem services, 181, 186, 246, 247, 249, 250,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4159, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1202, "book_page": 1203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "991 Ecosystem impacts, 628, 917 Ecosystem productivity, 546, 554, 880 Ecosystem quality, 181, 247, 250, 254, 257\u2013259, 550 Ecosystem scarcity, 749 Ecosystem services, 181, 186, 246, 247, 249, 250, 258, 628 Ecosystem vulnerability, 251 Ecotoxicity, 187, 230, 233, 234, 236, 240, 247, 312, 598, 642, 647, 714, 727, 742, 760,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4160, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1202, "book_page": 1203, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "791, 796, 797, 804, 810, 824, 853, 861, 865\u2013868, 871, 872, 1060, 1063, 1067, 1075, 1088, 1097 EDIP 2003, 245, 909, 916 EDIP 97, 731 EEIOA, 20 Effect concentration affecting 50% of individuals over background(EC50), Effective dose affecting 50% of individuals over background(ED50) Effect factor, 224, 230, 234, 236, 238, 240, 243, 257, 559 Effectiveness, 59, 65, 417, 434, 439, 568, 888 Egalitarian, 194 EIO-LCA, 360\u2013362, 367, 370, 520 Electricity, 10, 62, 78, 83, 89, 91, 93, 95\u201397, 99, 106, 109, 110, 122, 123, 134, 135, 141, 147, 302, 363, 365, 370, 371, 417, 450, 494, 514, 515, 596, 613, 626, 634, 636, 639, 641, 642, 644, 648, 650\u2013654, 656, 657, 671, 685, 686, 688, 691, 703, 709, 714, 729, 735, 738, 762, 845, 849, 851, 852, 854, 855, 865, 892, 901, 933, 986, 1029, 1062, 1071, 1072, 1078, 1080, 1084, 1095, 1106 Electricity generation, 134, 136, 141, 370, 450, 638, 643, 645, 657 Electric Vehicle (EV), 671 Elementary flow, 62, 78, 79, 82, 91, 101, 110\u2013113, 118, 119, 141, 145, 148, 149,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4161, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1203, "book_page": 1204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1080, 1084, 1095, 1106 Electricity generation, 134, 136, 141, 370, 450, 638, 643, 645, 657 Electric Vehicle (EV), 671 Elementary flow, 62, 78, 79, 82, 91, 101, 110\u2013113, 118, 119, 141, 145, 148, 149, 151\u2013153, 167, 176, 178, 180, 181, 183, 185, 187, 190, 218, 251, 279, 294, 298, 302, 316, 324, 327, 328, 334, 350, 408, 409, 414, 622, 624, 765, 992, 993, 1000, 1028, 1029, 1036, 1175 Embodied work, 366, 613 EMEP, 1155 Emerging technologies, 511, 656, 658, 790, 812, 895, 931 Emergy, 706 Endocrine disrupters, 240, 873 End-of-life, 149, 213, 237, 369, 378, 379, 384, 390, 484, 491, 525, 526, 530, 551, 650, 675, 681, 684, 695, 759, 762, 783, 791, 796, 889, 896, 977, 978, 988, 1009, 1015\u20131017, 1031, 1065, 1083 Endpoint, 25, 175, 180\u2013182, 186, 192, 194, 208, 217, 236, 254, 255, 257, 260, 279, 280, 287, 291, 414, 417, 534, 602, 623, 871, 915, 937, 939, 991, 995, 1036, 1147, 1148, 1160, 1173, 1175 Endpoint method, 209, 236 Energy, 10, 17, 18, 20, 22, 34, 52, 77, 78, 83, 89, 93, 95, 101, 103, 106,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4162, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1203, "book_page": 1204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "291, 414, 417, 534, 602, 623, 871, 915, 937, 939, 991, 995, 1036, 1147, 1148, 1160, 1173, 1175 Endpoint method, 209, 236 Energy, 10, 17, 18, 20, 22, 34, 52, 77, 78, 83, 89, 93, 95, 101, 103, 106, 111, 142, 144, 151, 155, 161, 186, 204, 214, 221, 228, 261, 278, 279, 327, 336, 355, 358, 359, 361, 367, 369, 370, 388, 409, 411, 413, 419, 444, 445, 448, 450, 452, 472, 494, 501, 502, 507, 509, 511, 535, 551, 555, 557, 558, 564, 567, 579, 596, 610, 613, 620, 621, 626, 633, 634, 636, 637, 639\u2013641, 643, 645\u2013653, 655\u2013661, 663, 670\u2013672, 674, 676, 679, 681, 683, 685, 688, 690, 696, 698, 699, 701\u2013703, 706, 708, 713, 719, 725, 726, 729, 733, 735, 738, 740, 742, 745, 748, 761, 791, 797, 802, 804, 817, 821, 822, 825, 839, 840, 847, 861, 865, 883, 889, 901, 933, 934, 938, 939, 945, 946, 1004, 1010, 1028, 1078, 1104 Energy Pay Back Time (EPBT), 640, 650 Energy recovery, 35, 640, 648, 768, 863, 890, 902, 1018 Energy Return On Investment (EROI), 650 Energy systems, 6, 22, 426, 508, 514, 633\u2013635, 640,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4163, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1203, "book_page": 1204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1078, 1104 Energy Pay Back Time (EPBT), 640, 650 Energy recovery, 35, 640, 648, 768, 863, 890, 902, 1018 Energy Return On Investment (EROI), 650 Energy systems, 6, 22, 426, 508, 514, 633\u2013635, 640, 641, 651, 653, 655, 659, 1055, 1095 Engineered Nano Materials(ENMs), 818 Engineered Nano Particles (ENPs), 818, 821, 823, 825, 827, 829 Environmental certification, 685, 695 Environmental claim, 26, 435, 581, 590, 599, Environmental economics, 500 Environmental hotspots, 35, 417, 484, 485, 495, 548, 633, 644, 645, 647, 731, 736, 744, 1059, 1061, 1065, 1067 Environmental issue, 9, 12, 13, 82, 111, 112, 132, 176, 180, 196, 197, 199, 482, 489, 550, 551, 561, 579, 582, 583, 619, 628, 716, 796, 1173 Environmentally extended input\u2013output analysis, 62, 118, 350, 352 Environmental mechanism, 112, 167, 169, 172, 177, 179\u2013181, 183, 200, 208, 217, 230, 236, 247, 260, 262, 279, 287, 990 Environmental performance of water supply, 844, 845 Environmental Product Declaration (EPDs), 594, 595, 704", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4164, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1203, "book_page": 1204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "167, 169, 172, 177, 179\u2013181, 183, 200, 208, 217, 230, 236, 247, 260, 262, 279, 287, 990 Environmental performance of water supply, 844, 845 Environmental Product Declaration (EPDs), 594, 595, 704 Environmental relevance, 112, 172, 179, 180, 183, 197, 278\u2013280, 286, 287, 292, 293, 587, 749, 809, 1037, 1148, 1173 Environmental trade-offs, 660, 673, 675, 838 EORA, 367, 370, 371", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4165, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1203, "book_page": 1204, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EPS 2000, 263 EPS, 880, 917 Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA), 1153, Erosion, 179, 181, 246, 249, 473, 727, 728, 777, 1030 Europe, 17, 18, 21, 24, 27, 33, 35, 38, 46, 210, 214, 217, 226, 358, 403, 443, 447, 456, 532, 540, 591, 595, 611, 614, 739, 785, 802, 854, 906, 907, 1067, 1068, 1073, European Commission, 5, 11, 22, 25, 33, 34, 175, 262, 337, 339, 341, 403, 430, 442, 445, 446, 450, 454, 455, 483, 490, 491, 585, 590, 600, 607, 772, 774, 843, 1075 European union ecolabel, 590, 785, 786, 811, Eutrend, 1100 Eutrophication, 11, 12, 18, 21, 82, 184, 187, 219, 223, 224, 247, 291, 302, 623, 644\u2013647, 649, 654, 704, 724, 727, 732, 735, 736, 738, 742, 743, 747, 760, 791, 796, 840, 854, 861\u2013863, 866, 867, 869, 871, 872, 898, 1060, 1063, 1075, 1089, Evaporation, 144, 202, 207, 251, 568 Exergy, 93, 124, 186, 657, 901 Exiobase, 368 Experience curves, 503, 504, 512 Explorative, 293, 508, 658 Exposure, 170, 175, 178, 210, 216, 217, 227, 230, 234\u2013237, 239\u2013241, 243, 244, 314, 730, 786, 787, 789,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4166, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1204, "book_page": 1205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "93, 124, 186, 657, 901 Exiobase, 368 Experience curves, 503, 504, 512 Explorative, 293, 508, 658 Exposure, 170, 175, 178, 210, 216, 217, 227, 230, 234\u2013237, 239\u2013241, 243, 244, 314, 730, 786, 787, 789, 796, 803, 806, 812, 829, 866, 927\u2013929, 936, 940, 1174 Ex situ remediation, 928, 930 External costs, 377, 379, 381, 382, 384, 391, 392, 894 Externality, 894 External normalization, 853 Extrapolation techniques, 934 Eye disease, 210 F False claim, 554, 812 Fatalist, 194 Feedback, 59, 64, 203, 351\u2013354, 531, 720 Fertilisers, 198, 223, 251, 724, 726, 727, 743, 762, 764, 785, 796, 804 1st generation of bio-products, 646 Flow, 13, 18, 20, 61, 62, 64, 77, 78, 81, 87, 100, 103, 119, 142, 145, 150, 152, 156, 159, 169, 179, 187, 223, 231, 235, 247, 249, 250, 279, 294, 302, 304, 317, 327, 334, 350, 352, 356, 359\u2013362, 368, 371, 382, 392, 395, 409, 413, 414, 419, 466, 477, 492, 495, 501, 502, 524, 527, 552, 565, 606, 608, 624, 671, 706, 707, 715, 736, 738, 742, 747, 750, 791, 799, 800, 803, 805, 843,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4167, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1204, "book_page": 1205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "356, 359\u2013362, 368, 371, 382, 392, 395, 409, 413, 414, 419, 466, 477, 492, 495, 501, 502, 524, 527, 552, 565, 606, 608, 624, 671, 706, 707, 715, 736, 738, 742, 747, 750, 791, 799, 800, 803, 805, 843, 846, 896, 1070, 1085 Flow diagram, 1054, 1076 Flow resource, 261 Food, 6, 11, 22, 93, 220, 237, 239, 246, 279, 426, 440, 448, 449, 455, 467, 469, 470, 491, 568, 579, 585, 607, 625, 627, 698, 708, 717\u2013719, 723\u2013726, 729\u2013731, 739, 740, 744\u2013747, 749, 750, 759, 784, 786, 794, 866 Food miles, 745, 784, 786, 788 Food system, 725, 784, 786, 788, 794, 796, 809, 866 Footprint, 36, 172, 196, 198, 200, 287, 298, 351, 356, 358, 360, 361, 363, 365, 367, 370, 371, 445, 448, 563, 590, 601, 707, 714, 739, 788, 839, 842, 855 Forecasting, 504, 506, 511, 512 Foreground process, 80, 120, 148, 158, 287, 350, 362 Foresight, 109, 499, 501\u2013503, 506, 509, 511, 513, 659 Fossil, 10\u201312, 35, 150, 179, 207, 228, 252, 258, 259, 291, 332, 359, 567, 610, 634, 640, 642, 649, 654, 674, 698, 728, 755, 756, 759, 761, 773, 777,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4168, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1204, "book_page": 1205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "109, 499, 501\u2013503, 506, 509, 511, 513, 659 Fossil, 10\u201312, 35, 150, 179, 207, 228, 252, 258, 259, 291, 332, 359, 567, 610, 634, 640, 642, 649, 654, 674, 698, 728, 755, 756, 759, 761, 773, 777, 784, 796, 797, 809, 854, 865, 867, 871, 891, 892, 932, 1073, 1089, 1091, 1092 Fossil water, 252, 647, 784, 797, 868, 883, 892, 1073, 1075, 1089, 1092 Frequency, 39, 201, 202, 232, 282, 905, 934, 1071, 1072 Freshwater, 11\u201313, 144, 202, 223, 224, 230, 234, 236, 246, 252\u2013254, 261, 312, 623, 642, 644, 647, 735, 788, 803, 806, 807, 817, 824, 826, 840, 843, 849, 853, 867, 871, 1060, 1063, 1075, 1088, 1089, 1093, 1174 Freshwater ecosystem, 11, 233, 234, 1092 Freshwater withdrawal impact, 841 Fruits, 719, 724, 741 Functional unit, 61, 62, 83, 84, 86\u201388, 90, 95, 101, 113, 152, 154, 188, 232, 276, 286, 300, 304, 317, 324, 350, 374, 379, 382, 407, 409, 416, 500, 501, 552, 562, 596, 598, 623, 629, 651, 653, 679, 713, 733, 743, 746, 762, 763, 783, 786, 799, 807, 817, 820, 823, 844, 850, 855, 861, 870, 895,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4169, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1204, "book_page": 1205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "304, 317, 324, 350, 374, 379, 382, 407, 409, 416, 500, 501, 552, 562, 596, 598, 623, 629, 651, 653, 679, 713, 733, 743, 746, 762, 763, 783, 786, 799, 807, 817, 820, 823, 844, 850, 855, 861, 870, 895, 896, 927, 930, 934, 974, 1052, 1053, 1059, 1070, 1073 Fund, 433, 474, 537", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4170, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1204, "book_page": 1205, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Future-oriented, 425, 499, 501, 503, 508, 510, 513, 639, 658 G GABI, 21, 154, 450, 844, 852, 871, 1075, 1085 Gas, 10, 95, 96, 127, 131, 134, 135, 150, 329, 369, 392, 435, 440, 448, 465, 491, 494, 537, 626, 644, 648, 650, 660, 669, 696, 735, 777, 784, 788, 793, 795\u2013797, 802, 811, 812, 891, 901, 1089, 1093 Geographical boundaries, 889, 893, 895, 897, 899, 905, 929, 1073 Geographical scope, 106, 109, 111, 900 Geothermal power, 643, 644, 663 Ghana, 468 GIS, 113, 249 Global burden of disease, 241 Global temperature potential, 205, 537, 1159, Globalisation, 21, 27, 425, 457 Global value chains, 466, 471, 477, 1067, 1071 Global warming, 179, 184, 187, 202, 213, 278, 311, 535, 537, 539, 555, 731, 733, 734, 736, 738, 745, 755, 791, 821, 839, 840, 849, 850, 861, 865, 867, 871, 883, 903, 934, 939 Global warming potential, 184, 205, 213, 278, 538, 685, 740, 745, 849, 852, 854, 862 Goal definition, 61, 63, 67\u201370, 72, 73, 76, 82, 88, 92, 94, 98, 102, 104, 106, 109, 111, 114, 115, 118, 324, 332,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4171, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1205, "book_page": 1206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Global warming potential, 184, 205, 213, 278, 538, 685, 740, 745, 849, 852, 854, 862 Goal definition, 61, 63, 67\u201370, 72, 73, 76, 82, 88, 92, 94, 98, 102, 104, 106, 109, 111, 114, 115, 118, 324, 332, 339, 402, 655, 675, 894, 965, 970, 981, 989, 999, 1045, 1052, 1066 Google earth, 1082 Green chemistry, 789, 790, 795 Green growth, 434, 435, 783, 786, 789, 793, 798, 855, 972, 1072 Greenhouse effect, 201, 204, 206, 465, 792, 796, 812, 871, 892 Greenhouse gas, 11, 25, 32, 145, 169, 206, 207, 227, 278, 355, 367, 369, 392, 435, 440, 448, 494, 537, 634, 669, 670, 681, 708, 764, 788, 796, 797 Green water, 786, 788, 794, 825\u2013827, 836, 837, 840, 844, 846, 847, 850, 851, 854, 862, 865, 869, 872, 889, 897, 929, 939, 940, 1174 Ground level ozone, 13, 785, 791, 806, 861, 866, 867, 1060, 1075, 1090 Groundwater, 144, 178, 224, 250, 253, 254, 426, 707, 748, 786, 836, 837, 841, 842, 844, 846, 892, 928, 929, 931, 940 Groundwater abstraction, 845, 846, 849, 850 Groundwater contamination, 936 Guidelines for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4172, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1205, "book_page": 1206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "144, 178, 224, 250, 253, 254, 426, 707, 748, 786, 836, 837, 841, 842, 844, 846, 892, 928, 929, 931, 940 Groundwater abstraction, 845, 846, 849, 850 Groundwater contamination, 936 Guidelines for s-LCA, 403, 405, 417\u2013419 H Halocarbon, 207, 213, 888 Halon, 213 HANPP, 367 HC50, 234, 235 HCFC, 207, 213 Health effects, 185, 241, 243, 244, 1174 Heat, 10, 62, 89, 91, 93, 111, 124, 201, 202, 325, 327, 332, 387, 390, 626, 633\u2013636, 640, 643, 648, 651, 653\u2013655, 657, 688, 768, 892, 901, 1059\u20131061, 1063, 1066, 1069, 1072, 1079, 1084, 1086, 1089, 1093, 1114 Hierarchist, 194, 870 Housing, 207, 405, 708, 732, 940, 1093 Human exposure, 179, 237, 239, 730, 806, 866 Human health, 12, 20, 34, 78, 79, 169, 178, 179, 181, 182, 194, 196, 205, 208, 210, 214, 225, 237, 243, 247, 254, 259, 279, 287, 318, 436, 449, 474, 484, 633, 724, 750, 784, 791, 807, 853, 869, 891, 932, 1060, 1075, 1090, 1174 Human toxicity, 180, 186, 225, 236\u2013241, 245, 278, 641, 647, 687, 727, 730, 735, 742, 743, 760, 791, 796, 803, 828,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4173, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1205, "book_page": 1206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "474, 484, 633, 724, 750, 784, 791, 807, 853, 869, 891, 932, 1060, 1075, 1090, 1174 Human toxicity, 180, 186, 225, 236\u2013241, 245, 278, 641, 647, 687, 727, 730, 735, 742, 743, 760, 791, 796, 803, 828, 853, 868, 929, 1063, 1088, 1090 Human Toxicity Potential (HTP), 687, 803 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), 670, 671 Hybrid LCA, 21, 355, 637, 932 Hydropower, 106, 640, 643, 644, 647, 648, 653, 654, 735, 986, 1084 I IEC 60300-3-3, 374 ILCD, 5, 6, 25, 60, 65, 70, 76, 94, 95, 98, 99, 103, 115, 118, 138, 236, 263, 294, 337, 403, 408, 446, 452, 601, 636, 655, 676, 765, 772\u2013774, 871, 893, 894, 903, 935, 939, 963, 989, 1001, 1011, 1054, 1067, 1074, 1173 ILCD LCIA, 25, 69, 83, 110\u2013113, 118, 139, 150, 152, 160, 167\u2013169, 171, 173, 175, 177, 184, 186, 188, 190, 194, 200, 206, 213, 217, 224, 233, 237, 239, 242, 245, 249, 259, 263, 642, 645, 1075 Immaterial cost, 388 Immune system, 210 Impact 2002+, 173, 209, 241, 263, 853", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4174, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1205, "book_page": 1206, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Impact category, 25, 62, 63, 83, 113, 167, 173, 176, 177, 179, 182, 186, 187, 190, 191, 200, 217, 225, 235, 240, 245, 246, 249, 258, 273, 280, 302, 303, 315, 325, 363, 369, 371, 392, 409, 414, 489, 521, 585, 641, 644, 646, 650, 654, 686, 688, 726, 736, 748, 749, 803, 806, 809, 849, 852, 854, 866, 867, 870, 901, 1035, 1038, 1060, 1065, 1091, 1092, 1097, 1173 Impact coverage, 111, 317, 648, 654, 893, 902, Impact indicator, 169, 179\u2013181, 187, 198, 249, Impact pathway, 112, 113, 177, 183, 211, 217, 231, 242, 247, 254, 257, 260, 261, 263, 327, 406, 414, 420, 796, 801, 805, 811 Impact score, 63, 64, 113, 176, 182, 190\u2013192, 198, 273, 285, 287, 301\u2013305, 311, 313, 317, 328, 414, 521, 716, 806, 866, 870, 989, 1037, 1060, 1063, 1067, 1083, 1088, 1095, 1148 Impact world+, 5, 209, 287, 1148 Incineration, 35, 38, 89, 93, 97, 109, 125, 224, 228, 390, 442, 563, 609, 616, 626, 640, 723, 730, 765, 768, 769, 822, 863, 888, 889, 897, 901, 929, 1071 Indicator score, 18, 63, 82, 111, 181, 189, 294,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4175, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1206, "book_page": 1207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "35, 38, 89, 93, 97, 109, 125, 224, 228, 390, 442, 563, 609, 616, 626, 640, 723, 730, 765, 768, 769, 822, 863, 888, 889, 897, 901, 929, 1071 Indicator score, 18, 63, 82, 111, 181, 189, 294, Indirect costs, 239, 388, 837, 866 Indirect emission intensity, 356, 358, 360, 370 Indirect impacts, 487 Individualist, 194 Industrialising countries, 465 Infectious disease, 202, 706 Inflation, 377, 390, 391, 536 Input/output tables, 793, 932, 935, 1054, 1097 Input\u2013output analysis, 5, 350, 353\u2013355, 367, 483, 932 Input\u2013output modelling, 21, 932 In situ remediation, 953 Intake fraction, 239, 243 Integrated product policy, 22, 25, 34, 442, 443, 445, 446, 864, 888, 1073 Integration into organisations, 900 Intended application, 67, 68, 70, 118, 330, 332, 339, 538, 676, 894, 970, 973, 981, 989, 1045, 1053, 1055, 1066 Intergovernmental panel on climate change, 201, 764 Internal normalization, 853 International level, 431, 452, 455, 457, 786, 844, 870, 1075 International life cycle data system (ILCD), 25,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4176, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1206, "book_page": 1207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1066 Intergovernmental panel on climate change, 201, 764 Internal normalization, 853 International level, 431, 452, 455, 457, 786, 844, 870, 1075 International life cycle data system (ILCD), 25, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), 5, 77, 81, 894, 933 Interpretation, 24, 43, 51, 52, 60, 63, 68, 69, 73, 81, 82, 86, 106, 110, 113, 149, 152, 167, 168, 183, 189, 192, 209, 240, 272, 273, 281, 285, 287, 290\u2013292, 300, 303, 307\u2013309, 311, 316, 324, 325, 340, 341, 345, 388, 392, 403, 441, 444, 485, 492, 628, 737, 766, 799, 808, 809, 854, 894, 903, 904, 939, 965, 970, 1039, 1054, 1057, 1075, 1091, 1148, 1173 Interpretation of results, 69, 72, 111, 316, 677, 684, 688, 808 Inventory analysis, 21, 60, 62, 63, 68, 81, 88, 106, 107, 111, 113, 117, 121, 155, 156, 171, 325, 340, 383, 388, 413, 415, 485, 491, 521, 555, 676, 719, 799, 802, 809, 899, 965, 1000, 1011, 1031, 1052, 1076 Inventory model, 76, 77, 81, 100, 108, 149, 154, 341, 627, 1061, 1068 IPAT equation, 48\u201350, 53 IPP, 22, 34", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4177, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1206, "book_page": 1207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "415, 485, 491, 521, 555, 676, 719, 799, 802, 809, 899, 965, 1000, 1011, 1031, 1052, 1076 Inventory model, 76, 77, 81, 100, 108, 149, 154, 341, 627, 1061, 1068 IPAT equation, 48\u201350, 53 IPP, 22, 34 Iron, 220, 409, 838, 852, 912, 945, 1076, 1137 ISO/IEC 17025, 588 ISO/IEC 17065, 588 ISO 14006, 25 ISO 14020, 25, 580 ISO 14021, 581 ISO 14024, 581, 588 ISO 14025, 595, 596, 598 ISO 14040, 5, 24, 25, 32, 59, 60, 62, 304, 342, 343, 345, 382, 383, 437, 485, 486, 491, 522, 523, 534, 553 ISO 14041, 24 ISO 14042, 24 ISO 14043, 24 ISO 14044, 5, 6, 24, 82, 89, 111, 171, 172, 236, 333, 337, 339, 343, 485, 553, 601 ISO 14062, 25 ISO 14063, 25 ISO 14064, 25, 196, 483, 601 ISO 14072, 481, 486, 490 ISO 15663, 374 ISO 15686, 374 ISO conformance, 342 ISO conformity, 588 ISO standard, 5, 6, 25, 60, 72, 91, 93, 167, 346, 379, 455, 491, 528, 531, 581, 597, 636, 711, 726 ISO TS 14071, 337, 340\u2013344 Iteration, 64, 105, 111, 118, 139, 148, 151, 155, 295, 296, 298, 303, 316, 325, 329, 339, 364, 964, 1085 Iterative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4178, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1206, "book_page": 1207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "346, 379, 455, 491, 528, 531, 581, 597, 636, 711, 726 ISO TS 14071, 337, 340\u2013344 Iteration, 64, 105, 111, 118, 139, 148, 151, 155, 295, 296, 298, 303, 316, 325, 329, 339, 364, 964, 1085 Iterative nature of LCA, 59, 68, 314, 316", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4179, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1206, "book_page": 1207, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "J Jepix, 174 K Key assumption, 59, 64, 325, 333, 351 Key flow, 1043 Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), 441, 535 Key process, 106, 324, 327, 328, 333, 1040, 1041, 1043 L Label, 5, 22, 32, 200, 343, 425, 451, 539, 540, 577\u2013582, 584, 588, 589, 598, 601, 615, Lake, 13, 214, 216, 219, 221, 224, 253, 254 Land, 11, 12, 21, 79, 198, 224, 245, 246, 248, 249, 251, 259, 291, 355, 368, 369, 473, 484, 516, 623, 644, 663, 672, 706, 725, 726, 728, 744, 748, 759, 760, 769\u2013772, 774\u2013778 Land competition, 84, 130, 254, 259, 758 Landfill, 184, 563, 564, 567, 730, 768, 804, 864, 871, 883, 891, 892, 903, 928 Land occupation, 13, 247, 248, 704 Land quality, 147, 150 Land recovery, 35 Land use, 179, 181, 246\u2013248, 250, 251, 302, 355, 359, 363, 369, 473, 477, 644, 646, 649, 713, 733, 736, 743, 746, 748, 771, 772, 774, 796, 797, 812, 868, 883, 933, 1003, 1030, 1060, 1063, 1088, 1090, Land use change, 656, 658, 659, 708, 725, 759, Large enterprises, 35 Large-scale assessments, 79, 188, 656 Latin America, 436,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4180, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1207, "book_page": 1208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "774, 796, 797, 812, 868, 883, 933, 1003, 1030, 1060, 1063, 1088, 1090, Land use change, 656, 658, 659, 708, 725, 759, Large enterprises, 35 Large-scale assessments, 79, 188, 656 Latin America, 436, 469, 470, 724 Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS), 296 Lethal concentration affecting 50% of individuals over background (LC50), LCA, 4\u20136, 9\u201314, 17, 18, 21\u201327, 31\u201339, 43, 46, 51, 53, 59\u201361, 63, 64, 67\u201369, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 81\u201384, 86, 88, 89, 94\u201399, 103\u2013106, 108\u2013110, 112\u2013114, 118, 121, 122, 124, 125, 127, 129, 132, 138, 140, 144, 148, 149, 151\u2013154, 156, 158, 160, 167\u2013169, 171, 173, 176, 184, 187\u2013189, 191, 193, 194, 198, 199, 201, 214, 229, 230, 236, 237, 249, 253, 257\u2013259, 272\u2013274, 276, 278, 281, 282, 285\u2013287, 292, 293, 296\u2013298, 303, 308, 312, 314, 316, 317, 324\u2013326, 331, 337, 341\u2013344, 346, 350, 351, 358, 360, 362, 366, 368, 370, 371, 379, 381, 382, 402, 403, 407, 408, 413, 415, 417, 419, 425, 426, 433, 441, 442, 446, 447, 450, 453, 468, 471, 473, 475, 477, 482, 484\u2013486, 489, 491, 496, 500\u2013503,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4181, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1207, "book_page": 1208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "358, 360, 362, 366, 368, 370, 371, 379, 381, 382, 402, 403, 407, 408, 413, 415, 417, 419, 425, 426, 433, 441, 442, 446, 447, 450, 453, 468, 471, 473, 475, 477, 482, 484\u2013486, 489, 491, 496, 500\u2013503, 505, 508\u2013511, 513, 514, 519, 521, 522, 527, 529, 534, 535, 549, 553\u2013557, 565, 569, 581, 583, 595, 597, 599, 601, 605, 615, 618, 621\u2013626, 628, 629, 633\u2013635, 639, 643, 647, 650, 651, 655, 659, 674, 676, 677, 679, 681, 688, 690, 691, 695, 698\u2013702, 704, 706, 708, 710, 711, 725\u2013727, 729\u2013736, 738, 739, 743\u2013750, 755, 757, 760, 762\u2013764, 770, 771, 773 LCA framework, 60, 65, 258, 403, 420, 707, 711, 713, 791, 903 LCA mainstreaming, 27 LCA practitioner, 22, 59, 88, 105, 106, 109, 113, 118, 121, 138, 144, 148, 150, 152, 155, 175, 192, 280, 314, 449, 500, 605, 628, 629, 633, 636, 651, 655, 656, 658, 684, 714, 735, 748, 802, 803, 806, 807, 897, 902, 934, 963 LCA roadmap, 443, 447, 448, 453, 506, LCA world map, 32, 688 LCC, 51, 63, 374\u2013378, 380\u2013382, 387, 391, 392, 521, 705, 932 LCI, 20, 75, 78, 81, 82,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4182, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1207, "book_page": 1208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "714, 735, 748, 802, 803, 806, 807, 897, 902, 934, 963 LCA roadmap, 443, 447, 448, 453, 506, LCA world map, 32, 688 LCC, 51, 63, 374\u2013378, 380\u2013382, 387, 391, 392, 521, 705, 932 LCI, 20, 75, 78, 81, 82, 88, 94, 97, 99, 105, 106, 117\u2013119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 134, 135, 139, 144, 145, 147\u2013149, 151\u2013153, 155, 156, 159, 161, 169, 173, 175, 176, 179, 183, 186, 187, 190, 200, 228, 231, 235, 236, 249, 250, 264, 286, 287, 293, 294, 297, 298, 314, 317, 343, 359, 367, 438, 470, 515, 626, 627, 655, 656, 658, 681, 706\u2013708, 710, 715, 718, 719, 747, 748, 801, 804, 805, 808, 823, 828, 852, 854, 871, 901, 935, 969, 971, 974, 976, 984, 988 LCIA, 276, 286, 287, 294, 298, 316, 327, 344, 359, 369, 438, 470, 602, 623, 627, 658, 659, 711, 712, 716, 718, 727, 730, 744, 747, 748, 750, 767, 771, 791, 801, 805, 806, 808, 810, 853, 873, 936, 990, 991, 995, 1148, 1173 LCIA history, 81, 110, 112, 118, 141, 151, 167\u2013169, 171, 173, 183, 187, 190, 200, 207, 214, 224, 236, 238, 240, 244, 250, 262, 861 LCI database, 81,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4183, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1207, "book_page": 1208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "808, 810, 853, 873, 936, 990, 991, 995, 1148, 1173 LCIA history, 81, 110, 112, 118, 141, 151, 167\u2013169, 171, 173, 183, 187, 190, 200, 207, 214, 224, 236, 238, 240, 244, 250, 262, 861 LCI database, 81, 109, 121, 145, 148, 151, 153, 157, 287, 297, 317, 453, 470, 626, 636, 644, 656, 802, 803, 805, 852, 854, 871, 935, 1032, 1055", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4184, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1207, "book_page": 1208, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "LCI modelling framework, 970, 976, 1057, LCSA, 21, 51, 381, 521 Legal requirements, 86, 539, 540 Leontieff, 20 Life cycle impact assessment, 5, 6, 24, 34, 117, 167, 173, 200, 438, 441, 457, 471, 791 Life cycle initiative, 5, 24, 32, 250, 403, 437, 438, 441, 449, 454, 457, 469, 470, 490, 527, 771, 853 Life cycle perspective, 9, 10, 12, 35, 63, 102, 356, 419, 431, 433, 439, 482, 484, 519, 523, 526, 557, 580, 582, 583, 615, 639, 674, 745, 790, 931 Life cycle sustainability assessment, 21, 43, 51, 63, 374, 375, 521 Life cycle thinking, 5, 32, 34, 103, 425, 431, 444, 448, 454, 455, 457, 488, 520, 524, 534, 699, 795, 821, 889 Lightweight electric vehicle, 688, 689 Lignite, 660, 686, 1029 Likelihood, 202, 303, 310, 546, 716 Lime, 175, 209, 221 Limitation, 9, 11, 14, 43, 52, 67, 69, 105, 118, 197, 298, 303, 314, 317, 324, 327, 332, 341, 342, 366, 427, 468, 492, 804, 805, 811, 869, 894, 906 Limitations of LCA, 553, 828, 966 Limiting nutrient, 221 Linear, 138, 188, 194, 297, 298, 313, 351, 387,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4185, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1208, "book_page": 1209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "298, 303, 314, 317, 324, 327, 332, 341, 342, 366, 427, 468, 492, 804, 805, 811, 869, 894, 906 Limitations of LCA, 553, 828, 966 Limiting nutrient, 221 Linear, 138, 188, 194, 297, 298, 313, 351, 387, 476, 606, 607, 696, 708, 869, 1093 Livestock, 440, 724, 733, 748, 749, 802 Log-normal distribution, 155, 283, 284, 294, 298, 318 Long-term emissions, 93, 97, 99, 148, 646, 765, 900, 903, 905\u2013908, 1036, 1046 Long-term marginal, 99, 135 Lower bound, 284, 296, 512, 538, 590 LU, 875, 878, 910, 912\u2013914, 919, 920 LUC, 759\u2013761, 769\u2013775 Lucas, 174, 1149 Lung cancer, 241 M Macro-level decision support, 99, 895, 968, Mainstreaming, 39, 425, 437, 452, 456, 457, 468, 470, 474, 476, 527 Malaysia, 468, 471, 472 Manipulation, 228, 313, 336, 337, 343 Marginal, 243, 395, 554, 621, 623, 655, 657, 658, 770, 773, 889, 893, 901, 951, 976, 980, 985, 987, 1004\u20131008, 1011, 1071, Marginal process, 96\u201399, 106, 137, 658, 986, 987, 1004, 1005, 1007 Marginal technologies, 137, 655, 657\u2013659 Marine ecosystem, 234, 788,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4186, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1208, "book_page": 1209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "889, 893, 901, 951, 976, 980, 985, 987, 1004\u20131008, 1011, 1071, Marginal process, 96\u201399, 106, 137, 658, 986, 987, 1004, 1005, 1007 Marginal technologies, 137, 655, 657\u2013659 Marine ecosystem, 234, 788, 1067, 1092 Marine water, 180, 203, 223, 230, 826, 867, Market constraints, 130, 557, 1006 Market requirements, 539, 540 Mass balance, 13, 142, 150, 151, 809, 1029 Material flow accounting, 18, 106, 150 Matrix inversion, 154, 354 Mean, 10, 13, 14, 45, 70, 78, 92, 95, 105, 130, 141, 154, 180, 184, 187, 190, 194, 201, 226, 233, 250, 254, 279, 282, 284, 286, 296, 311, 514, 519, 520, 527, 532, 535, 539, 548, 563, 578, 584, 600, 606, 609, 615, 618, 621, 623, 625, 626, 634, 639, 699, 703, 710, 711, 715, 718, 724, 738, 766, 773, 1026, 1085 Meat, 38, 89, 92, 93, 124, 162, 252, 719, 723, 726, 731\u2013734, 740, 743, 745, 1006 Median, 283\u2013285, 296, 391, 852 MEEUP, 1148 Membrane filtration, 232, 838, 878 Meso-level decision support, 676 Metals, 12, 125, 129, 214, 216, 259, 261, 353, 354, 356, 357, 359,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4187, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1208, "book_page": 1209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "740, 743, 745, 1006 Median, 283\u2013285, 296, 391, 852 MEEUP, 1148 Membrane filtration, 232, 838, 878 Meso-level decision support, 676 Metals, 12, 125, 129, 214, 216, 259, 261, 353, 354, 356, 357, 359, 365, 395, 439, 641, 644, 647, 651, 669, 674, 684, 687, 691, 698, 713, 784, 786, 809, 863, 866, 869, 871, 876, 879, 889, 891, 892, 930, 931, 944, 951, 954, 1026, 1028, 1029, 1073, 1092, 1093, 1097 Methane, 142, 169, 184, 203, 206, 207, 227, 724, 727, 731\u2013735, 768, 792, 838, 865, 882, 883, 888, 892, 1027, 1121 Methodological challenges, 4\u20136, 17, 18, 22, 24, 25, 32, 60, 89, 198, 425, 521, 713, 715, 749, 756, 783, 811, 847, 887, 905, 908 Methodological limitations, 966 Methyl bromide, 213, 1121 Methyl chloroform, 1125, 1133 Micro-level decision support, 72, 98, 895, 935, 967, 969, 976 Micro-pollutants, 861\u2013864, 866, 868 Midpoint, 20, 175, 180, 181, 183, 185, 189, 192, 196, 205, 208, 214, 224, 231, 239, 250, 257, 278\u2013281, 287, 291, 368, 392, 414, 534, 853, 871, 915, 917, 922, 937, 939, 947, 991,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4188, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1208, "book_page": 1209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "861\u2013864, 866, 868 Midpoint, 20, 175, 180, 181, 183, 185, 189, 192, 196, 205, 208, 214, 224, 231, 239, 250, 257, 278\u2013281, 287, 291, 368, 392, 414, 534, 853, 871, 915, 917, 922, 937, 939, 947, 991, 995, 1036, 1038, 1061, 1074, 1147, 1148, 1173, 1175 Midpoint method, 287, 368, 392, 534 Milennium ecosystem assessment, 246, Mineralization, 660", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4189, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1208, "book_page": 1209, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Minerals, 78, 259, 262, 533, 624, 784, 839, 991, 1029, 1064, 1087, 1092, 1142, Minority position, 345 Minority statement, 345 Mips, 196, 197 Missing information, 327, 1041 Mix of long-term marginal, 97 Mobility, 178, 230, 237, 635, 669, 670, 675, 676, 679, 691, 720, 827, 1004 Mode, 283, 626, 670, 729, 735, 741, 745, 985 Model structure uncertainty, 237, 288 Model uncertainty, 180, 287, 292, 293 Monetarisation, 258, 374, 377, 381, 391 Monte carlo simulation, 160, 293, 295\u2013298, 303, 1064, 1085, 1087 Montreal protocol, 52, 213, 786 Multifunctional processes, 88, 94, 95, 99, 120, 125, 148, 154, 326, 329, 651, 655, 743, 893, 901, 967, 970, 975, 976, 1003, 1009, 1011, 1013, 1015 Multimedia, 232, 236 Multiple life cycles, 627 Multiplier effects, 11, 128, 138, 177\u2013179, 202, 209, 217, 227, 232, 237, 240, 242, 246, N N2O, 726, 727, 734, 764, 861, 862, 867, 871, Nanomaterials, 87, 426, 817, 818, 821, 826, 907, 931, 1096 Nanoparticles, 817, 823, 825 Nanoproducts, 817, 818, 821, 824", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4190, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1209, "book_page": 1210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "227, 232, 237, 240, 242, 246, N N2O, 726, 727, 734, 764, 861, 862, 867, 871, Nanomaterials, 87, 426, 817, 818, 821, 826, 907, 931, 1096 Nanoparticles, 817, 823, 825 Nanoproducts, 817, 818, 821, 824 Nano-technology, 818, 824 Neighbourhoods, 595, 698, 855 Net present value, 378, 394 Nitrate, 216, 223, 241, 727, 735, 862, 1027, 1122, 1131, 1140 Nitrogen, 13, 150, 151, 217, 220, 221, 223, 225, 724, 727, 732, 747, 769, 785, 792, 891, 946, 1013, 1027, 1122, 1131, 1140 Nitrogen oxide, 13, 211, 217, 228, 241, 727, 792, 1091, 1122 Nitrous oxide, 206, 207, 213, 726, 727, 732, N-limited, 220, 224 NMVOC, 227, 229, 1027, 1064, 1075, 1087, 1091, 1100, 1122 Non-cancer effects, 240, 1067, 1075, 1092, 1093, 1100 Nordic ecolabel, 22, 579, 582, 586, 590, 1067 Nordic LCA guideline, 24 Normal distribution, 155, 283, 284, 294, 1085 Normalisation, 63, 81, 83, 113, 173, 174, 183, 189\u2013192, 325, 413, 420, 732, 734, 864, 867, 869, 893, 903, 907, 984, 993, 995, 1035, 1037, 1038, 1042, 1045, 1056, 1061, 1067,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4191, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1209, "book_page": 1210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "155, 283, 284, 294, 1085 Normalisation, 63, 81, 83, 113, 173, 174, 183, 189\u2013192, 325, 413, 420, 732, 734, 864, 867, 869, 893, 903, 907, 984, 993, 995, 1035, 1037, 1038, 1042, 1045, 1056, 1061, 1067, 1075, 1086, 1092, 1100 Normalisation reference, 190\u2013192, 289, 870, 1061, 1067, 1075 North America, 21, 24, 202, 214, 217, 403, 435, 539, 582, 600 NPP, 214, 224 NPV, 378, 394, 396 Nuclear, 14, 95, 110, 126, 448, 610, 646, 654, 875, 923, 1029 Nuclear power, 106, 110, 126, 526, 634, 642, 643, 646, 649, 735, 1084 Numerical, 83, 175, 182, 287, 290, 293\u2013295, 303, 305, 309, 311 Nutrients, 11, 219, 220, 224, 247, 606, 608\u2013611, 616, 617, 621\u2013624, 696, 724, 725, 727, 730, 741, 744, 746, 747, 750, 769, 861, 862, 867, 876, 931, 946, 1030, 1100 O Obligatory properties, 84, 974, 1069 ODP, 213, 214, 909, 911, 913, 919, 920, 922, ODS, 211, 213 Organisational Environmental Footprint (OEF), 25, 34, 250, 445\u2013447, 490, 491, 601, Oil, 10, 14, 35, 78, 124\u2013127, 130, 161, 162, 178, 329, 383, 441, 468, 526, 628,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4192, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1209, "book_page": 1210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "913, 919, 920, 922, ODS, 211, 213 Organisational Environmental Footprint (OEF), 25, 34, 250, 445\u2013447, 490, 491, 601, Oil, 10, 14, 35, 78, 124\u2013127, 130, 161, 162, 178, 329, 383, 441, 468, 526, 628, 634, 642, 644, 648, 650, 699, 737, 750, 756, 758, 777, 778, 794, 802, 864, 874, 920, 921, 1019, 1028, 1072 Operational expenditures, 375, 388, 389 OPEX, 375, 388 Ore grade, 95 Organic agriculture, 13, 92, 223, 225, 228, 235, 241, 250, 261, 426, 741 Organisation, 20, 26, 60, 73, 174, 186, 197, 239, 258, 344, 468, 474, 476, 482, 484, 486, 489, 494, 495, 500, 506, 507, 519\u2013521, 523, 525, 527, 529, 531, 535, 537\u2013541, 547, 554, 555, 560, 569, 578, 579, 588, 594, 599, 601, 1051, 1068, Organisational LCA, 25, 425, 482, 484\u2013486, 489, 491, 492, 495\u2013497 Our common future, 43\u201345 Ozone, 13, 184, 207, 209\u2013211, 213, 224\u2013227, 229, 646, 647, 734, 735, 742, 785, 791, 806, 848, 861, 865, 867, 871, 872, 883,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4193, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1209, "book_page": 1210, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "991, 1060, 1075, 1088, 1091, 1095, 1122, 1142, 1143 Ozone depleting substance, 211, 213, 1095 Ozone depletion, 209, 646, 734, 743, 748, 866, 867, 871, 872, 883, 888, 898, 991, 1063, 1075, 1087\u20131090, 1095, 1100, 1142, 1143 Ozone depletion potential, 213, 735, 1100 Ozone hole, 209, 211, 213 Ozone layer, 210, 211, 786, 867, 1090 P Packaging studies, 17 Potentially Affected Fraction of species (PAF), 234, 804 Parallel impacts, 20, 36 Parameter uncertainty, 179, 281, 287, 293, 294, 301, 315, 1085 Parsimony, 188, 281, 292, 707, 720 Particle release, 239, 241, 245 Particles, 211, 241, 242, 791, 817, 826, 846, 1028, 1100 Particulate matter formation, 181, 241, 245, 686, 714, 866, 871, 1064, 1087, 1142, Pathogen, 181, 200, 838, 861, 863, 864, 869, Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species (PDF), 224, 282 Pedigree matrix, 160, 293, 294, 1086 Peer review, 21, 144, 336, 893, 894 PEF, 25, 34, 173, 339, 341, 445\u2013447, 483, 490, 600, 601 Percentile, 155, 160, 284, 285 Performance tracking, 35, 36,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4194, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1210, "book_page": 1211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "224, 282 Pedigree matrix, 160, 293, 294, 1086 Peer review, 21, 144, 336, 893, 894 PEF, 25, 34, 173, 339, 341, 445\u2013447, 483, 490, 600, 601 Percentile, 155, 160, 284, 285 Performance tracking, 35, 36, 51, 73, 113, 198, 246, 250, 486, 496, 534 Person-equivalent, 190, 192 Pesticides, 144, 198, 236, 237, 247, 251, 396, 724, 726, 727, 730, 738, 741, 742, 747, 750, 762, 777, 785, 796, 801, 807, 931 Petrochemicals, 121, 784, 785, 812 PH, 826, 827 Pharmaceutical industry, 240 Phosphate, 223, 688, 726, 727, 792, 883, 1131, Phosphorus, 196, 219, 221, 223, 626, 726, 792, 862, 863, 870, 872, 875, 891, 946, 1027, 1092, 1123, 1131, 1136, 1137 Photochemical ozone formation, 180, 187, 225, 227, 235, 646, 865, 867, 1064, 1087, 1091, 1100, 1142, 1143 Photovoltaics, 78, 97, 640, 641, 647 Physico-chemical properties, 144, 825 Phytoplankton, 203, 210, 216, 233 Planetary boundaries, 46, 47, 443, 788 Planning, 35, 76, 97, 111, 121, 139, 350, 352, 375, 382, 439, 454, 476, 500\u2013502, 506, 528, 627, 634, 706,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4195, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1210, "book_page": 1211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "properties, 144, 825 Phytoplankton, 203, 210, 216, 233 Planetary boundaries, 46, 47, 443, 788 Planning, 35, 76, 97, 111, 121, 139, 350, 352, 375, 382, 439, 454, 476, 500\u2013502, 506, 528, 627, 634, 706, 835, 837, 842, 855, 953, 976, 1001, 1007, 1019 Plant species effect, 224, 227 P-limited, 224 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle phev, 670 PM10, 242, 245, 933, 938, 939 PM2.5, 242, 243, 245, 1064, 1075, 1087, 1100 Polar, 201, 210, 211, 279, 628 Policies, 9, 33, 68, 366, 425, 430, 431, 434, 442, 450, 452\u2013457, 473, 474, 590, 600, 634, 640, 650, 653, 675, 712 Policy, 5, 10, 22, 31\u201334, 112, 199, 307, 366, 369, 381, 402, 403, 417, 425, 433, 434, 436, 438, 439, 442, 445, 451, 455, 472, 474, 477, 501, 503, 539, 599, 601, 607, 636, 653, 659, 676, 712, 715, 728, 787, 811, 889, 936, 968, 972, 998, 1003, 1148, 1173 Policymaking, 5, 32, 34, 403 Population density, 194, 244, 275, 286, 712, Positioning properties, 84, 88, 974, 1069 Positive impacts, 202, 605, 607, 622, 623, 628 Positive recoupling, 624", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4196, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1210, "book_page": 1211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1148, 1173 Policymaking, 5, 32, 34, 403 Population density, 194, 244, 275, 286, 712, Positioning properties, 84, 88, 974, 1069 Positive impacts, 202, 605, 607, 622, 623, 628 Positive recoupling, 624 Potable water, 835, 848, 851, 855 Potential impact, 13, 169, 180, 184, 188, 198, 252, 258, 278, 279, 292, 317, 553, 681, 699, 701, 702, 716, 727, 729, 742, 783, 786, 788, 790, 818, 824, 865\u2013867, 869, 870, 941, 991, 1091, 1092, 1173, 1174 Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV), 623, 728 Power plants, 97, 126, 134, 136, 241, 244, 634, 635, 640, 644, 646\u2013648, 653\u2013655, 657, Power production, 134 Power systems, 634, 651, 652 Precision, 64, 273, 276, 278, 279, 317, 330, 371, 965, 984, 992, 994, 1001, 1019, 1020, 1022, 1024, 1026, 1031, 1042\u20131044, 1046 Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC), Primary function, 88, 92, 97, 444, 591, 639, 746, 896, 997 Primary impacts, 927, 929\u2013931, 933, 935, 936, 939, 944, 955 Primary PM, 241, 245 Primary production, 247, 367, 922, 977, 978, 1010, 1018", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4197, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1210, "book_page": 1211, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Probability, 193, 282, 283, 285, 295, 296, 303, 305, 310, 311, 316, 318, 786, 787, 1063, 1085\u20131087 Probability density function, 282 Process-LCA, 5, 11, 13, 20, 22, 25, 26, 35, 59, 60, 62, 72, 76, 78\u201381, 89\u201391, 93, 106, 110, 118, 121, 124, 125, 145, 149\u2013151, 153, 157, 159, 189, 220, 236, 349, 351, 355, 359, 361, 363, 370, 371, 963 Procurement, 33, 378, 442, 444, 452\u2013454, 472, 526, 591, 601, 968, 971, 972 Product Category Rules (PCR), 173, 350, 595, 597, 600, 718, 873, 968, 971, 997, 1013, 1020, 1022, 1027 Product development, 24, 35, 84, 385, 455, 473, 500, 522, 525, 529, 538, 546\u2013548, 553\u2013556, 560, 561, 563, 565, 567, 569, 570, 597, 790, 1073, 1085 Product Environmental Footprint (PEF), 25, 339, 445, 483, 725 Product intake fraction, 239, 242, 243, 1100 Production-based inventory, 191 Product system, 12\u201314, 21, 61\u201364, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 94, 95, 100, 101, 103, 105, 108, 111, 117, 123, 154, 156, 168, 172, 188, 190, 192, 259, 292, 325, 328, 329, 331, 333, 337, 343, 349, 350,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4198, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1211, "book_page": 1212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Product system, 12\u201314, 21, 61\u201364, 68, 72, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 94, 95, 100, 101, 103, 105, 108, 111, 117, 123, 154, 156, 168, 172, 188, 190, 192, 259, 292, 325, 328, 329, 331, 333, 337, 343, 349, 350, 364, 365, 385, 501, 511, 556, 602, 622, 626, 629, 676, 677, 702, 718, 734, 735, 738, 743, 746, 760, 773, 786, 792, 799\u2013803, 809, 823, 852, 905, 984, 989, 1000, 1035, 1043, 1044, 1053, 1060, 1062, 1065, 1066, 1071, 1072, 1075\u20131079, 1086, 1091, 1093, 1097, 1099, 1174, Prospective LCA, 109, 500, 511 Provisions, 6, 7, 25, 894, 963, 965, 967, 969, 970, 973\u2013976, 979\u2013982, 986, 989, 993, 996, 998, 1006, 1007, 1010, 1012, 1014\u20131016, 1021, 1023, 1025, 1028, 1032, 1034, 1036, 1040, 1041, 1043, Proxy method, 108 R Radiation, 46, 181, 204, 206, 210, 213, 610, 642, 646, 771, 866, 871, 991, 1060, 1063, 1075, 1088\u20131091, 1100, 1142, Radiative forcing, 205, 206, 208, 249, 278, 361, 1100 Random sampling, 296 Reason for the study, 11, 12, 99, 138, 249 Rebound effect, 52 Recipe 2008, 1075, 1148 Recipe, 6,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4199, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1211, "book_page": 1212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1088\u20131091, 1100, 1142, Radiative forcing, 205, 206, 208, 249, 278, 361, 1100 Random sampling, 296 Reason for the study, 11, 12, 99, 138, 249 Rebound effect, 52 Recipe 2008, 1075, 1148 Recipe, 6, 194, 236, 244, 263, 623, 736, 853, 854, 871, 902, 932, 938, 949, 954, 963, Recovery time, 33 Recycling, 12, 34, 38, 120, 129, 147, 357, 369, 375, 385, 390, 491, 553, 563, 568, 584, 607\u2013610, 616, 618, 621, 622, 624, 626, 627, 655, 677, 684, 691, 702, 708, 710, 822, 850, 852, 863, 865, 869, 876, 877, 888\u2013892, 902, 904, 968, 969, 971, 977, 1009, 1010, 1016, 1018, 1046, 1063, 1071, 1082\u20131084, 1091, 1097 Redfield ratio, 1155, 1167 Reference flow, 61, 62, 87, 88, 101, 102, 119, 121, 143, 148, 152, 158, 159, 170, 409, 799\u2013801, 896, 906, 974, 975, 982, 985, 997, 1000, 1001, 1004, 1012, 1031, 1032, 1034\u20131036, 1053, 1070 Reference system, 169, 174, 190, 191, 556, 1035, 1037 Reference year, 123, 190, 191, 377, 396, 489, 627, 870, 1075, 1101, 1103 Regionalisation, 184, 302 Regulation, 18, 21, 33, 106,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4200, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1211, "book_page": 1212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1053, 1070 Reference system, 169, 174, 190, 191, 556, 1035, 1037 Reference year, 123, 190, 191, 377, 396, 489, 627, 870, 1075, 1101, 1103 Regionalisation, 184, 302 Regulation, 18, 21, 33, 106, 123, 147, 214, 250, 437, 441, 442, 444, 450, 454, 455, 474, 475, 515, 530\u2013532, 581, 585, 591, 595, 684, 730, 785, 810, 820, 879, 888 Remediation technologies, 87, 927\u2013931, 933, 934, 937, 939 Renewable energy, 196, 361, 448, 613, 614, 621, 624, 626, 634, 639, 640, 648, 654, 728, 729, 738, 756, 776, 991, 1029 Renewables, 37, 251, 253, 261, 263, 636, 639, 641, 649, 650, 654, 658 Representativeness, 75, 106, 108\u2013110, 145, 154, 286, 287, 292, 294, 330, 332, 333, 413, 456, 655, 656, 731, 759, 810, 893, 899, 906, 939, 970, 984, 986\u2013989, 1007, 1020, 1022, 1023, 1031, 1040, 1043, 1054, 1073 Representativeness of data, 106 Reserve base, 262, 263 Residence time, 216, 807, 1100 Resource, 12, 14, 18, 37, 62, 78, 88, 101, 118, 177, 186, 197, 247, 252, 258\u2013261, 263, 264, 273, 275, 302, 309, 314, 316, 350, 351,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4201, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1211, "book_page": 1212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "of data, 106 Reserve base, 262, 263 Residence time, 216, 807, 1100 Resource, 12, 14, 18, 37, 62, 78, 88, 101, 118, 177, 186, 197, 247, 252, 258\u2013261, 263, 264, 273, 275, 302, 309, 314, 316, 350, 351, 367, 368, 387, 430, 432\u2013434, 437, 439, 447, 494, 500, 527, 537, 546, 547, 557, 564, 567, 568, 585, 756, 759, 778, 789, 796, 797, 806, 812, 821, 822, 839, 843, 844, 848, 853, 854, 861\u2013863, 865, 868, 871, 880, 883, 888, 891, 897, 915, 936, 941, 1007, 1021, 1027\u20131029,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4202, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1211, "book_page": 1212, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1060, 1075, 1091, 1143, 1148, 1174, Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA), 18 Resource base, 13, 18, 20, 49, 78, 81, 106, 145, 159, 178, 181, 197, 251, 258\u2013261, 621 Resource efficiency, 431, 434, 443\u2013445, 455, Resources, abiotic, biotic, renewable, nonrenewable, 783, 789, 797, 805, 825, 836, 837, 839, 843, 1174 Resource use, 13, 14, 18, 181, 258, 259, 262, 431, 432, 439, 442, 494, 621, 644, 654, 696, 703, 704, 713, 728, 1174 Respiration, 210, 225, 227, 241, 242 Respiratory effects, 241, 1088, 1091 Respiratory inorganics, 241, 947, 991 Reuse of water, 259, 835, 836, 841 Revenue, 376, 379, 383, 392, 468, 493, 536 Review, 24, 37, 76, 114, 337, 339, 342, 456, 485, 503, 539, 633, 640, 647, 651, 652, 654, 659, 744, 756, 760, 764, 852, 863, 867, 868, 870, 874, 892, 894, 904, 908, 930, 932, 999, 1000, 1022, 1031 Review panel, 144, 342, 343, 345 Review report, 6, 24, 43, 60, 112, 123, 145, 158, 199, 341, 342, 345, 1000 Review statement, 341, 342, 344 Rigour, 345 Risk assessment,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4203, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1212, "book_page": 1213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "932, 999, 1000, 1022, 1031 Review panel, 144, 342, 343, 345 Review report, 6, 24, 43, 60, 112, 123, 145, 158, 199, 341, 342, 345, 1000 Review statement, 341, 342, 344 Rigour, 345 Risk assessment, 15, 292, 444, 783, 786\u2013788, 791, 818, 932, 941 Robustness, 63, 175, 273, 297, 300, 303, 308, 316, 324, 339, 456, 870, 871, 1026, S Salinisation, 876 Salt water, 202, 221, 883 Scaling issues, 152, 154, 500 Scenario analysis, 68, 132, 138, 160, 190, 244, 300, 309, 474, 501, 506, 712, 904, 1040 Scenarios, 68, 132, 155, 160, 243, 244, 273, 293, 298, 300, 302, 304\u2013306, 312, 315, 328, 445, 499, 501, 503, 506, 508, 511, 513, 539, 554, 636, 639, 652, 653, 656, 658, 674, 685, 703, 715, 716, 736\u2013738, 762, 770, 835, 842, 865, 878, 882, 897, 935, 936, 966, 979, 980, 986, 996, 998, 1001, 1003, 1010, 1026, 1045, 1055, 1084, 1092, 1096 Scientific review, 17, 145, 194, 335 S-curves, 503 Seasonal variation, 187, 251 Secondary function, 83, 88, 89, 91, 92, 123, 976, 977, 997, 1069, 1071 Secondary impacts, 83,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4204, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1212, "book_page": 1213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1055, 1084, 1092, 1096 Scientific review, 17, 145, 194, 335 S-curves, 503 Seasonal variation, 187, 251 Secondary function, 83, 88, 89, 91, 92, 123, 976, 977, 997, 1069, 1071 Secondary impacts, 83, 89, 92, 123, 138, 220, 241, 245, 927, 929, 931, 933, 935, 941, 944, 952 Secondary PM, 241, 243, 245 Selection, 6, 34, 35, 81, 112, 171, 172, 175, 305, 307, 309, 344, 426, 451, 516, 548, 582, 612, 618, 651, 655, 685, 725, 731, 790, 811, 841, 853, 854, 891, 893, 902, 907, 932, 963, 995, 998, 1015, 1031, 1036, 1054, 1147 Sensitivity, 5, 59, 64, 69, 105, 113, 124, 155, 156, 160, 234, 272, 274, 276, 297, 299, 301, 324, 325, 328, 332, 387, 395, 511, 658, 703, 811, 824, 854, 855, 865, 870, 871, 893, 904, 907, 964, 970, 979, 1001, 1023, 1026, 1039, 1040, 1043, 1052, 1055, 1056, 1074, 1083\u20131085, 1092, 1093, 1095, 1096, 1106, 1143 Sensitivity analysis, 5, 63, 65, 105, 118, 148, 155, 156, 160, 274, 297, 300, 324, 325, 329, 369, 381, 508, 656, 658, 703, 854, 904, 970, 1043, 1084, 1095 Serial impacts,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4205, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1212, "book_page": 1213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1093, 1095, 1096, 1106, 1143 Sensitivity analysis, 5, 63, 65, 105, 118, 148, 155, 156, 160, 274, 297, 300, 324, 325, 329, 369, 381, 508, 656, 658, 703, 854, 904, 970, 1043, 1084, 1095 Serial impacts, 189 Severity, 63, 179, 184, 230, 235, 240, 243, 414, 713 Severity factor, 230, 240 Short-term marginal, 135, 163 Significance, 194, 224, 331, 417, 472, 704, 705, 853, 854, 1045, 1047, 1095 Significant issue, 121, 138, 203, 220, 223, 301, 325, 327, 332, 333, 1007, 1023, 1039\u20131043, 1056, 1089 SimaPro, 21, 152, 293, 363, 368, 642, 900 Simplified LCA, 152, 154, 474, 511, 545, 556, 557, 565, 967, 971 Site-dependency, 46, 263 Situation A, 72, 92, 98, 99, 138, 148, 676, 893, 895, 935, 967\u2013970, 976, 978, 979, 981, 982, 985, 987, 990, 995, 998, 1001, 1011, 1012, 1044, 1052, 1061, 1068, Situation B, 81, 99, 123, 148, 658, 893, 967, 969, 978, 980, 985\u2013987, 995, 999, 1001, 1012, 1044 Situation C, 93, 99, 148, 893, 968, 969, 980\u2013982, 995, 1001, 1012 Skin cancer, 210, 214 S-LCA case studies, 417 S-LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4206, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1212, "book_page": 1213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "99, 123, 148, 658, 893, 967, 969, 978, 980, 985\u2013987, 995, 999, 1001, 1012, 1044 Situation C, 93, 99, 148, 893, 968, 969, 980\u2013982, 995, 1001, 1012 Skin cancer, 210, 214 S-LCA case studies, 417 S-LCA future development, 401, 420 Sludge treatment, 862\u2013864, 867 SMEs, 37, 436, 469, 472, 497, 527, 600 SOC, 1030", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4207, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1212, "book_page": 1213, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Social boundaries, 11, 51, 63, 194 Social impacts, 11, 23, 51, 374, 377, 381, 395, 401, 403\u2013405, 407, 409, 411, 413, 497, 749, 791, 799 Social LCA, 21, 63, 365, 366, 497, 520, 705 Social Life Cycle Assessment (s-LCA), 5, 51 Social sustainability, 4, 21, 33, 43, 45, 46, 51, 53, 197, 258, 352, 366 Social themes, 405, 406 Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), 5, 59, 236, 437, 457, 469, 470, 501, 508, 527, 853, 469 Soil contamination, 326, 803, 827 Soil exposure, 178, 179, 207, 216, 218 Soil organic carbon, 178, 776, 777, 1030 Soil organic matter, 178, 1101 Solar power, 95, 641, 643, 647, 650, 654 Solid waste, 18, 122, 426, 555, 626, 696, 868, 887\u2013889, 892, 894, 895, 899, 902\u2013904, 906, 907, 1104 SOM, 1101 South countries, 160, 209 Spatial differentiation, 113, 244, 864, 869, Spatial resolution, 185, 369 Species change, 130, 178, 202, 203, 218, 219, 222, 231 Species composition, 219, 220 Species diversity, 623 Species richness, 249, 251, 623 Species Sensitivity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4208, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1213, "book_page": 1214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "864, 869, Spatial resolution, 185, 369 Species change, 130, 178, 202, 203, 218, 219, 222, 231 Species composition, 219, 220 Species diversity, 623 Species richness, 249, 251, 623 Species Sensitivity Distribution (SSD), 234 Stack height, 244 Stakeholder acceptance, 236, 1173 Stakeholder groups, 193, 404, 418, 600 Stakeholders, 5, 32, 37, 72, 193, 199, 307, 337, 345, 383, 401, 404, 406, 411, 417, 432, 433, 438, 441, 476, 497, 506, 519, 529\u2013531, 533, 535, 543, 550, 565, 582, 587, 634, 749, 786, 795, 808, 903, 995, 998, 1054 Standard deviation, 155, 160, 277, 283\u2013286, 290, 293, 296\u2013300, 311, 1026, 1085 Standardisation, 17, 18, 24, 60, 402, 403, 531, 578, 599, 720 Standing capacity, 476 Steady-state, 188, 232, 288, 682, 807, 1100 Stock, 125, 249, 261\u2013264, 272, 387, 388, 470, 471, 624, 634, 698, 707, 733, 1022 Strategic, 35, 36, 436, 438, 468, 495, 500, 506, 511, 540, 547, 554, 607, 676, 842, 936, Stratification, 221 Stratosphere, 209, 211\u2013213 Stratospheric ozone depletion, 180, 210, 212,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4209, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1213, "book_page": 1214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "707, 733, 1022 Strategic, 35, 36, 436, 438, 468, 495, 500, 506, 511, 540, 547, 554, 607, 676, 842, 936, Stratification, 221 Stratosphere, 209, 211\u2013213 Stratospheric ozone depletion, 180, 210, 212, 646, 743, 760, 866, 867, 871, 872, 888, 898, 1063, 1064, 1087, 1090, 1142 Strengths of LCA, 4, 9, 197, 298, 639 Stressor, 241, 1067 Structural change, 70, 72, 99, 148, 658, 767, 936, 967, 968, 1071 Substance coverage, 92, 176, 178, 179, 185, 187, 219, 223, 227, 229, 231, 234, 235, 241, 243, 805 Sulfur dioxide, 217, 1092 Sulphur oxides, 207, 215, 217, 241 Sunburn, 210, 228 Supply chains, 96, 317, 353, 358, 359, 361, 368, 402, 440, 466, 470, 488, 515, 538, 568, 676, 749, 837, 968, 971, 976, 1052, 1072 Surface temperature, 201, 202 Surplus energy, 216 Sustainability, 4, 14, 25, 37, 43, 44, 46, 51, 53, 198, 262, 350, 354, 359, 365, 366, 370, 371, 378, 381, 388, 402, 404, 419, 439, 444, 497, 510, 520, 521, 524, 527, 530, 537, 539, 541, 578, 598, 628, 699, 711, 723, 759, 768, 784, 795, 797, 808,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4210, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1213, "book_page": 1214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "53, 198, 262, 350, 354, 359, 365, 366, 370, 371, 378, 381, 388, 402, 404, 419, 439, 444, 497, 510, 520, 521, 524, 527, 530, 537, 539, 541, 578, 598, 628, 699, 711, 723, 759, 768, 784, 795, 797, 808, 811, 855, 862, 875, 931, 954, 1061, 1067, Sustainable chemistry, 236, 783, 786, 789, 811 Sustainable consumer information, 22, 455 Sustainable consumption and production, 22, 25, 430, 431, 433, 436, 437, 443, 455, 457, 469, 471, 579, 582, 591 Sustainable development, 4, 44, 52, 177, 386, 402, 430, 431, 435, 440, 448, 450, 455, 519, 520, 523, 527, 590, 628, 790, 808 Sustainable procurement, 455 Sustainable production and consumption, 33, 448, 472, 477, 593, 812 Swiss ecopoints, 194, 1148 Swiss ecoscarcity (or ecopoints) methodology, 1101, 1148 SWMS, 892, 908 System boundaries, 51, 75, 100\u2013104, 198, 286, 300, 324, 336, 350, 351, 374, 382, 407, 596, 651, 654, 662, 701, 718, 736, 738, 747, 759, 762, 783, 792, 793, 799, 801, 822, 844, 847, 849, 850, 852, 855, 887, 889, 891, 893, 895, 896, 906,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4211, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1213, "book_page": 1214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "198, 286, 300, 324, 336, 350, 351, 374, 382, 407, 596, 651, 654, 662, 701, 718, 736, 738, 747, 759, 762, 783, 792, 793, 799, 801, 822, 844, 847, 849, 850, 852, 855, 887, 889, 891, 893, 895, 896, 906, 907, 933, 970, 981, 983, 996, 1046, 1054, 1057, 1060, 1071, 1072, 1075 System diagram, 119, 982", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4212, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1213, "book_page": 1214, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "System expansion, 91, 92, 95, 98, 101, 123, 126, 154, 383, 627, 638, 655, 731, 800, 802, 892, 901, 976, 978\u2013980, 982, 998, 1008, 1011, 1044, 1071 T Tank to wheel (TTW), 672 Target audience, 67, 72, 113, 307, 309, 388, 392, 591, 894, 906, 966, 994, 1000, 1044, 1047, 1053, 1068 Taylor series expansion, 297 TCO, 379 Technical cycle, 608, 610, 622 Technological scope, 5, 48, 87, 108, 110, 254, Technosphere, 78, 79, 94, 101, 177, 622, 623, 627, 747, 750, 801, 829, 981, 990, 991, Temporal differentiation, 53, 63, 125, 184, 249, Temporal resolution, 786 Temporal scope, 123, 698, 1074 Temporary carbon storage, 110, 757, 765, 767 Terrestrial ecosystem, 46, 181, 253, 254, 770, 1092, 1174 Tertiary impacts, 927, 929, 936, 940 The flower, 417, 418, 590 The international journal of life cycle assessment, 26 The sustainability consortium, 22, 449 The swan, 590 3rd generation of bio-products, 758 Time horizon, 45, 175, 184, 202, 207, 220, 276, 278, 395, 499, 503, 509, 660, 766, 767, 854, 905, 934,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4213, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1214, "book_page": 1215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "26 The sustainability consortium, 22, 449 The swan, 590 3rd generation of bio-products, 758 Time horizon, 45, 175, 184, 202, 207, 220, 276, 278, 395, 499, 503, 509, 660, 766, 767, 854, 905, 934, 1066, 1073, 1074, 1098, 1174, 1175 Tipping points, 194, 203, 767 Total cost of ownership, 374, 379 Toxicity, 179, 187, 230, 234, 236, 237, 240, 245, 278, 279, 294, 371, 396, 414, 558, 585, 642, 646, 649, 660, 704, 730, 742, 748, 783\u2013785, 789, 793, 796, 797, 803\u2013806, 808\u2013810, 812, 824, 825, 827, 841, 848, 853, 861, 862, 864\u2013866, 868, 871\u2013873, 888, 897, 901, 903, 929, 933, 936, 1060, 1067, 1088, 1089, 1142, 1143, 1175 TRACI, 173, 241, 367, 932 TRACI 2, 175 Traction battery, 675, 684, 686 Trade, 11, 20, 118, 254, 356, 357, 359\u2013361, 363, 376, 437, 466, 473, 531, 613, 708, 711, 718, 918 Transparency, 32, 82, 156, 193, 308, 315, 341, 345, 417, 486, 582, 596, 651, 717, 737, 803, 871, 901, 906, 908, 964, 1066 Transportation, 10, 48, 105, 123, 137, 198, 214, 360, 361, 369, 383, 389, 520, 540, 634, 635,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4214, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1214, "book_page": 1215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "82, 156, 193, 308, 315, 341, 345, 417, 486, 582, 596, 651, 717, 737, 803, 871, 901, 906, 908, 964, 1066 Transportation, 10, 48, 105, 123, 137, 198, 214, 360, 361, 369, 383, 389, 520, 540, 634, 635, 669, 681, 723, 729, 739, 845, 852, 865, 906, 929, 933, 942, 1060, 1062, 1072, 1083, 1084, 1091, 1093, 1104, 1106 Trends, 109, 135, 443, 466, 507, 511, 550, 642, 746, 888, 904, 930, 931, 1071 Trophic levels, 220, 234 Troposphere, 211, 215, 225, 791 Tropospheric ozone, 209, 210, 225, 1100 U Ultimate reserve, 262, 263 Uncertainty, 5, 47, 63\u201365, 99, 118, 137, 155, 156, 160, 180, 183, 185\u2013187, 203, 273, 275, 279, 285, 287, 314, 316, 317, 323, 325, 330, 332, 415, 467, 501, 506, 509, 510, 747, 763, 790, 803, 804, 806, 807, 809, 810, 820, 824, 854, 871, 904, 929, 964, 979, 980, 996, 998, 1021, 1026, 1043, 1045, 1056, 1057, 1064, 1075, 1083, 1085, 1086, 1088, 1089, 1092, 1095\u20131097, 1175 Uncertainty analysis, 64, 132, 155, 276, 297, 303, 305, 307, 308, 317, 333, 503, 854, UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4215, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1214, "book_page": 1215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "1043, 1045, 1056, 1057, 1064, 1075, 1083, 1085, 1086, 1088, 1089, 1092, 1095\u20131097, 1175 Uncertainty analysis, 64, 132, 155, 276, 297, 303, 305, 307, 308, 317, 333, 503, 854, UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, 250, 258, 314, 469, 771 Unit process, 62, 77\u201380, 90, 101, 103, 106, 107, 110, 119, 141, 145, 148, 149, 151, 153, 157, 159, 286, 301, 327, 332, 337, 353, 362, 383, 408, 449, 452, 626, 680 Upcycling, 609 Upper bound, 284 Urban metabolism, 706, 709 Urban morphology, 714 Urban planning, 634, 706 Urban systems, 713 Urban water systems, 835, 837 US EPA, 21, 26, 449 USES-LCA, 236 USEtox, 152, 232, 236, 240, 312, 730, 748 UV, 209\u2013211, 214 UVB, 212 V Validation, 151, 335, 346, 474, 578, 598 Value chain, 23, 103, 375, 379, 410, 451, 482\u2013484, 489, 494, 495, 521", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4216, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1214, "book_page": 1215, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "Variability, 138, 184, 185, 201, 239, 272, 275, 276, 287, 293, 300, 302, 315, 316, 387, 510, 646, 650, 676, 733, 747, 762 Variance, 296, 297 Variation, 45, 107, 187, 188, 234, 254, 273, 275, 276, 283, 294, 300, 311, 579, 648, 656, 678, 691, 702, 730, 733, 736, 759, Vascular plant Vegetables, 239, 724, 729, 730, 739, 741 Vehicle, 10, 161, 336, 369, 378, 391, 475, 535, 669\u2013674, 676, 678\u2013682, 685\u2013689, 712 Vietnam, 108, 160, 467 VOC, 207, 226 W Walmart, 22 Wassily Leontieff, 353 Waste hierarchy, 444, 454 Waste management, 6, 12, 18, 34, 38, 81, 120, 134, 198, 426, 441, 445, 454, 455, 617, 626, 706, 723, 734, 738, 739, 750, 768 Waste management system, 22, 651 Wastewater, 142, 143, 160, 252, 426 Wastewater treatment, 224, 730, 739, 740 Water, 11, 13, 103, 111, 142, 144, 151, 176, 178, 198, 202, 205, 211, 215, 216, 219, 221, 224, 250\u2013255, 257, 258, 261, 273, 434, 439, 440, 467, 473, 477, 484, 579, 606, 611, 613, 614, 617, 628, 646, 696, 725, 726, 728, 730, 734, 747, 749 Water availability,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4217, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1215, "book_page": 1216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "205, 211, 215, 216, 219, 221, 224, 250\u2013255, 257, 258, 261, 273, 434, 439, 440, 467, 473, 477, 484, 579, 606, 611, 613, 614, 617, 628, 646, 696, 725, 726, 728, 730, 734, 747, 749 Water availability, 197, 251, 253, 254 Water depletion, 82 Water footprint, 196, 198 Water quality, 179, 219, 253, 257, 776 Water reclamation, 840, 841 Water resources, 202, 749 Water scarcity, 11, 13, 253, 473 Watershed, 253, 255 Water supply system, 835, 839\u2013841, 844, 851\u2013854 Water technologies, 22, 37, 52, 87, 110, 111, 134, 147 Water use, 21, 179, 196, 251, 253, 257, 273, 302, 439, 477, 640, 644, 646, 647, 649, 654, 727, 744, 749, 770, 776 Weighting, 63, 82, 83, 113, 182, 191, 193, 194, 240, 325, 381, 413, 418, 732, 734, 736 Weighting and scoring of impacts, 329 Well-being quantification, 917 Well to wheel WTW, 672, 674, 681 What-if scenario, 513 Whole effluent toxicity, 873 Willingness to pay, 194, 263, 392 Wind power, 106, 138, 511, 640, 641, 643, 647, 650, 652, 657 WIOD, 355, 357, 361, 365, 370", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4218, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1215, "book_page": 1216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "WTW, 672, 674, 681 What-if scenario, 513 Whole effluent toxicity, 873 Willingness to pay, 194, 263, 392 Wind power, 106, 138, 511, 640, 641, 643, 647, 650, 652, 657 WIOD, 355, 357, 361, 365, 370 Withdrawals, 255 WMO, 913, 922, 1100 WTA, 255 WWTP, 863\u2013865, 867, 883 WWTT, 865, 873 Y Years of Lifetime lost Due to premature death (YLD), 186, 240 Year equivalents lost due to morbidity (YOLL), 1160 Z Zooplankton, 219, 233", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4219, "book": "hauschild", "chapter": "Index", "pdf_page": 1215, "book_page": 1216, "source": "Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice"}}
{"text": "EUR 24708 EN - 2010", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4220, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition i The mission of the JRC-IES is to provide scientific-technical support to the European Union\u201fs Policies for the protection and sustainable development of the European and global environment. Citation: European Commission - Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010 European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability Contact information Address: Via E", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4221, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010 European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability Contact information Address: Via E. Fermi, 2749 \u2013 21027 Ispra (VA) Italy E-mail: lca@jrc.ec.europa.eu Fax: +39-0332-786645 http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ http://www.jrc.europa.eu/ Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4222, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server http://europa.eu/ JRC 48157 EUR 24708 ISBN 978-92-79-19092-6 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2788/38479 Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union \u00a9 European Union, 2010 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged Printed in Italy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4223, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition ii Preface To achieve more sustainable production and consumption patterns, we must consider the environmental implications of the whole supply-chain of products, both goods and services, their use, and waste management, i.e. their entire life cycle from \u201ccradle to grave\u201d. In the Communication on Integrated Product Policy (IPP), the European Commission committed to produce a handbook on best practice in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The Sustainable Consumption and Production Action Plan (SCP) confirmed that \u201c(...) consistent and reliable data and methods are required to asses the overall environmental performance of products (...)\u201d. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook provides governments and businesses with a basis for assuring quality and consistency of life cycle data, methods and assessments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4224, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook provides governments and businesses with a basis for assuring quality and consistency of life cycle data, methods and assessments. This document provides technical guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and provides the technical basis to derive product-specific criteria, guides, and simplified tools. The principle target audience for this guide is the LCA practitioner as well as technical experts in the public and private sector dealing with environmental decision support related to products, resources, and waste management.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4225, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition iii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4226, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition iv Executive summary Overview Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are the scientific approaches behind modern environmental policies and business decision support related to Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP). The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) provides a common basis for consistent, robust and quality-assured life cycle data and studies. Such data and studies support coherent SCP instruments, such as Ecolabelling, Ecodesign, Carbon footprinting, and Green Public Procurement. This guide is a component of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook. It provides technical guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and provides the technical basis to derive product-specific criteria, guides, and simplified tools. It is based on and conforms to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards on LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4227, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is based on and conforms to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards on LCA. The principle target audience for this guide is the LCA practitioner as well as technical experts in the public and private sector dealing with environmental decision support related to products, resources, and waste management. About Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a structured, comprehensive and internationally standardised method. It quantifies all relevant emissions and resources consumed and the related environmental and health impacts and resource depletion issues that are associated with any goods or services (\u201cproducts\u201d). Life Cycle Assessment takes into account a product\u201fs full life cycle: from the extraction of resources, through production, use, and recycling, up to the disposal of remaining waste", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4228, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Life Cycle Assessment takes into account a product\u201fs full life cycle: from the extraction of resources, through production, use, and recycling, up to the disposal of remaining waste. Critically, LCA studies thereby help to avoid resolving one environmental problem while creating others: This unwanted \u201cshifting of burdens\" is where you reduce the environmental impact at one point in the life cycle, only to increase it at another point. Therefore, LCA helps to avoid, for example, causing waste-related issues while improving production technologies, increasing land use or acid rain while reducing greenhouse gases, or increasing emissions in one country while reducing them in another. Life Cycle Assessment is therefore a vital and powerful decision support tool, complementing other methods, which are equally necessary to help effectively and efficiently make consumption and production more sustainable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4229, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "About the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards provide the indispensable framework for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This framework, however, leaves the individual practitioner with a range of choices, which can affect the legitimacy of the results of an LCA study. While flexibility is essential in responding to the large variety of questions addressed, further guidance is needed to support consistency and quality assurance. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) has therefore been developed to provide guidance for consistent and quality assured Life Cycle Assessment data and studies. The ILCD consists primarily of the ILCD Handbook and the ILCD Data Network. This document you are reading is part of the ILCD Handbook: The ILCD Handbook is a series of technical documents providing guidance for good practice in Life Cycle Assessment in business and government. It is supported by templates, tools, and other components", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4230, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is supported by templates, tools, and other components. The ILCD Handbook equally serves as a \"parent\" document for developing sector and product-group specific guidance documents, criteria, and simplified ecodesign-type tools.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4231, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition v Such are seen as the most appropriate solutions for enabling the efficient use of reliable and robust life cycle approaches in Small and Medium Enterprises (SME). The development of the ILCD has been coordinated by the European Commission and has been carried out through a broad international consultation process with experts, stakeholders, and the public. Role of this document within the ILCD Handbook This document provides detailed guidance for planning, developing, and reporting both life cycle emission and resource consumption inventory (LCI) data sets and Life Cycle Assessment studies. The exact provisions are given at the end of the chapters. These \"Provisions\" are also available in a separate 'cook-book' style guide for daily reference for the more experienced practitioners and reviewers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4232, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These \"Provisions\" are also available in a separate 'cook-book' style guide for daily reference for the more experienced practitioners and reviewers. This document also serves as an introduction to the main principles and concepts of Life Cycle Assessment. It is not intended, however, to be a comprehensive and detailed introduction or training manual for beginners. Within the ILCD Handbook, this document has the role of providing the general, overarching guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (see figure). It is complemented by specific guides on the development of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data sets, the development of Life Cycle Impact Assessment models & indicators, as well as on performing reviews of LCI data sets, LCA studies, and of specific guides and simplified approaches. This guide is further supported with an LCA study report template, an LCI data set documentation format, a document on nomenclature and other conventions, and a terminology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4233, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This guide is further supported with an LCA study report template, an LCI data set documentation format, a document on nomenclature and other conventions, and a terminology. These supporting documents and applications are available separately. Approach taken and key issues addressed in this document This document further details the ISO 14044 provisions and differentiates them for the three main types of questions that are addressed with LCA studies: \uf0b7 \"Micro-level decision support\": Life cycle based decision support on micro-level, i.e. typically for questions related to specific products. \u201cMicro-level decisions\u201d are assumed to have limited and no structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they are supposed not to change available production capacity. \uf0b7 \"Meso/macro-level decision support\": Life cycle based decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4234, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 \"Meso/macro-level decision support\": Life cycle based decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options). \u201cMeso/macro-level decisions\u201d are assumed to have structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they are supposed to change available production capacity. \uf0b7 \"Accounting\": Purely descriptive documentation of the system's life cycle under analysis (e.g. a product, sector, or country), without being interested in any potential additional consequences on other parts of the economy. Focus is given to methodological issues that result in relevant differences in current practice of developing Life Cycle Inventory data sets and performing LCA studies. Review ISO 14040, 14044 Life Cycle Assessment data and studies for Sustainable Consumption and Production in government and business Review ISO 14040, 14044 Life Cycle Assessment data and studies for Sustainable Consumption and Production in government and business", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4235, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition vi CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................... .IV 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................................. 1 2 HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT ................................................................................... 5 2.1 Structure of the document ....................................................................................... 5 2.2 How to work with this document ............................................................................. 7 2.2.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications ......................................................... 7 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C ............", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4236, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C ............. 8 2.2.4 How to perform an LCI or LCA study in accordance with this document ........... 10 2.3 ILCD compliance and the \"Provisions\" within this document ............................ 16 2.4 Dealing with potential omissions and contradictions in the ILCD Handbook ... 17 Provisions: 2 How to use this document ....................................................... 18 3 KEY DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................... 21 4 THE ITERATIVE APPROACH TO LCA ......................................................................... 25 Provisions: 4 The iterative approach to LCA ................................................ 28 5 GOAL DEFINITION \u2013 IDENTIFYING PURPOSE AND TARGET AUDIENCE ............................ 29 5.1 Introduction and overview .....................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4237, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "29 5.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................... 29 5.2 Six aspects of the goal definition .......................................................................... 30 5.2.1 Intended application(s) ....................................................................................... 30 5.2.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations (e.g. Carbon footprint) ................... 32 5.2.3 Reasons for carrying out the study, and decision-context ................................. 33 5.2.4 Target audience ................................................................................................. 34 5.2.5 Comparisons intended to be disclosed to the public .......................................... 34 5.2.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors ..................................... 35 Provisions: 5.2 Six aspects of goal definition ..............................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4238, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "34 5.2.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors ..................................... 35 Provisions: 5.2 Six aspects of goal definition ............................................... 35 5.3 Classifying the decision-context as Situation A, B, or C .................................... 36 5.3.1 Possible decision-context situations .................................................................. 36 5.3.2 Studies on decisions .......................................................................................... 37 5.3.3 Studies of descriptive character ......................................................................... 37 5.3.4 Situation A .......................................................................................................... 38 5.3.5 Situation B .........................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4239, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "38 5.3.5 Situation B .......................................................................................................... 40 5.3.6 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation A and B ......................... 41 5.3.7 Situation C ......................................................................................................... 43 5.3.8 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation C and A / B .................... 45 Provisions: 5.3 Classifying the decision-context ......................................... 46 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness ..................................................................... 49 Provisions: 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness ................................... 49 5.5 Optionally extending the goal ................................................................................ 50 Provisions: 5.5 Optionally extending the goal .............................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4240, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "50 Provisions: 5.5 Optionally extending the goal .............................................. 50 6 SCOPE DEFINITION - WHAT TO ANALYSE AND HOW .................................................... 51 6.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................... 51 6.2 Overview and basic requirements ......................................................................... 52", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4241, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 7, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition vii 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions, and data ............................................... 52 Provisions: 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions and data ............ 52 6.2.2 Reproducibility.................................................................................................... 53 Provisions: 6.2.2 Reproducibility ................................................................... 54 6.3 Types of LCI and LCA deliverables and intended applications .......................... 54 Provisions: 6.3 Types of LCA deliverables and intended applications ...... 59 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow ....................................................... 59 6.4.1 Detailed identification of the process(es) or system(s) to be analysed .............. 59 6.4.2 Quantitative aspects of the functional unit ........................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4242, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "59 6.4.2 Quantitative aspects of the functional unit ......................................................... 61 6.4.3 Qualitative aspects of the functional unit ............................................................ 62 6.4.4 Working with obligatory and positioning properties ............................................ 63 6.4.5 Using technical standards for defining function and functional unit ................... 64 6.4.6 Functional unit and/or reference flow? ............................................................... 65 6.4.7 Comparisons of systems and the functional unit ................................................ 67 Provisions: 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow ..................... 68 6.5 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) modelling framework .................................................. 70 6.5.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4243, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "70 6.5.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................. 70 6.5.2 The two main LCI modelling principles .............................................................. 70 6.5.3 LCI method approaches for solving multifunctionality ........................................ 72 6.5.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 72 6.5.3.2 The ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality ......................................................... 74 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C ........................................... 81 6.5.4.1 Introduction and overview ........................................................................................... 81 6.5.4.2 Situation A: \"Micro-level decision support\" ................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4244, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "81 6.5.4.2 Situation A: \"Micro-level decision support\" ................................................................. 81 6.5.4.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 81 6.5.4.2.2 LCI modelling provisions ..................................................................................................... 82 6.5.4.3 Situation B: \"Meso/macro-level decision support\" ...................................................... 85 6.5.4.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 85 6.5.4.3.2 LCI modelling provisions ..................................................................................................... 85 6.5.4.4 Situation C: \u201cAccounting\u201d ...........................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4245, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "85 6.5.4.4 Situation C: \u201cAccounting\u201d ............................................................................................ 86 Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C ...... 87 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) ...................... 93 6.6.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................. 93 6.6.2 Qualitative definition of system boundaries ...................................................... 100 6.6.3 Quantitative definition of system boundaries \u2013 the cut-off criteria .................... 102 Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) ............................................................................................... 105 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4246, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "105 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ................................................. 108 6.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 108 6.7.2 Identifying LCIA methods to be applied ........................................................... 109 6.7.3 Carbon footprint and other selected indicators ................................................ 111 6.7.4 Inclusion of non-standard impacts and of non-standard elementary flows ...... 111 6.7.5 Spatial and other differentiation / modification of impact factors ...................... 112 6.7.6 Selection of normalisation basis and weighting set .......................................... 113 6.7.7 Documentation of decision on LCIA methods, impact level, normalisation basis, and weighting factors ..................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4247, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "115 Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ............... 116", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4248, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition viii 6.8 Representativeness and appropriateness of LCI data ...................................... 122 6.8.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 122 6.8.2 Technological representativeness .................................................................... 123 Provisions: 6.8.2 Technological representativeness .................................. 126 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness .................................................................... 128 Provisions: 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness ................................... 131 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness ...................................................................... 132 Provisions: 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness ...................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4249, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "132 Provisions: 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness .................................... 134 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information .......................... 135 6.9.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 135 6.9.2 Data quality needs in light of the intended applications ................................... 136 6.9.3 Inventory data needs and sources ................................................................... 137 6.9.4 Other inventory-related data and information needs and sources ................... 138 6.9.5 Impact assessment models and factors, normalisation basis, and weighting set needs 138 Provisions: 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information ..................................................................................................... 139 6.10 Comparisons between systems..........................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4250, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "139 6.10 Comparisons between systems........................................................................... 140 6.10.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 140 6.10.2 Strengthening affected stakeholders in non-assertive comparisons and multi system type studies ...................................................................................................... 140 6.10.3 Considered alternatives, the functional unit, and assumptions ........................ 142 6.10.4 Methodological, assumptions and data consistency ........................................ 143 6.10.5 Data quality requirements ................................................................................ 144 6.10.6 Identical parts of the compared systems .......................................................... 144 6.10.7 Scenarios in support of comparisons ..............................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4251, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "144 6.10.7 Scenarios in support of comparisons ............................................................... 144 6.10.8 Carbon footprint studies and other selected comparisons ............................... 145 Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems ....................................... 145 6.11 Identifying critical review needs .......................................................................... 148 Provisions: 6.11 Identifying critical review needs ...................................... 149 6.12 Planning reporting ................................................................................................ 149 Provisions: 6.12 Planning reporting ............................................................. 151 7 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY ANALYSIS - COLLECTING DATA, MODELLING THE SYSTEM, CALCULATING RESULTS ............................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4252, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "151 7 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY ANALYSIS - COLLECTING DATA, MODELLING THE SYSTEM, CALCULATING RESULTS ............................................................................................. 153 7.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 153 7.2 Identifying processes within the system boundaries ........................................ 154 7.2.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 154 7.2.2 Part-system and system-system relationships ................................................. 155 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling ................................................ 158 7.2.3.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 158 7.2.3.2 Processes to be attributed to the analysed system .................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4253, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "158 7.2.3.2 Processes to be attributed to the analysed system .................................................. 159 7.2.3.3 Initial description of identified processes .................................................................. 162 Provisions: 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling ........... 162 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling ............................................ 164 7.2.4.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 164 7.2.4.2 Consequences to be considered .............................................................................. 166 7.2.4.3 Constraints and other market imperfections to be considered ................................. 169", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4254, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition ix 7.2.4.4 Identifying the processes of the consequential model .............................................. 169 7.2.4.5 Further aspects, recommendations, and observations ............................................ 172 7.2.4.6 Solving multifunctionality of processes in consequential modelling ......................... 174 7.2.4.7 Initial description of identified processes .................................................................. 175 Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling ....... 175 7.3 Planning data collection ....................................................................................... 183 7.3.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 183 7.3.2 Foreground system data - specific, average, or generic .................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4255, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "183 7.3.2 Foreground system data - specific, average, or generic .................................. 184 7.3.3 Background data for attributional and consequential models .......................... 185 7.3.4 Need for multi-annual average data or generic data ........................................ 186 7.3.5 Primary and secondary data sources ............................................................... 187 7.3.6 Focus on most relevant data and information .................................................. 187 Provisions: 7.3 Planning data collection ..................................................... 188 7.4 Collecting unit process LCI data ......................................................................... 190 7.4.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 190 7.4.2 Basic data collection towards unit processes ..................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4256, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "190 7.4.2 Basic data collection towards unit processes ................................................... 191 7.4.2.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 191 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision ............... 192 Provisions: 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision ......................................................................................... 194 7.4.2.3 Describing what the modelled unit process represents ............................................ 195 Provisions: 7.4.2.3 Describing what the unit process represents ............. 195 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................................................................. 196 Provisions: 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4257, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "196 Provisions: 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................. 196 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets ..................... 197 Provisions: 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets ............................................................................................ 199 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow .................................................................. 200 Provisions: 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow ..................... 200 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions ................................................ 201 Provisions: 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions 201 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ................................................................................................. 202 Provisions: 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ....................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4258, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "202 Provisions: 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ..................................................... 202 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory .................................................................. 203 Provisions: 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory .................... 204 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues .................................................................................... 204 Provisions: 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues .................................... 204 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control for improving data quality ...................................................... 205 7.4.2.11.1 General approach ............................................................................................................. 205 7.4.2.11.2 Obtaining better unit process data ...................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4259, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "205 7.4.2.11.2 Obtaining better unit process data .................................................................................... 206 7.4.2.11.3 Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps / missing data ......................................... 209 7.4.2.11.4 Documentation ................................................................................................................. 210 Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control ................................................. 211 7.4.3 Overarching method provisions for specific elementary flow types ................. 214 7.4.3.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 214 7.4.3.2 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups .........................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4260, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "214 7.4.3.2 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups .......................... 215 Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups ..................................................................................................... 216 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds ................................................................................... 218 Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds ..................................... 218", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4261, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition x 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air ........................................................................................ 218 Provisions: 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air ........................................... 220 7.4.3.5 Emission of substances of complementary, alternative action schemes ................. 220 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows ...................................................................................... 220 7.4.3.6.1 Energy resources ............................................................................................................. 220 7.4.3.6.2 Ores for winning metals or other elemental constituents .................................................. 221 7.4.3.6.3 Land use ..........................................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4262, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "221 7.4.3.6.3 Land use ........................................................................................................................... 221 7.4.3.6.4 Fossil and biological CO2 uptake and release of CO2 and CH4 ........................................ 222 7.4.3.6.5 Water use ......................................................................................................................... 222 Provisions: 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows .......................................... 223 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows ................................................................... 225 7.4.3.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4263, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "225 7.4.3.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................................. 225 7.4.3.7.2 Differentiating the inventory of interventions in the more remote future (long-term emissions beyond 100 years) ............................................................................................................................ 225 7.4.3.7.3 Temporary carbon storage, delayed greenhouse gas emissions, delayed credits for solving multifunctionality ............................................................................................................................... 226 7.4.3.7.4 Long-term storage of potential emissions beyond 100 years ............................................ 229 Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows ..................... 229 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows ........................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4264, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "229 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows ......................................................................................................... 232 Provisions: 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows .............................................................. 232 7.4.4 Overarching method provisions for specific process types .............................. 233 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems ....................................................................... 233 Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems ......................... 238 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment ........................................................................................ 242 Provisions: 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment ........................................... 244 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ........................................................................ 244 Provisions: 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ......................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4265, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "244 Provisions: 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ....................................... 245 7.5 Developing generic LCI data ................................................................................ 246 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets ...................................................................... 247 Provisions: 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets .................................... 248 7.7 Averaging LCI data................................................................................................ 248 7.8 Modelling the system ............................................................................................ 251 Provisions: 7.8 Modelling the system .......................................................... 253 7.9 Solving multifunctionality of processes in attributional modelling ................. 254 7.9.1 Introduction and overview ...............................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4266, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "254 7.9.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 254 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision of virtual subdivision .................................. 255 Provisions: 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision ......................................................................................................................... 256 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ............................................................. 257 7.9.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 257 7.9.3.2 First criterion \u201cDetermining physical causality\u201d ......................................................... 257 7.9.3.3 Second (general) criterion \u201cEconomic value\u201d or QFD .............................................. 263 Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ........................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4267, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "257 7.9.3.3 Second (general) criterion \u201cEconomic value\u201d or QFD .............................................. 263 Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ......................... 266 7.10 Calculating LCI results ......................................................................................... 273 Provisions: 7.10 Calculating LCI results ...................................................... 273 8 LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT - CALCULATING LCIA RESULTS .......................... 275 8.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 275 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results .................................................................................. 276 Provisions: 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results ................................................. 280 8.3 Normalisation ........................................................................................................ 281", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4268, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xi Provisions: 8.3 Normalisation ....................................................................... 282 8.4 Weighting ............................................................................................................... 282 Provisions: 8.4 Weighting ............................................................................. 283 9 LIFE CYCLE INTERPRETATION ............................................................................... 285 9.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 285 9.2 Identification of significant issues ...................................................................... 286 Provisions: 9.2 Identification of significant issues ....................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4269, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "286 Provisions: 9.2 Identification of significant issues ..................................... 287 9.3 Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 288 9.3.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 288 9.3.2 Completeness check ........................................................................................ 289 Provisions: 9.3.2 Completeness check ........................................................ 293 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of achieved accuracy and precision) ................................... 295 Provisions: 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of accuracy and precision) ............... 298 9.3.4 Consistency check ........................................................................................... 299 Provisions: 9.3.4 Consistency check ..........................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4270, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "299 Provisions: 9.3.4 Consistency check ........................................................... 300 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations .............................................. 300 Provisions: 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations ............. 304 10 REPORTING ......................................................................................................... 307 10.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 307 10.2 Reporting principles ............................................................................................. 307 Provisions: 10.2 Reporting principles .......................................................... 308 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements ............................................................... 309 10.3.1 Report for internal use.....................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4271, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "309 10.3.1 Report for internal use...................................................................................... 309 10.3.2 Third party report.............................................................................................. 309 10.3.3 Report on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public ........................... 310 10.3.4 Reporting elements .......................................................................................... 310 Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements ........................... 314 11 CRITICAL REVIEW ................................................................................................ 321 Provisions: 11 Critical review ....................................................................... 321 12 ANNEX A: DATA QUALITY CONCEPT AND APPROACH .............................................. 323 12.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4272, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "323 12.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 323 12.2 Data quality aspects ............................................................................................. 324 12.3 Data quality indicators .......................................................................................... 329 12.4 ILCD Handbook compliance criteria .................................................................... 333 13 ANNEX B: CALCULATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS FROM LAND TRANSFORMATION ........... 337 14 ANNEX C: MODELLING REUSE, RECYCLING, AND ENERGY RECOVERY ...................... 343 14.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 343 14.2 True joint process and true co-product .............................................................. 345 14.3 Concepts: Closed-loop and open-loop recycling .............................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4273, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "345 14.3 Concepts: Closed-loop and open-loop recycling .............................................. 346 14.3.1 Closed-loop recycling ....................................................................................... 346 14.3.2 Open-loop recycling ......................................................................................... 347 14.3.2.1 Open loop - same primary route ............................................................................... 348 14.3.2.2 Open loop - different primary route ........................................................................... 348 14.4 Recycling in attributional modelling ................................................................... 349 14.4.1 Detailed aspects of attributional modelling of recycling ................................... 349", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4274, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xii 14.4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 349 14.4.1.2 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is above zero, i.e. it is a co-product ...... 350 14.4.1.3 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is negative (i.e. a waste treatment fee is to be paid) 352 14.5 Recycling in consequential modelling ................................................................ 354 14.5.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 354 14.5.2 Recyclability substitution approach .................................................................. 354 14.5.3 Detailed aspects of using the recyclability substitution approach of consequential modelling ..............................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4275, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "354 14.5.3 Detailed aspects of using the recyclability substitution approach of consequential modelling ............................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.2 Determining recyclability ........................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.3 Changes of inherent technical properties of the secondary good ............................ 359 14.5.3.4 Identifying superseded processes in line with market consequences to consider ... 360 14.5.3.5 Time aspects in \u201cdelayed\u201d recycling of long-living products ..................................... 363 15 ANNEX D: AVOIDING MISLEADING GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION ......................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4276, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "363 15 ANNEX D: AVOIDING MISLEADING GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................................... 365 15.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 365 15.2 Misleading goal definition and scoping .............................................................. 365 15.2.1 Functional unit .................................................................................................. 366 15.2.2 Modelling principle ........................................................................................... 367 15.2.3 Drawing of system boundaries ......................................................................... 367 15.2.4 Choice of LCIA impact categories, LCIA methods, normalisation and weighting sets 15.2.5 Representativeness of data ............................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4277, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "369 15.2.5.1 Technological representativeness ............................................................................ 369 15.2.5.2 Geographical representativeness ............................................................................. 370 15.2.5.3 Time-related representativeness .............................................................................. 370 15.2.6 Consistency in comparison of systems and products ...................................... 371 15.3 Misleading interpretation...................................................................................... 371 15.4 Misleading reporting and communication .......................................................... 372 15.5 Integrated example of misleading goal and scope definition and interpretation: cups for hot drinks ........................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4278, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "373 16 ANNEX E: ADDRESSING UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA .................................................... 377 16.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 377 16.2 Types and sources of uncertainty in LCA .......................................................... 377 16.3 Aggregating uncertainties over the life cycle ..................................................... 379 17 ANNEX F: SYSTEM BOUNDARY TEMPLATE ............................................................. 381 18 ANNEX G: DEVELOPMENT OF THIS DOCUMENT ....................................................... 383", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4279, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 13, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xiii PROVISIONS PROVISIONS: 2 HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT ............................................................... 18 PROVISIONS: 4 THE ITERATIVE APPROACH TO LCA ....................................................... 28 PROVISIONS: 5.2 SIX ASPECTS OF GOAL DEFINITION ...................................................... 35 PROVISIONS: 5.3 CLASSIFYING THE DECISION-CONTEXT ................................................ 46 PROVISIONS: 5.4 NEED FOR FLEXIBILITY VERSUS STRICTNESS ........................................ 49 PROVISIONS: 5.5 OPTIONALLY EXTENDING THE GOAL .................................................... 50 PROVISIONS: 6.2.1 CONSISTENCY OF METHODS, ASSUMPTIONS AND DATA ...................... 52 PROVISIONS: 6.2.2 REPRODUCIBILITY .........................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4280, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "52 PROVISIONS: 6.2.2 REPRODUCIBILITY .......................................................................... 54 PROVISIONS: 6.3 TYPES OF LCA DELIVERABLES AND INTENDED APPLICATIONS .............. 59 PROVISIONS: 6.4 FUNCTION, FUNCTIONAL UNIT, AND REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 68 PROVISIONS: 6.5.4 LCI MODELLING PROVISIONS FOR SITUATIONS A, B, AND C ............... 87 PROVISIONS: 6.6 DERIVING SYSTEM BOUNDARIES AND CUT-OFF CRITERIA (COMPLETENESS) .......................................................................................................................... 105 PROVISIONS: 6.7 PREPARING THE BASIS FOR THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ....................... 116 PROVISIONS: 6.8.2 TECHNOLOGICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ....................................... 126 PROVISIONS: 6.8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ......................................... 131 PROVISIONS: 6.8.4 TIME-RELATED REPRESENTATIVENESS ..........................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4281, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "126 PROVISIONS: 6.8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ......................................... 131 PROVISIONS: 6.8.4 TIME-RELATED REPRESENTATIVENESS ........................................... 134 PROVISIONS: 6.9 TYPES, QUALITY AND SOURCES OF REQUIRED DATA AND INFORMATION 139 PROVISIONS: 6.10 COMPARISONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS................................................. 145 PROVISIONS: 6.11 IDENTIFYING CRITICAL REVIEW NEEDS ............................................. 149 PROVISIONS: 6.12 PLANNING REPORTING ................................................................... 151 PROVISIONS: 7.2.3 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN ATTRIBUTIONAL MODELLING ................. 162 PROVISIONS: 7.2.4 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN CONSEQUENTIAL MODELLING ............... 175 PROVISIONS: 7.3 PLANNING DATA COLLECTION..........................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4282, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "162 PROVISIONS: 7.2.4 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN CONSEQUENTIAL MODELLING ............... 175 PROVISIONS: 7.3 PLANNING DATA COLLECTION........................................................... 188 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.2 AVOIDING BLACK BOX UNIT PROCESSES BY SUBDIVISION AND VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION ............................................................................................................. 194 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.3 DESCRIBING WHAT THE UNIT PROCESS REPRESENTS .................... 195 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.4 TYPES OF INPUT AND OUTPUT FLOWS TO COLLECT ....................... 196 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.5 DATA AND INFORMATION TYPES FOR SPECIFIC, FUTURE AND GENERIC DATA SETS ............................................................................................................... 199 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.6 REFERENCE AMOUNT OF THE REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 200 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.7 REPRESENTATIVENESS REGARDING OPERATION CONDITIONS .......", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4283, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "199 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.6 REFERENCE AMOUNT OF THE REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 200 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.7 REPRESENTATIVENESS REGARDING OPERATION CONDITIONS ........ 201 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.8 CHECKING LEGAL LIMITS ............................................................ 202 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.9 FROM RAW DATA TO UNIT PROCESS INVENTORY ........................... 204 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.10 SOLVING CONFIDENTIALITY ISSUES ........................................... 204 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.11 INTERIM QUALITY CONTROL ...................................................... 211 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.3 EMISSION OF MEASUREMENT INDICATORS AND ELEMENTARY FLOW GROUPS ................................................................................................................... 216 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.3 EMISSION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS ................................................ 218 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.4 EMISSION OF PARTICLES TO AIR ................................................. 220", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4284, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xiv PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.6 RESOURCE ELEMENTARY FLOWS ................................................ 223 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.7 FUTURE PROCESSES AND ELEMENTARY FLOWS ........................... 229 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.8 REMINDER FLOWS ..................................................................... 232 PROVISIONS: 7.4.4.1 MODELLING AGRO- AND FORESTRY SYSTEMS .............................. 238 PROVISIONS: 7.4.4.2 MODELLING WASTE TREATMENT ................................................. 244 PROVISIONS: 7.4.5 NAMING AND OTHER CONVENTIONS................................................ 245 PROVISIONS: 7.6 SELECTING SECONDARY LCI DATA SETS ........................................... 248 PROVISIONS: 7.8 MODELLING THE SYSTEM ................................................................. 253 PROVISIONS: 7.9.2 AVOIDING ALLOCATION BY SUBDIVISION OR VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4285, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "248 PROVISIONS: 7.8 MODELLING THE SYSTEM ................................................................. 253 PROVISIONS: 7.9.2 AVOIDING ALLOCATION BY SUBDIVISION OR VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION .... 256 PROVISIONS: 7.9.3 SOLVING MULTIFUNCTIONALITY BY ALLOCATION ............................. 266 PROVISIONS: 7.10 CALCULATING LCI RESULTS .......................................................... 273 PROVISIONS: 8.2 CALCULATION OF LCIA RESULTS ..................................................... 280 PROVISIONS: 8.3 NORMALISATION ............................................................................. 282 PROVISIONS: 8.4 WEIGHTING ..................................................................................... 283 PROVISIONS: 9.2 IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT ISSUES ............................................ 287 PROVISIONS: 9.3.2 COMPLETENESS CHECK ...............................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4286, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "287 PROVISIONS: 9.3.2 COMPLETENESS CHECK ................................................................ 293 PROVISIONS: 9.3.3 SENSITIVITY CHECK (OF ACCURACY AND PRECISION) ....................... 298 PROVISIONS: 9.3.4 CONSISTENCY CHECK ................................................................... 300 PROVISIONS: 9.4 CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................... 304 PROVISIONS: 10.2 REPORTING PRINCIPLES ................................................................ 308 PROVISIONS: 10.3 THREE LEVELS OF REPORTING REQUIREMENTS ................................ 314 PROVISIONS: 11 CRITICAL REVIEW ............................................................................. 321", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4287, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xv FIGURES Figure 1 Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040:2006; modified) ............... 1 Figure 2 ILCD Handbook approach of harmonising existing practice in line with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 ...................................................................................................... 2 Figure 3 Main differentiation of the document for the three goal situations A, B, and C. .... 10 Figure 4 The iterative nature of LCA (schematic).. ............................................................. 25 Figure 5 Details of the iterative approach to LCA, with focus on inventory data collection and modelling (from ISO 14044:2006, modified). ................................................. 27 Figure 6 Multifunctional process. ........................................................................................ 73 Figure 7 Black box unit process and single operation unit process.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4288, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "27 Figure 6 Multifunctional process. ........................................................................................ 73 Figure 7 Black box unit process and single operation unit process.. .................................. 75 Figure 8 Solving the multifunctionality problem by subdivision of the black box unit process.. ............................................................................................................... 76 Figure 9 Solving the multifunctionality problem by substitution of the not required cofunctions, schematic. ............................................................................................ 78 Figure 10 Equivalence of additive and subtractive (\"substitution\") system expansion ......... 79 Figure 11 Solving the multifunctionality problem by allocation of the inventory to the cofunctions (illustrative). . ........................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4289, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "80 Figure 12 Cradle to grave, cradle to gate and gate to gate data sets as parts of the complete life cycle; schematic.. ............................................................................................ 96 Figure 13 Foreground system and background system in the specificity perspective (see box); (illustrative).. ................................................................................................ 99 Figure 14 Flow chart of the foreground system (schematic).. ............................................. 101 Figure 15 Life cycle impact assessment (schematic). ........................................................ 108 Figure 16 Limited or non-scalability of supplies in a market. The example of hydropower; illustrative. . ........................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4290, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The example of hydropower; illustrative. . ......................................................................................................... 125 Figure 17 Part-system relationships: example of car starter battery (illustrative). .............. 156 Figure 18 System-system relationships: example of an electricity using product . ............. 158 Figure 19 Schematic and simplified supply-chain life cycle model of a product. . .............. 158 Figure 20 Identifying processes within system boundary, starting from the central process or analysed system. Example of a window, illustrative.. ......................................... 161 Figure 21 Decision tree for consequential modelling. Terms, concepts, and explanations see text ........................................................................................................................... . ...........................................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4291, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "166 Figure 22 Processes averaging (\"horizontal averaging\", top) and systems averaging (\"vertical averaging\", bottom); schematic. .......................................................... 249 Figure 23 Illustration of the trade-relations between countries, as basis for calculating the production, consumption and supply mixes of products. .................................... 250", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4292, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xvi Figure 24 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) of complex products as an approach for obtaining as allocations factors the relative relevance of functions for the product users. .................................................................................................................. 264 Figure 25 The elements of the interpretation phase and their relations to other phases of the LCA and within the interpretation phase (from ISO 14044:2006, modified) ....... 286 Figure 26 Focussing efforts on key data.. ........................................................................... 298 Figure 27 The four quality aspects completeness and technological, geographical and timerelated representativeness (illustrative). ............................................................. 325 Figure 28 Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4293, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "325 Figure 28 Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e. representativeness and methodological consistency) ........................................ 326 Figure 29 True joint process and true co-product . ............................................................. 345 Figure 30 \"Closed loop\" recycling (schematic).. ................................................................. 347 Figure 31 \u201cOpen loop - same primary route\u201d recycling (schematic): ................................... 348 Figure 32 \u201cOpen loop - different primary route\u201d recycling. (schematic). .............................. 349 Figure 33 Allocation of waste / end-of-life products if the management / treatment processes result in any valuable product (schematic).. ....................................................... 353 Figure 34 Recyclability substitution approach (schematic).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4294, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "353 Figure 34 Recyclability substitution approach (schematic).. ............................................... 357 Figure 35 System boundary diagram template for technical audience.. ............................. 382", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4295, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xvii TABLES Table 1 Key terms and definitions ..................................................................................... 21 Table 2 Combination of two main aspects of the decision-context: decision orientation and kind of consequences in background system or other systems. .......................... 38 Table 3 Most common types of LCI/LCA study deliverables required for specific LCA applications (indicative overview). . ...................................................................... 56 Table 4 Example for function, functional unit and reference flows in a comparative case: Outdoor wall paints comparison (illustrative) ........................................................ 64 Table 5 Overall inventory data quality (validity) and its main 6 aspects .......................... 329 Table 6 Quality levels and quality rating for the data quality indicators. .........................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4296, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "329 Table 6 Quality levels and quality rating for the data quality indicators. .......................... 330 Table 7 Overall quality level of a data set ........................................................................ 332 Table 8 Illustrative example for determining the data quality rating. ................................ 332 Table 9 ILCD compliance of LCI and LCA studies and data sets, direct applications, and derived more specific guidance documents / Product Category Rules (PCR).. . 335 Table 10 Native soil carbon stocks under native vegetation ............................................. 338 Table 11 Land use factors ................................................................................................. 338 Table 12 Land management and input level factors for cropland ..................................... 339 Table 13 Land management and input level factors for grassland ................................... 340", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4297, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xviii TERMS AND CONCEPTS Situation A (\"Micro-level decision support\") ........................................................................... 38 Situation B (\"Meso/macro-level decision support\") ................................................................ 40 Situation C (\"Accounting\") ...................................................................................................... 43 Function, functional unit, and reference flow .......................................................................... 60 Attributional modelling ............................................................................................................ 71 Consequential modelling .......................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4298, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "71 Consequential modelling ........................................................................................................ 71 Subdivision of multifunctional processes ................................................................................ 75 System expansion / substitution ............................................................................................. 77 Allocation ................................................................................................................................ 79 Technosphere and ecosphere \u2013 clearer defining the boundary ............................................. 94 Foreground system and background system ......................................................................... 96 Cut-off criteria ......................................................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4299, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "96 Cut-off criteria ....................................................................................................................... 102 Technological representativeness of process and product .................................................. 123 Market .................................................................................................................................. 128 \u201cComparison\u201d vs. \u201ccomparative assertion disclosed to the public\u201d ....................................... 140 Part-system relationships including energy related products ............................................... 155 System-system relationships ................................................................................................ 156 Secondary consequences .................................................................................................... 168 Specific, average and generic data sets .............................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4300, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "168 Specific, average and generic data sets .............................................................................. 246 Reuse/recycling/recovery and secondary good ................................................................... 343 Recycling in ISO 14044:2006 ............................................................................................... 344 Recyclability substitution approach ...................................................................................... 354", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4301, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xix FREQUENT ERRORS Comparisons not based on the relevant functional unit ......................................................... 62 Using inappropriate technical standards to quantify the functional unit ................................. 65 Subjective or unsystematic choice of LCI modelling principles and method approaches ...... 70 Incompatible LCIA methods, normalisation basis, and weighting set .................................. 113 Use of LCI data with another geographical scope ................................................................ 130 Misleading/wrong use of \"time representativeness\" ............................................................. 133 General or un-reflected exclusion of activity-types ..............................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4302, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "133 General or un-reflected exclusion of activity-types ............................................................... 162 Wrong focus of data collection ............................................................................................. 187 Misleading description beyond what is represented by the actual data ............................... 195 Un-reflected use of machine specifications .......................................................................... 203 Unit conversion errors .......................................................................................................... 203 Incomplete modelling of waste management ....................................................................... 243 Insufficient methodological consistency of background data ............................................... 247 Wrong type/reference of market value ................................................................................", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4303, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "247 Wrong type/reference of market value ................................................................................. 265 Incomplete LCIA factor assignment to elementary flows ..................................................... 277 Inappropriate results interpretation in case of insignificant differences ................................ 303 Overly reliance on stochastic data uncertainty calculations ................................................. 328 Omission or double counting/modelling of recycling ............................................................ 344", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4304, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview 1 Introduction and overview Overview This guide is a component of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook. It provides a detailed technical guidance to the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The overall objective of the ILCD Handbook is to provide a common basis for consistent and quality-assured life cycle data and robust studies. These support coherent and reliable Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) policies and solid decision support in the public and private sectors related to products, resources and waste management. Scope of this document This general guide provides comprehensive and detailed method provisions for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies as covered by the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4305, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The outcome of LCI and LCA studies is the basis for all types of applications of LCA. Figure 1 shows the Life Cycle Assessment framework. Figure 1 Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040:2006; modified) Table 3 lists the most widely used LCA applications and their relationship to the guidance provided in this document. The subsequent use of the LCI data and LCA studies in other LCA applications is not within the scope of this document; this is analogous to ISO 14044:2006. Since this general guidance document is applicable to a wide range of different decisioncontexts and sectors, it cannot directly provide tailor-made, specific provisions, such as product-group specific guidance. It can however serve as \u201cparent\u201d document for specific guidance documents, such as for Product Category Rules (PCR) and other product-group specific guidance documents and for simplified yet reliable tools, such as ecodesign type tools", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4306, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Life cycle assessment framework Goal definition Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Direct applications: \u2022 Product development and improvement \u2022 Strategic planning \u2022 Public policy making \u2022 Marketing \u2022 Other Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4307, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Screening or streamlined Life Cycle Assessment studies are typically not compliant with ISO 14044:2006 and therefore not explicitly addressed as a separate approach in this document. They are only implicitly addressed in this document as the first iterative step of an LCA. Purely methodological LCA studies may not be able to comply with the ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, since the analysed methodological options may deviate from the ILCD provisions. Such studies may draw on the ILCD Handbook, but compliance cannot be claimed and the impression shall be avoided that such would exist. Approach of this document and added value compared to ISO 14044 Until today, no commonly accepted guidance exists that would complement the general framework provided by ISO 14040 and 14044:2006", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4308, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Approach of this document and added value compared to ISO 14044 Until today, no commonly accepted guidance exists that would complement the general framework provided by ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. The ILCD has been developed to fill this gap as decision makers in government, public administration and business rely on consistent and quality-assured life cycle data and robust assessments in context of Sustainable Consumption and Production. The relevant ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards, a range of Life Cycle Assessment manuals, and the general LCA literature have been analysed to identify the \u201cneeds for guidance\u201d and to obtain input in the form of good practice approaches and arguments. Together with the extensive and detailed input and feedback received in the invited and public consultations, workshops, and other meetings, this analysis provides the evidence base for this guide. Figure 2 illustrates this approach. The contributors and the sources consulted are documented in annex 18", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4309, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 2 illustrates this approach. The contributors and the sources consulted are documented in annex 18. An Explanatory Memorandum is separately available. Figure 2 ILCD Handbook approach of harmonising existing practice in line with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 Principles followed in developing the provisions of this document The following principles were applied: \uf0b7 ISO compliance: being in line with the requirements of ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 National LCA project XY-land Manual for LCI data modelling National LCA project XY-land Manual for LCI data modelling National LCA project Country X Manual for LCI data modelling XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4310, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Best practice: representing or building on current best practice in LCA in industry, government, research, and consultancy. \uf0b7 Reliability: forming a reliable basis for robust life cycle based decision support, for improving reproducibility and quality of LCI studies and data sets, and for coherent, ILCD-compliant product-group specific guides and simplified approaches and tools. \uf0b7 Efficiency: balancing theory with practicality and cost-efficiency. \uf0b7 Flexibility: permitting exceptions of provisions as and where needed for different questions addressed with LCA and for different processes, products and other systems that are analysed. Deviations need to be documented and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation. \uf0b7 Fairness and acceptance: providing a level playing field across competing products, processes and industries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4311, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 3, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Fairness and acceptance: providing a level playing field across competing products, processes and industries. Exceptions must not relatively disfavour competitors. The role of interested parties and of review is strengthened for achieving broad stakeholder acceptance. Protecting confidential and proprietary information in confidential reports that are available exclusively to the critical reviewers. \uf0b7 Transparency and reproducibility: request comprehensive documentation and mechanisms that allow reviewers to verify/review all data, calculations, and assumptions. \uf0b7 Assured quality: require qualified and independent and/or external review as indicated by the type of study and target audience (detailed provisions given in separate document) Differentiated guidance for main goal situations encountered in LCA practice Building on the state-of-the-art analysis of best practice, this document has been developed to provide comprehensive and generally applicable yet practical guidance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4312, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 3, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This involves adding substantial detail and further specifying and clarifying the ISO provisions from the perspective of the three main goal situations encountered in LCA studies: \uf0b7 Situation A (\"Micro-level decision support\"): Decision support on micro-level, typically for product-related questions. \u201cMicro-level decisions\u201d are assumed to have only limited and no structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. do not change available production capacity. The effects are too small to overcome the threshold to be able to cause so called large-scale consequences in the background system or other parts of the technosphere \uf0b7 Situation B (\"Meso/macro-level decision support\"): Decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options, etc). \u201cMeso/macro-level decisions\u201d are assumed to have also structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they do change available production capacity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4313, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 3, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cMeso/macro-level decisions\u201d are assumed to have also structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they do change available production capacity. The analysed decision alone results in large-scale consequences in the background system or other parts of the technosphere \uf0b7 Situation C (\"Accounting\"): Purely descriptive documentation of the system under analysis (e.g. a product, sector or country), without being interested in any potential consequences on other parts of the economy. Situation C has two sub-types: Situation C1 that includes existing benefits outside the analysed system (e.g. credits existing recycling benefits) and Situation C2 that does not do so.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4314, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": 3, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Main methodological issues addressed in this document The key issues in LCA within the scope of ISO14044:2006 and hence of this document are generally understood to be the questions: \uf0b7 Which LCI modelling principle to follow (i.e. attributional or consequential)? \uf0b7 Which LCI method approaches to employ for solving multifunctionality of processes (i.e. allocation or system expansion/substitution)? These issues are those where the three goal situations differ most in terms of LCI method provisions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4315, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 4, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition, the following main issues need guidance and are hence addressed in detail: \uf0b7 System boundaries: the definition and application of system boundaries and of quantitative cut-off criteria (including the question which kind of activities to include in LCA); \uf0b7 Avoiding misleading LCA studies: how to avoid misleading goal and scope definition, results interpretation, and reporting (what relates to a number of more specific issues); \uf0b7 Transparency: how to meet the principle of transparency in the context of potentially sensitive or proprietary process data and information; \uf0b7 Reproducibility and robustness: how to improve reproducibility in data collection and modelling and the documentation of LCI data sets, and the robustness of conclusions and recommendations of LCA studies; \uf0b7 Primary and secondary data: when to use primary data and when secondary data can be used (and what is a suitable concept for the foreground and the background system); \uf0b7 Quality: how to capture the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4316, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 4, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Primary and secondary data: when to use primary data and when secondary data can be used (and what is a suitable concept for the foreground and the background system); \uf0b7 Quality: how to capture the various quality aspects of LCI data and of LCA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4317, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 4, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Further topics in focus Product group and sector specific guidance is outside the scope of this document and will need product-group specific guides to be developed. However, for certain types of processes the application of LCA is less straightforward and divergent approaches have been developed in practice. These types are mainly agricultural and similar processes, waste deposition, the use stage of consumer products, and services (as opposed to goods). The first two are addressed in own chapters. The use stage of consumer products is covered as a smaller sub-chapter. Services are generally addressed throughout the document, explicitly or in examples; however, more guidance is seen beneficial for services. One of the methodologically more difficult topics is often understood to be the modelling of reuse, recycling and recovery of secondary goods from end-of-life products and production waste", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4318, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 4, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "One of the methodologically more difficult topics is often understood to be the modelling of reuse, recycling and recovery of secondary goods from end-of-life products and production waste. While methodologically these are all cases of multifunctionality, this topic has a longer dedicated chapter in the annex. \"Time in LCA\", finally, is one of the topics that recently gain more attention with various approaches emerging in LCA practice. Issues such as long-term emissions, temporary and permanent carbon storage, and delayed emissions of greenhouse gases are hence addressed in some detail.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4319, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 4, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document 2 How to use this document 2.1 Structure of the document Building on scope and structure of ISO 14044 This document follows the main structure of ISO 14044:2006. In the ILCD Handbook, the five main phases of Life Cycle Assessment (goal definition, scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation) each have their own chapter1; see Figure 1. As in ISO 14044:2006, additional principal chapters address reporting and critical review. A number of issues that are not addressed in ISO 14044:2006 - or to only a limited extent - have been added or expanded on, typically in the form of individual chapters, such as on the selection of the appropriate LCI modelling frame", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4320, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 5, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A few key issues that are addressed as parts of several chapters throughout ISO 14044:2006, such as on the iterative nature of LCA and how it best implemented, have been combined into individual chapters. Several key concepts of LCA are explored in more detail, especially where different meanings or terms are used. Frequently made errors in LCA practice are identified within the respective chapters, to help avoid and overcoming them. The special relevance of the scope definition phase of a LCI or LCA study is often neglected in today\u201fs practice. In the scope phase, crucial decisions are made for the entire LCI or LCA study; these are derived from the goal definitions. These decisions include the already named identification of the LCI modelling frame, the selection of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) methods and - if included - the normalisation basis and weighting set, as well as identifying review and reporting requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4321, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 5, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Actual LCI data collection and modelling are then addressed in the LCI phase. The LCIA phase serves to calculate LCIA results and - if included - normalised and weighted results. Compared to ISO 14044:2006, the structure of this guidance document has been adjusted to better reflect the workflow steps when performing an LCA. References to the corresponding chapter in the ISO 14044:2006 standard are given in each chapter. Formatting elements Five formatting elements have been used throughout the document to address different aspects: Main text body: gives the detailed explanations to the guidance. The brief in-line examples are set in a grey font so as to minimise the disturbance of the reading flow. 1 ISO 14044 joins goal and scope into one phase. It is argued here to better reflect the different nature and purpose of these two steps to treat them as separate phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4322, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 5, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "1 ISO 14044 joins goal and scope into one phase. It is argued here to better reflect the different nature and purpose of these two steps to treat them as separate phases. In addition to the resulting five phases, also reporting and review could be considered own phases; while this is not done here, they have own main chapters.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4323, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 5, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document Provisions: Set within a dashed-dotted green border, the \"Provisions\" outline the provisions for ILCD-compliant studies, as comprehensive yet concise checklists for daily reference. The combined \"Provisions\" are also available as a separate document. Terms and concepts: In highlighted blue boxes, the more complex terms and concepts of often diverging use in LCA practice are explained and illustrated; often supported with graphics. Frequent errors: Frequently made errors in LCA practice are addressed in highlighted purple boxes, to help avoiding and overcoming them. Annexes: The annexes provide detail on broader issues that are relevant but which would disturb the reading flow if kept within the main text. Annexes are provided e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4324, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 6, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Annexes: The annexes provide detail on broader issues that are relevant but which would disturb the reading flow if kept within the main text. Annexes are provided e.g. on the data quality concept of the ILCD, modelling of waste & end-of-life product reuse, recycling and energy recovery, and on how to avoid misleading LCA studies. Related topics addressed in other ILCD Handbook components A number of nomenclature and other conventions help to improve compatibility of data sets developed throughout this document, and aid an understanding of LCA study reports developed by different experts. (Further detail is provided in the separate document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\"). An electronic LCA report template supports effective and compatible reporting of LCA studies. The electronic LCI data set format supports effective and compatible reporting of LCI data sets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4325, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 6, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An electronic LCA report template supports effective and compatible reporting of LCA studies. The electronic LCI data set format supports effective and compatible reporting of LCI data sets. It is supported by a data set editor application and a complete set of reference elementary flows, flow properties and units. Both the report template and the data set format are referenced from chapters 6.12 and 10. Guidance for developers of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models, methods and indicators is given in the separate document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\". In this guide, chapter 6.7 points to that document. This topic is supported by the background document \"Analysis of existing Environmental Impact Assessment methodologies for use in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4326, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 6, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This topic is supported by the background document \"Analysis of existing Environmental Impact Assessment methodologies for use in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\". The detailed provisions for reviewing LCI and LCA studies and data sets are given in the separate guidance documents on \"Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\",", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4327, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 6, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document \"Reviewer qualification\", and \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\". In this document, chapters 6.11 and 11 refer to these documents. General applicability of guidance The deliverables of an LCA can range in complexity and extent from a single operation unit process to a comparative assertion of two or more products or strategies (for a complete list see chapter 6.3). A number of provisions apply only to the more complex deliverables, while they are inapplicable to the more basic deliverables. This is highlighted at the beginning of the respective \"Provisions\". However, this general guide needs to be applicable (as with ISO 14044) for a wide range of deliverables, for different study objects (e.g. process step, product, country, etc.), and for a huge variety of questions addressed in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4328, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 7, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "process step, product, country, etc.), and for a huge variety of questions addressed in the study. This makes it unavoidable to formulate the provisions in a fairly generic manner. It would be impractical to approach all the specific kinds of cases specifically. For key types of deliverables, however, specific guidance documents are seen as beneficial. Such a separate document is provided for the \"Development of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data sets\". LCA as an iterative process The work on an LCA is a systematic process, which involves iterations: Some issues cannot be addressed initially, or only touched on. However, they will be addressed, improved, or revised in the typically 2 to 3 iterations of almost any LCI or LCA study. Chapter 4 has more on this. To ease the workflow, it is generally explicitly stated in the \"Provisions\" what should be done in the initial round and what in the later iterations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4329, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 7, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 4 has more on this. To ease the workflow, it is generally explicitly stated in the \"Provisions\" what should be done in the initial round and what in the later iterations. The iterations thereby draw on steps that have been performed earlier in the study. For example, the iteration of collecting better data draws on the identification of significant issues carried out in the preceding iteration based on the preceding LCI model. However, the respective provisions e.g. on identification of significant issues are necessarily found later in the document. The need to understand and consider later steps when performing the preceding steps can make it difficult for less experienced practitioners to find an efficient way to perform an LCA study. Therefore, cross-references are put in many cases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4330, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 7, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Therefore, cross-references are put in many cases. 2.2 How to work with this document 2.2.1 Overview The concept of this document is to help practitioners to conduct LCI and LCA studies in line with the three main goal situations that are encountered in LCA practice. This chapter aims to support an efficient and effective workflow and focuses on those steps that are needed for a given study. It provides \"guidance to the guide\", by giving an overview of the key provisions, informing which parts of the document differ among the three archetypal goal situations, and explains how to efficiently work through the \"Provisions\". To enable easier identification of the chapters required for a given case, notes at the beginning of the respective \"Provisions\" and cross-references are put. 2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications In most cases, it is quite straightforward to develop an ILCD compliant LCI data set or LCA study using this document", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4331, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 7, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications In most cases, it is quite straightforward to develop an ILCD compliant LCI data set or LCA study using this document. This is because some simplifications are put in place that avoid the need for applying some of the more complicated procedures, such as those for identifying processes in consequential modelling including secondary consequences and market constraints. These", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4332, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 7, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document slightly simplified provisions substantially reduce the effort, while not relevantly harming the accuracy or robustness of the results. They even further increase the general reproducibility and better reflect established practice in industry. These simplifications draw on the detailed and differentiated method provisions that are therefore necessary and that are to be fully applied in a few cases. For these cases they are essential; hence the detailed provisions need to be kept as well. Most aspects of doing an LCA are the same for all goal Situations. Among these aspects are those that are always to be followed or checked. Conversely there are some, often very specific aspects that apply in only few cases. As an LCA may include many processes, some of the specific provisions are typically required for each study, but only for selected processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4333, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 8, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As an LCA may include many processes, some of the specific provisions are typically required for each study, but only for selected processes. It is also noted that the unit process inventories are basically the same for all Situations, while some specific, additional information is required when using them in the context of the specific 'Situation' (e.g. on the amount of products involved and the size of the respective market). The main difference between Situation A, B and C lies hence in the selection of the processes that are included in the system boundary and how the life cycle is modelled by connecting them. 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C Overview This chapter provides a very condensed orientation of the differences in the provisions that apply to the three goal Situations A, B, and C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4334, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 8, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The overview graphic of Figure 3 identifies the chapters which have substantially different provisions for the individual goal situations A, B, and C. Note that a few other chapters that apply to all situations have single aspects that are differentiated for the three goal situations. The detailed method provisions for the differentiated archetypal goal situations A, B, and C as well as explanations and illustrations are given in the respective chapters. Orientation for experts: the differentiated LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C The main differences between the archetypal goal Situations A, B, and C lie in the LCI modelling. In a condensed form for overview, this document makes the following specific provisions. Effectively, there are only a few but very relevant and necessary differences in which the provisions for these Situations differ", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4335, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 8, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Effectively, there are only a few but very relevant and necessary differences in which the provisions for these Situations differ. (NB: If you are not familiar with the used terms and concepts, please see the later chapters): Situation A: This comprises micro-level, product or process-related decision support studies. The life cycle is modelled by depicting the existing supply-chain, i.e. attributionally. The foreground system should aim at using primary data from the producer / operator and secondary data from suppliers and downstream users/customers. Background processes should represent the average market consumption mix. Generic data from third-party data providers can be used for the background system. They can also be used for the foreground system if they are of better overall quality for the given case than available primary or secondary data from direct suppliers or downstream operators", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4336, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 8, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "They can also be used for the foreground system if they are of better overall quality for the given case than available primary or secondary data from direct suppliers or downstream operators. Cases of general multifunctionality, of recycling, and of reuse and recovery are preferably solved via subdivision or virtual subdivision. If this is not possible or feasible, then a substitution of the market mix of the not required co-functions should be performed as second alternative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4337, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 8, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document (excluding the substituted co-function from this mix). If also this is not possible or feasible, then allocation is the third, alternative solution. Detailed guidance is given for these three options. If the second or third alternative is used, the resulting lack in accuracy shall be explicitly reported and considered in the results interpretation. \"Assumption scenarios\" of data, parameters, and method assumptions shall be performed for comparative LCA studies; exclusively the \"shall\" provisions cannot be rejected in these scenarios. Uncertainty calculation can support the analysis of the robustness of the results. Situation B: This comprises meso-level and macro-level, strategic (\"policy\") decision support studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4338, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 9, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Uncertainty calculation can support the analysis of the robustness of the results. Situation B: This comprises meso-level and macro-level, strategic (\"policy\") decision support studies. The analysed systems shall be modelled as in Situation A, except for those processes in the background system that are affected by large-scale consequences of the analysed decision. These are modelled with the mix of the long-term marginal processes / systems. Contrary to Situation A, the assumption scenarios can also vary the \"shall\" provisions; the assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation shall be defined via a best attainable consensus among the interested parties. Situation C: Most monitoring type studies fall into Situation C1; Situation C2 studies are less common. For Situation C1, the life cycle and all cases of multifunctionality are modelled as in Situation A. In contrast to Situation A, this also applies to macro-level monitoring studies under Situation C1, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4339, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 9, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In contrast to Situation A, this also applies to macro-level monitoring studies under Situation C1, i.e. independent from the absolute size of the system (e.g. 1 t or 1 Mio t material X consumed). This means that the data and models of studies performed under Situation A can be directly used for deriving monitoring indicators under Situation C1. For Situation C2, the life cycle is equally modelled as in Situation A, but multifunctionality shall always be solved via allocation, through application of the detailed allocation guidance provided. Note that across all goal Situations the same life cycle model can chiefly be used, except for cases of multifunctionality that need to be switched between substitution and allocation, depending on the applicable Situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4340, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 9, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Additionally, the very few processes that are typically affected by large-scale consequences under Situation B, need to be modelled differently: These processes need to be the long-term marginal mixes (note that for these processes the upstream or downstream life cycles will be different as well). Other differences in the guidance for Situations A, B, and C A few more differences exist in the provisions for Situations A, B, and C. The more relevance ones are: The general critical review requirements of ISO 14040 and 14044 are specified in the separate documents \"Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\", \"Reviewer qualification\", and \"Review scope, methods and documentation\". This includes the provisions on the applicable type of review for different types of studies and audiences, on the qualification of the reviewer, and regarding what and how to review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4341, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 9, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This includes the provisions on the applicable type of review for different types of studies and audiences, on the qualification of the reviewer, and regarding what and how to review. Finally, as another key item of further specification, the ISO 14044 provisions for \"comparative assertions disclosed to the public\" are extended also to most non-assertive but comparative LCA studies.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4342, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 9, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document Figure 3 Main differentiation of the document for the three goal situations A, B, and C (indicative only; few other differences exist). 2.2.4 How to perform an LCI or LCA study in accordance with this document The structure of this guide generally orients to the workflow encountered in LCA. It cannot do this however in a strict sense without jumping forth and back in the formal logic of the phases of an LCA. The fact that performing an LCA studies is an iterative process, poses an additional challenge to a workflow-based structure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4343, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 10, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Critical review Optionally extending the goal - Function, functional unit, reference flow Identify processes attributionally Data collection - dealing with missing data - selecting secondary data - modeling the product system Calculating LCI results Calculating LCIA results (may include normalisation, weighting) Iterative approach - Six aspects of the goal definition Interpretation Reporting Classifying the decision context Selection of LCI modeling System boundary - Preparing impact assessment - Data quality, types and source of data \u2013 Comparisons - Planning critical review and reporting Identify processes consequentially For all situations For all situations For all situations For all situations For all situations For all situations Annex For all situations For all situations For all situations For all situations Situation A Situation B Situation C Situation A Situation B Situation C Situation C Situation A Situation B Situation A Situation B Situation C1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4344, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 10, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document The following steps take this into account and recommend a way to efficiently perform an LCI or LCA study in line with this document and awith the general frame of ISO 14044: \uf0b7 This chapter: Read the \"Provisions\" of this chapter; they inform you about the specific character of the provisions in the \"Provisions\" of this document and how they relate to ILCD compliant studies. \uf0b7 LCAs are iterative: Unless you are fully familiar with this, read chapter 4 on the iterative nature of LCA. It has two graphics that illustrate the steps that are described in more detail here. \uf0b7 Prepare for documentation: Prepare to document all relevant steps taken, decisions and assumptions made, data sources used, calculations performed, etc. This is a valuable basis for correct and efficient reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4345, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 11, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is a valuable basis for correct and efficient reporting. While it is the last step of an LCI or LCA study before a critical review (if foreseen), reporting actually starts from the very beginning of the process. Reporting is supported here with a template for LCI and LCA study reports, and a data set format for LCI data sets; these are available as files and a supporting editor tool. \uf0b7 Goal definition, key aspects: Define the following of the goal aspects of your study: the decision context, the intended applications, and the intended audience (chapters 5.2.1, 5.2.3, and 5.2.4). \uf0b7 Scope definition - study object: Unless you have defined the study object explicitly in the goal definition, identify it now as closely as possible (e.g. a specific branded product or a commodity, a processing step, a policy option, etc.) and specify what its function is in the sense of LCA (if unclear, see chapter 6.4 and related box on \"Function, functional unit, and reference flow\")", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4346, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 11, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Scope definition - classify applicable goal situation A, B, or C: Check in Table 3 to which archetypal goal Situation A, B, C1 or C2 your study belongs. If in doubt, chapter 5.3 provides the detailed guidance and explains what each class A, B, C1, and C2 implies. Also in Table 3, check which types of deliverable the LCA study can typically have for your intended application, unless you already have decided that in the goal definition. \uf0b7 Complete initial round of goal definition: With this information at hand, perform the outstanding steps of the goal phase. This means to carry out all of the following: - Identify pre-set limitations due to method choices, assumptions, or impact coverage (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4347, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 11, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This means to carry out all of the following: - Identify pre-set limitations due to method choices, assumptions, or impact coverage (e.g. Carbon footprint studies) (chapter 5.2.2) - Name the reasons for carrying out the study (chapter 5.2.3) - Clarify whether the study involves comparisons and whether they are intended to be disclosed to the public (chapter 5.2.5) - Identify the commissioner and other potentially influential actors that are actively involved in the study (chapter 5.2.6) \uf0b7 Complete the initial round of scope definition: In line with the detailed goal definition, perform the outstanding steps of the scope phase. Note that many chapters of the scope phase give provisions that will be applied only in the later Life Cycle Inventory phase, and hence are defining requirements without direct need for action at that point. It is however recommended to obtain a general understanding of what is required, also because it affects some subsequent scope definition steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4348, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 11, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is however recommended to obtain a general understanding of what is required, also because it affects some subsequent scope definition steps. What now needs to be actively carried out in the scope phase is:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4349, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 11, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document - Detail functional unit and reference flow; chapter 6.4: Detail quantitatively and qualitatively the study object(s)' functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) (and provide technical specifications etc., as required for the type of study object). This information will later typically be revised to some extent. - Define system boundary; chapters 6.6 and especially 6.6.2: Provide an initial system boundary definition and a list of potentially excluded life cycle stages, activity types, processes, and elementary flow, if any. This initial setting will later typically be extensively revised. Note that at this stage no individual processes will be identified; this is the first step of the later Life Cycle Inventory work. - Define cut-off; chapter 6.6.3: Define the quantitative cut-off criteria that are aimed at, unless this has been defined already in the goal definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4350, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 12, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- Define cut-off; chapter 6.6.3: Define the quantitative cut-off criteria that are aimed at, unless this has been defined already in the goal definition. This initial aim will later typically be extensively revised if the study is comparative. If the targeted completeness cannot be met due to limited access to data or lack of resources, it will later be revised to some extent. Note that the latter can mean in few cases that the general goal of the study cannot be achieved and that it needs to be revised. - Prepare basis for LCIA; chapter 6.7: Identify the impact categories to be included, the LCIA methods to be used, the impact level that will be analysed, and whether normalisation and weighting will be used for either cut-off and/or in support of the results interpretation. This decision must not be fundamentally revised later", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4351, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 12, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This decision must not be fundamentally revised later. However - based on the outcome of the next iterations - irrelevant impact categories can be excluded, new ones outside the default list may need to be added, the modification to location non-generic LCIA methods may be necessary, and the normalisation basis and weighting set may see some adjustments in relation to the before-mentioned adjustments. - Derive data quality needs; chapter 6.9: Define the other data quality needs apart from the cut-off criteria, i.e. the study related data accuracy and precision that is intended, as far as initially possible. Similarly as for the initial cut-off settings, this will later see more substantial revision if the study is comparative. Finally, if the inventory data quality cannot be met due to lack of access to data or lack of resources, some revisions will typically need to be made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4352, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 12, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Finally, if the inventory data quality cannot be met due to lack of access to data or lack of resources, some revisions will typically need to be made. - Shortlist information sources; also within chapter 6.9: Principle data and information sources may now be shortlisted. This can alternatively be carried out in the later step of planning data collection (chapter 7.3). - Plan reporting; chapter 6.12: Plan the reporting, depending on the type of study and deliverable, as well as the intended audience. - Plan review; chapter 6.11: Identify, which review type applies and preferably already who is/are the reviewer(s). Both depend on the type of study and target audience. Note that for Situation B it is required to involve the interested parties in some initial steps of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4353, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 12, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Both depend on the type of study and target audience. Note that for Situation B it is required to involve the interested parties in some initial steps of the study. \uf0b7 Life Cycle Inventory work: The main part of an LCA is generally the inventory work, regarding both duration and resources used: - Identify processes within system boundary: As first step of the LCI phase and depending on the applicable Goal Situation, identify the to-be-included processes within your system boundaries. Note that the step relates to the processes of the foreground system only, and to the product and waste flows that connect foreground and background system. Chapter 7.2.3 gives the provisions for all Situations, except", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4354, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 12, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document for those processes in Situation B that are affected by large-scale consequences and for assumption scenarios under Situation B, if these include full consequential modelling elements. Chapter 7.2.4 gives the provisions for this specific purpose. For identifying the to-be-included processes, it is recommended to draw on existing experience only of detailed, high quality studies on sufficiently similar study objects, or ILCD-compliant product-group specific guides or Product category Rules (PCRs). \uf0b7 Perform a screening LCA: If the to-be-included processes have been identified, initially it is recommended to perform a screening LCA: A first, rough life cycle inventory system model, its impact assessment calculation, and analysis helps in identifying these \"key\" processes, parameters, elementary flows, assumptions, LCIA characterisation factors, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4355, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 13, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "that largely contribute to or influence the environmental impacts of the analysed process or system. This will then help in an iterative way to achieve the minimum required data quality with minimum necessary effort. In more detail, a screening LCA comprises the following steps: - Compile initially available LCI data: Supplement any initially available specific foreground data with secondary data, preferably from the suppliers and/or downstream users, as applicable. These can be raw data, unit processes, LCI results, and similar. The provisions for developing new unit processes see chapter 7.4.2. Alternative sources for foreground data for a first screening model can be third-party data provider with sufficiently representative, methodologically consistent, generic or average background data sets. For initially missing data use expert judgement to estimate reasonably worst-case data (see chapters 7.6 and 7.8)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4356, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 13, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For initially missing data use expert judgement to estimate reasonably worst-case data (see chapters 7.6 and 7.8). A number of specific requirements on data, inventorying, nomenclature, etc., are provided in the various subchapters of 7.4.3 and in chapter 7.4.5. Specific provisions for the cases of agricultural systems and waste management are supplied in chapter 7.4.4. It is recommended to accompany all the LCI steps with an interim quality control that generally draws on the elements of the interpretation phase while without going into the same level of detail (chapter 7.4.2.11). - Develop initial life cycle model: Next, model the life cycle of the analysed system (chapter 7.8). Specific and detailed provisions on the modelling of specific kinds of systems, how to solve multifunctionality, etc., are given in the subchapters of 7.9, but note the simplified requirements for solving multifunctionality given in chapter 6.5.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4357, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 13, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Details for modelling reuse, recycling and recovery are given in annex 14; also for these simplifications apply. Note that this step is also required if the deliverable of the LCI study is a unit process, as its achieved quality (i.e. completeness, accuracy, and precision) needs to be judged from the system's perspective. The focus and principal effort should of course be placed on the analysed unit process. - Calculate initial LCI results: Next, perform a first calculation of the LCI results (see chapter 7.10) of this initial, rough life cycle model. - Calculate initial LCIA results: Then, calculate the initial LCIA results (potentially including normalisation and weighting) (chapter 8). - Significant issues: As a first step of the interpretation phase, identify the significant issues, i.e. the key processes, parameters, elementary flows, assumptions, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4358, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 13, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- Significant issues: As a first step of the interpretation phase, identify the significant issues, i.e. the key processes, parameters, elementary flows, assumptions, etc. with the largest contributions / relevance for the overall environmental impacts, or individually for each impact category (chapter 9.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4359, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 13, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document - Sensitivity, completeness, consistency check: Finally, perform an initial sensitivity check (chapter 9.3.3), completeness check (chapter 9.3.2) and consistency check (chapter 9.3.4). \uf0b7 Go to the second iteration: Use the insights of the interpretation / quality checks to increase the overall quality of the LCI model. This is done in iterative loops of scope, inventory, impact assessment, and interpretation / quality control until the accuracy, precision, and completeness of the LCI / LCA study meet the requirements posed by the intended application of the results. Note that the insights gained in an iteration may also lead to a necessary revision of the goal of a study, if for example data limitations cannot be overcome. Especially: - Goal and scope revision needed?: Check whether the goal requirements can still be met and whether the scope settings still fully apply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4360, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 14, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Especially: - Goal and scope revision needed?: Check whether the goal requirements can still be met and whether the scope settings still fully apply. If necessary, refine or revise them (see chapter 6). A key step is to adjust the initial system boundary (see chapter 6.6), identifying which co-functions have been excluded from or have later been added within the system boundary via system expansion / substitution or allocation (see chapters 7.2.4.6 or 7.9, respectively)2. Also other scope items may need revision, as indicated above. - Improve key LCI data: For the key processes, parameters and elementary flows introduce or improve the foreground system typically with directly collected or calculated product- and producer-specific primary and secondary LCI data (see chapter 7.4). Use more accurate, precise and complete generic or average data sets for the background system (see chapters 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7)3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4361, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 14, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use more accurate, precise and complete generic or average data sets for the background system (see chapters 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7)3. Be prepared that it may be necessary to collect study-specific LCI data also for key processes in the background system, if existing third-party data is not of sufficient quality or consistency. - Improve other LCI data: Improve the quality of the LCI data for those life cycle stages, activity types, processes or elementary flows, which in the initial system boundary setting were assumed to be of little significance, but which the sensitivity analysis has revealed to be relevant. Use sufficiently consistent LCI data of sufficient quality in accordance with the cut-off criteria established in the scope definition and \u2013 in the case of comparisons - the extent of the differences between the compared systems. Where sufficiently good data are not available, leave out the respective processes and flows entirely and document the gap (see 7.4.2.11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4362, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 14, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Where sufficiently good data are not available, leave out the respective processes and flows entirely and document the gap (see 7.4.2.11). - Improve method and assumption related data and information: Improve the quality of the data and information used for method settings and assumptions, such as allocation criteria, type and amount of superseded processes from recycling, identified long-term marginal processes for Situation B, etc. - Improve LCIA factors: Improve the quality of key LCIA characterisation factors, if feasible. The need may arise to use non-generic LCIA factors or to consider the reduced accuracy if the former would be required but be unavailable. 2 Ensure that any scope revision is still in line with the goal. Note that for comparative studies, limitations due to scope or goal items are to be explicitly considered in the interpretation phase, especially when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations (see chapter 6.10.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4363, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 14, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "3 Note that sometimes generic or average data can be more appropriate for specific foreground processes (see chapter 7.3.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4364, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 14, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document - Calculate LCIA results and perform again a completeness, sensitivity and consistency check: Calculate the improved LCIA results, check whether the significant issues have relevantly changed and perform again a completeness, sensitivity and consistency check as the basis for the third iteration. \uf0b7 More iterations needed?: Typically, expect in total two to four iterations towards completing the study. This number will mainly depend on the quality needs or ambition, the complexity of the analysed process(es) or system(s), on the specifically analysed question(s), as well as on data availability and quality. If another iteration is needed, start again with checking whether goal requirements can still be met, whether the scope settings need to be revised or fine-tuned, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4365, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 15, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If another iteration is needed, start again with checking whether goal requirements can still be met, whether the scope settings need to be revised or fine-tuned, etc. \uf0b7 Results interpretation: If the LCI data and model have reached the intended or required quality, formal results interpretation is the next step (chapter 9). At this stage and only for LCA studies, it also includes the steps of conclusions and potentially recommendations, highlighting any limitations that apply. Parts of it - namely identifying significant issues and performing / reporting on the sensitivity check, completeness check, and consistency check - can also be applied to LCI data sets and studies. \uf0b7 Reporting: As a final step prior to a potential critical review, the study report is prepared (chapter 10). It can be part of a data set and/or be a classical report. Both will base on the extensive notes that were taken and revised / adjusted along the iterations of the LCA work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4366, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 15, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It can be part of a data set and/or be a classical report. Both will base on the extensive notes that were taken and revised / adjusted along the iterations of the LCA work. The principles of reporting are reproducibility and transparency. Confidential and proprietary data and information should be documented in separate confidential reports that are made accessible only to the critical reviewer(s). For LCA studies, a third-party study report is required if the target audience is external (see chapter 10.3.2). For LCI data sets, an LCI study report is recommended. If the data are intended to be usable in support of comparisons (e.g. as background data sets), the documentation of the LCI data set should to meet the requirements for reporting of comparative assertions; otherwise the data has to be revisited to complete the documentation when the data is used in the comparison, what often will not be possible (for details see 10.3.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4367, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 15, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Review: A critical review - if required for your type of LCI / LCA study and target audience, or for general quality-assurance reasons - is the last formal step of an LCI or LCA study (chapter 11). The review type and reviewer(s) now have to be fixed, unless this has been done in the related scope chapter. \uf0b7 Need for corrections / improvements based on the review outcome?: The review itself will often lead to certain corrections in the LCI model or other aspects as well as the related reporting. It might even result in a more fundamental revision of the scope or even goal of the study. A review that is performed at the end of a study can hence result in considerable delays and extra work. An accompanying review can help avoiding such problems or at least identify them earlier", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4368, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 15, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A review that is performed at the end of a study can hence result in considerable delays and extra work. An accompanying review can help avoiding such problems or at least identify them earlier. \uf0b7 Mission completed: The revised final deliverable of the LCI or LCA study, potentially together with the study report and review report, is finally available to be distributed to the target audience and in support of the intended applications.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4369, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 15, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document 2.3 ILCD compliance and the \"Provisions\" within this document Overview The actual provisions and recommendations of this guide are given in the \"Provisions\" of this document, with some provisions being outlined in separate, referenced documents of the ILCD Handbook (e.g. on review). Relevant concepts, explanations and illustrative examples are also provided in the main text; they may be required for a clear understanding of terms and concepts used in the respective Provision. Compliance statements Life Cycle Inventory and Assessment studies as well as direct applications that have been developed in line with the provisions of this document can be published as \"ILCD Handbook compliant\" studies / documents. Specific LCI / LCA guidance documents (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4370, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 16, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Specific LCI / LCA guidance documents (e.g. product-group specific guides) and Product Category Rules (PCR) can claim ILCD compliance if their provisions are in line with the provisions of the ILCD Handbook and they have undergone an ILCD compliant review as specified in the separate document \"Review schemes for LCA\". The compliance statement shall refer to the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and/or C2. ILCD compliance is structured into five compliance aspects that all shall be met for full compliance: Data quality, Method, Nomenclature, Review, and Documentation (chapter 12.4 gives the details). Partial compliance can be claimed in a structured way by referring to any of the above five aspects, but it shall be clearly communicated in such cases that full compliance has not been achieved. Purely methodological LCA studies may not be able to comply with the ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 and 14044, as the analysed methodological options may deviate from the provisions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4371, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 16, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Purely methodological LCA studies may not be able to comply with the ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 and 14044, as the analysed methodological options may deviate from the provisions. Such studies may draw on the ILCD provisions, but compliance with the ILCD Handbook cannot be claimed in such cases, and giving any false impression that such would exist shall be avoided that such would exist. However, partial compliance (see above) can be reported. In addition, for LCI data sets, the achieved overall data quality level should be documented in the data set (see chapter 12.3 for details) as well as the performed review type and reviewer(s). When claiming compliance, the applied version or edition of the ILCD \"General guide for LCA\" shall be identified in connection to the claim. When a new version of an ILCD Handbook component has been published, the provisions of that new version shall be applied, overruling the ones of the former version", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4372, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 16, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "When a new version of an ILCD Handbook component has been published, the provisions of that new version shall be applied, overruling the ones of the former version. The provisions of the preceding version can per default still be applied for ongoing studies up to a maximum of 6 months after publication of the new version. These 6 months can be modified and overruled by different provisions of ILCD system operators. If a new version of any applicable ILCD component has been published but an older version is used, the name of the component and the publication date of the new version shall be clearly identified in the study or other deliverable that claims compliance. Provisions To ease developing ILCD compliant studies, all \"Provisions\" are marked as either \"shall\", \"should\" or \"may\" to identify the provision\u201fs requirement status:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4373, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 16, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document \"SHALL\": the provision is a mandatory requirement and must always be followed, unless for specifically named exceptions, if any. \uf0b7 \"SHOULD\": the provision must be followed but deviations are permissible only if, for the given case, they are clearly justified in writing, giving appropriate details. Reasons for deviations can be that the respective provision or parts of it are not applicable, or if another solution is clearly more appropriate. If the permissible deviations and justifications are restricted, then these are identified in the context of the provision. \uf0b7 \"MAY\": the provision is only a methodological or procedural recommendation. The provision can be ignored or the issue can be addressed in another way without the need for any justification or explanation. NOTE: Instead of \"may\" the term \"recommended\" is sometimes used and equivalent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4374, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 17, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "NOTE: Instead of \"may\" the term \"recommended\" is sometimes used and equivalent. The requirement status also applies to all subsequent sub-provisions on a lower hierarchy-level. However, when a provision is differentiated by weakening the requirement stats (e.g. a \"should\" or \"may\" under a \"shall\" provision), this is explicitly formulated in the provision text. In that case the less strict requirement status applies for that level / specific sub-provision. Conformity with ISO 1404 and 14044 This document has been developed with the aim of being in line with (i.e. not contradicting) ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. This is in the sense that an ILCD compliant studies will also conform with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 (while not vice versa, as this present document is more specific). If conformity with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 is aimed at for an LCI or LCA study, it is nevertheless recommended to have this confirmed as part of a critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4375, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 17, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If conformity with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 is aimed at for an LCI or LCA study, it is nevertheless recommended to have this confirmed as part of a critical review. To ease identification, the provisions of this document that are marked \"[ISO!]\" are stricter than ISO 14040 and 14044:2006; in addition the right side of the frame next to that provision is a solid red line (instead of the default dotted-dashed green line). Where additional provisions are made that are not explicitly addressed in ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, the provision is marked \"[ISO+]\"; the right side of the frame is a dashed orange line, in that case. These marks serve for orientation only, since for some provisions it is a matter of interpretation whether they are an additional or stricter requirement, or whether they are in addition or already implicitly covered in the ISO standards. Also, some provisions combine one aspect that is in addition with another aspect that is stricter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4376, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 17, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also, some provisions combine one aspect that is in addition with another aspect that is stricter. 2.4 Dealing with potential omissions and contradictions in the ILCD Handbook Given the complexity of Life Cycle Assessment, the broad range of specific questions that can be addressed with LCA, and the degree of detail in this document, omissions and contradictions cannot be entirely ruled out. To avoid problems in application, in such cases the following overarching provision applies: In the case of contradictions among provisions or inapplicability of any provision in the ILCD Handbook (i.e. in this document and in other ILCD Handbook documents), an LCI or LCA study can claim compliance with the ILCD Handbook if the following three requirements are met by the study: a) All other, unaffected provisions of the ILCD Handbook documents have been applied.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4377, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 17, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document b) The general or case-specific contradiction or inapplicability is clearly identified and demonstrated. In such cases, the provision shall be used that best meets the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 requirements. c) If a critical review is required: The reviewer is confirming the compliance of the study or other deliverable to the above two requirements a) and b). Provisions: 2 How to use this document I) SHALL4 - ILCD Handbook compliance: An LCI or LCA study or data set and direct LCA applications can claim compliance with the ILCD Handbook. For this they shall have been developed in line with the provisions of this document as specified in the \"Provisions\", including the provisions made in referenced documents and complementing information that may be given in the main part of the document, e.g. in supporting tables or in the \"terms and concepts\" boxes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4378, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 18, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in supporting tables or in the \"terms and concepts\" boxes. Also specific LCI / LCA guidance documents (e.g. product-group, sector or process-type specific guides) and Product Category Rules (PCR) can claim ILCD compliance. This applies, if their provisions are compliant with the broader provisions of the ILCD Handbook and if they have undergone an ILCD compliant review as specified in the separate document \"Review schemes for LCA\". The following applies to compliance statements (2.35): [ISO+]6 I.a) The compliance statement shall refer to the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and/or C2. I.b) ILCD compliance is structured into five compliance aspects that shall all be met for full compliance: Data quality, Method, Nomenclature, Review, and Documentation (chapter 12.4 gives the details). I.c) Partial compliance can be claimed in a structured way by referring to any of the above five aspects, but it shall be clearly communicated in such cases that full compliance has not been achieved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4379, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 18, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.d) Purely methodological LCA studies may not be able to comply with the ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 and 14044, as the analysed methodological options may necessarily deviate from the provisions. Such studies may draw on the ILCD provisions, but compliance with the ILCD Handbook cannot be claimed in such cases and the impression shall be avoided as far as possible that they are compliant. Partial compliance can be reported, as detailed above. I.e) Additionally, for LCI data sets, the overall data quality level attained should be documented in the data set as \"High quality\", \"Basic quality\", or \"Data estimate\" (see chapter 12.3 and tables of that chapter for details and definitions). The performed review type and reviewer(s), if any, shall also be identified in the data set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4380, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 18, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The performed review type and reviewer(s), if any, shall also be identified in the data set. I.f) When claiming compliance, the applied version or edition of the ILCD \"General 4 The meaning of the SHALL, SHOULD and MAY settings is explained in Provision II) in this set of \"Provisions: 2 How to use this document\". 5 The sub-chapter of the main text that has more details on a specific provision is given in brackets at the end of the main provision. 6 The meaning of the (ISO!) and [ISO+] settings is explained in Provision III) in this set of \"Provisions: 2 How to use this document\".", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4381, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 18, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document guide for LCA\" shall be identified in connection to the claim. I.g) When a new version of an ILCD Handbook component has been published, the provisions of that new version shall be applied, overruling the ones of the former version. The provisions of the preceding version can per default still be applied for ongoing studies up to a maximum of 9 months after publication of the new version. These 9 months can be modified and overruled by different provisions of ILCD system operators. If a new version of any applicable ILCD component has been published but an older version is used, the name of the component and the publication date of the new version shall be clearly and in a prominent place be identified in the study report or other deliverable that claims compliance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4382, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 19, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Shall, should, may: The expression \"SHALL\", \"SHOULD\" and \"MAY\" in front of a (main) provision identifies its requirement status (2.3): (ISO!) II.a) \"SHALL\": the provision is a mandatory requirement and must always be followed, unless for specifically named exceptions, if any. II.b) \"SHOULD\": the provision must be followed; deviations are permissible if they are clearly justified in writing for the given case, giving appropriate details. Reasons for deviations can be that the respective provision or parts of it are not applicable, or if another solution is clearly more appropriate. If the permissible deviations and justifications are restricted, these are identified in the context of the provision. II.c) \"MAY\": the provision is only a methodological or procedural recommendation. The provision can be ignored or the issue addressed in another way without the need for any justification or explanation. NOTE: Instead of \"may\" the equivalent term \"recommended\" is sometimes used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4383, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 19, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The provision can be ignored or the issue addressed in another way without the need for any justification or explanation. NOTE: Instead of \"may\" the equivalent term \"recommended\" is sometimes used. II.d) The requirement status also applies to all subsequent provisions on a lower hierarchy-level (e.g. under a provision \"II\" also all sub-provisions \"II.a\", \"II.b\", etc.). If a provision is differentiated (e.g. a \"should\" or \"may\" under a \"shall\" provision), this is explicitly formulated in the provisions text. III) For information/orientation only - ISO specifications and additions: Single provisions on items that are not covered by ISO 14044:2006 are generally marked as \"[ISO+]\"; additionally the right border of the frame next to that provision is a dashed orange line (instead of the default dotted-dashed green line)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4384, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 19, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions where the ILCD provisions are more strict or specific than that which follows from applying ISO 14044:2006 are generally marked as \"[ISO!]\"; furthermore, the right border of the frame next to that provision is a solid red line. [ISO+] IV) MAY - ISO conformity: The document has been developed with the aim of being in line with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, in the sense that an ILCD compliant study will also conform with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. If conformity with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 is aimed at for an LCI or LCA study, it is nevertheless recommended to have this confirmed as part of a critical review. V) SHALL - Contradictions or inapplicabilities: In the case of contradictions among provisions, or inapplicability of any provision in the ILCD Handbook (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4385, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 19, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V) SHALL - Contradictions or inapplicabilities: In the case of contradictions among provisions, or inapplicability of any provision in the ILCD Handbook (i.e. in this document and other ILCD Handbook documents), an LCI or LCA study can claim compliance with the ILCD Handbook if the following three requirements are met by the study (2.4): V.a) a) All other, unaffected provisions of the ILCD Handbook documents have been", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4386, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 19, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document applied. V.b) b) The general or case-specific contradiction or inapplicability is clearly identified and demonstrated. In such cases, the provision shall be used that best meets the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 requirements. V.c) c) If a critical review is required: The reviewer is confirming the compliance of the study or other deliverable to the above two requirements a) and b). VI) MAY - How to work with this document: Stepwise recommendations are made on how to efficiently perform an LCI or LCA study with the help of this document and the general frame of ISO 14044 (2.2.4). [ISO+] VII) MAY - Differences A, B, C1, C2: A condensed, indicative overview is given on the main LCI modelling differences among the Goal Situations A, B, C1, and C2 (2.2.3). [ISO+]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4387, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 20, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 3 Key definitions 3 Key definitions The following key definitions are newly introduced terms or ISO terms that are used by different LCA practitioners with different meanings. These definitions should be read first for a clearer understanding of this document. Table 1 Key terms and definitions Term Definition Allocation [or: Partitioning] Partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product system between the product system under study and one or more other product systems. [Source: ISO 14044:2006] Analysed decision Decision that is subject to an LCA study. In contrast to LCI studies and most non-comparative LCA studies stand comparative LCA studies with a direct decision context. For these the LCA study analysis a decision rather than a single process or system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4388, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 21, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For these the LCA study analysis a decision rather than a single process or system. Such can be for example the decision on alternative materials that are evaluated to be used for a product, the purchase of alternatives products that are compared, the decision on a policy option that is analysed regarding its environmental impact implications, and the like. Assumption scenario Scenario for the analysed process or system that varies data and method assumptions with the purpose of evaluating the robustness of the study results and conclusions. If more than one alternative system or option are compared, each of them would have its own assumption scenarios. Attributional modelling [or: descriptive, bookkeeping] LCI modelling frame that inventories the inputs and output flows of all processes of a system as they occur. Modelling process along an existing supply-chain is of this type", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4389, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 21, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Modelling process along an existing supply-chain is of this type. Best attainable consensus Partial or full agreement of the involved parties, steered by a chair or coordinator towards the broadest possible agreement on the issue at stake. In contrast to an entirely result-open process, here a solution that fits preset requirements (e.g. \"define a reasonably worst case scenario\") is to be found, i.e. the 'zero-option' is not an option. Co-function Any of two or more functions provided by the same unit process or system. Co-product Any of two or more products coming from the same unit process or system. [Source: ISO 14044:2006] Comparative assertion Environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product that performs the same function. [ISO 14040:2006, ISO 14025:2006] Comparative life cycle assessment Comparison of LCA results for different products, systems or services that usually perform the same or similar function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4390, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 21, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO 14040:2006, ISO 14025:2006] Comparative life cycle assessment Comparison of LCA results for different products, systems or services that usually perform the same or similar function. Consequential modelling LCI modelling principle that identifies and models all processes in the background system of a system in consequence of decisions made in the foreground system Disclosed to the public The audience is not specifically limited and hence includes non-technical and external audience, e.g. consumers.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4391, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 21, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 3 Key definitions End-of-life product Product at the end of its useful life that will potentially undergo reuse, recycling, or recovery. Environmental impact Potential impact on the natural environment, human health or the depletion of natural resources, caused by the interventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere as covered by LCA (e.g. emissions, resource extraction, land use). Functional flow One of the (co-)product flow(s) in the inventory of a process or system that fulfils the process' / system's function See also: Non-functional flow Monofunctional process Process or system that performs only one function. Non-functional flow Any of the inventory items that are not (co-)product flows. E.g. all emissions, waste, resources but also input flows of processed goods and of services. Multifunctional process Process or system that performs more than one function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4392, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 22, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "E.g. all emissions, waste, resources but also input flows of processed goods and of services. Multifunctional process Process or system that performs more than one function. Examples: Processes with more than one product as output (e.g. NaOH, Cl2 and H2 from Chloralkali electrolysis) or more than one waste treated jointly (e.g. mixed household waste incineration with energy recovery). See also: \"Allocation\" and \"System expansion\" Life cycle inventory (LCI) data set Data set with the inventory of a process or system. Can be both unit process and LCI results and variants of these. Life cycle inventory (LCI) study Life cycle study that provides the life cycle inventory data of a process or system. Life cycle inventory analysis results (LCI results) Outcome of a life cycle inventory analysis that catalogues the flows crossing the system boundary and provides the starting point for life cycle impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4393, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 22, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(Source: ISO 14040) Overall environmental impact Total of impacts on human health, natural environment and resource depletion for the considered impact categories. It can be calculated either as normalised and weighted overall LCIA results of the analysed process / system, or assuming an even weighting across impacts, i.e. for each and any of the impact categories. Product Any good or service; see \"System\". Recycling, reuse, recovery Note: In lack of a common parent term, these three terms are used in this document to identify these and similar activities, such as refurbishing, further use and the like. Casewise also the term \"recycling\" alone is used and meant to cover the entirety of these activities. See also \"Secondary good\". Relevant For LCI data sets: Having a significant influence on or contribution to the overall environmental impact of the analysed process or system, resulting in a different quality level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4394, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 22, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Relevant For LCI data sets: Having a significant influence on or contribution to the overall environmental impact of the analysed process or system, resulting in a different quality level. For LCA studies: Having a significant influence on or contribution to the overall environmental impact of the analysed process or system, resulting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4395, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 22, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 3 Key definitions in different conclusions or recommendations. Secondary good Secondary material, recovered energy, reused part or similar as the product of a reuse, recycling, recovery, refurbishing or similar process. Substitution Solving multifunctionality of processes and products by expanding the system boundaries and substituting the not required function with an alternative way of providing it, i.e. the process(es) or product(s) that the not required function supersedes. Effectively the life cycle inventory of the superseded process(es) or product(s) is subtracted from that of the analysed system, i.e. it is \"credited\". Substitution is a special (subtractive) case of applying the system expansion principle. System Any good, service, event, basket-of-products, average consumption of a citizen, or similar object that is analysed in the context of the LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4396, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 23, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "System Any good, service, event, basket-of-products, average consumption of a citizen, or similar object that is analysed in the context of the LCA study. Note that ISO 14044:2006 generally refers to \"product system\", while broader systems than single products can be analysed in an LCA study; hence here the term \"system\" is used. In many but not all cases the term will hence refer to products, depending on the specific study object. Moreover, as LCI studies can be restricted to a single unit process as part of a system, in this document the study object is also identified in a general way as \"process / system\" System expansion Adding specific processes or products and the related life cycle inventories to the analysed system. Used to make several multifunctional systems with an only partly equivalent set of functions comparable within LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4397, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 23, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Used to make several multifunctional systems with an only partly equivalent set of functions comparable within LCA. System perspective In contrast to a unit process or a part of a life cycle, the system perspective relates to the entire life cycle of an analysed system or process. For processes that implies that the life cycle is completed. This term is used mainly in context of identifying significant issues and quantifying inventory completeness / cut-off. Unit process Smallest element considered in the life cycle inventory analysis for which input and output data are quantified. (Source: ISO 14040) In practice of LCA, both physically not further separable processes (such as unit operations in production plants) and also whole production sites are covered under \"unit process\". See also \"Unit process, black box\", \"Unit process, single operation\", and \"System\". Unit process, black box A unit process that includes more than one single-operation unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4398, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 23, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See also \"Unit process, black box\", \"Unit process, single operation\", and \"System\". Unit process, black box A unit process that includes more than one single-operation unit processes. Unit process, single operation A unit process that cannot be further sub-divided into included processes. Some, more complex terms and concepts are explained in more detail in boxes throughout the document. See the contents of these \"Terms and concepts\" after the \"Contents\" of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4399, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 23, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 3 Key definitions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4400, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 24, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 4 The iterative approach to LCA 4 The iterative approach to LCA (No specific corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter, but mentioned in several chapters) Overview Before starting with the guidance on goal definition as first phase of performing an LCI or LCA study, in this chapter the iterative approach to LCA is explained. LCAs are iterative To carry out an LCI or LCA study is almost always an iterative process: once the goal of the work is defined, the initial scope settings are derived that define the requirements on the subsequent work. However, as during the life cycle inventory phase of data collection and during the subsequent impact assessment and interpretation more information becomes available, the initial scope settings will typically need to be refined and sometimes also revised (see Figure 4). Figure 5 gives a more detailed overview of the iterations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4401, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 25, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 5 gives a more detailed overview of the iterations. Figure 4 Iterative nature of LCA (schematic). LCAs are performed in iterative loops of goal and scope definition, inventory data collection and modelling (LCI), impact assessment (LCIA), and with completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks (Evaluation) as a steering instrument. This is done - with a possible, limited revision of the goal and scope - until the required accuracy of the system\u2019s model and processes and the required completeness and precision of the inventory results has been attained. In order to achieve the required precision with the minimum necessary effort, it is recommended to collect data and select external data sources in an iterative manner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4402, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 25, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In order to achieve the required precision with the minimum necessary effort, it is recommended to collect data and select external data sources in an iterative manner. Especially for fully new technologies and complex product systems on which little previous experience exists, the first iteration may use generic or average data for the background and also many parts of the foreground system (see Terms and concepts box \"Foreground system and background system\" in chapter 6.6.1). This can be combined with expert judgement to identify the key processes and elementary flows of the product system. The main effort of data collection and acquisition can thereby be focussed on the relevant parts of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4403, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 25, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The main effort of data collection and acquisition can thereby be focussed on the relevant parts of the system. 2nd iteration \u2022 revision of scope definition? \u2022 better data for key processes (background and foreground) \u2022 more specific data for foreground processes 1st Iteration \u2022 full product system \u2022 specific data as available \u2022 easily available secondary data 3rd iteration \u2022 better data for key processes and flows (background and foreground) Overall data quality (accuracy, precision, completeness) Time and effort Goal and Scope LCI LCIA Evaluation Goal and Scope LCI LCIA Evaluation Goal and Scope LCI LCIA Evaluation Goal and Scope LCI LCIA Evaluation Goal and Scope LCI LCIA Evaluation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4404, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 25, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 4 The iterative approach to LCA Documentation in parallel to work It is recommended to document the details of the initial goal and scope definition, key LCI and LCIA items, and the key initial results of the sensitivity, consistency and completeness checks along the provisions of reporting required for the deliverable. Keep track of data sources and initial calculations, on paper and/or digitally. Use this preliminary report as a living reference during the subsequent work and repeatedly revise and fine-tune it in course of the iterations towards the final report (being a data set and/or study report). The iterations The inventory phase is building on the decisions made during goal and scope definition. It is preparing the input for the impact assessment and interpretation phases, be it directly as a step within an LCA study or in other studies that use the resulting inventory data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4405, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 26, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is preparing the input for the impact assessment and interpretation phases, be it directly as a step within an LCA study or in other studies that use the resulting inventory data. Findings in the impact assessment and the sensitivity and contribution analysis, which are performed as part of the interpretation, help identifying the most relevantly contributing (\u201ckey\u201d) processes and elementary flows of the system. A completeness and consistency check complements this. After the initial LCI screening modelling the achieved completeness, accuracy and precision of the data for some of the key processes, parameters and elementary flows may be insufficient to meet the overall requirements to the LCI/LCA study (as derived from the goal definition and intended applications)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4406, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 26, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These key processes, parameters and elementary flows become the focus of the next iteration: the inventory is improved by further foreground data collection or by using better and more appropriate generic or average data, to achieve the required completeness, accuracy, and precision of the overall data and results. The inventory that results from this second iteration of data collection is again subjected to impact assessment and to sensitivity and contribution analysis as well as completeness and consistency check, providing feedback to possible additional iterations of the inventory data collection until the required overall accuracy, precision and completeness has been reached. For data that were initially assumed to be of little significance but for which the sensitivity analysis has revealed relevance, improve the quality of these data. Use sufficiently good data estimates for these life cycle stages, activity types, processes or specific elementary flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4407, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 26, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use sufficiently good data estimates for these life cycle stages, activity types, processes or specific elementary flows. In the case sufficiently good data estimates are not available, entirely leave out the respective processes and flows and document the gap. This iterative improvement of the inventory is accompanied by a preceding fine-tuning of the scope definition at the beginning of each iteration. To name some of the relevant scope aspects often affected: \uf0b7 The previously included and excluded activities, processes and elementary flows may need to be adjusted. \uf0b7 Also the initial specific provisions for solving multifunctionality may need to be further detailed or revised. \uf0b7 In comparative studies the initially defined scenarios may need revision or expansion by additional ones based on new insights during data collection and modelling e.g. of product use patterns", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4408, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 26, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 In comparative studies the initially defined scenarios may need revision or expansion by additional ones based on new insights during data collection and modelling e.g. of product use patterns. \uf0b7 In few cases newly identified and potentially relevant elementary flows may require to develop additional impact characterisation factors. \uf0b7 In rare cases newly identified kinds of relevant environmental impacts may even require to add new impact categories and models.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4409, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 26, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 4 The iterative approach to LCA Figure 5 gives a more detailed overview. Figure 5 Details of the iterative approach to LCA, with focus on inventory data collection and modelling (from ISO 14044:2006, modified). Critical review It is recommended to identify and involve critical reviewer(s) from the beginning of the study, including when defining goal and scope. Review requirements are addressed in chapter 6.11. Limitations of reaching the required overall accuracy, precision and completeness Depending on the specific study, it can happen that also after three or even four iterations the required precision cannot be achieved. In comparative studies this can be e.g. if the compared alternatives have a so similar environmental performance that an environmentally significant \"better\" alternative cannot be singled out, because the basic uncertainty does not permit this", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4410, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 27, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As the additional relative effort per improvement increases with each iteration and as the uncertainty cannot be reduced to zero, in such cases it is practically not possible to conclude a relevant difference. This however also means that the real difference of the overall environmental impact is not that big and there is no relevant environmental advantage of the only slightly better alternative over the less good one", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4411, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 27, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Calculated LCIA results Scope settings Goal settings Reviewed data set or report/study LCI/LCA report and/or data set Critical review Data, results, interpretation, conclusions and recommendations Secondary data Additional or better primary or secondary data required? Calculated LCI results Validated data per unit process Collected data Validated data Validated data per functional unit(s) / reference flow(s) Data collection sheet Scope definition Planning data collection Data collection Basic validation of data Relating data to unit process Relating data set to functional unit(s) / reference flow(s) Data aggregation (possibly averaging) LCIA results calculation (may include normalisation, weighting) Substitution / allocation provisions Obtain secondary data (specific, generic or average) Goal definition Interpretation (significant issues, completeness check, sensitivity check, consistency check \uf0e0conclusions, recommendations) Reporting Application / publication Additional or better", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4412, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 27, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Goal definition Interpretation (significant issues, completeness check, sensitivity check, consistency check \uf0e0conclusions, recommendations) Reporting Application / publication Additional or better primary or secondary data required ? Scope or goal revision? Scope or goal revision? Revision of aggregation, LCIA results calculation, Interpretation, and/or reporting?", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4413, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 27, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 4 The iterative approach to LCA Especially for studies on systems that have main parts in the further away future or where the key processes are new technologies, the high uncertainty may make it impossible to clearly differentiate even between options that potentially have relevant differenced in their environmental impact. In other cases a limited access to required key data or lack of resources or funds may hinder to further improve the overall data quality. Especially this case shall not be used to conclude that significant differences do not exist (see also annex 15.3 on preventing misleading result interpretation). Sometimes the iterations lead to identification of issues that cannot be resolved and which require more substantial revisions of the goal or scope definition of the LCI/LCA study. This is to be documented in the reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4414, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 28, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to be documented in the reporting. Provisions: 4 The iterative approach to LCA I) MAY - Overview of iterative approach: It is recommended taking an iterative approach to the LCI/LCA study (for more detail see chapter 2.2.4): I.a) Define the goal aspects as precisely as possible in the beginning of the study (see chapter 5.2). I.b) Derive an initial scope definition from the goal definition as far as initial knowledge permits (see chapter 6). I.c) Compile easily available Life Cycle Inventory data for the foreground and background system. Model the process or system (e.g. product) as far as the initial information and data permits (see chapter 7). I.d) Calculate the LCIA results (see chapter 8). I.e) Identify significant issues and perform first sensitivity, consistency and completeness checks on this initial model (see chapter 9)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4415, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 28, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.d) Calculate the LCIA results (see chapter 8). I.e) Identify significant issues and perform first sensitivity, consistency and completeness checks on this initial model (see chapter 9). I.f) Based on this go to the next iteration: Start with fine-tuning or revising the scope (in some cases even the goal), improve the life cycle model accordingly, etc. I.g) Expect two to four iterations towards completing the study. This will mainly depend on the quality needs or ambition, the complexity of the analysed process(es) or system(s), on the specifically analysed question(s), and data availability and its quality. [ISO+] I.h) Starting from the beginning of the study, document the details of the initial goal and scope definition, key LCI and LCIA items, and the key initial results of the sensitivity, consistency and completeness checks. Let this be guided by the main provisions of reporting required for the deliverable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4416, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 28, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Let this be guided by the main provisions of reporting required for the deliverable. During subsequent iterations, use this preliminary core report as work in progress and constantly revise, finetune and complete it towards the final report (be it a data set and/or a study report). [ISO+] II) MAY - Early identification of reviewers: From the beginning of the study, it is recommended to identify and involve critical reviewer(s) and - if required or desired - interested parties, including when defining goal and scope. [ISO+] All these provisions refer especially to the system(s) modelled under Situation B (i.e. for meso / macro-level decision support studies) .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4417, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 28, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) 5.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) Introduction The goal definition is the first phase of any life cycle assessment, independently whether the LCI/LCA study7 is limited to the development of a single unit process data set or it is a complete LCA study of a comparative assertion to be published. During the goal definition among others the decision-context(s) and intended application(s) of the study are identified and the targeted audience(s) are to be named. The goal definition is decisive for all the other phases of the LCA: \uf0b7 The goal definition guides all the detailed aspects of the scope definition, which in turn sets the frame for the LCI work and LCIA work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4418, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 29, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 The quality control of the work is performed in view of the requirements that were derived from the goal of the work. \uf0b7 If the work goes beyond an LCI study, the final results of the LCA are evaluated and interpreted. Also this is to be done in close relation to the goal of the work. A clear, initial goal definition is hence essential for a correct later interpretation of the results. This includes ensuring as far as possible that the deliverables of the LCI/LCA study cannot unintentionally and erroneously be used or interpreted beyond the initial goal and scope for which it was carried out. Annex 15 exemplarily identifies and illustrates issues that must be avoided for a nonmisleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4419, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 29, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Annex 15 exemplarily identifies and illustrates issues that must be avoided for a nonmisleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation. Overview Six aspects shall be addressed and documented during the goal definition: \uf0b7 Intended application(s) of the deliverables / results (chapter 5.2.1) \uf0b7 Limitations due to the method, assumptions, and impact coverage (5.2.2) \uf0b7 Reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context (5.2.3) \uf0b7 Target audience of the deliverables / results (5.2.4) \uf0b7 Comparative studies to be disclosed to the public (5.2.5) \uf0b7 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors (5.2.6) The various detailed implications on method, documentation, review etc. that these specific aspects have, are addressed throughout this document. 7 The term \"LCI/LCA study\" is used wherever the text applies to both LCI studies (i.e. with a life cycle inventory as deliverable, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4420, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 29, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7 The term \"LCI/LCA study\" is used wherever the text applies to both LCI studies (i.e. with a life cycle inventory as deliverable, e.g. a LCI data set) and LCA studies (which is often comparative and always includes an interpretation and potentially conclusions and recommendations).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4421, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 29, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Finally, in order to help in the subsequent scope definition, especially regarding identifying the appropriate LCI modelling frameworks and method approaches: \uf0b7 Classification of the decision-context of the LCI/LCA study (5.3). The methodological provisions for the different decision-contexts and the to-be-derived archetypal goal situations are addressed in chapter 6.5.4. 5.2 Six aspects of the goal definition (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) 5.2.1 Intended application(s) (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) Studies in relationship to decision support and accounting/monitoring The goal definition shall firstly state the intended application(s) of the LCA results in a precise and unambiguous way (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4422, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 30, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cComparative assertion of the overall environmental impacts associated with nation-wide recycling (Option I) or incineration (Option II) of all used office paper in Australia\u201d)8. The following LCA applications are the most frequently used ones, but others may be identified and used as well: \uf0b7 Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign / simplified LCA \uf0b7 Weak point analysis of a specific product \uf0b7 Detailed Ecodesign / Design-for-recycling \uf0b7 Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA / Ecodesign study \uf0b7 Comparison of specific goods or services \uf0b7 Benchmarking of specific products against the product group's average \uf0b7 Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) \uf0b7 Development of life cycle based Type I Ecolabel criteria \uf0b7 Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group \uf0b7 Development of a life cycle based Type III environmental declaration (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4423, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 30, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service \uf0b7 Development of the \u201cCarbon footprint\u201d, \u201cPrimary energy consumption\u201d or similar indicator for a specific product \uf0b7 Greening the supply chain \uf0b7 Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use \uf0b7 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) 8 To improve the reading flow, longer illustrative in-line examples are formatted in grey.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4424, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 30, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Policy development: Forecasting & analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4425, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 31, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and related policy development \uf0b7 Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type of studies \uf0b7 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact \uf0b7 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential \uf0b7 Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group, or product \uf0b7 Corporate or site environmental reporting including calculation of indirect effects in Environmental Management Systems (EMS) \uf0b7 Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply-chain \uf0b7 Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems \uf0b7 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in specified types of LCA applications9 Note that often several, separate applications are intended by a study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4426, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 31, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "developing an EPD and performing an internal benchmark). Or the application is combined with cost, social, or other complementary environmental information (e.g. combining a product comparison based on environmental LCA results with life cycle cost information when performing an ecoefficiency type analysis). Note that certain applications have specific requirements under ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, e.g. regarding review and reporting for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. Also LCI and LCIA data sets for intended use for EPDs and in comparative contexts imply additional requirements. Table 3 in scope chapter 6.3 gives more information. Note also that the different applications require different methodological approaches for the LCI modelling; details on the directly related three archetypal goal situations that are differentiated here are given in chapter 5.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4427, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 31, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This means that also different background data might be required for applications of substantially different decision-contexts. Note finally that the subject of the study is often named during the goal definition for clarity reasons while it is formally a scoping issue. If however the goal is defined on a more general level, the specific subject(s) can only be identified during the scope phase. Purely methodological studies without relationship to decision support and accounting / monitoring on the studies object Studies that do not have the goal to provide information in support of any decisions on the analysed object or accounting / monitoring information, but are LCA studies to analyse methodological issues need to have the liberty to vary all methodological issues freely. Such studies may therefore not be able to meet the ILCD requirements or ISO 14040 and 14044 requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4428, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 31, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such studies may therefore not be able to meet the ILCD requirements or ISO 14040 and 14044 requirements. 9 It is important to note that specific types of LCA applications require LCI background data sets that are modelled in a suitable way. In the ILCD guidance three main types of decision-contexts / goal situations are differentiated. This will be addressed in chapter 5.3.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4429, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 31, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience At the same time it is recommended that such studies implement the provisions of ISO 14040 and 14044 and of the ILCD handbook, to ease uptake of the study's methodological findings in the further development of ISO and the ILCD. However, accordingly such studies can not claim to be ILCD or ISO compliant. When the audience of such studies is informed that parts of the ILCD Handbook provisions have been used, the impression shall be avoided that such studies would be ILCD compliant by explicitly stating that fact. It should equally be made clear to the audience that such studies do explicitly not aim at decision support or providing monitoring information on the analysed objects and must not be used for such purposes or applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4430, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 32, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "When such studies contain comparative elements, care should be taken to not give the impression to the audience that the results of the study imply any comparative message on the analysed objects. This should be stated explicitly and clearly visible. The intended application of such studies would hence be to gain purely methodological insights. 5.2.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations (e.g. Carbon footprint) (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter; implicitly covered in various chapters) Introduction If the goal definition implies specific limitations of the usability of the LCA results due to the applied methodology, assumptions made or limited impact-coverage, such shall equally be clearly identified and later be prominently reported (see chapter 10). The identification and appreciation of such limitations needs a relevant degree of expertise and experience. Often the limitations need to be adjusted or expanded during the course of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4431, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 32, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The identification and appreciation of such limitations needs a relevant degree of expertise and experience. Often the limitations need to be adjusted or expanded during the course of the study. Carbon footprint and other studies with limited impact coverage A prominent example of impact-coverage related limitations is the case of Carbon footprint calculations where exclusively climate change related greenhouse gas emissions are considered. Such an initial limitation can be fully justified, if the overall environmental impacts of the analysed product (and its competing products) are by far dominated by climate change impacts or if all other individually relevant impacts such as Eutrophication and Acidification are very closely and positively correlated with Climate change. Otherwise such limitations in the initial settings can result in inadequacy for comparisons (e.g. if two compared products clearly differ in their environmental impacts in other impact categories)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4432, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 32, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Otherwise such limitations in the initial settings can result in inadequacy for comparisons (e.g. if two compared products clearly differ in their environmental impacts in other impact categories). The same applies analogously for primary energy consumption studies where only energy consumption related resource flows are included, or other such kinds of limitations. Method-related limitations Also methodological limitations can limit the possibility for drawing general conclusions or for using the resulting LCI data in other studies. Methodological limitations refer for example to limitations that are inherent to the conventional, site-unspecific LCIA: if the results of such a study are intended to inform a decision on a specific site with uncommon characteristics (e.g. being located on an island) they are unsuitable. Other method-related limitations can be caused by the specific LCI method approach chosen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4433, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 32, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "being located on an island) they are unsuitable. Other method-related limitations can be caused by the specific LCI method approach chosen. For example may the use of market price based allocation partly or entirely prevent the use of the results in eco-efficiency studies since the environmental results are correlated with the market price.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4434, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 32, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Assumption-related limitations Assumptions on the characteristics of the analysed system10 or on specific scenarios equally can limit the usability and transferability of the results. This can be, for example, if an analysed product scenario is very specific regarding time representativeness (e.g. \"peak power supply\"), location (e.g. in a country of climate zone for which the product was not designed), use-pattern (e.g. outside the product's main purpose), etc., i.e. in a way that is atypical for the analysed system. Niche markets A special case in this context are restrictions due to analysing a \"niche market\": A market niche is a sub-category of a market segment, where a part of the customers consider only products with specific properties substitutable (i.e. those properties that characterise the specific niche (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4435, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 33, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "those properties that characterise the specific niche (e.g. \"refillable packaging\" in the market \"packaging\"), although the majority of the consumers perceives comparability between products from the niche and other products in the segment (i.e. in this example including \"non-refillable packaging\"). Aspects that separate a niche market from the main market are among others: \uf0b7 price (i.e. investment cost of a good or life cycle cost / total-cost-of-ownership), \uf0b7 life-style and value-system related issues (e.g. \"green\" image in general or more specific such as \"locally produced\", \"bio-based\", \"recycled\", \"recyclable\", \"ecolabelled\", etc., or \"social\" image in general or more specific such as \"fair-traded\", \"free-of-childwork\", etc. or aspects such as \"fashionable\", \"modern\", \"prestige\", \"young\", etc.) \uf0b7 high quality, durability / longevity, \uf0b7 practicality and/or time-saving", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4436, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 33, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "or aspects such as \"fashionable\", \"modern\", \"prestige\", \"young\", etc.) \uf0b7 high quality, durability / longevity, \uf0b7 practicality and/or time-saving. Studies on niche markets hence initially limit the to-be-included types of products, although from a purely technical perspective also products outside the specific niche would need to be included to avoid a potentially misleading comparison. In the interpretation phase of such studies the limited conclusions shall be explicitly and well visibly highlighted. 5.2.3 Reasons for carrying out the study, and decision-context (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) The goal definition shall explain the reasons for carrying out the LCI/LCA study, name the drivers and motivations, and especially identify the decision-context (e.g. for the above example: \u201cSupport decision on governmental non-binding11 recommendations for environmentally preferred future handling of paper waste from commercial and governmental offices in Australia\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4437, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 33, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The decision-context is one key criterion for determining the most appropriate methods for the LCI model, i.e. the LCI modelling framework (i.e. \u201cattributional\u201d or \u201cconsequential\u201d) and the related LCI method approaches (i.e. \u201callocation\u201d or \u201csubstitution\u201d) to be applied. Chapter 10 The term \"system\" is used throughout the text instead of the more classical term \"product system\" because many other systems are analysed with LCA (e.g. sites, raw material strategies, needs fulfilment (e.g. mobility solutions) that go beyond a single product system. 11 In the case the context was to inform the establishment of a legally binding policy, this would imply a different setting: in that case the future scenarios would assume that the paper waste would be handled almost entirely according to the assumed legislation. For the here used example of a non-binding recommendation, the future scenarios would arguably need to model a clearly lower share of implementation, what may effect the LCI model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4438, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 33, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the here used example of a non-binding recommendation, the future scenarios would arguably need to model a clearly lower share of implementation, what may effect the LCI model. This example illustrates the importance of a very clear and well specified goal definition in all its aspects, before continuing with the scope definition or even LCI data collection.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4439, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 33, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience 5.3 provides the details on the formal approach to derive the applicable goal situation from the intended application and general decision-context. The decision-context also directly determines other key aspects of the scope definition, of decisions to be made during inventory data collection and modelling, the calculation of impact assessment results, and finally for LCA studies also the LCA results interpretation. The stated reasons for a study indicate the quality ambitions and are a basis to judge among others data quality needs but also potential special review needs beyond the minimum requirements. The latter can be given for example if for a planned national legislation an involvement of trade partners in the review process would be wanted for improving international acceptance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4440, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 34, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The latter can be given for example if for a planned national legislation an involvement of trade partners in the review process would be wanted for improving international acceptance. 5.2.4 Target audience (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) The goal definition shall identify the target audience of the study, i.e. to whom the results of the study are intended to be communicated. This serves among others to help identifying the critical review needs and the appropriate form and technical level of reporting. For the above example this could be \u201cThe target audience are governmental political decision makers and main stakeholders of the paper production and waste management sectors in Australia, as well as operators of offices in the private sectors and in government\u201d. Different types of target audiences (i.e. \u201cinternal\u201d vs. \u201cexternal\u201d and \u201ctechnical\u201d vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4441, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 34, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Different types of target audiences (i.e. \u201cinternal\u201d vs. \u201cexternal\u201d and \u201ctechnical\u201d vs. \u201cnontechnical\u201d) typically imply different scoping requirements on documentation, review, confidentiality and other issues that are derived from the audiences\u201f needs. The target audience(s) are hence to be identified already during the goal definition. 5.2.5 Comparisons intended to be disclosed to the public (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.2) The goal definition shall furthermore explicitly state whether the LCA study includes a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public12. In the above end-of-life paper management example it should hence be stated: \u201cThe study includes a comparative assertion and is planned to be disclosed to the public\u201d. This aspect entails a number of additional mandatory requirements under ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 on the execution, documentation, review and reporting of the LCA study due to the potential consequences the results may have for e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4442, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 34, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "external companies, institutions, consumers, etc. To avoid a by-passing of this ISO requirement by publishing product comparisons that show e.g. along the numbers or graphics the environmental performance of the compared products but without explicitly making an assertion as to superiority or equality, also comparative but not assertive LCA studies shall meet these requirements, as far as 12 All provisions of the entire ILCD Handbook refer to external use only. In-house decision support by LCA may draw on them but is outside any ruling, of course. \"Disclosed to the public\" refers here to the accessibility of the study or any of its results, conclusions, or recommendations to an audience outside the commissioner of the study, the involved experts, and any explicitly and individually named limited audience (e.g. an identified list of suppliers, customers, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4443, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 34, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience applicable13. Note that \"comparison\" here refers to a comparison between systems (e.g. products), but not within a single system (i.e. not to a contribution or weak point analysis). Note that, also according to ISO 14044:2006, an LCI study alone shall not be used for comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public, i.e. a life cycle impact assessment and evaluation / interpretation shall be performed as well. Finally, LCI data sets that are foreseen to be used by other actors as background or foreground data for comparisons or comparative assertions shall also fulfil those of these requirements that are applicable13. In this case the data set developer ensures that these requirements - including the review - are met. This yields \u201cpre-verified data for comparative assertions\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4444, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 35, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this case the data set developer ensures that these requirements - including the review - are met. This yields \u201cpre-verified data for comparative assertions\u201d. Otherwise, any steps to meet missing or stricter requirements (e.g. having a panel review done instead of a single independent external review) have to be taken by the other actor who uses these data in its comparative study / assertion. 5.2.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter; implicitly covered in various chapters) Finally, the goal definition shall identify who commissioned the LCI/LCA study (e.g. for the above example: \u201cThe study is commissioned by the Australian Agency for Protection of the Environment14, co-financed by the Australian Association of Paper Producers\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4445, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 35, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for the above example: \u201cThe study is commissioned by the Australian Agency for Protection of the Environment14, co-financed by the Australian Association of Paper Producers\u201d). Also all (co- )financing or other organisations that have any relevant influence on the study shall be named; this includes especially the LCA experts that perform the LCI/LCA study (respectively their organisation(s)). Provisions: 5.2 Six aspects of goal definition I) SHALL - Intended applications: Unambiguously identify the intended applications of the deliverable of the LCI or LCA study (5.2.1). II) SHALL - Limitations of study: Unambiguously identify and detail any initially set limitations for the use of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4446, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 35, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Limitations of study: Unambiguously identify and detail any initially set limitations for the use of the LCI/LCA study. These can be caused by the following (5.2.2): II.a) Impact coverage limitations such as in Carbon footprint calculations II.b) Methodological limitations of LCA in general or of specific method approaches applied II.c) Assumption limitations: Specific or uncommon assumptions / scenarios modelled for the analysed system [ISO+] Note that the initially identified limitations may need to be adjusted during the later LCA phases when all the related details are clear. Other possible limitations due to lack of achieved LCI data quality may also restrict the applicability; these are identified in the later interpretation phase of the study. 13 \"applicable\" means all requirements except for those that relate to the not covered parts: For product comparisons without conclusions and recommendations, the assertion-related provisions do not apply / cannot be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4447, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 35, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For LCI data sets all provisions that relate to the comparison do not apply / cannot be applied, as the comparison is done in the subsequent, external use of the LCI data set. 14 This and all other organisation names, product types / materials, brands and the like are purely illustrative and/or fictional.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4448, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 35, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience III) SHALL - Reasons for study: Unambiguously identify the internal or external reason(s) for carrying out the study and the specific decisions to be supported by its outcome, if applicable (5.2.3). IV) SHALL - Target audience of study: Unambiguously identify the audience(s) to whom the results of the study are foreseen to be communicated (5.2.4). V) SHALL - Type of audience: Classify the targeted audience(s) as being \u201cinternal\u201d, \u201crestricted external\u201d (e.g. specific business-to-business customers), or \u201cpublic\u201d. Differentiate also between \u201ctechnical\u201d and \u201dnon-technical\u201d audience (5.2.4). [ISO+] VI) SHALL - Comparisons involved?: Unambiguously state whether the study involves comparisons or comparative assertions across systems (e.g. products) and whether these are foreseen to be disclosed to the public (5.2.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4449, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 36, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "products) and whether these are foreseen to be disclosed to the public (5.2.5). [ISO!] VII) SHALL - Commissioner: Identify the commissioner of the study and all other influential actors such as co-financiers, LCA experts involved, etc. (5.2.6). 5.3 Classifying the decision-context as Situation A, B, or C (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) 5.3.1 Possible decision-context situations During the goal definition, the decision-context shall be identified. Three different decisioncontext situations of practical relevance in LCA can be differentiated. They differ in two15 aspects: \uf0b7 regarding the question whether the LCI/LCA study is to be used to support a decision on the analysed system (e.g. product or strategy), - and, if so: by the extent of changes that the decision implies in the background system and in other systems and that are caused via market mechanisms. These can be \"small\" (small-scale, non-structural) or \"big\" (large-scale, structural)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4450, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 36, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These can be \"small\" (small-scale, non-structural) or \"big\" (large-scale, structural). - and, if not so: whether the study is interested in interactions of the depicted system with other systems (e.g. recycling credits) or not The LCI modelling logic behind this differentiation is necessarily explained in the later chapters after the related concepts of attributional and consequential modelling and of shortterm and long-term marginal processes have been introduced. The principle considerations 15 The \"time\" a study refers to (e.g. past / retrospective for 1990 or future / prospective for 2025) does not affect the LCI modelling principles and method approaches but only the required time-representativeness of the used LCI data. Note that the life cycles of long-living products (e.g. houses) may stretch from the past well into the future. Hence also the use of e.g. forecasting and other scenario techniques, learning curves etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4451, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 36, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "houses) may stretch from the past well into the future. Hence also the use of e.g. forecasting and other scenario techniques, learning curves etc. are not a specific characteristic of any single goal situation but go across all of them. It is sometimes argued that the timehorizon \"future\" would be associated with \"consequential modelling\", while the \"past\" with \"attributional modelling\". However also future attributional data can be of interest (e.g. when extrapolating national, annual accounting data) as well as retrospective consequential modelling (i.e. \u201cHow would the inventory of product X have been if in the past the decision Y would have been made...?\u201d), while this latter case is of only theoretical interest. In conclusion however \"time\" is not a discriminating aspect for LCI methodological questions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4452, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 36, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience are however briefly sketched here to ease understanding of the implications of this classification: 5.3.2 Studies on decisions The first of these two aspects - whether a decision is to be supported - implies whether the study is interested in the potential consequences of this decision (e.g. whether the analysed decision on the choice of material X or Y for a product results in an additional amount of material X or Y to be produced). If this is the case, the LCI model should as good as possible reflect these consequences, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4453, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If this is the case, the LCI model should as good as possible reflect these consequences, e.g. how is the additionally required material produced? Does it even mean that new production facilities, employing distinct technologies need to be built? In contrast, if no decision support is involved, the LCI model should describe the analysed system as it is, without including any market consequences in the model (as no decision consequences are related to it). The second aspect - the extent of changes - further differentiates the decision support cases: Firstly, there are cases with only small-scale, non-structural consequences in the background system and potentially on other systems of the economy. These cases imply that only the extent is changed to which already installed equipment e.g. of a production facility is used (e.g. the existing technologies that produce material X)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4454, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These cases imply that only the extent is changed to which already installed equipment e.g. of a production facility is used (e.g. the existing technologies that produce material X). In the LCI model, the additional demand16 would then be modelled with the processes of the existing equipment / technologies. Secondly, there are cases that have large-scale, structural effects. These cases imply that the analysed decision results in additionally installed equipment or in its decommissioning beyond its normal phasing out (e.g. new production plants/technologies for material X need to be installed or old ones taken out of operation in direct market consequence of the analysed decision). I.e. at least parts of the technologies / equipment in the background system and/or other systems in the economy change as consequence of the analysed decision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4455, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. at least parts of the technologies / equipment in the background system and/or other systems in the economy change as consequence of the analysed decision. Often only a few processes actually have these large-scale effects and only those need the respective modelling; most of the background system will only have small-scale effects. However, for those processes affected, the difference between the \"big\" and \"small\" cases can be substantial, as newly installed technologies (e.g. second generation biofuel production plants) may differ fundamentally from the currently installed technologies that are modelled in case of small-scale consequences. It is important to stress that the above refers to changes in the background system or other systems that are caused via market-mechanisms, i.e. in reaction to changed demand and supply resulting from the analysed decision. Direct changes in the foreground system, (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4456, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in reaction to changed demand and supply resulting from the analysed decision. Direct changes in the foreground system, (e.g. the installation of a new technology that is analysed or is required to be installed at the producer's site as part of the analysed question) are to be modelled as explicit scenarios in both cases. 5.3.3 Studies of descriptive character Coming back to the case of a study that does not imply a direct decision-support in the way as defined above, i.e. not resulting in additional production, but being of an accounting / monitoring character: in that case, the LCI model will describe the system as it can be measured. However, for this case, two subtypes of studies can be differentiated: these are firstly studies that are interested in including any existing benefits the analysed system may have outside this system (e.g. benefits of recycling or of co-products that avoid producing 16 This applies analogously to additional supply and substitution, of course", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4457, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "benefits of recycling or of co-products that avoid producing 16 This applies analogously to additional supply and substitution, of course. This will be detailed later when the LCI modelling is explained.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4458, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 37, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience them in other ways). And secondly studies that aim at analysing the system in isolation without considering such interactions. Table 2 gives an overview of the resulting, practically relevant three archetypal goal situations that will be referred to throughout this document to provide the required, differentiated methodological guidance: Table 2 Combination of two main aspects of the decision-context: decision orientation and kind of consequences in background system or other systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4459, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 38, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Decision support? Yes Kind of process-changes in background system / other systems None or small-scale Large-scale Situation A \"Micro-level decision support\" Situation B \"Meso/macro-level decision support\" No Situation C \"Accounting\" (with C1: including interactions with other systems, C2: excluding interactions with other systems) The decision-context of the LCI/LCA study to be performed shall be classified as belonging to any of these three archetypal goal situations that are further characterised and illustrated as follows (see also Table 3 that maps widely used LCA applications with the corresponding Situation A, B, or C): 5.3.4 Situation A Terms and concepts: Situation A (\"Micro-level decision support\") Decision support on micro-level (e.g. for product-related questions)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4460, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 38, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for product-related questions). The most relevant applications of this goal situation are: - Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign / simplified LCA - Weak point analysis of a specific product - Detailed Ecodesign / Design-for-recycling - Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA / Ecodesign study - Comparison of specific goods or services - Benchmarking of specific products against the product group's average - Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) - Development of life cycle based Type I Ecolabel criteria - Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group - Development of a life cycle based Type III environmental declaration (e.g. Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4461, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 38, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience - Development of the \u201cCarbon footprint\u201d, \u201cPrimary energy consumption\u201d or similar indicator for a specific product - Greening the supply chain - Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use - Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) - Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation A Situation A refers to decision support directly or indirectly related to inform the purchase of products that are already offered in the market. Or to inform the design / development of products that are foreseen to entering the market. Accordingly, the product can be assumed to be produced only as consequence of the decision to be supported by the LCI/LCA study, i.e. in addition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4462, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 39, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Accordingly, the product can be assumed to be produced only as consequence of the decision to be supported by the LCI/LCA study, i.e. in addition. Note that these \"products\" can be any good or service (including materials, energy carriers, machines, complex consumer products, events, personal services, cleaning, etc.) both being direct subject of the study or indirectly affected by the analysed decision (e.g. choice of a material for a product that is produced in the background system).17 Given the limited share the total production of any single product18 has in an industrial sector, its production, use and end-of-life can be reasonably expected to cause none or only small changes in the background system or other systems of the economy that would not directly or indirectly structurally change it. Structural changes means e.g. the installation of new production plants or even technologies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4463, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 39, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Structural changes means e.g. the installation of new production plants or even technologies. Hence the term \"micro-level\" referring to changes that are caused via market mechanisms but only with small-scale consequences beyond the foreground system. These small-scale consequences may change the extent to which existing equipment / capacity is used, but without resulting in additionally installed or decommissioned equipment / capacity, beyond the independently ongoing installation and decommissioning. Small-scale marginal consequences alone are not strong enough to overcome thresholds and trigger large-scale consequences in the market. Typical keywords of such Situation A LCI/LCA studies are \u201cdecision support\u201d related to \u201cproduct comparison\u201d, \u201ccomparative assertion\u201d, \u201cproduct advance development\u201d, \u201cproduct development\u201d, \u201cproduct design\u201d, \"weak point analysis\", \"product benchmarking\" \u201cface-lift\u201d, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4464, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 39, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Situation A hence covers all studies that are intended to support any kind of product / micro level comparisons and comparative assertions. A typical example for a Situation A study is the purchase decision support: \u201cWhich of the preselected five technically suitable photocopier models is environmentally best performing over its life cycle?\u201d 17 Typically, but not necessarily, these cases refer to products being made in the short-term (up to 5 years from present) or mid-term (5 to 10 years from present) future. (The policy usage of \"short-term\" and \"mid-term\" is adopted here.) Note that the use and end-of-life stages of long-living products may continue well beyond this time-frame. 18 There are a few cases where the relevance of a single product may be higher, e.g. in highly monopolised markets. Also, if a product group (e.g. \"diesel fuel\") is understood to be one product, while more accurate the product would be the diesel fuel of brand X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4465, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 39, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in highly monopolised markets. Also, if a product group (e.g. \"diesel fuel\") is understood to be one product, while more accurate the product would be the diesel fuel of brand X. In this general form the \"product\" that can have a high share in the sector. In such cases where a clear classification of a study as Situation A or B is not possible, see the explanation and procedure given after the box for Situation B.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4466, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 39, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience An in-house decision support example would be an ecodesign study modelling a new type of computer mouse comparing different polymers for the casing. Equally, developing a product's Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) or its Carbon footprint data for informing potential customers are examples of Situation A studies. Situation A also covers the development of LCI and LCIA data that are meant to be used in LCA-based decision support (e.g. producer specific LCI data sets, LCIA results data sets, generic and average LCI data sets for background use, etc.). 5.3.5 Situation B Terms and concepts: Situation B (\"Meso/macro-level decision support\") Decision support on a meso or macro-level, such as for strategies (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4467, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 40, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options, etc.). The most relevant applications of this goal situation are: - Policy development: Forecasting & analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies, etc. and related policy development - Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential - Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation B Situation B refers to life cycle based decision support with consequences that are so extensive that they overcome thresholds and result in additionally installed or additionally decommissioned equipment / capacity (e.g. production infrastructure) outside the foreground system of the analysed system. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4468, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 40, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "production infrastructure) outside the foreground system of the analysed system. I.e. the analysed decision and related changes in production, use and end-of-life activities somewhere in the life cycle will via market mechanisms change parts of the rest of the economy by having large-scale structural effects19. Small-scale marginal consequences alone shall not be considered resulting in large-scale consequences, as they are too small to overcome thresholds. As a purely illustrative example, against the base-line scenario of autonomous development, the environmental implication of incinerating all Russian post-consumer waste might be analysed, recovering the energy and utilising it for electricity production. This would have consequences for the overall electricity production and investments into other electricityproducing technologies in Russia at a large scale. And it would affect the alternative uses of the waste (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4469, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 40, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "And it would affect the alternative uses of the waste (e.g. recycling of paper and plastic from packaging and other products, as being part of the base-line scenario). This would lead to changes of installed recycling capacity at a sector level. Note however that most background processes will be affected by small-scale consequences only. 19 These cases refer typically to the mid-term (5 to 10 years from present) or long-term (beyond 10 years from present) future.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4470, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 40, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Another example would be a study analysing e.g. the mandatory replacement by 2025 of 50 % of diesel fuel in the U.S. by crop-based bio-diesel, what would have substantial effects on the U.S. and even global agriculture, petro-refineries, and other sectors20. We are thus looking at changes with structural market implications beyond the foregroundsystem. This situation covers scenarios addressing questions like \u201cWhich pervasive technology system, raw material base, etc. is environmentally preferable over its life cycle?\u201d Such studies are typically strategic political studies or LCA-supported strategic research studies, which due to the extent of consequences have a high relevance for society and - next to appropriate LCI modelling - also require special attention regarding review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4471, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is important to note that also for such studies not all processes throughout the analysed system's life cycle show these large-scale effects. For example, consumables that are required only in small amounts are only affected with small-scale consequences. In fact, under Situation B, the majority of processes by number often will have only small-scale effects and the respective processes would be modelled according to Situation A. The key difference between Situation A and B is that under Situation B at least one process of the background system or other systems show these large-scale, structural consequences. And only these processes need the different modelling. Typical keywords of Situation B are among others \"strategy analysis\", \"policy development\", \u201cconcept development\u201d, \u201cpervasive technologies\u201d, and similar and often in combination with \u201craw material / energy / XY basis / technology\u201d etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4472, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "5.3.6 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation A and B There can be cases, where a study cannot easily be clearly assigned to either Situation A or B. This is on the one hand the case when a meso-level study of strategic character is affecting a too small part of the market to trigger any large-scale structural consequences in the background system or other systems. 20 For an introduction of 50% bio-fuels in the U.S. diesel fuel, the installed capacity for production of petro-based diesel could reasonably be expected to experience a similar decrease of about 50% (while corrected for economy-wide consumption level changes), as consequence of this potential decision. This could be expected to happen e.g. via changing the product profile of existing crude oil refineries, by closing the least marketcompetitive refineries, and other measures. Therefore, the LCI modelling also of the petro-based diesel production would need to be changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4473, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Therefore, the LCI modelling also of the petro-based diesel production would need to be changed. In fact, the consequences would also affect the inventory of other refinery products. As however counteracting consequences, an increased export of diesel from the US to other markets could be assumed. Another direct consequence in the above example would be the need of identifying the agricultural land to produce this big amount of additionally required bio-fuel (e.g. by cropping canola in Canada, soybeans in the US, or planting oil palms in Malaysia). Under the assumption that the global demand and hence production for food and other crops would also still to be met, the additionally required land has to come from somewhere else. Also if existing agricultural land would be used for producing bio-fuels, it could be expected that the replaced crops, e.g. wheat for bread baking in the US, would be produced elsewhere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4474, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also if existing agricultural land would be used for producing bio-fuels, it could be expected that the replaced crops, e.g. wheat for bread baking in the US, would be produced elsewhere. While also intensified production could be assumed to contribute its share to meet the increased demand of agricultural output, an absolute additional need for agricultural land might be identified that would need to be met by converting a certain amount of nature to fields or plantations. This could be both nature land in the U.S. but also in other countries, including the e.g. Brazilian or Malaysian rainforest. This example also illustrates that both e.g. palm oil from Malaysia and e.g. soybean oil from the U.S. could cause - directly of indirectly and to different degrees - the conversion of natural forest into fields or plantations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4475, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "palm oil from Malaysia and e.g. soybean oil from the U.S. could cause - directly of indirectly and to different degrees - the conversion of natural forest into fields or plantations. Note that the above examples and potential consequences are purely illustrative and that a deeper analysis would be required to identify the most likely consequences and scenarios of such a \"50% bio fuels in the U.S. diesel fuel\" study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4476, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 41, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience On the other hand, there can be studies on a \"product\" that are in fact more related to a broader technology, a range of products, or a product group that all further develop and implement this technology and thereby cause large-scale changes on a meso-level (e.g. sector). This can especially happen with rather \"narrow\" sectors, e.g. of basic materials or energy carriers, where the number of different products (i.e. brands) is far lower than e.g. for most consumer products. For deciding whether such a study belongs to Situation A or B, the guiding criteria shall be whether the analysed decision implies large-scale consequences in the installed equipment / capacity outside the foreground system of the analysed system that occur via market mechanisms of demand and supply. In that case Situation B applies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4477, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In that case Situation B applies. In the case of exclusively small-scale consequences on the extent to which existing capacity is used, Situation A applies. Large-scale (\"big\") consequences shall generally be assumed if the annual additional demand or supply that is triggered by the analysed decision exceeds the capacity of the annually replaced installed capacity that provides the additionally demanded process, product, or broader function, as applicable; if that percentage is over 5 %, 5 %21 should be assumed instead. An example: the installed capacity for production of the globally22 traded material X, that might be required in consequence of the analysed decision to produce product Y, might be e.g. 10 Mio tonnes. The plants for producing material X might have a lifetime of 25 years (i.e. 4 % of this are replaced annually and on average)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4478, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "10 Mio tonnes. The plants for producing material X might have a lifetime of 25 years (i.e. 4 % of this are replaced annually and on average). In that case, an annual demand of more than 0.04*10*10^6 t = 400,000 t of material X shall be assumed to have the large-scale consequence of triggering additional installation of capacity beyond the replacement of old plants. This applies analogously to strongly falling markets, as the speed with which equipment is naturally phased out is equally determined by its lifetime. Next to additional demand, also additional supply (e.g. as co-product from a process of the analysed system) can have large-scale consequences. The above explanations and provisions also applies to cases of multifunctionality and provision of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4479, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as co-product from a process of the analysed system) can have large-scale consequences. The above explanations and provisions also applies to cases of multifunctionality and provision of e.g. additional goods or services to a market: if the annually provided amount is larger than the average replacement rate of the installed capacity of the superseded alternative good or service, this falls under Situation B and requires a different modelling. Situation A would not be appropriate, as such big amounts would result in other consequences in the market than merely replacing alternative production; the market could not absorb them without structural changes. An example is the production of rapeseed based biodiesel that results in large amounts of glycerine as co-product that additionally enters the market. This might cause large-scale consequences in other systems, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4480, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This might cause large-scale consequences in other systems, e.g. in this case that existing glycerine production capacity is reduced beyond the age-dependent decommissioning of glycerine plants23. In slight difference to additional demand, this relates only to the alternative routes/processes that provide the superseded function. In the case the additional demand or supply does not relate to a specific process or product (e.g. straw as co-product of rice production) but to a broader function (e.g. dry 21 This acknowledges that the market signal is related to both the equipment replacement rate and the share of market supply that is related to the analysed decision. 22 For goods almost exclusively traded within one country, the production amount of that country is relevant. For goods traded across countries or in bigger markets, the approximate production amount in the relevant market is the relevant production amount to be considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4481, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For goods traded across countries or in bigger markets, the approximate production amount in the relevant market is the relevant production amount to be considered. 23 In fact, basically all glycerine plants worldwide have been shut down by now, in response to the large amount of the biodiesel co-produced glycerine.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4482, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 42, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience lignocellulosic biomass), the above applies analogously, covering however all relevant alternative processes / products that provide that function. Note again that all the above refers to additional demand in the background system and in other systems. Any newly installed capacity in the foreground system does not result in the need of a different LCI model as the foreground system is to be modelled explicitly (via measurement or as explicit scenarios; this is the same for all Situations). Market mechanisms can only act on processes in the background system. 5.3.7 Situation C Terms and concepts: Situation C (\"Accounting\") Purely descriptive accounting / documentation of the analysed system (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4483, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 43, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "5.3.7 Situation C Terms and concepts: Situation C (\"Accounting\") Purely descriptive accounting / documentation of the analysed system (e.g. a product, need fulfilment, sector, country, etc.) of the past, present or forecasted future, and without implying a decision-context that would account for potential additional consequences on other systems. Two sub-cases need to be differentiated: In Situation C1 (\"Accounting, with system-external interactions\"), existing interactions with other systems are included in the LCI model (e.g. considering recycling benefits or avoided production for co-products). Note that these \"interactions\" refer to existing interactions with other systems only. This is in contrast to the additional consequences24 that are assumed to occur under Situation A and B, and that are assumed to be caused by the analysed decision. Situation C2 accounts for the analysed system in isolation, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4484, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 43, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Situation C2 accounts for the analysed system in isolation, i.e. interactions with other systems are not accounted for, but cases of recycling and co-production are solved inside the system model (by allocation)25", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4485, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 43, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The most relevant applications of this goal situation are, for the two sub-types C1 and C2: Situation C1: - Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group, or product - Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type of studies - Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact - Corporate or site environmental reporting including indirect effects under Environmental Management Systems (EMS) - Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply-chain - Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C1 Situation C2: 24 Existing / past interactions between systems as depicted in Situation C1 can also be understood as \"existing / past consequences\" on the background system. This is in contrast to the \"additional / future consequences\" of Situation A and B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4486, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 43, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is in contrast to the \"additional / future consequences\" of Situation A and B. System expansion and substitution could hence also be classified as a third modelling principle \"interactional\" that has applications in both consequential and attributional modelling. This also explains why system expansion / substitution fits into both the theoretically attributional framework of Situation C1 and the consequential framework of Situations A and B. 25 In economic modelling, C1 is equivalent to calculating the production cost of the analysed good by subtracting from the total production value the obtainable market prices of all co-products. Situation C2 is equivalent to allocating the production cost among the co-products using other criteria.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4487, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 43, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience - Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems - Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C2 In Situation C, no direct decision is to be made based on the results of the LCA, as the whole life cycle has already been decided before the analysis takes place. I.e. the LCI model is only documenting what has happened (or is going to happen in future during e.g. during the use of long-living products that have already been produced)26. From a decision-perspective, the LCI/LCA study is purely retrospective and the results are intended exclusively for accountingtype purposes. Such studies can hence not be used to directly inform e.g. purchase decisions or answer political \"what if\" scenarios", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4488, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such studies can hence not be used to directly inform e.g. purchase decisions or answer political \"what if\" scenarios. An example would be the analysis of how various post consumer plastic packaging waste treatment technologies have performed in the past; this can be analysed under Situation C1 or C2. The future performance of these technologies - even if the same technologies are used - depends however also on e.g. how much secondary plastics a technology would produce and which uses exist for these. Hence, for this kind of decision support Situation A or B would apply. Among accounting / monitoring type studies of Situation C, two cases C1 and C2 need to be differentiated that require a different LCI modelling: C1: For life cycle based monitoring of e.g. all products of a certain product group that are produced in a certain time-frame (e.g. a given year), the \u201cnormal\u201d full life cycle of the products produced in that time-frame is accounted for, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4489, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "all products of a certain product group that are produced in a certain time-frame (e.g. a given year), the \u201cnormal\u201d full life cycle of the products produced in that time-frame is accounted for, i.e. including the measured or forecasted life cycle inventory of the later use and end-of-life stage of the respective amount of these products. An example is the monitoring time-series of the life cycle inventory of e.g. all cars (or: the average car) produced annually in France. This kind of studies belongs to Situation C1. Situation C1 studies can be used to compare the past performance of alternative systems and pointing out the most beneficial alternatives. This however without implying that the result would be the same for the future if a comparative decision was to be made between the alternatives, i.e. one alternative would be purchased or politically promoted and the other not27. C2: For monitoring e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4490, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "one alternative would be purchased or politically promoted and the other not27. C2: For monitoring e.g. of product groups with a system boundary that is strictly referring to a certain time-frame (e.g. a given year), only the interventions that take place in that timeframe are accounted for. An example is the monitoring time-series of all car-related activities (e.g. car production, car use, car recycling, etc.) for the total amount of cars operated in a given year in France. That necessarily leads to a distortion in the life cycle of long-living goods (here: cars), as the goods that are produced in the reference year are inventoried, 26 One can also model future-related accounting data (e.g. by extrapolating the life cycle data and model basis that has been used for calculating past accounting data). This is however more an extrapolation of past data than an originally future-related accounting model. Much more typical is in any case a backward looking use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4491, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is however more an extrapolation of past data than an originally future-related accounting model. Much more typical is in any case a backward looking use. 27 This can be illustrated with a C1-type analysis of rapeseed based biodiesel production in the year 1990, crediting the co-product glycerine with the avoided alternative petro-based glycerine production. In that year 1990, the co-product gylcerine was entirely absorbed by the market and thereby has avoided petro-based glycerine production. This is however not necessarily the case when now promoting rapeseed based biodiesel e.g. by setting the political goal in the U.S. of e.g. 20% of the national diesel production to be biodiesel: the huge amounts of additional glycerine that would result cannot be absorbed by the market in the same way as a small amount could be - the demand is not big enough. The glycerine might even potentially be waste instead of a co-product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4492, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The glycerine might even potentially be waste instead of a co-product. The results of the study performed as Situation C1 would hence misinform the policy. If hence the aim of the study would be to analyse the environmental impact of additional biodiesel production, that study would have to be performed as Situation A or B study, depending on the scale of production and related consequences.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4493, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 44, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience while the inventoried use-stage emissions are those of the e.g. cars used in that year, i.e. including all those still operated older cars with potentially lower emission standards. At the same time does this kind of inventorying not account for the past production of the cars that are operated in the given time-frame and not for the future use and recyclability of the cars produced in that year. Apart from difficulties in interpreting the results of such indicators, this kind of studies belongs to Situation C2. Another example are studies that aim at providing accounting type of information, where a change in demand does not affect the background system in a consequential manner, but via established supply-chain agreements, requiring to model the supply-chain as Situation C1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4494, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 45, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Certification of wood products is an example where the supply-chain steps of using XY certified wood would be fixed / guaranteed28, including in the background system29. At the same time, accounting data, especially under Situation C1, informs decision and policy makers about developments e.g. related to a region as a whole or e.g. for specific service / activity groups (such as e.g. housing, individual mobility, food, etc.). This can be also in a comparative manner (e.g. when comparing the environmental impact potential of an average citizen across countries). Such data can for example also show which share different e.g. housing types (e.g. flats in high-rise buildings, single family houses, etc.) have in the overall national housing impact, per m2, or per citizen. Accounting studies hence identify unwanted developments or show the achievements made based on implemented decisions or policies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4495, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 45, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Accounting studies hence identify unwanted developments or show the achievements made based on implemented decisions or policies. However, to develop policy measures or support other decisions, other LCI modelling methods are to be employed: those used under Situation A or B. Typical keywords of Situation C LCI/LCA studies are \"accounting\", \"monitoring\", \u201cretrospective\u201d, \u201cdocumentation\u201d, etc. in relation to \"product\", \"basket-of-products\", \"needs fulfilment\", \"sector\", \"country\", \"average citizen\", etc. 5.3.8 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation C and A / B It is important to clearly differentiate whether a comparative decision support is to be supported by the study, i.e. whether the study and data shall inform which of compared alternatives is to be preferred because of better environmental performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4496, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 45, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "whether the study and data shall inform which of compared alternatives is to be preferred because of better environmental performance. Often studies are labelled \"Monitoring\" while they nevertheless involve decision support questions and directly imply recommendations and/or policy measures and belong hence under Situation A or B. Other studies aim at describing systems including their external benefits but without intending to make recommendations, support purchase decisions, or directly derive policy measures from them: E.g. \"Monitoring of waste management systems in different Eastern Europe countries\" may aim at identifying which waste management systems have been most or least environmentally advantageous. This question implies that e.g. credits for recovered energy and recycled materials should be given to the analysed systems to capture their 28 See however chapter 6.8.2 on the restriction on non-scalable processes, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4497, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 45, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "credits for recovered energy and recycled materials should be given to the analysed systems to capture their 28 See however chapter 6.8.2 on the restriction on non-scalable processes, e.g. hydropower in some countries, where the specific supply cannot be extended and the market mix is to be used. This would also apply here, if the potential of XY certified wood would be relevantly restructured and not scalable to a relevant degree to meet an additional demand. 29 A certification example where this does not work is a certification system that only relates to the direct supplier, but not all the way into the background system.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4498, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 45, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience comparative performance. This study is however not automatically implying direct e.g. policy measures and hence belongs to Situation C1. Situation C1 lies hence between A/B and C2, being retrospective but accounting for benefits on other systems e.g. via co-products and recycling. In practice, a larger number of accounting-type studies can be found that belong to Situation C1. In other cases it might be the explicit interest to provide accounting type life cycle information (e.g. for a product, site, etc.) without including existing interactions with other systems. In that case Situation C1 applies. The accounting character of these studies shall be stated explicitly in the goal of the study and the restrictions for decision support and comparisons the study has are to be clarified in the reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4499, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 46, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 5.3 Classifying the decision-context Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. I) SHALL - Identify applicable goal situation: Identify the type of decision-context of the LCI/LCA study, i.e. to which of the archetypal goal situations A, B, C1, or C2 the study belongs. Draw on the goal aspects \"intended applications\" (chapter 5.2.1) and \"specific decisions to be supported\" (chapter 5.2.3)), as follows: [ISO!] I.a) Situation A - \"Micro-level decision support\": Decision support, typically at the level of products, but also single process steps, sites/companies and other systems, with no or exclusively small-scale consequences in the background system or on other systems. I.e. the consequences of the analysed decision alone are too small to overcome thresholds and trigger structural changes of installed capacity elsewhere via market mechanisms 30", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4500, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 46, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Situation A covers among others the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to another goal situation than A shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions (see also the specific provisions below for differentiating between Situation A and B, and between Situation C and A/B): \uf0b7 Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign / simplified LCA \uf0b7 Weak point analysis of a specific product \uf0b7 Detailed Ecodesign / Design-for-recycling \uf0b7 Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA / Ecodesign study \uf0b7 Comparison of specific goods or services \uf0b7 Benchmarking of specific products against the product group's average \uf0b7 Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) \uf0b7 Development of life cycle based Type I Ecolabel criteria \uf0b7 Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group \uf0b7 Development of a life cycle based Type III environmental declaration (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4501, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 46, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "30 Note that these small-scale consequences shall not be interpreted, as per se resulting in large-scale consequences on installed capacity, i.e. shall be covered under Situation A.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4502, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 46, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service \uf0b7 Development of the 'Carbon footprint', 'Primary energy consumption' or similar indicator for a specific product \uf0b7 Greening the supply chain \uf0b7 Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use \uf0b7 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) \uf0b7 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation A I.b) Situation B - \"Meso/macro-level decision support\": Decision support for strategies with large-scale consequences in the background system or other systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4503, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 47, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The analysed decision alone is large enough to result via market mechanisms in structural changes of installed capacity in at least one process outside the foreground system of the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4504, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 47, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Situation B covers among others the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to a goal situation other than B shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions (see also the specific provisions below for differentiating between Situation A and B and between Situation C and A/B): \uf0b7 Policy development: Forecasting & analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies, and related policy development \uf0b7 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential \uf0b7 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation B It is important to note that the LCI modelling provisions for Situation B (see chapter 6.5.4.3) refer exclusively to those processes that are affected by these large-scale consequences. The other parts of the background system of the life cycle model will later be modelled as \"Situation A\", i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4505, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 47, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The other parts of the background system of the life cycle model will later be modelled as \"Situation A\", i.e. typically all the processes with a smaller contribution to the overall results. I.c) Situation C - \"Accounting\": From a decision-making point of view, a retrospective accounting / documentation of what has happened (or will happen based on extrapolating forecasting), with no interest in any additional consequences that the analysed system may have in the background system or on other systems. Situation C has two sub-types: C1 and C2. C1 describes an existing system but accounts for interactions it has with other systems (e.g. crediting existing avoided burdens from recycling). C2 describes an existing system in isolation without accounting for the interaction with other systems. This may cover the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to a goal situation other than C1 or C2 shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4506, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 47, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This may cover the LCA applications listed below; any deviating assignment to a goal situation other than C1 or C2 shall be justified and be in line with the above provisions. See also the specific provision below for differentiating between Situation C and A/B: I.c.i) Situation C1 - \"Accounting with interactions\": \uf0b7 Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group, or product \uf0b7 Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4507, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 47, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact \uf0b7 Corporate or site environmental reporting including indirect effects under Environmental Management Systems (EMS) \uf0b7 Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply-chain \uf0b7 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C1 I.c.ii) Situation C2 - \"Accounting without interactions\": \uf0b7 Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems \uf0b7 Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in Situation C2 Note that any decision support that would be derived needs to employ the methods under Situation A or B, with Situation C having a preparatory role only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4508, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 48, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note however that due to the simplified provisions of this document, the modelling of Situation A studies (micro-level decision support) is identical to that of Situation C1 studies, but not vice versa. II) SHALL - Situation A or B: Where a study cannot initially be clearly assigned to either Situation A or B, for example when analysing major strategies of market-dominating companies or product-related questions of market-dominating products. In this situation, the guiding criteria shall be whether the consequences of the analysed decision alone are big enough to overcome related thresholds and/or other constraints and result in large-scale consequences in the installed production capacity outside the foreground system. Then: Situation B. If not: Situation A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4509, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 48, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Then: Situation B. If not: Situation A. Large-scale consequences shall generally be assumed if the annual additional demand or supply, triggered by the analysed decision, exceeds the capacity of the annually replaced installed capacity of the additionally demanded or supplied process, product, or broader function, as applicable. If that percentage is bigger than 5 %, 5 % should be used instead. [ISO!] III) SHALL - Situation C1 or A/B: In the case a study cannot initially be clearly assigned to either Situation C1 or A/B, for example when it is a monitoring study but involves a comparative decision support. In this situation the guiding criteria shall be whether a comparative decision support is to be given by the LCI/LCA study, i.e. whether the study shall be used to support decisions on alternatives with better or worse environmental performance. Then Situation A or B applies, depending on small-scale or large-scale consequences; see related provisions. If not, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4510, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 48, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Then Situation A or B applies, depending on small-scale or large-scale consequences; see related provisions. If not, i.e. the study is only retrospectively informing about better performance in the past, then Situation C applies. [ISO!] Table 3 maps widely used LCA applications to the required study deliverables and the corresponding goal situation A, B, or C. Chapter 6.5.4 provides the overview of the LCI modelling provisions for Situation, A, B, and C. Figure 3 provides an overview on which chapters of this document identify the detailed modelling differences for Situations A, B, and C.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4511, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 48, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness Independently from the specific goal situation, other aspects of the intended applications determine whether more methodological flexibility is required or whether strictness / reproducibility is key: as one extreme, in Situation A, the development of an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) or of a Carbon footprint indicator require a very high degree of strictness to enable a high degree of reproducibility and thereby sufficient comparability of the results for competing products. As the other extreme, in Situation B, comparative assertions of policy options for different future raw materials strategies (e.g. biofuels vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4512, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 49, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As the other extreme, in Situation B, comparative assertions of policy options for different future raw materials strategies (e.g. biofuels vs. fossil fuels) need to work with extensive scenario analysis including of the LCI method principles and approaches to ensure the robustness of the conclusions and recommendations. That means that especially for Situation A, a further narrowed down and specified guidance would be beneficial. Such would need to interpret the general guidance as laid down in this document from the perspective of the types of processes and products to be modelled. It would convert the generic Provisions into more specific Provisions. Such product-group or process-type specific guidance documents, e.g. in form of Product Category Rules (PCRs) are hence seen as beneficial for further improving the reproducibility of studies done under Situation A", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4513, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 49, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in form of Product Category Rules (PCRs) are hence seen as beneficial for further improving the reproducibility of studies done under Situation A. The development of such PCR-type guidance documents is a subsequent step and potentially to be lead by the respective industry sectors. To ensure consistency with the provisions of this present guidance and the other ILCD guidance documents, the critical review of such PCR-type documents is covered in the separate document \"Review schemes for LCA\". Provisions: 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness I) SHALL - Product-group and process-type specific guides and PCRs: [ISO+] I.a) Need for specific guides and PCRs: To further the reproducibility of LCI/LCA studies, the development of ILCD-compliant sector, product-group or processtype specific guidance documents and/or Product Category Rules (PCR) is recommended. A specific guide or PCR is ILCD-compliant in its provisions, if these are in line (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4514, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 49, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A specific guide or PCR is ILCD-compliant in its provisions, if these are in line (i.e. not contradicting) with the provisions of this document and other referenced ILCD Handbook documents. They can therefore be stricter or more specific, but not less. I.b) Specific guides and PCRs overrule ILCD Handbook: If such guides or PCRs have been developed and approved in an ILCD-compliant review process, the provisions in these guides or PCRs shall be applied for the product-groups and process-types they cover. Therefore, they overrule the broader provisions of the ILCD Handbook. See also chapter 2.3. The document \"Review schemes for LCA\" provides information on the applicable review type. The forthcoming specific documents on \"Reviewer qualification\" and \"Review scope, methods and documentation\" for product-group and process-type specific guides and PCRs give the complementary requirements.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4515, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 49, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 5 Goal definition \u2013 identifying purpose and target audience 5.5 Optionally extending the goal (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) The foreseen goal of the LCI/LCA study may be extended to include additional applications of secondary interest, e.g. development of an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) for business customers using the same life cycle model that will be developed for in-house benchmarking, weak point analysis, and/or use in product improvement / ecodesign, etc. or vice versa. This extension of the goal should be done initially, as it then typically means little additional effort, while a later expansion might require substantial additional resources for collection of missing or too coarse data or the need to remodel the system differently (e.g. with parameters)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4516, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 50, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "with parameters). Provisions: 5.5 Optionally extending the goal I) MAY - Extending the goal?: Consider extending the goal to further uses / applications of the LCI/LCA study in order to benefit from synergies. [ISO+]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4517, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 50, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3) 6.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.1) During the scope definition phase the object of the LCI/LCA study (i.e. the exact product or other system(s) to be analysed) is identified and defined in detail. This shall be done in line with the goal definition. Next and main part of the scope definition is to derive the requirements on methodology, quality, reporting, and review in accordance with the goal of the study, i.e. based on the reasons for the study, the decision-context, the intended applications, and the addressees of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4518, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 51, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "When deriving the scope of an LCI/LCA study from the goal, the following scope items shall be clearly described and/or defined: \uf0b7 The type(s) of the deliverable(s) of the LCI/LCA study, in line with the intend application(s) (chapter 6.3) \uf0b7 The system or process that is studied and its function(s), functional unit, and reference flow(s) (chapter 6.4, which names case-specific provisions) \uf0b7 LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes and products (chapter 6.5) \uf0b7 System boundaries, completeness requirements, and related cut-off rules (chapter 6.6) \uf0b7 LCIA impact categories to be covered and selection of specific LCIA methods to be applied as well as - if included - normalisation data and weighting set (chapter 6.7) \uf0b7 Other LCI data quality requirements regarding technological, geographical and timerelated representativeness and appropriateness (chapter 6.8) \uf0b7 Types, quality and sources of required data and information (chapter 6.9), and here especially the required", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4519, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 51, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "geographical and timerelated representativeness and appropriateness (chapter 6.8) \uf0b7 Types, quality and sources of required data and information (chapter 6.9), and here especially the required precision and maximum permitted uncertainties (chapter 6.9.2) \uf0b7 Special requirements for comparisons between systems (chapter 6.10) \uf0b7 Identifying critical review needs (chapter 6.11) \uf0b7 Planning reporting of the results (chapter 6.12) The procedure is described in more detail in the further subchapters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4520, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 51, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The order of the subchapters follows the main LCA workflow logic. At the same time the interrelatedness of some items and the iterative nature of LCA limits this somewhat. In the subsequent iterations the initial scope definition of the LCI/LCA study (and in some cases even the goal) often is to be fine-tuned or even revised due to unforeseen limitations or constraints or as a result of other additional information. The final documentation of the LCI/LCA study shall reflect this, including the consequence for the achieved levels of completeness, precision, accuracy, etc. and intended applications. Before addressing the different aspects of the scope definition in more detail, two crosscutting requirements on LCA will be briefly addressed. Note that these require being explicitly checked and referred to in the sub-sequent work and be documented: \uf0b7 Consistency of methods, assumptions, and data (chapter 6.2.1) \uf0b7 Reproducibility (chapter 6.2.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4521, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 51, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.2 Overview and basic requirements (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.1) 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions, and data (Refers to aspect covered under ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) An important underlying requirement in LCA is to ensure sufficient consistency of methods and assumptions as well as data throughout the LCI/LCA study. This relates to all phases and aspects of LCA work and is a prerequisite for validity of results and appropriateness of any comparison. The following is to be kept in mind throughout all steps of the scope phase: \uf0b7 In order to ensure the quality of the results, all assumptions shall be made in a consistent way for the different parts of the analysed system (e.g. whether energy calculations use the upper or lower calorific value)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4522, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 52, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "whether energy calculations use the upper or lower calorific value). The used LCI data shall also be consistent across the system to the extent required to meet the overall necessary accuracy, completeness and precision of the study (as to be identified in chapter 6.9.2). For comparisons e.g. of products this means among others that the same product use patterns are assumed, that the same life cycle stages are included, that the inventory data has approximately the same degree of accuracy and precision, etc. \uf0b7 Likewise, the application of all methods (e.g. for estimating emissions from unit processes or for calculating impacts from these emissions in the impact assessment) shall be foreseen to be done in a uniform way throughout the study and in accordance with the goal and scope definition. In particular it shall be ensured that the life cycle is modelled applying the same methodological provisions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4523, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 52, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In particular it shall be ensured that the life cycle is modelled applying the same methodological provisions (e.g. as defined for Situation A) and uses the same elementary flow nomenclature throughout the whole system model and also across all compared systems in case of comparative studies. This applies to both all the background data set and the specific foreground data that will be collected (see chapter 6.9). This equally implies that the same LCIA methods (e.g. impact indicators, spatial and/or time differentiation, etc.) shall be applied for all systems in comparative studies (see chapter 6.7). \uf0b7 Foresee that any inconsistencies of the above shall be documented and should be demonstrated / justified as being insignificant for the environmental impact results of the system(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4524, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 52, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Foresee that any inconsistencies of the above shall be documented and should be demonstrated / justified as being insignificant for the environmental impact results of the system(s). If this insignificance cannot be shown, this shall be explicitly considered when stating the achieved quality (in case of an LCI or LCIA data set or study) or drawing the conclusions and recommendations (in case of an LCA study). In summary: during scope definition and in the later inventory and impact assessment phases, efforts must be made to ensure a high degree of consistency regarding all important methodological and data aspects of the LCA and for all relevantly contributing processes of the system. The actually achieved consistency is to be checked as part of the evaluation step in the interpretation phase (see chapter 9.3) and is to be considered in drawing conclusions and recommendations and in communication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4525, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 52, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions and data Applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - Methods and assumptions consistency: All methods and assumptions shall be applied in a sufficiently consistent way to all life cycle stages, processes,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4526, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 52, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how parameters, and flows of the analysed system(s), including across foreground and background system(s) as required in line with the goal of the study. This also applies to LCIA methods and factors and normalisation and weighting, if included. II) SHALL - Data consistency: All LCI data shall be sufficiently consistent regarding accuracy, precision, and completeness, in line with the goal of the study. III) SHALL - Dealing with inconsistencies: Any inconsistencies of the above shall be documented. The inconsistencies should be insignificant for the environmental impact results of the analysed system or, for LCA studies, for the conclusions and recommendations drawn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4527, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 53, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The inconsistencies should be insignificant for the environmental impact results of the analysed system or, for LCA studies, for the conclusions and recommendations drawn. Otherwise, this should result in revising the goal settings or the inconsistencies shall be explicitly considered when later reporting the achieved quality (in case of an LCI or LCIA data set or study31) or drawing the conclusions and recommendations (in case of an LCA study). 6.2.2 Reproducibility (Refers to aspect covered under ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) Reproducibility is another important requirement for LCA that shall be met: the achieved reproducibility of an LCI/LCA study is a qualitative assessment in how far the documented methods, assumptions, and data / data sources would allow an independent practitioner to sufficiently reproduce the results of the LCI/LCA study and any conclusions or recommendations drawn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4528, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 53, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is important for the credibility of the LCI/LCA study and an important item for review. A good reproducibility of LC/LCA studies is supported by a clear guidance for the LCA work (e.g. the one defined in the ILCD Handbook), by applying it in a consistent and transparent way, and by documenting this appropriately in the report of the study and/or data set. The ILCD LCA report template and LCI reference data set format support an appropriate and efficient technical documentation for informing expert users and reviewers and for being a starting point and reference to develop communication means for non-technical audience. In many cases of published LCI/LCA studies, there is a need to balance the reproducibility and confidentiality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4529, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 53, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In many cases of published LCI/LCA studies, there is a need to balance the reproducibility and confidentiality. An independent and external critical review of the data is the suitable means to guarantee data quality of LCI data sets and the robustness / reproducibility of the results of comparative LCA studies, while equally meeting confidentiality needs: Public transparency on all data and parameters should be provided as far as confidentiality allows for it. If public transparency is not possible, the evaluation of the reproducibility shall be supported via giving confidential access to the confidential information (typically unit process and/or raw data, as well as related assumptions and parameters) exclusively to the critical reviewer(s). Public access shall be given in any case to the appropriate meta-documentation of the modelled system(s) including on applied LCI and LCIA methods, the main data sources used, relevant assumptions and limitations made, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4530, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 53, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For comparative LCA studies, the LCI results and LCIA results shall always be public, i.e. cannot be exclusively put into the confidential report. 31 See 6.3 for different types of deliverables of an LCI/LCA study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4531, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 53, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.2.2 Reproducibility I) SHALL - Documentation for reproducibility: Documentation of the methods, assumptions and data / data sources used in the LCI/LCA study (see chapter 10) shall be appropriate and transparent to the extent that would enable another LCA practitioner to sufficiently reproduce the results. I.a) In the case of an LCI or LCIA data set or study31, this refers to the LCIA results. I.b) In the case of an LCA study, this refers to any conclusions or recommendations drawn. II) MAY - Accompanying documentation process: It is recommended to begin the documentation from the beginning of the project, electronically or on paper, and guided by the final need for reporting, and to revise / fine-tune the initial documentation over the course of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4532, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 54, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] III) SHALL - Confidential information: For underlying confidential or proprietary data and information that cannot be published, a separate confidential report may be foreseen. This report shall be made available to the critical reviewer(s) under confidentiality (in case a critical review is required or anticipated). See also chapter 10.3.4. Note: The separately available LCA report template and LCI data set format support an appropriate and efficient technical documentation for informing expert users and reviewers. It is a starting point and reference to develop communication for a non-technical audience. [ISO+] 6.3 Types of LCI and LCA deliverables and intended applications (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) The appropriate type of deliverable is derived from the goal of the LCI/LCA study, especially the intended applications. This is unless the type is already directly specified in the goal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4533, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 54, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is unless the type is already directly specified in the goal. This step is typically done very early in the scope definition, as the necessary depth and the width of LCI/LCA study can differ considerably among the types. In ISO 14044:2006 this issue is addressed only implicitly throughout the standard; there is hence no clear corresponding chapter in ISO 14044:2006", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4534, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 54, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In ISO 14044:2006 this issue is addressed only implicitly throughout the standard; there is hence no clear corresponding chapter in ISO 14044:2006. The most commonly used possible types of deliverables are as follows from the basic to the more comprehensive ones: \uf0b7 Life Cycle Inventory (\"LCI\") study and/or data set, in the following variants: - Unit process study and/or data set, with two sub-types (concept see Figure 7): \u00b0 Single operation unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) \u00b0 Black box unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) - Partly terminated system data set (variants: fixed or parameterised) - Life Cycle Inventory results (\"LCI results\") study and/or data set \uf0b7 Life Cycle Impact Assessment results (\"LCIA results\") study and/or data set - Non-comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"LCA study\"), i.e. including impact assessment and interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4535, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 54, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how - Comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Comparative LCA study\"), in the following variants: \u00b0 Non-assertive comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Non-assertive comparative LCA study\") \u00b0 Comparative assertion Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Comparative assertion LCA study\"), with superiority, inferiority or equality of any compared alternatives are explicitly concluded \uf0b7 Detailed LCI model of the analysed system (if more detailed scenario analysis is intended (e.g. in detailed ecodesign). Note: For studies that develop LCIA models, methods and factors see the separate guidance document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\". Table 3 gives an overview, which type(s) of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study are required as input for each of the intended application32", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4536, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 55, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Table 3 gives an overview, which type(s) of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study are required as input for each of the intended application32. It also shows to which of the three archetypal goal situations each intended application typically belongs and which specific ISO standard relates to that type of deliverable, if any. The required form of reporting depends on several factors; next to the type of deliverable and the intended applications also e.g. the addressees influence this; the related detailed provisions are found in chapter 10. 32 All LCA studies ultimately go back to unit processes and beyond that to the original measurements or modelling of the process emissions etc. However, the kind of LCI/LCA deliverable that is to be developed as direct starting point for the named LCA application can be e.g. an LCA study, an LCI results data sets, a product-groups specific KEPI-based tool, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4537, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 55, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "an LCA study, an LCI results data sets, a product-groups specific KEPI-based tool, etc. LCI results and unit process data sets are also always interim steps of any specific LCA study. Note that typically a range of other information and data, specific software tools, as well as specific expertise and experience is required, of course. This is not further detailed here as out of the scope of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4538, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 55, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Table 3 Most common types of LCI/LCA study deliverables required for specific LCA applications (indicative overview). The most suitable ones are to be decided upon depending on the specific case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4539, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 56, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Application areas / Purposes LCA applications (from perspective of life cycle information user or provider) LCI / LCA type of deliverable and / or application required as direct input for the \"LCA application\"33, 34, 35 Applicable goal situation Related ISO standard (next to 14040 and 14044:2006) Product improvement Identification of Key Environmental Performance Indicators (KEPI) of a product group for Ecodesign / simplified LCA d or e or iii; and f A Weak point analysis of a specific product f and d A ISO/TR 14062 Detailed Ecodesign / Design-for-recycling f A ISO/TR 14062 Perform simplified KEPI-type LCA / Ecodesign study i A Product comparisons and procurement Comparison of specific goods or services e, ii, or iv A Benchmarking of specific products against the product group's average e A Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) e, ii, or iv A ISO 14015 Communication Development of life cycle based Type I Ecolabel criteria d, e, i, or iii A ISO 14024 33 Basic type as input for LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4540, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 56, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A Green Public or Private Procurement (GPP) e, ii, or iv A ISO 14015 Communication Development of life cycle based Type I Ecolabel criteria d, e, i, or iii A ISO 14024 33 Basic type as input for LCA application: a = Unit process data set; b = LCI results data set; c = LCIA results data set; d = LCA study, non-comparative; e = Comparative LCA study; f = Detailed LCI model of system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4541, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 56, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Application as input for other LCA applications: i = KEPIs-based tool; ii = EPD; iii = Criteria set for life cycle based Type I Ecolabel; iv = Life cycle based Type I Ecolabel of the system. 34 Several LCA applications typically use at least alternatively the outcome of other LCA applications as input, e.g. Green Procurement often works with KEPI or Type I Ecolabel criteria. This is additionally indicated in the table. 35 Note that LCA studies (d and e) as basic form of application can already directly provide the required LCA application, e.g. a weak point analysis of the specific product or the comparison of products in support of procurement. In that case the letters d and e are underlined.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4542, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 56, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Application areas / Purposes LCA applications (from perspective of life cycle information user or provider) LCI / LCA type of deliverable and / or application required as direct input for the \"LCA application\"33, 34, 35 Applicable goal situation Related ISO standard (next to 14040 and 14044:2006) Development of Product Category Rules (PCR) or a similar specific guide for a product group e or d; and f A ISO 14025 Development of a life cycle based Type III environmental declaration (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4543, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 57, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental Product Declaration (EPD)) for a specific good or service d or i; and f A ISO 14025 Development of the 'Carbon footprint', 'Primary energy consumption' or similar indicator for a specific product d, i, or f A ISO 14025 Calculation of indirect effects in Environmental Management Systems (EMS) b or d C1 ISO 14001 Greening the supply chain ii, iv, or e A ISO 14015 Providing quantitative life cycle data as annex to an Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) for comparative use ii, d, or i A Across several areas Development of specific, average or generic unit process or LCI results data sets for use in different applications a or b A, B, C1, or C2 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) d, ii, i, or f A Strategic decision support Policy development: Forecasting & analysis of the environmental impact of pervasive technologies, raw material strategies, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4544, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 57, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and related policy development e B Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental improvement potential e B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4545, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 57, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Application areas / Purposes LCA applications (from perspective of life cycle information user or provider) LCI / LCA type of deliverable and / or application required as direct input for the \"LCA application\"33, 34, 35 Applicable goal situation Related ISO standard (next to 14040 and 14044:2006) Accounting Monitoring environmental impacts of a nation, industry sector, product group, or product d or b C1 Policy information: Basket-of-products (or -product groups) type of studies e C1 Policy information: Identifying product groups with the largest environmental impact e C1 Certified supply type studies or parts of the analysed system with fixed guarantees along the supply-chain b, d, e, or ii C1 Corporate or site environmental reporting d C1 ISO 14015, ISO 14031 Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4546, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 58, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "along the supply-chain b, d, e, or ii C1 Corporate or site environmental reporting d C1 ISO 14015, ISO 14031 Accounting studies that according to their goal definition do not include any interaction with other systems d C2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4547, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 58, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.3 Types of LCA deliverables and intended applications Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. I) SHOULD - Types of deliverables: Derive from the intended application(s) identified in the goal definition (see chapter 5.2.1) and any potential pre-settings, the appropriate type(s) of deliverable(s) that the LCI/LCA study should provide. Table 3 gives an overview", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4548, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 59, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Table 3 gives an overview. The following types are most common, listed in order of increasing comprehensiveness and/or complexity: [ISO!] I.a) Life Cycle Inventory (\"LCI\") study and/or data set, in the following variants: I.a.i) Unit process study and/or data set, with two sub-types: I.a.i.1) Single operation unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) I.a.i.2) Black box unit process (variants: fixed or parameterised) I.a.ii) Partly terminated system data set (variants: fixed or parameterised) I.a.iii) Life Cycle Inventory results (\"LCI results\") study and/or data set I.b) Life Cycle Impact Assessment results (\"LCIA results\") study and/or data set I.c) Non-comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"LCA study\"), i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4549, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 59, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "including impact assessment and interpretation I.d) Comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Comparative LCA study\"), in the following variants: I.d.i) Non-assertive comparative Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Non-assertive comparative LCA study\") I.d.ii) Comparative assertion Life Cycle Assessment study (\"Comparative assertion LCA study\"), with superiority, inferiority or equality of any compared alternatives are explicitly concluded I.e) Detailed LCI model of the analysed system Note that the different types of deliverables imply different requirements e.g. regarding reporting and review. Note: For development of LCIA models, methods and factors as a special kind of LCA deliverable see the separate guidance document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4550, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 59, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow36 (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.2 and aspects of 4.2.3.3.1) 6.4.1 Detailed identification of the process(es) or system(s) to be analysed (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.2 and 4.2.3.3.1) Based on the initial information on the process(es) or system(s) to be analysed given in the goal definition, details often need to be added in the scope definition. Especially when the goal of the LCI/LCA study is of a less specified nature (e.g. \"Comparative assertion on 36 A detailed example of function, functional unit, reference flow etc. is found in chapter 6.4.4.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4551, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 59, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how market prevailing packaging options for fresh vegetables in the UK\"), the to-be-analysed and compared systems (here: the specific packaging options) still need to be identified and specified in detail. This shall be done in the scope phase of the LCI/LCA study. The need for such a better specification in the scope definition is always found when the goal relates to e.g. \u201cgeneric\u201d, \u201caverage\u201d, \u201cconcept\u201d or other insufficiently defined characteristics that need interpretation. This system specification closely interrelates with the system(s)\u201fs function(s), its functional unit(s), and its reference flow(s): Terms and concepts: Function, functional unit, and reference flow The system's function and functional unit are central elements of an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4552, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 60, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Without them, a meaningful and valid comparison especially of products is not possible: An LCA is always anchored in a precise, quantitative description of the function(s) provided by the analysed system (e.g. \"covering an outdoor wall against the weather, etc.\"). Note that also study objects such as analysed policy option or a strategy, or whole countries that are monitored with LCA-based indicators have a 'function'; in the sense of an LCA function means to quantitatively and qualitatively specify the analysed object: This is generally done by using the functional unit that names and quantifies the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the function(s) along the questions \u201cwhat\u201d, \u201chow much\u201d, \u201chow well\u201d, and \u201cfor how long\u201d. For a product this could be e.g. \"Complete coverage of 1 m2 primed outdoor wall for 10 years at 99.9 % opacity\"). For a policy option this applies analogously. To make it clearer, the following examples splits the four aspects: it could be e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4553, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 60, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For a policy option this applies analogously. To make it clearer, the following examples splits the four aspects: it could be e.g. a product policy setting minimum requirements (i.e. \"how much and \"how well\") on all products of product group X that are sold in the U.S. market (i.e. \"what\"), from 2012 onwards until policy revision in 5 years (i.e. \"how long\"). For a country indicator this would be e.g. all goods and services that contribute to mobility (i.e. \"what\") in South Korea (i.e. \"how much\"), for one year for the baseline year 2006 (i.e. \"how long\"). The \"how well\" would be part of the definition of mobility (e.g. is walking included). Key is that the functional unit allows to make comparisons that are valid, as the compared objects (or time series data on the same object) are comparable. These definitions and quantification of the functional unit often draw on technical measurement standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4554, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 60, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These definitions and quantification of the functional unit often draw on technical measurement standards. The reference flow, finally, is the flow (or flows in case of multifunctional processes) to which all other input and output flows (i.e. all elementary flows and non-reference product and waste flows) quantitatively relate. It is realising the functional unit: The reference flow can be expressed in direct relation to the functional unit (e.g. \u201cComplete coverage of 1 m2 primed outdoor wall for 10 years at 99.9 % opacity with paint A\") or in a more product-oriented way (e.g. \"0.67 l paint A\"). The choice of the preferred type of reference flow depends firstly on the kind of product: for products with only one relevant function both options are possible. For products with several alternative functions (e.g. \"1 kg steel-sheet; type XY...\") it is more useful to use a measured amount (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4555, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 60, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For products with several alternative functions (e.g. \"1 kg steel-sheet; type XY...\") it is more useful to use a measured amount (e.g. mass in kg) of the product with its technical specification as reference flow instead of a reference flow related to a specific functional unit measured e.g. in m2, as that can complicate other uses of the data set. Note that also the modelling logic of the used LCA software can require or prefer using one of the two, depending on their flexibility to connect processes with differently named reference flows. Note that one aspect of both the functional unit and the reference flow is the location (and type of location) where a product is available. E.g. the location \"in Germany\" / \"DE\" and \u201c1 l beverage carton packed fresh milk at point of sale\u201d or \u201c... to consumer\u201d, i.e. identifying as location type which transport and/or storage steps are included in the inventory. This is to be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4556, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 60, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how identified as part of the reference flow name, unless the data set refers to a location unspecific process step (e.g. \"High pressure injection moulding machine for HD-PE, etc.\"). For more on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit see chapters 6.4.2 and 6.4.3 and the example in chapter 6.4.4. It is recommended to also provide a detailed description of the analysed system plus photos (especially in case of consumer products). Often the goal of the LCI/LCA study determines which of its single functions will be in focus and what will be the analysed object, or whether the whole system is object of the analysis: e.g. can a waste incineration plant be looked at from waste management perspective, making just one of the individual household waste components (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4557, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 61, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "can a waste incineration plant be looked at from waste management perspective, making just one of the individual household waste components (e.g. polymer fraction, inert materials, organic biomass fraction, etc.) to its reference flow and functional unit37. If a data set \u201celectricity from household waste incineration\u201d would be required, the produced electricity would be set as reference flow. If, in a third perspective, a detailed analysis of the incineration plant is goal of the LCI/LCA study, the plant as a whole would be targeted and technically specified and potentially also parameterised instead of defining any specific functional unit. 6.4.2 Quantitative aspects of the functional unit (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.2) First step of defining the functional unit is to identify and quantify the relevant quantifiable properties and the technical / functional performance of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4558, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 61, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An example for a good is a shopping bag of which the strength, volume, and other properties would be relevant quantitative aspects. But also how often the bag can be used (or is used based on surveys) is important. For services the example of cleaning services would give the floor type and area cleaned (to a given specification of cleanliness). Note that although here the quantitative properties are addressed these always necessarily also relate to a certain quality; however they are and can be quantified. For quantifying the functional unit of many products, two aspects of the extent of the provided function are to be differentiated: the duration of use (in time) and the extent/quantity of actual function provided. An example: a car may have an average lifetime of 12 years. However, for the comparison with other car models, the lifetime in terms of driven km are the more suitable, i.e. functional information. For products with continued function (such as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4559, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 61, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, for the comparison with other car models, the lifetime in terms of driven km are the more suitable, i.e. functional information. For products with continued function (such as e.g. housing, fridges) this case does not apply typical, but wherever the use intensity plays a dominant role, the choice of the appropriate functional unit becomes crucial. The same applies for e.g. clothes, mobile phones, TV sets, etc. where the duration that the product is kept in possession before discarding it is not suitable for comparisons. While this information might be important for issues such as carbon storage or for identifying the time horizon when recycling takes place (e.g. mobile phones are often kept for many years in possession after end of use, as waste management requirements are unclear and the product does not need much space). 37 It is equivalent to use an e.g. \u201eorganic waste fraction\u201c waste flow as reference flow or the \u201eorganic waste fraction treatment\u201c product flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4560, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 61, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "37 It is equivalent to use an e.g. \u201eorganic waste fraction\u201c waste flow as reference flow or the \u201eorganic waste fraction treatment\u201c product flow. The choice has however influence on how the product system will be modelled, as in the first option (that follows a \u201cprocess flow\u201d logic) the waste flow would be an input flow to the waste treatment process, while in the second option (that follows a \u201cservices are always inputs\u201d logic) the waste treatment product flow would be an output flow of the waste treatment process.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4561, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 61, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how It is also to be highlighted that for many services, but also for complex multifunctional goods (e.g. Personal Computers) the identification and quantification of the functional unit is not straightforward but it depends among others on a combination of specific use profiles. Additional quality aspects are addressed in chapter 6.9.2. Frequent errors: Comparisons not based on the relevant functional unit Comparisons shall not be performed on basis of any other reference than equivalent functional units. Comparisons between different materials on a mass basis (e.g. \u201c1 kg glass\u201d vs. \u201c1 kg PET\u201d) are thus meaningless and misleading. A comparison of materials can only be done in context of the products in which they are used. This is to consider their function by specifying and quantifying them in the functional unit (e.g. \u201c1 l one-way glass bottle\u201d vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4562, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 62, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to consider their function by specifying and quantifying them in the functional unit (e.g. \u201c1 l one-way glass bottle\u201d vs. \u201c1 l one-way PET bottle\u201d, and: \u201c... both for still water delivery to final consumer\u201d)38. Regarding limited substitutability of products in niche markets see chapter 5.2.2. A comparison on the level of materials can only be done in a meaningful way if this is done for the same material by comparing different technologies or production routes (e.g. \u201c1 kg polyamide 6.6 from crude oil via classical chemical route\u201d vs. \u201c1 kg polyamide 6.6 from corn stalks via combined biotechnological / chemical route\u201d). In this example the comparison is in fact between technologies/routes (with the same functional unit of \u201coutput of 1 kg polyamide 6.6\u201d) and NOT between materials. Note that also for such comparisons the same quantitative and qualitative properties of the two polyamide 6.6 variants must be ensured, e.g. in terms of molar weight, colour etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4563, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 62, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that also for such comparisons the same quantitative and qualitative properties of the two polyamide 6.6 variants must be ensured, e.g. in terms of molar weight, colour etc. to allow for a valid and fair comparison. 6.4.3 Qualitative aspects of the functional unit (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.2) Difference between quantitative and qualitative aspects The qualitative definition of the system\u201fs function(s) is a description of the way in which the function(s) are provided and of other qualities of the product. These qualitative aspects are to include those aspects that are not easily quantifiable. Examples are e.g. the resistance to humidity (e.g. of a shopping bag) or aspects that relate to the user\u201fs perception of equivalence and substitutability if the compared product and that are therefore important to ensure a fair comparison. Perception aspects can be e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4564, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 62, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Perception aspects can be e.g. the perception of the product as being fashionable or of possessing specific design-features such as shape, touch, etc. Using qualitative aspects for better informed comparisons The relevant qualitative aspects shall be documented, as they can be decisive for the user\u201fs acceptance of the product. This is necessary to ensure that the compared products are indeed comparable \u2013 for the user. In the end the central stakeholders of the study (e.g. the customer, competitors, etc.) determine, which qualitative aspects need to be documented in support of a fair comparison. The definition of a functional unit must hence include both the quantitative and the key qualitative aspects to avoid subjectivity when subsequently defining equivalence. Especially for complex products, that may differ in a number of qualitative aspects (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4565, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 62, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Especially for complex products, that may differ in a number of qualitative aspects (e.g. two cars of different levels of comfort), it is important that the equivalence of the \u201cfunctional unit\u201d is carefully ensured to ensure valid and defendable comparisons and even more so for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. It shall be highlighted in the 38 In this specific case, the functional unit is to be complemented by other quantitative/qualitative information such as migration, taste preservation, gas permeability or shelf life that needs to be addressed at least qualitatively to ensure the comparability in view of the consumer.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4566, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 62, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how interpretation in which qualitative aspects the alternatives differ and clarify that the acceptance of equivalence exclusively lies with the user, i.e. the alternatives are technically equivalent and can technically be compared. The use of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) approaches can help to improve comparability of alternatives; for more see chapter 7.9.3.3. Comparison of systems that are not fully comparable The above can be expanded on studies that compare alternatives where the equivalence and comparability is even predominantly a matter of customer perception. For these comparability cannot be measured objectively. This is the case e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4567, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 63, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For these comparability cannot be measured objectively. This is the case e.g. for many services: for one customer two four-star hotels may not be comparable, while for others a four-star hotel might be comparable with a three-star hotel (or actually prefer a private pension), given the specific characteristics, location, etc. For one individual watching TV for one hour is equivalent to reading a book for one hour, for another not at all (see also chapter 6.4.6 under \"Non-technical functions and functional units\"). The results of such comparative studies shall hence be presented with the explicit statement that comparability is not assumed per se, but lies with the individual preference and judgement. Separation of impacts within the technosphere that are related to product properties In the special case of products that have relevant impacts on humans directly within the technosphere (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4568, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 63, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Separation of impacts within the technosphere that are related to product properties In the special case of products that have relevant impacts on humans directly within the technosphere (e.g. food, drink, tobacco products etc.) and not via emissions to the environment, such impacts should be generally identified and documented in the description of the product or can be inventoried in separate inventory lists and undergo a specific, separate impact assessment. These impacts shall not be combined with interventions with the ecosphere in the life cycle inventory (see chapter 7.1). Such complementary information is to be explicitly considered in the LCA results interpretation, to avoid misleading interpretation. Other tools, such as e.g. risk assessment, may be used to appropriately capture and assess these properties in a modular way together with those covered by the LCA, i.e. interventions with the ecosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4569, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 63, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "risk assessment, may be used to appropriately capture and assess these properties in a modular way together with those covered by the LCA, i.e. interventions with the ecosphere. 6.4.4 Working with obligatory and positioning properties (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) In product development the concepts of 'obligatory properties' and 'positioning properties' are sometimes used. Wherever available, these may be used in LCA when determining the functional unit of a product. The obligatory properties are features that the product must possess for the user to perceive it as a functionally useful product (e.g. for exterior wall paint this would be among others the ability to cover and protect the wall against the weather). Also all legal requirements belong to the obligatory properties (e.g. limits / ban of toxic compounds in the paint)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4570, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 63, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also all legal requirements belong to the obligatory properties (e.g. limits / ban of toxic compounds in the paint). The positioning properties, on the other hand, are optional features which can be used to position the product in the market as more attractive to the customer than other, similar products (e.g. for the above paint example: drip-free application, large selection of different colour tones, guarantee to be available for order for next 10 years, etc.). Examples include comfort, image, and aesthetic aspects of the product. A complete example with the \"paint\" as case see Table 4. Regarding limited substitutability of products in niche markets see chapter 5.2.2.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4571, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 63, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how The quantitative definition of the function of the product and some key qualitative aspects will typically be based on the obligatory properties of the product, while other qualitative aspects that typically relate to the user perception may be identified among the positioning properties. Table 4 Example for function, functional unit and reference flows in a comparative case: Outdoor wall paints comparison ( 2 alternatives) Obligatory properties \uf0e0 quantify in functional unit Positioning properties \uf0e0 document \uf0b7 Cover wall with uniform colour \uf0b7 Protect wall against the destructive agents rain, sun, and microalgae \uf0b7 Provide surface which is easy to clean \uf0b7 Meet health requirements during application \uf0b7 ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4572, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 64, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Drip-free application \uf0b7 Many different colour tones to select from \uf0b7 Water-based system \uf0b7 Fast application (needs only one application as well covering or very viscous) \uf0b7 ... Functional unit Coat and cover 1 m2 outdoor wall according to standard XYZ (under defined (e.g. perhumid tropical) weather conditions) with a red colour (colour code XYZ) for 10 years. Reference flow \uf0b7 Paint A: 6.5 l solvent-based paint A (needs two applications and a re-paint39 after 5 years, i.e. twice 3.25 l) \uf0b7 Paint B: 3.8 l water-based paint B (drip-free, needs only one application and lasts 10 years) 6.4.5 Using technical standards for defining function and functional unit (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) The quantitative definition of a product\u201fs functional unit should refer to technical standards wherever possible and appropriate (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4573, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 64, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "standards on the thermal conductivity for determining the insulation capacity of insulation materials for exterior house walls; or standards on opacity measurement for determining the opacity of a wall paint). Whether a standard is appropriate depends on whether it captures the functional unit in the way the LCA requires it, i.e. in a comparable, differentiated way, capturing the different process operation cycles in a averaging way and so on. 39 Note that in this example the need for re-painting may result in the need for additional processes to be included in the system boundaries, e.g. for removing loose paint layers of the first application when applying the second one etc. Note also that for the repainting - as occurring in the future - a potentially further developed paint would be used, i.e. this is not equivalent to twice painting the same, \"old\" paint.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4574, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 64, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Frequent errors: Using inappropriate technical standards to quantify the functional unit Standardised measurement protocols are an indispensible means to improve the comparability of products. However, not all technical standards are directly or at all suitable for LCA. Such negative examples are e.g. - the direct use of 5 minutes average peak-measurements of emissions instead of mass-flow averaged data, - the use of base-load measurements excluding start/shut-down cycles instead of covering the entire cycle (see also chapter 7.4.2.7), - the direct use of maximum electricity uptake information on energy-using devices instead of the actual consumption (e.g. \"2 kW\" for a cooling fan, which may however run usually only on e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4575, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 65, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\"2 kW\" for a cooling fan, which may however run usually only on e.g. 80 % of its capacity and only for parts of the time), - the reported \"driving cycle mix\" fuel consumption of vehicles that may not necessarily reflect the average consumption in normal use but serve for general comparability / legal purposes only), - the initial capacity of a starter battery that will be reduced with ageing; even more this ageing might differ between different battery concepts, or - the initial light-intensity of a halogen light bulb that does not account for specifically reduced values after ageing during use stage, etc. The key question is whether the measurement method is appropriate for a comparison of the life cycle performance of the analysed systems. The technical understanding of the analysed technologies or service operations combined with LCA expertise is the indispensible pairing that is needed to appropriately quantify the functional unit of products for the comparative use in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4576, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 65, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Harmonised standards under ISO should be preferred for this purpose wherever available. In the case of lack of applicable and appropriate technical standards, and only then, it is permissible and required as part of the LCI/LCA study to specify in an appropriate and reproducible way and clearly document how the functional unit has been measured. If qualitative properties play a relevant role in the market for a product group, also they should be documented using technical standards, if available and appropriate. 6.4.6 Functional unit and/or reference flow? (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.2) Application-unspecific products: Reference flow as 'declared unit' and product specification instead of functional unit It is important to note that not all systems have clear or unique functional units: For application-unspecific materials such as steel, gypsum, etc. but also for multiple use machines such as trucks, waste incinerators, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4577, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 65, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "but also for multiple use machines such as trucks, waste incinerators, etc. the number of possible applications and hence functional units is often extremely large to virtually indefinite. In such cases where one or few, relevant functional units cannot be given, it is crucial to clearly and both quantitatively and qualitatively identify the reference flow as the detailed name of the product plus further information that identifies its relevant characteristics and the location-type. This supports a correct subsequent selection and use of the data in other systems. For example would a cradle-to-gate steel data set obtain the detailed reference flow of 1 kg of \u201cStainless Steel Hot Rolled Coil, Annealed and Pickled; Electric Arc Furnace route;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4578, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 65, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how production mix, at plant; grade 304 (Austenitic, 18 % chromium, 10 % nickel)\u201d. This is also called 'declared unit', as a general functional unit cannot be given and a simpler mass, volume, area, pieces, or similar unit is used instead. Additional information about technical applicability of this steel further guides the correct use of the data set. In the subsequent uses of the data set in another (product) system, the exactly required amount would be specified (e.g. 0.753 kg of the \u201cStainless Steel Hot Rolled ...\u201d), ensuring proper identification of the process and its quantification via the reference flow. In the example of a truck, a specific transport scenario would be defined in the study that uses the data set for the specific truck used, ensuring again a clear identification and quantification. E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4579, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 66, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "E.g. the transport scenario \u201c150 km overland transport of bulk sand transport at 90 % load factor\u201d with the quantity and unit of e.g. 1 t*km and the data set \u201cTruck bulk transport; Euro 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 transport mix; 22 t total weight, 17.3 t max payload\u201d. Multifunctional processes: Functional units and reference flows If a process has more than one product as output (co-production e.g. of different chemicals in a synthesis process with valuable by-products), or is treating more than one waste on the input side (co-services), it is called a multifunctional process (see also Figure 6). In consequence, it has more than one reference flow and all of them shall be well defined and specified. Whether all of the reference flows also have one (or even more) corresponding functional units depends on the kind of functions or products (see the provisions above and below in this subchapter)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4580, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 66, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Whether all of the reference flows also have one (or even more) corresponding functional units depends on the kind of functions or products (see the provisions above and below in this subchapter). Multifunctional products with additive/parallel functions: one reference flow (or one per function, depending on model needs), detailed technical specifications, additive/parallel functional units as for the given case appropriate Methodologically equivalent to multifunctional processes but typically in need of a different way of specification are multifunctional products: a product can have several functional units with functions that may be used subsequently or even in parallel (e.g. a mobile phone that can be used for phoning, storing and playing music, receiving SMS, as alarm clock, etc.). The actually used functions and the extent of use depends however on the individual user", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4581, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 66, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a mobile phone that can be used for phoning, storing and playing music, receiving SMS, as alarm clock, etc.). The actually used functions and the extent of use depends however on the individual user. However, a set of functional units that represent a typical or average use profile and that accounts for the technical lifetime can and should be provided as a minimum. Additionally or alternatively the technical product specification serves the purpose to inform the data set user and should be documented. In product comparisons, the typical or average use case or specific use scenarios would then be defined and compared, combining the various aspects of the quantitative product specification. The reference flow of such LCI data sets would identify the type of product and its brand name, model, etc. while the technical specification would overload the reference flow name and may hence be provided in the data set documentation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4582, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 66, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "while the technical specification would overload the reference flow name and may hence be provided in the data set documentation. Systems with alternative functions: one reference flow, detailed technical specifications, alternative functional units as for the given case appropriate Next to multifunctional products or processes that provide more than one function (e.g. mobile phones) or produce more than one product (e.g. co-production of wheat grain and straw), some systems can have several, alternative functional units depending on the context in which they are used in (e.g. a specific paint for both indoor and outdoor use with different life-time/resistance).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4583, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 66, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how These products are not multifunctional in the sense of an LCA, as they can only perform one of the alternative functions. In such cases and if comparisons are among the intended applications, the main or application-unspecific functional unit should be documented as default. It is recommended to additionally document and define the main other functional units to ease subsequent comparisons and the technical product specifications should be provided. Highly variable functions of processes and products: parameterised data sets The use of parameterised data sets or even system models can provide quantitatively usable information on functions that are highly variable. This is the case when different e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4584, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 67, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is the case when different e.g. use patterns result in strongly changed LCI data, such as for many flexible machines and processes, such as waste processing (with varying waste composition), transport (with different load factors and road types used). Such supports a much better and accurate subsequent use. Regarding the functional unit, reference flows, etc., see the other recommendations in this subchapter. Non-technical functions and functional units Next to the specific, often technical functions that goods and services have, they have often other, non-technical functions that can be of interest in life-style type studies. As an example, the function of personal entertainment is illustrated: A number of products and personal services (e.g. watching TV, receiving a massage, riding a bicycle, etc.) that we use in our leisure time, have the special property of also relating to the duration of our personal time that we spend with them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4585, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 67, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "watching TV, receiving a massage, riding a bicycle, etc.) that we use in our leisure time, have the special property of also relating to the duration of our personal time that we spend with them. Hence, products with technically entirely different functions may usefully be compared from the perspective of how much of our personal time they fill with 'entertainment'. This can be used e.g. in life-style analysis or to position and improve leisure-oriented goods and services environmentally. \u201cThe duration of filling one\u201fs (leisure) time with entertainment\u201d is hence a special and additional property that can be used as functional unit. Restrictions as to the interpretation of the results and the equivalence of the compared activities are to be carefully observed when doing so", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4586, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 67, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Restrictions as to the interpretation of the results and the equivalence of the compared activities are to be carefully observed when doing so. However, it is argued that in this specific case the risk of being misleading is low: other than when comparing other types of products that differ in the qualitative aspects of their functional units, in this case it is obvious that they differ regarding the technical function they perform. It is argued to be fully within the judgement of the consumer to decide whether he or she considers one hour watching some entertainment program on TV is equivalent (in the view of the consumer!) as is one hour reading a book or one hour playing chess. The related issue of positioning principles has already been addressed. It is acknowledged also that further work on a more comprehensive guidance would be beneficial in this field of non-technical functions and related studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4587, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 67, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is acknowledged also that further work on a more comprehensive guidance would be beneficial in this field of non-technical functions and related studies. 6.4.7 Comparisons of systems and the functional unit (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.2) Special provisions on the functional unit apply to comparisons and especially comparative assertions disclosed to the public; details see chapter 6.10.3. In the case of only partial equivalence, mechanisms exist to render them comparable in many cases. The details depend on the applicable LCI modelling principle and approaches that are still to be identified; details on rendering systems comparable are addressed in chapter 7.9.3 for attributional modelling and chapter 7.2.4.6 for consequential modelling; the simplified provisions for Situation A, B and C are found in chapter 6.5.4.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4588, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 67, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow Note that for further processes that were identified as part of the life cycle model beyond the central process(es) that can be identified in the initial scope phase, these provisions will be applied only in the later iterations and in the LCI phase. I) SHALL - Identify system or process: Identify in line with the goal and with the other scope settings the to-be-analysed system(s) or process(es)40 (e.g. good, service, technology, strategy, country, etc.) and describe it/them in an unambiguous way (6.4.1). II) MAY - Photos, specifications: Provide photos, and/or technical specifications, and/or descriptions of the system(s), if and as appropriate for the addressees (6.4.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4589, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 68, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) MAY - Photos, specifications: Provide photos, and/or technical specifications, and/or descriptions of the system(s), if and as appropriate for the addressees (6.4.1). [ISO+] III) SHALL - Identify function(s) and functional unit(s): One or more function(s) and quantiative, measurable functional unit(s) of each of the system(s) shall be clearly identified, if applicable and appropriate for the type of system (for exceptions see the following provisions on subchapter 6.4.6) (6.4.2). IV) SHALL - Functional unit, details: The functional unit(s) shall be identified and specified in detail across all the following aspects (6.4.2, 6.4.3): IV.a) Function provided (what), IV.b) in which quantity (how much), Note that, even though the \"how long\" information is important, the use intensity and resulting overall quantity of the performed function is key to valid comparisons. IV.c) for what duration (how long), and IV.d) to what quality (in what way and how well is the function provided)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4590, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 68, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV.c) for what duration (how long), and IV.d) to what quality (in what way and how well is the function provided). IV.e) Changes in the functional performance over time (e.g. due to ageing of the product) shall be explicitly considered and quantified, as far as possible. [ISO+] V) MAY - Obligatory and positioning properties: If product systems are analysed, it is recommended to use obligatory and positioning properties for the quantitative and qualitative aspects of their function, respectively (6.4.4). [ISO+] VI) SHALL - Measurement methods: ISO or national harmonised standards shall be used as measurement methods, as far as possible and wherever available and appropriate for use in an LCA context. Own measurement methods should only be used in case of unavailable or inappropriate harmonised standards only. They shall be clearly specified and documented and later be subject to critical review (6.4.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4591, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 68, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "They shall be clearly specified and documented and later be subject to critical review (6.4.5). VII) SHOULD - Alternatives and complements to the functional unit: It is noted that a functional unit cannot always be given or is not appropriate / useful. In such cases, it should be replaced or complemented by another clearly defined, quantitative and measurable item as outlined below; deviations shall be concisely justified (6.4.6): [ISO!] VII.a) Materials and other application unspecific products: A functional unit cannot generally be given. Only the reference flow that includes the main technical specification of the product should be provided. In this case, the reference flow is 40 Plural in case of comparisons.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4592, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 68, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow also the declared unit, but not the functional unit. VII.b) Multifunctional processes: For each function one functional unit and/or reference flow should be given, as appropriate, depending on the kind of cofunction / co-product (see other items in this sub-list). Otherwise the technical specification of the process and functions should be provided in the accompanying documentation. VII.c) Monofunctional systems: For systems (e.g. products) with only one relevant function or combination of functions, the functional unit(s) should be specified. In addition, one reference flow with a clear and detailed system name should be provided. The functionally relevant technical specification should be provided as part of the reference flow name and/or in the accompanying documentation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4593, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 69, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The functionally relevant technical specification should be provided as part of the reference flow name and/or in the accompanying documentation. VII.d) Multifunctional systems: For multifunctional systems with multiple, parallel functions, the detailed technical specification should be provided. The corresponding functional units should be given in addition and when appropriate to the given case. One reference flow with a clear and detailed system name should be provided. (This one reference flow can be split up into each one reference flow for each function in case the data set is directly used in comparative studies. This to allow substitution of single functions to achieve equivalence of compared alternatives.) VII.e) Systems with alternative functions: For systems with alternative functions, the most relevant alternative functions and functional units should be specified. In addition, one reference flow with a clear and detailed system name shall be provided", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4594, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 69, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition, one reference flow with a clear and detailed system name shall be provided. The functionally relevant technical specification should be provided as part of the reference flow name and/or in the accompanying documentation. VIII) SHOULD - Highly variable functions: For highly variable functions of processes and systems, the way that the variable and parameters relate to the system's performance and to its inventory should be documented. This should be in form of mathematical relations or in another suitable form. The use of parameterised data sets is recommended to support appropriate documentation and efficient use. IX) SHALL - Comparative studies: For comparative studies, see the additional special provisions in chapter 6.10.3 (6.4.7). Among others, they shall be compared based on their reference flow. Detailed recommendations on the use of flow properties and units for product and waste flows are given in the separate document 'Nomenclature and other conventions'.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4595, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 69, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.5 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) modelling framework (No directly corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter41; subchapters relate to aspects of several ISO 14044:2006 chapters) 6.5.1 Introduction and overview (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) Introduction Early in the scope definition an important decision must be made on the life cycle inventory modelling principles and method approaches that are to be applied in the modelling of the system: attributional or consequential modelling and allocation or system expansion / substitution approaches. This has implications for many of the later choices including on which inventory data are to be collected or obtained. This decision is to be made in accordance with the goal of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4596, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 70, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This has implications for many of the later choices including on which inventory data are to be collected or obtained. This decision is to be made in accordance with the goal of the LCI/LCA study. Especially does it depend on the decision-context of the LCI/LCA study as well as a number of other criteria such as reproducibility and robustness, practical feasibility, stakeholder acceptance, and others. The choice of the LCI modelling framework and approaches is hence not an independent one but is to be derived individually for each study along the study's goal. Frequent errors: Subjective or unsystematic choice of LCI modelling principles and method approaches It is a frequent and severe error in LCA practice to \u201calways perform attributional (or consequential) LCA\u201d and to \u201calways allocate\u201d (or \u201cdo substitution\u201d). Equally is it incorrect to unsystematically combine attributional and consequential modelling in the same system model on an ad hoc basis, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4597, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 70, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Equally is it incorrect to unsystematically combine attributional and consequential modelling in the same system model on an ad hoc basis, e.g. allocating among the co-products of one multifunctional process and substituting the co-products of another. Instead a systematic approach needs to be followed; chapter 6.5.4 gives guidance on this. Overview After an introduction to the two main LCI modelling principles (attributional and consequential) and the related main LCI method approaches (allocation and system expansion / substitution), the LCI methodological provisions are detailed for the three earlier identified archetypal goal situations A, B, C into which the LCI/LCA study belongs. Guidance on how to in practice identify processes for attributional or for consequentially modelling is given in chapters 7.2.3 and 7.2.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4598, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 70, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Guidance on how to in practice identify processes for attributional or for consequentially modelling is given in chapters 7.2.3 and 7.2.4. How to solve the specific multifunctionality of recycling / end-of-life treatment is explained in detail in the annexes 14.4 (attributional modelling) and 14.5 (consequential modelling). The simplified provisions for Situation A, B, and C are found in chapter 6.5.4. 6.5.2 The two main LCI modelling principles (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) Two main LCI modelling principles are in use in LCA practice: attributional and consequential modelling, with the former being more widely used for historical and practical 41 While the issue of allocation/multifunctionality is well covered in ISO 14044, the initial and more fundamental issue of determining the appropriate LCI modelling framework is not addressed in any detail in ISO 14044 and hence has no corresponding chapter there.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4599, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 70, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how reasons. They represent from their logic the two fundamentally different situations of modelling the analysed system (e.g. a product): \uf0b7 The attributional life cycle model depicts its actual or forecasted specific or average supply-chain plus its use and end-of-life value chain. The existing or forecasted system is embedded into a static technosphere. \uf0b7 The consequential life cycle model depicts the generic42 supply-chain as it is theoretically expected in consequence of the analysed decision. The system interacts with the markets and those changes are depicted that an additional demand for the analysed system is expected to have in a dynamic technosphere43 that is reacting to this additional demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4600, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 71, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following boxes explain and illustrate these two principles in a bit more detail: Terms and concepts: Attributional modelling The attributional life cycle inventory modelling principle is also referred to as \"accounting\u201d, \u201cbook-keeping\u201d, \u201cretrospective\u201d, or \u201cdescriptive\u201d (or sometimes and potentially confusing: \u201caverage\u201d or \u201cnon-marginal\u201d). It depicts the potential environmental impacts that can be attributed to a system (e.g. a product) over its life cycle, i.e. upstream along the supply-chain and downstream following the system's use and end-of-life value chain. Attributional modelling makes use of historical, fact-based, measureable data of known (or at least knowable) uncertainty, and includes all the processes that are identified to relevantly contribute to the system being studied. In attributional modelling the system is hence modelled as it is or was (or is forecasted to be)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4601, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 71, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In attributional modelling the system is hence modelled as it is or was (or is forecasted to be). This also applies to its background processes: As background data, producer-specific LCI data is ideally used where specific producers provide a background good or service (e.g. a single tier-two supplier is producing the required bricks for a large office building). Average or generic data is typically used where the goods and services stem from a wide mix of producers or technologies (e.g. for electricity consumed by a consumer product in Austria the Austrian consumption mix of electricity with the actual quantitative share of power plants using hydro-power, natural gas, hard coal, fuel-oil, nuclear power, biomass, etc. would be used, including the specific electricity imports and exports to/from the Austrian market)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4602, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 71, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "would be used, including the specific electricity imports and exports to/from the Austrian market). The change from specific to average or generic data is only done for practicality reasons and is a simplification that is justified from the averaging effect that typically occurs several steps up and down the supply-chain and value chain. More details on how to model a system with the attributional modelling principle are given in chapters 7.2 and 7.8. Terms and concepts: Consequential modelling The consequential life cycle inventory modelling principle is also called \u201cchange-oriented\u201d, \"effect-oriented\", \"decision-based\", \u201cmarket-based\u201d and (older and incompletely / misleadingly capturing the issue: \u201cmarginal\u201d or \u201cprospective\u201d). It aims at identifying the consequences that a decision in the foreground system has for other processes and systems 42 These \"generic\" and \"specific / average\" supply-chains are not to be confused with generic and specific / average LCI data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4603, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 71, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "43 Additionally also the interactions with the political system and society may be included by modelling possible public and private policy and behaviour consequences.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4604, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 71, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how of the economy, both in the analysed system's background system and on other systems. It models the analysed system around these consequences. The consequential life cycle model is hence not reflecting the actual (or forecasted) specific or average supply-chain, but a hypothetic generic supply-chain is modelled that is prognostizised along marketmechanisms, and potentially including political interactions and consumer behaviour changes. To better reflect market constraints and supplier-related explicit decisions, some researchers constrain the market-mechanism models by explicitly considering existing supply-contracts and planned future suppliers. Other constraints in use are existing or expected policy measures such as e.g. green taxes / incentives and material bans", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4605, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 72, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Other constraints in use are existing or expected policy measures such as e.g. green taxes / incentives and material bans. A key step in consequential modelling is the identification of the marginal processes, i.e. the generic supply-chain, starting from the decision and building the process chain life cycle model around it (details see chapter 7.2.4). Some experts identify each one single marginal process, others identify a combination of several of the most likely marginal processes to have a more robust estimate. A wide range of mechanisms is discussed among LCA practitioners, how a decision affects other processes and products, and which type of consequences follow: These mechanisms range from causing the need to build new production plants for additionally required materials, parts, etc. (or taking plants out of operation), to market displacement of competing products, consumer behaviour changes, and the like", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4606, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 72, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(or taking plants out of operation), to market displacement of competing products, consumer behaviour changes, and the like. Secondary consequences may counteract the primary consequences (then called 'rebound effects') or further enhance the preceding consequence. Regarding modelling the main market consequences, components of general (and in some cases partial) equilibrium models are employed. Central in modelling market consequences is a quantitative understanding of the markets and how direct and indirect changes in supply and demand of the analysed good or service act in the markets to cause specific changes in demand and supply of other goods and services. More details on how to model a system with the consequential method principle are given in chapter 7.2.4 and 7.8. Closely related to the choice of the appropriate LCI modelling framework is the choice of how to solve multifunctionality of processes and products (grouped under the common heading \u201callocation\u201d in ISO 14044:2006)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4607, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 72, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This issue is therefore explained and illustrated before detailing the provisions on the LCI modelling framework and how to deal with multifunctionality for the three distinct archetypal goal situations A, B, and C: 6.5.3 LCI method approaches for solving multifunctionality (Refers to ISO 14040 chapter 4.2.3.1) 6.5.3.1 Introduction Multifunctional processes If a process provides more than one function, i.e. delivering several goods and/or services (often also named simplified \"co-products\"), it is \u201cmultifunctional\u201d (see Figure 6). A classical example is the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution, providing the coproduced goods sodium hydroxide solution, chlorine gas, and hydrogen gas. The cotreatment of different wastes in a waste incinerator is another example; in that case the process provides several co-services of treating distinct wastes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4608, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 72, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how In most LCI/LCA studies of simple goods and services, one is interested in the specific life cycle inventory of only one44 of the co-functions (e.g. only of the sodium hydroxide solution OR the chlorine gas, of the above example). To achieve this, only the appropriate inputs and outputs of the process (i.e. consumed materials, energy carriers and parts, resource flows, emissions, wastes, etc.) are to be counted for the analysed function. I.e. the inventory of the specific function is to be isolated. Figure 6 Multifunctional process with several input products and resources consumed and various wastes and emissions generated as well as providing the two co-products 1 and 2. Multifunctional processes with multiple sets of co-functions In rare cases, a multi-functional process may have more than one set of co-functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4609, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 73, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Multifunctional processes with multiple sets of co-functions In rare cases, a multi-functional process may have more than one set of co-functions. An example is the incineration of different wastes that result in the production of electricity and steam as co-products. It depends on the perspective of the study, i.e. the question posed, which of the here two sets of co-functions is the set that will effectively be considered to be the relevant co-functions of the process: In the case the study aims at calculating an inventory for one of the wastes, the services of the treatment of the different wastes are the co-functions. If the study in contrast aims at calculating the inventory for the electricity or the steam, these two are the relevant co-functions. For the latter example and in case of allocation, the inventory would be allocated between these two only and all other flows including the waste treatment services would be considered non-functional product flows only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4610, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 73, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the case of substitution only the not required co-function (i.e. steam or electricity, depending on which of the two is the required co-function) would be substituted. Multifunctional products A variant of multifunctional processes is the multifunctional product (e.g. a mobile phone), which is methodologically equal, but is modelled typically differently in LCI data sets: while each co-function of the before-mentioned multifunctional processes has a separate reference flow, in this case typically only one reference flow is used. This is justified not only as the 44 This holds true also when the whole technology (e.g. a waste incineration plant) is to be analysed and improved with help of the LCA results: it is necessary to get comparative values for the co-products/-functions and therefore one needs to single out the inventories of all the individual co-products. Product A Product B Emissions Wastes Input products (goods and services) Resources Process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4611, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 73, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how user perceives e.g. the named mobile phone as one product, but also as it is further managed (e.g. packaged), transported, used and discarded as one item, i.e. different from the other cases that have physically distinct goods (or services). For LCI/LCA studies on complex goods and services (e.g. the mobile phone), that often combine several functions in one physical unit of a product, in contrast, the product as a whole with all its functions is of interest. However, when it comes to comparisons with similar products, the need comes up to make the alternatives fully comparable, e.g. the to-becompared mobile phone model may lack at least one the functions (e.g. MMS) or differs in quantitative aspects of at least one of the functions (e.g. storage space for pictures and music clips)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4612, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 74, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "MMS) or differs in quantitative aspects of at least one of the functions (e.g. storage space for pictures and music clips). Solving multifunctionality Different approaches are used for solving multifunctionality. The choice of the most appropriate approach depends among others on the goal situation of the study, available data and information, and the characteristics of the multifunctional process or product. The most appropriate way how to solve this multifunctionality is to be identified already in the scope phase of the LCA (or at least in the inventory phase when planning data collection), as it affects which inventory data and other information is required. This topic and the related concepts are hence introduced in the remainder of this chapter; they serve also as basis for the later application of the approaches as part of the inventory work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4613, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 74, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This topic and the related concepts are hence introduced in the remainder of this chapter; they serve also as basis for the later application of the approaches as part of the inventory work. 6.5.3.2 The ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality Introduction Under the heading \u201cAllocation\u201d, ISO 14044:2006 presents a hierarchy of different approaches to this multifunctionality problem45. This hierarchy is the starting point for developing the ILCD guidance to this problem that is provided in detail for full attributional modelling in chapter 7.9 and for full consequential modelling in chapter 7.2.4.6. The systematic and somewhat simplified provisions for the main three goal situations A, B, and C that are encountered in LCA practice are given in chapter 6.5.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4614, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 74, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The systematic and somewhat simplified provisions for the main three goal situations A, B, and C that are encountered in LCA practice are given in chapter 6.5.4. First approach: Subdivision of multifunctional processes The ISO hierarchy starts with the subdivision of multifunctional black box unit processes to mono-functional single operation unit processes46 and thereby cutting free the actually required processes, avoiding the need for allocation (see Figure 7 and Figure 8). 45 As the hierarchy covers other approaches than only allocation and also identified the first two approaches as \"avoiding allocation\", it is argued that clearer and more appropriate would be the encompassing title \u201eSolving multifunctionality of processes\u201c. 46 The two sub-terms of \"unit process\" are introduced here to be able to differentiate between a) \"single operation unit processes\" that can physically not be further subdivided and b) \"black box unit processes\" that can be further subdivided", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4615, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 74, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Allocation of black-box unit processes can result in distortions of the results if they include multifunctional processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4616, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 74, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Figure 7 Black box unit process and single operation unit process. Both can have one or more (co-)functions (e.g. co-products as shown here). Terms and concepts: Subdivision of multifunctional processes \u201cSubdivision\u201d of multifunctional processes refers to the collection of data individually for those of the mono-functional processes that relate to the analysed system and that are contained in the multifunctional process. Subdivision is often but not always possible to avoid allocation for black box unit processes; see Figure 7. Thereby the actually required processes are cut free and the multifunctionality problem is solved. This is unless any of the included single-operation unit processes is still multifunctional. However, even then the data accuracy has been improved, often substantially", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4617, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 75, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is unless any of the included single-operation unit processes is still multifunctional. However, even then the data accuracy has been improved, often substantially. Note that subdivision is the only correct / exact solution under attributional modelling to solve multifunctionality of further sub-dividable processes; the 'short-cut' of allocation of black box unit processes will often result in distorted inventories, as explained in the text. Under consequential modelling subdivision is also applicable47. See also chapter 7.4.2.2 with more details on subdivision, partial subdivision, and virtual subdivision. 47 However, it could be argued that the logic of consequential modelling might request to account for synergies and other interrelations of processes that operate e.g. on the same site. This foreground-system internal interrelations and consequences needs still further methodological clarifications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4618, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 75, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "on the same site. This foreground-system internal interrelations and consequences needs still further methodological clarifications. Similarly, the synergies on sitelevel might even need to be considered in attributional modelling by an allocation of synergies. E.g. on a site a small steam consuming process may benefit from a big steam consuming process that has lead to the installation of a very efficient steam generating process. Resources Input products (Co-)Products Waste Emissions (Co-)Products Waste Resources Input products Single operation unit process Black box unit process Emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4619, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 75, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Figure 8 Solving the multifunctionality problem (see Figure 6) by subdivision of the black box unit process. Subdivision yields exclusively the process-chain of mono-functional unit processes \u201cP1\u201d to \u201cP3\u201d that result in the analysed \u201cProduct 1\u201d. Subdivision can serve this purpose only, if the separated unit processes are not also multifunctional (as the example in Figure 8). However, next to potentially solving the multifunctionality, singling out the 'true' unit processes has other advantages for quality control and review, as the inventories do not combine several processes or even a whole site in a 'black box'. It is also noted that in case allocation is done on black box unit processes, the results are regularly distorted / incorrect, as normally not all processes inside a black box unit process relate to all co-functions to the same extent (see e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4620, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 76, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 7). In addition to what ISO says on the general case, it is noted that also under consequential modelling, substitution of co-functions of in principle subdividable unit processes will distort the results, hence, subdivision or virtual subdivision should be preferred. Black box unit processes should be subdivided also if this does not solve the multifunctionality problem, as it renders it smaller and often easier solvable and as it improves reviewability48. Otherwise, the potentially distorting effect shall be explicitly considered when stating accuracy of results and drawing conclusions and recommendations. Note that, while subdivision requires collecting more specific data, it often avoids the need for otherwise required data: in the illustrative Figure 8, this is data for the treatment of the wastes A and C and in case allocation would be chosen, this is the allocation criteria information (e.g. physical properties, market prices etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4621, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 76, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "physical properties, market prices etc.). Second approach: System expansion (including substitution) As second option for avoiding the need for allocation the ISO hierarchy names the approach of system expansion. This can mean to add another, not provided function to make to system comparable (i.e. system expansion in the stricter sense) or to subtract not required function(s) substituting them by the ones that are superseded / replaced (i.e. substitution by system expansion). 48 It is recognised that budget or time restrictions may often limit this possibility. Product A Product B Emissions iii Waste i Input products (goods and services) Resources Waste ii Waste iii P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 Emissions i Emissions ii", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4622, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 76, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Terms and concepts: System expansion / substitution \u201cSystem expansion\u201d and its variant \u201csubstitution\u201d are also called \u201csystem enlargement\u201d and \u201ccrediting\" / \"avoided burden approach\u201d, respectively. This is a combined concept for ensuring the equality of multifunctional systems with each other. In practice two different situations can be encountered: The first one is to solve the multifunctionality by expanding the system boundaries and substituting the not required function with an alternative way of providing it, i.e. the process that the not required function supersedes (\u201csubstitution\u201d). An example: Blast furnace slag is a joint co-product of steelmaking (typically in the range of 0.2 to 0.35 kg per kg hot metal)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4623, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 77, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An example: Blast furnace slag is a joint co-product of steelmaking (typically in the range of 0.2 to 0.35 kg per kg hot metal). It is mainly used in cement making (superseding Portland cement) and in road building (superseding primary aggregates), while a smaller part is not used, i.e. deposited. If we want to obtain exclusively the life cycle inventory of producing blast furnace steel, the inventory of the co-function blast furnace slag will be eliminated from the process by subtracting the inventory of the superseded processes / systems49. In this way, we can obtain an LCI data set exclusively for the production of the steel from this process/plant. Here we have expanded the system's perspective by subtracting the not wanted function(s) via the life cycle inventory of alternative means to provide it. See Figure 9 for a schematic representation. The other situation is when several multifunctional systems (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4624, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 77, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See Figure 9 for a schematic representation. The other situation is when several multifunctional systems (e.g. different brands of a complex consumer product) are to be made comparable in a comparison study. This would be done by expanding the system boundaries and adding for the given case missing functions and the inventories of the respective mono-functional products: E.g. when comparing a combined copier, printer, scanner, fax machine with a combined copier, scanner, fax machine, the missing function \"printer\" would be added to the inventory of the second product system; see upper part of Figure 10 for the schematic representation. The term system expansion is more illustrative in the second situation where we add one or more missing function(s).50 Note that both uses are mathematically equivalent as Figure 10 demonstrates (while not necessarily in their meaning and interpretation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4625, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 77, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "System expansion and substitution are the corresponding method approaches under consequential modelling for solving multifunctionality. Substitution is also applicable for attributional modelling that is interested to include existing interactions with other systems (e.g. credits to existing / past recycling operations for avoided primary production), i.e. under Situation C1. Substitution means to subtract the inventory of another system from the analysed system. This often leads to negative inventory flows. It can even result in negative overall 49 Note that in full consequential modelling, any additional BOF slag would go to landfill, as the supply is already higher than the demand. In that case, nothing is superseded and landfilling would be modelled. Looking in contrast at the existing average situation, a high share of the already produced BOF slag is replacing e.g. Portland cement and avoids its production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4626, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 77, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Looking in contrast at the existing average situation, a high share of the already produced BOF slag is replacing e.g. Portland cement and avoids its production. In that perspective, it is appropriate to substitute the mix of alternative uses (and have only a share modelled as landfilled). As a second comment it is interesting to note that the modelling of \"additional BOF slag\" changes if the BOF slag would be already fully used e.g. in the named cement applications. In that case, also any additionally co-produced BOF slag would supersede Portland cement, since the market demand would be higher than the supply. 50 The case of substitution could actually also be called \"system reduction\".", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4627, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 77, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how environmental impacts for the analysed system. This means that there is a net benefit of producing the analysed system as the overall impact is more than compensated by the avoided impact the co-functions have elsewhere. This is the correct interpretation, if made within the assumptions of the study, including on the amount of co-functions produced. This has nevertheless often lead to communication problems, especially to non-experts, as negative emissions and negative impacts are not directly intuitive. If such occurs, this needs special attention, including already in the reporting of results. At the same time, such results can also be misleading, if wrongly interpreted that an unlimited production of the analysed system will lead to unlimited benefits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4628, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 78, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "At the same time, such results can also be misleading, if wrongly interpreted that an unlimited production of the analysed system will lead to unlimited benefits. This however ignores that an ever-increased amount of production will produce very large amounts of the co-function, while the market for the superseded processes that was originally modelled might be much smaller. I.e. if the amount of the production is increased, the modelling would need to be changed to reflect whether the market can still take up the bigger amounts and these would still actually supersede any other process or system. This means that a study under Situation A can only be used to provide decision support under the original assumption that the not required co-functions are absorbed by the market and supersede the identified alternative processes / system and without large-scale consequences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4629, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 78, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Otherwise, for larger amounts, another mix of process / system might be superseded or the system would even need to be modelled under Situation B. Also a study under Situation B, e.g. on \"10 % biofuels in China\", cannot be used to support a decision on e.g. \"50 % biofuels in China\", as other large-scale consequences would likely occur in the rest of the society and industry that were not considered in the initial study but that would change the results. Figure 9 Solving the multifunctionality problem by substitution of the not required cofunctions, schematic. In practice, system expansion can lead to the need of further system expansion as the additionally included systems often are again multifunctional. This can be addressed in many cases via cut-off rules. There are however systems for which no alternative production / process for exactly the same function exists (e.g. rice grains and straw always grow together, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4630, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 78, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There are however systems for which no alternative production / process for exactly the same function exists (e.g. rice grains and straw always grow together, i.e. there is no alternative production of rice grains to be substituted). A substitution of the function that the rice grains provides is however feasible, i.e. other grains and staple fruits can be assumed to be superseded. Depending on the specific situation this can however need to a large number of superseded systems, so that in the balance of effort and accuracy, pragmatic but systematic approaches are required. In other cases, the alternative processes exist only in theory or are of no quantitative relevance in practice (e.g. Sodium hydroxide is basically exclusively produced from sodium chloride electrolysis, hence there is no truly superseded process of industrial relevance)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4631, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 78, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Sodium hydroxide is basically exclusively produced from sodium chloride electrolysis, hence there is no truly superseded process of industrial relevance). Another challenge is that it is not straightforward to identify the one or more superseded Co-production of A + B \u2248 X units of A Y units of B Y units of B X units of A Alternative production of B Alternative production of A \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4632, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 78, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how processes that should be integrated into the expanded system; the necessarily complex approach is detailed in chapter 7.2.4. Figure 10 Equivalence of additive and subtractive (\"substitution\") system expansion: Achieving functional equivalence of compared systems by either adding functions (system expansion, top) or subtracting them (bottom) Third approach: Allocation As last step in the ISO hierarchy, allocation is named, partitioning the inputs and outputs between the co-functions according to some allocation criterion. ISO gives a preferred order of potential criteria; see box. Terms and concepts: Allocation \u201cAllocation\u201d, also called \u201cpartitioning\u201d, solves the multifunctionality by splitting up the amounts of the individual inputs and outputs between the co-functions according to some allocation criterion, being a property of the co-functions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4633, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 79, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "element content, energy content, mass, market price etc.); see Figure 11. If possible, according to ISO 14044:2006, allocation should be performed in accordance with the underlying causal physical - and implicitly also covered: chemical and biological - relationship between the different products or functions. This should reflect the way in which the individual inputs and outputs are quantitatively changed by quantitative changes in the multiple functions delivered by the process or system. When it is not possible to find clear common physical causal relationships between the co-functions, ISO 14044:2006 recommends performing the allocation according to another relationship between them. This may be an economic relationship or a relationship between some other (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4634, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 79, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This may be an economic relationship or a relationship between some other (e.g. non-causal Co-production of A + B \u2248 + X units of A Y units of B Y units of B X units of A Alternative production of B Alternative production of A Co-production of A + B \u2248 X units of A Y units of B Y units of B X units of A Alternative production of B Alternative production of A \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4635, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 79, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how physical) properties of the co-functions such as energy content that is often used in the allocation between different fuels co-produced in a refinery51. Note that if subdivision cannot provide exclusively mono-functional unit processes that can be attributed to the analysed function, allocation is the corresponding method approach under attributional modelling for solving multifunctionality of processes. Figure 11 Solving the multifunctionality problem by allocation of the inventory to the cofunctions (illustrative). The thickness of the lines inside the process indicates which share of each non-functional flow is allocated to each of the two co-functions (here: \"Product A\" and \"Product B\"). The flows can be quantitatively allocated to only one (blue, solid lines) or to several (red, dotted lines) of the co-functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4636, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The flows can be quantitatively allocated to only one (blue, solid lines) or to several (red, dotted lines) of the co-functions. Different allocation criteria can be applied that need to be appropriately identified. The sum of the allocated amount of inventory flows shall be identical to the un-allocated inventory of the process. In practice there is often the difficulty to clearly identify the most appropriate allocation key, as the following examples illustrate. There is also often a lack of data (e.g. in the above example case data on how a varying amount of carbon and chlorine in the waste quantitatively changes effects the amount of dioxin formation), what renders the use of physical causality as solemn allocation criteria not always feasible or at least reduces the robustness. In chapter 7.9.3.2 some examples are given to illustrate this. On using the market price as allocation criterion The use of the market price as allocation criterion is hence often found in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4637, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In chapter 7.9.3.2 some examples are given to illustrate this. On using the market price as allocation criterion The use of the market price as allocation criterion is hence often found in practice. In many cases however the co-products are not directly traded but further processed internally e.g. compressed, purified, packaged etc. first. Hence the market price of the resulting product that is old is to be adjusted (i.e. reduced) for these additional steps, before using it as allocation key. Some interim co-products are not at all or at least seldom traded externally (e.g. refinery gas); market price information is to be approximated in such cases. Market 51 Note that the use of e.g. the lower calorific value for allocation across refinery products for the black-box unit process refinery is not a causal physical relationship, but a simplified allocation of a not causal physical relationship in the sense of ISO", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4638, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Product A Product B Emissions Wastes Input products (goods and services) Resources Process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4639, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how price based allocation on site level (i.e. of black box unit processes) disregards that emission abatement technologies often treat emissions that are related to only one of the co-products. A general disadvantage of using market prices in allocation is that this assumes a positive correlation of impacts with the market price, disregarding that environmental measures such as emission reduction technologies in fact increase the production cost while reducing the environmental burden. Using the market price for allocation also leads to some degree of correlation of the environmental impact with the price of the product, what limits the meaningfulness of such environmental impact data in eco-efficiency analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4640, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 81, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The ILCD provisions solving multifunctionality of processes How to identify the most appropriate, specific allocation and substitution approaches is detailed in the following subchapters for the general cases. 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4 and 4.2.3.6.1) 6.5.4.1 Introduction and overview In preparation of identifying the most appropriate LCI modelling principles and method approaches oriented to the goal of the LCI/LCA study, in chapter 5.3 the LCA work to be performed has been classified as belonging to one of three distinct decision-context situations A, B, or C. In practice and next to the formal decision-context there is a wide range of other aspects that finally determine the most appropriate LCI modelling principles and method approaches to be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4641, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 81, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In practice and next to the formal decision-context there is a wide range of other aspects that finally determine the most appropriate LCI modelling principles and method approaches to be applied. These aspects comprise among others reproducibility, information and data availability, precision and robustness, practicality, communicatability, cost-effectiveness, coherence with other instruments, and stakeholder acceptance. Taking into account all these aspects, the modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C are derived, as follows: 6.5.4.2 Situation A: \"Micro-level decision support\" (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4 and 4.2.3.6.1) 6.5.4.2.1 Overview Situation A relates to a life cycle based decision support on micro-level (e.g. for productrelated questions). It is typically, but not necessarily referring to the short-term (up to 5 years from present) or mid-term (5 to 10 years from present) future. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4642, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 81, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for productrelated questions). It is typically, but not necessarily referring to the short-term (up to 5 years from present) or mid-term (5 to 10 years from present) future. I.e. the analysed changes directly or indirectly relate to inform the purchase of products that are already offered in the market or the design / development of products that are foreseen to entering the market typically. Key criteria is that the analysed e.g. product has a limited share of the total production of its sector, so that its production, use and end-of-life can be reasonably expected to have no large-scale consequences in terms of additionally installed or reduced capacity in the background system or other systems, i.e. not structurally change it52. 1. 52 Sometimes it is theoretically assumed that any small-scale decision would have long-term consequences on installed capacity (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4643, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 81, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "not structurally change it52. 1. 52 Sometimes it is theoretically assumed that any small-scale decision would have long-term consequences on installed capacity (e.g. the purchase of 500 polypropylene-based ball pens would result in marginally increased capacity of polypropylen production by resulting in a marginal extra of newly installed polypropylene plants). This is understood to need further research before it can be considered for inclusion under Situation A, as a valid, efficiently applicable and robust guidance is required. Especially investment decisions under market, policy and other constraints as well as the specific effect of secondary consequences that counteract or block any such large-scale consequences need to be better understood.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4644, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 81, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how In condensed form and for orientation only, the following guidance is given: The most appropriate LCI model for Situation A shall represent the supply-chain of the analysed system, applying attributional modelling. For cases of system-system relationship and multifunctionality of processes and products that cannot be solved by subdivision or virtual subdivision, the system expansion approach shall be adopted, substituting the avoided process as its market mix (excluding the to-be-substituted function/route). Value-correction may be needed to adjust for differences in performance. In the case of large complexity, allocation is the next option to solve multifunctionality. The following paragraphs provide further details. Details on modelling are given in the respective Life Cycle Inventory chapters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4645, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 82, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following paragraphs provide further details. Details on modelling are given in the respective Life Cycle Inventory chapters. 6.5.4.2.2 LCI modelling provisions General life cycle model The following general guidance shall be applied: \uf0b7 attributional modelling shall be used for the general system LCI modelling, i.e. depicting the existing supply-chain, use and end-of-life downstream chain, as for the given to be included in the model. Multifunctionality For solving multifunctionality, subdivision or virtual subdivision shall be aimed at, cutting free non-multifunctional processes (see chapter 6.5.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4646, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 82, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Multifunctionality For solving multifunctionality, subdivision or virtual subdivision shall be aimed at, cutting free non-multifunctional processes (see chapter 6.5.3). For system-system relationships and for solving multifunctionality where this is principally not possible OR where other reasons such as data availability or cost considerations hamper this, the appropriate LCI method approaches shall be: \uf0b7 Cases of system-system relationship (see box in chapter 7.2.2): if the secondary function acts within another system where it only affects the existing processes\u201f operation (and potentially also the installed capacity, e.g. because this secondary function had been considered when planning the affected system), system expansion shall be done via substitution of the short-term marginal. In more detail: the systemsystem relationship related multifunctionality does not lead to installation of new processes or their taking out of operation, but only to changes in their operation (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4647, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 82, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In more detail: the systemsystem relationship related multifunctionality does not lead to installation of new processes or their taking out of operation, but only to changes in their operation (i.e. 'short-term marginal' consequences). This is given for those cases where the secondary function of the analysed product acts directly in context of another system, the 'context system'. An example is a coffee-machine that generates heat as co-function that lowers the heating demand for the building in which it is operated (and/or increases the cooling demand, depending on the region and season) (details see box of system-system relationships in chapter 7.2.2). The superseded process is hence directly the one affected in its operation (e.g. in case of the above example the average house heating and cooling systems in the analysed country)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4648, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 82, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The superseded process is hence directly the one affected in its operation (e.g. in case of the above example the average house heating and cooling systems in the analysed country). Note that in case the existence of the coffee-machine was anticipated in the building design and the installation of heating/cooling capacity, the same applies, just that in that case other heating/cooling systems are in use and to be modelled. \uf0b7 Cases of multifunctionality - general: - If for the not required co-function functionally equivalent alternative processes / products are operated / produced in a suffient58 extent, the not required co-function shall be substituted with the average market59 consumption mix of the processes or products that are superseded, excluding the to-be-substituted process-route/product from this mix. The reasoning for this simplification compared to a full consequential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4649, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 82, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how modelling is that a high effort is required to identify among the potential processes those that are most likely superseded and calculate the superseded mix: In full consequential modelling the mix of the most likely superseded processes would need to be identified. The limited benefit of a potentially more accurate, but also less certain selection of processes is not found justified for Situation A studies. The market mix is used as a realistic and robust approximation that additionally considers the existence of various secondary consequences and constraints that can be assumed to often reduce or fully compensate/avoid the theoretical primary consequences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4650, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 83, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- If such alternative processes / systems do not exist or are not operated to a sufficient extent, alternative processes / systems of the not required co-function in a wider sense should be used for substitution, along the same provisions as set in the preceding sub-provision. - If also such alternative processes / systems for the wider function do not exist or do not meet the named requirements, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems: the amount of not required co-function is more than the market can easily absorb without structural changes - It can be that modelling of substitution is not feasible. This can be e.g. as very many alternative processes / systems or alternatives for the function in a wider sense exist (e.g. over 10 alternative processes / systems make up over 80 % of the market for the to-be-substituted function and/or the superseded processes / systems themselves have a number of co-functions))", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4651, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 83, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "over 10 alternative processes / systems make up over 80 % of the market for the to-be-substituted function and/or the superseded processes / systems themselves have a number of co-functions)). The effort for modelling and qualitycontrolling this system would counteract applicability and practicality for Situation A studies. For this reason a simplification is applicable, compared to the theoretical full consequential model: In such cases and also if otherwise usable generic data is not sufficiently accurate to represent the superseded processes / systems, the two-step allocation procedure of chapter 7.9.3 can be applied instead. This shall however not be done if it would relevantly favour the analysed process / system; this should be argued or approximated. Note that if allocation is done, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4652, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 83, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that if allocation is done, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the interpretation. - Another simplification applies compared to the theoretical full consequential model: Substitution of the determining co-function(s) shall not be done. If they cannot be identified, the determining co-function(s) should be assumed to be those that jointly contribute more than 50 % to the combined market value of all co-functions of the analysed multifunctional process or system. That implies that in fact the main, determining co-function(s) of the process would be substituted. In this case, the twostep allocation procedure shall be applied (see chapter 7.9.3). - Differences in functionality between substituted and superseded function shall be considered either and preferably by substituting the actually superseded amounts (e.g. the amount of Portland cement that the steel making co-product BOF slag actually replaces in cement)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4653, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 83, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the amount of Portland cement that the steel making co-product BOF slag actually replaces in cement). Or, as second priority, these differences shall be considered by market value correction of the amount of the substituted function and its inventory, i.e. the ratio of market price between the co-function and the ones it is supposed to supersede. - As special case of the above, for waste and end-of-life treatment (for all cases, i.e. \"closed loop\", \"open loop - same primary route\", and \"open loop - different primary route\"): system expansion shall be done, substituting the avoided primary production using the recyclability substitution with the average primary route market mix of the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4654, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 83, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how market where the secondary good is produced; differences in functionality shall be considered by substituting the actually superseded amounts or by market value correction (details see annex 14). An example: recycled, untreated wood from construction waste53 might be chipped and used in particleboard production in Europe. Primary produced wood chips (European market consumption mix) would be superseded and their inventory used in substitution. If the secondary wood chips would have a lower functionality than the primary wood chips (e.g. more would be needed for a particleboard of the same performance specifications), the respectively reduced amounts of superseded primary wood-chips is substituted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4655, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 84, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "more would be needed for a particleboard of the same performance specifications), the respectively reduced amounts of superseded primary wood-chips is substituted. Or, if this is not identifiably and quantifiable, but the market value of primary wood chips would differ to the secondary ones, the substituted inventory is corrected by their market price ratio. Any efforts of sorting, transport, chipping, etc. of the construction wood waste would be part of the building inventory from which the construction wood waste stems. The simplified substitution of the market mix of primary production is reasoned the same way as the use of the market mix for the general case of multifunctionality, as explained more above. An example is the electricity produced from production waste or end-of-life product incineration with energy recovery. The superseded and to be substituted process is the electricity mix of the market (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4656, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 84, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The superseded and to be substituted process is the electricity mix of the market (e.g. country, region, sub-grid) where the waste / end-of-life treatment takes place, excluding the to-be-substituted electricity source - Especially for the case of \"open loop - different primary route\" in addition it shall be checked whether for the reused part, recycled material, or recovered energy functionally equivalent, alternative processes / systems, or functional equivalents in a wider sense exist and are operated to a sufficient extent (as detailed above for the general cases of multifunctionality). Otherwise, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems. Analogously to the general case of multifunctionality, the amount of secondary good provided is so high that the market cannot absorb it without structural changes. Note that this usually does not apply to closed-loop cases, as the secondary good enters the same kind of system, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4657, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 84, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this usually does not apply to closed-loop cases, as the secondary good enters the same kind of system, i.e. the market can always absorb the secondary good. This is unless the quality is too low and it cannot replace the functions of the primary good. - Similarly as for the general case, very complex and expanded substitution systems can render the study impractical, as data is not available or accessible for all parts, or lead to inappropriately high costs. In that case (see above), allocation can be done, applying the procedure for waste / end-of-life treatment multifunctionality; this is detailed in annex 14.4 and chapter 7.9.3. Allocation shall however not be done if it would relevantly favour the analysed process / system. This can be analysed qualitatively or semi-quantitatively argued or approximated. If allocation is done, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4658, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 84, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If allocation is done, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the interpretation. Comparative studies For comparative studies of Situation A the main model for each of the compared alternatives shall be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases and (optionally) further assumption scenarios within the reasonably best and worst cases. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless it has already been 53 Methodologically identically for wood waste collected during production of a building and from decommissioning of an old building.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4659, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 84, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. The interested parties shall be involved towards a best attainable consensus on the definition of the reasonably best and reasonably worst assumption scenarios that can in principle vary all data and method provisions and assumptions for Situation A, except for the \"shall\" provisions and assumptions. Note that the comparative case under Situation A (e.g. procurement of cleaning services) in most cases assumes that one of the compared alternatives will be procured. The LCAbased decision support hence only compares the alternatives. There is hence usually no 'zero' option. If among the to-be-compared systems, one or more systems have additional functional units, comparability shall be achieved by system expansion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4660, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 85, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There is hence usually no 'zero' option. If among the to-be-compared systems, one or more systems have additional functional units, comparability shall be achieved by system expansion. 6.5.4.3 Situation B: \"Meso/macro-level decision support\" (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4 and 4.2.3.6.1) 6.5.4.3.1 Overview Situation B refers to life cycle based decision support on a meso or macro-level, such as for strategies (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options, etc.). It typically refers to the mid-term (5 to 10 years from present) or long-term (beyond 10 years from present) future, given the nature of the study. Key criterion is that the analysed decision has consequences on changes in production, use and end-of-life activities that will directly or indirectly change relevant parts of the economy by having large-scale structural effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4661, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 85, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In condensed form and for orientation only, the following guidance is given: The analysed systems or alternative scenarios shall be modelled, applying the modelling guidance of Situation A (see chapter 6.5.4.2). Those processes that have been identified as being affected by \"big\" large-scale changes as consequence of the analysed decision shall be modelled as the market mix of the long-term marginal processes (details see chapter 7.2.4). This shall be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. Also uncertainty calculation can support the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4662, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 85, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This shall be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. Also uncertainty calculation can support the analysis. The following paragraphs provide further details with the full details are given in the respective chapters: 6.5.4.3.2 LCI modelling provisions General life cycle model and multifunctionality Situation B shall apply the LCI modelling guidance of Situation A, with one exception: processes that have been identified as being affected by big54 changes as consequence of the analysed decision shall be modelled as mix of the long-term marginal processes. Comparative studies Comparisons of alternatives would then be made among the various alternatives, considering the assumption scenarios and uncertainty analysis (unless such has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios). Note that in contrast to Situation A, the comparative case (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4663, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 85, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that in contrast to Situation A, the comparative case (e.g. options for recycling policies) in most cases also has a 'zero' option of 'business as usual', i.e. that a new policy 54 Definition and guidance see chapter 7.2.4.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4664, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 85, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how would not be put in place (or that no change would be made to an existing policy). The LCAbased decision support hence usually also has one scenario of 'no action'. For comparative studies the systems or alternative scenarios shall be complemented each with further scenarios (here called \"assumption scenarios\") to improve the robustness of the analysis, by varying the key data related assumptions (e.g. recycling rates, use intensity, life times, etc.) and potentially the relevant method assumptions. The assumption scenarios shall combine variations of the most influencing assumptions aiming at representing reasonable worst and reasonable best cases around the system(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4665, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 86, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The assumption scenarios shall combine variations of the most influencing assumptions aiming at representing reasonable worst and reasonable best cases around the system(s). These reasonable worst and reasonable best cases should be derived by expert judgement aiming at capturing the upper and lower 90 % percentile of error around the system / alternative scenario (including accounting for co-variance among assumptions). This scenario analysis shall be combined or integrated with stochastic uncertainty calculation e.g. applying Monte-Carlo Simulation, unless such has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. The assumption scenarios may deviate from all LCI modelling requirements of Situation B, including the \"shall\". The necessary reasonable worst and reasonable best scenarios shall be agreed among the involved interested parties of a public stakeholder hearing aiming at the best attainable consensus55. These scenarios can hence include e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4666, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 86, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These scenarios can hence include e.g. full consequential scenarios for the entire system life cycle and attributional (allocation) for cases of multifunctionality. Details on which consequences should be included by default in case consequential modelling is done and guidance on determination of the marginal processes is found briefly in chapter 7.2.4. If an LCI data set is the deliverable of the study, the modelling of assumption scenarios is recommended, only. If performed, the outcome may be documented together with the data set. Note that this is a \"shall\" requirement if the data set is intended to be used in subsequent comparisons. 6.5.4.4 Situation C: \u201cAccounting\u201d (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4 and 4.2.3.6.1) Overview Situation C relates to studies that require a entirely descriptive, accounting-type of life cycle model, typically referring to the past or present (while individually also to the future via extrapolation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4667, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 86, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The object of the analysis can be both on a micro-level and on a meso or macro-level; the amount of production or consumption and of co-functions does not change the modelling. Key difference from Situations A and B is that the study is interested in documenting what has happened (or will happen) based on decisions that have already been taken; there is hence no small-scale or large-scale consequences on the background system or other systems in the rest of the society that would be in the interest of the analysis. However, existing benefits and negative interactions with other systems (e.g. recycling credits) may be included. This leads to the two differentiated cases C1 and C2. For the two sub-types of Situation C, the key difference is whether existing benefits outside the analysed system are considered or not: In Situation C1, this is the case (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4668, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 86, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the two sub-types of Situation C, the key difference is whether existing benefits outside the analysed system are considered or not: In Situation C1, this is the case (e.g. the 55 As the review requirements for such Situation B studies foresee an external review (for the exact type of review see the review guidance document), it is one possibility to fulfil this hearing requirement by joining it with the stakeholder involvement in this review: the reviewer / review chair can invite affected stakeholders and steer a process towards the best attainable consensus on the primary and secondary consequences that are to be included into the scenarios of the respective study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4669, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 86, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how benefit of a process of the analysed system is producing a co-product that actually supersedes another product). This is hence to be credited. Note that in difference to Situation A (or B), here this benefit is already existing (as an existing system is described). In Situation A (or B) this benefit is assumed to occur only in consequence of the decision that is supported with the study, i.e. in addition. This \"addition\" is the key: only if the additional amount of co-product can be used in the market, only then the crediting is appropriate in Situation A, otherwise the structural consequences are to be modelled (Situation B). For that reason in Situation A, the credit is only given if it can be shown that the superseding actually takes place (or is likely to take place as the amount is relatively small)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4670, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 87, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For that reason in Situation A, the credit is only given if it can be shown that the superseding actually takes place (or is likely to take place as the amount is relatively small). In Situation C1, the fact of superseding can actually be measured by inventorying how much of the co-product is actually used and for which purposes and how much may be deposited. This results in the following, general modelling provision: LCI modelling provisions For both Situation C1 and C2 the life cycle of the analysed system(s) shall be modelled as attributional model of the supply-chain, i.e. as in Situation A (details see chapter 7.2.3; see also again 6.5.2). Multifunctionality For solving multifunctionality, subdivision or virtual subdivision shall be aimed at, cutting free non-multifunctional processes (see chapter 6.5.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4671, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 87, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Multifunctionality For solving multifunctionality, subdivision or virtual subdivision shall be aimed at, cutting free non-multifunctional processes (see chapter 6.5.3). For system-system relationships and for solving multifunctionality where this is principally not possible OR where other reasons such as data availability or cost considerations hamper this, the appropriate LCI method approaches shall be: \uf0b7 For Situation C1 multifunctionality of processes and systems should be solved with substitution via system expansion, similarly as in Situation A but independently of the amount of secondary function. That means hat studies done under Situation A are identical to studies done under Situation C1 (while not vice versa). \uf0b7 For Situation C2, multifunctionality of processes and systems shall be solved with allocation. This also applies to all end-of-life product and waste management including material recycling, energy recovery, part reuse, product further use, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4672, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 87, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This also applies to all end-of-life product and waste management including material recycling, energy recovery, part reuse, product further use, etc. The guidance on the two-step procedure for applying allocation is provided in chapter 7.9.3. Details on modelling recycling are provided in annex 14.4. Note that given the purely descriptive character of the model, the resulting accountingtype data of Situation C1 \u2013 while informing decision makers about developments and hot spots \u2013 cannot DIRECTLY be used for decision support or comparisons of alternative measures: this requires the subsequent use of the modelling under Situation A or B. Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C The following modelling provisions can be applied only in the Life Cycle Inventory phase. However, because the step of determining the LCI modelling and method approaches is part of the scope definition, the provisions are given here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4673, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 87, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, because the step of determining the LCI modelling and method approaches is part of the scope definition, the provisions are given here. They are also required to provide orientation to some of the remaining steps of the scope phase. Note that the inventory of a unit process is basically identical for Situation A, B, and C, although some differences apply e.g. for required additional information, e.g. market size. What differs is which processes are within the system boundary, especially in the background system (what is addressed in chapter 7.2), and how the processes are combined to represent the life cycle model and how multifunctionality is solved; both are addressed in this chapter. The following provisions draw on the provisions in the referenced LCI chapters. They are partly simplified compared to the 'full' consequential and attributional modelling provisions to improve practicality and applicability;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4674, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 87, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C this is highlighted in the respective provision. I) SHALL - LCI modelling provisions to be applied: A specific combination of LCI modelling framework (attributional or consequential) and LCI method approaches (allocation or system expansion / substitution) is identified for each of the goal situations A, B, C1, and C2. The provisions cover scenario and uncertainty calculation. The provisions shall be applied as follows (6.5.4.1): [ISO!] I.a) Situation A - \"Micro-level decision support\": (6.5.4.2) I.a.i) Life cycle model: The life cycle model of the analysed system(s)56 shall be modelled as an attributional model, i.e. depicting the existing supplychain processes (for details see chapter 7.2.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4675, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 88, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "depicting the existing supplychain processes (for details see chapter 7.2.3). I.a.ii) Subdivision and virtual subdivision for black box unit processes and multifunctionality: It shall be aimed at avoiding black box unit processes and solving multifunctionality by subdivision or virtual subdivision (see chapter 7.4.2.2), as far as possible. The following applies for cases of system-system relationships and cases of multifunctionality, if subdivision / virtual subdivision is not possible or not feasible: I.a.iii) Cases of system-system relationship: if the analysed system's secondary function acts within a context system, where it only affects the existing processes\u201f operation, system expansion shall be performed via substitution with the short-term marginal (for terms, concepts, and details see boxes in chapter 7.2.2 and chapter 7.2.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4676, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 88, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the analysed system may also have influenced the installed capacity of the context system, if it had been considered when planning the context system. For example the heat generated by office equipment may have been considered when dimensioning the heating and cooling system of an office building. Part-system relationships require no specific modelling provision, but the correct identification of the processes within the system boundary; see boxes in chapter 7.2.2. I.a.iv) Cases of multifunctionality - general: (For terms, concepts, and details see chapter 7.2.4.6, but note the simplifications given here for Situation A): I.a.iv.1) Substitution of market mix of specific alternatives: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): If for the not required57 specific co-function, functionally equivalent alternative processes / systems are operated / produced to a 56 Plural in case of comparisons. 57 I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4677, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 88, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "57 I.e. in contrast to the one that is analysed or within the system boundary in the background system.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4678, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 88, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C sufficient58 extent: the not required co-function shall, as far as possible, be substituted with the average market59 consumption mix of the processes or systems that it supersedes, excluding the to-be-substituted function from this mix. If the to-besubstituted function has a small share in the overall environmental impact of the market mix, the market mix can be used instead, if the results are not relevantly changed. I.a.iv.2) Substitution of market mix of general, wider alternatives: If such alternative processes / systems do not exist60 or are not operated to a sufficient extent, alternative processes / systems of the not required co-function in a wider sense should be used for substitution61, applying the same provisions as set out in the preceding sub-provision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4679, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 89, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.a.iv.3) Situation B?: If also such alternative processes / systems for the wider function do not exist or do not meet the named requirements, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems. I.a.iv.4) Allocation: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): if modelling of substitution is not feasible62 and generic data is not sufficiently accurate to represent the superseded processes / systems: the two-step allocation procedure of 58 \"Sufficient\" means that the not required co-function can quantitatively be absorbed by the market. That shall be assumed to be the case, if the annually available amount of the to-be-substituted co-function is not more than the annual amount produced by the annually replaced installed capacity of the superseded alternative process(es) or system(s) (see also paragraph on \"Guidance for differentiating between Situation A and B\" in chapter 5.3.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4680, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 89, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "! Note that this refers to the amount of co-function provided by the analysed process. E.g. if the study refers to a specific producer that contributes only a small share to the total production of the co-function, only this small amount counts. I.e. it is very likely that it can be absorbed by the market. If the study refers to the total production of a certain product that has the not required co-products, there is the chance that this much larger amount of coproducts cannot be absorbed by the market. 59 This \"market\" is the market where the secondary function is provided. E.g. for products produced from end-oflife and waste management this is the market of the primary production at the time and the location (e.g. country, region or global etc. market) where the end-of-life product or waste is known or forecasted to undergo recycling, reuse, or energy-recovery", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4681, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 89, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "country, region or global etc. market) where the end-of-life product or waste is known or forecasted to undergo recycling, reuse, or energy-recovery. If this market cannot be clearly determined, the most likely market shall be assumed and well justified; this most likely market shall be on a continental scale or at least cover a group of countries / markets. For explanation of the \"market\" concept see chapter 6.8.3. 60 As is the case e.g. for wheat grain and straw production, many oil refinery products, etc. 61 E.g. for NaOH, as co-product of Chlorine production, apart from NaCl electrolysis no alternative route is operated to the sufficient extent. However, NaOH provides in a wider sense the function of neutralising agent (next to some other, quantitatively less relevant functions) and hence other, technically equivalent and competing neutralising agents such as KOH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3, etc. can be assumed to be superseded; their mix would be used to substitute the not required NaOH", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4682, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 89, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "can be assumed to be superseded; their mix would be used to substitute the not required NaOH. For the example of a wheat grain study and the not required co-product straw: instead of straw, other dry biomass (e.g. Miscanthus grass, wood for heating, etc.) provides equivalent functions and its market mix can be assumed to be superseded. 62 \"not feasible\" refers to cases where many alternative processes / systems or alternatives for the function in a wider sense exist (e.g. where over 10 alternative processes / systems make up over 80 % of the market for the tobe-substituted function, and/or where the superseded processes / systems themselves have a number of cofunctions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4683, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 89, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C chapter 7.9.3 can be applied instead. Allocation shall however not be performed if it would relevantly favour the analysed process / system. This fact shall be argued or approximated. If allocation is performed, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and explicitly be considered later in the results interpretation. For multifunctional products and the alternative second step in allocation, Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is the preferred alternative to market price allocation. I.a.iv.5) No substitution of main function(s): (Simplification compared to full consequential model): The determining co-function(s) shall not be substituted (for term and concept see chapter 7.2.4.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4684, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 90, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the case the determining and dependent cofunctions cannot be clearly identified, the determining cofunction(s) should be assumed to be those that jointly contribute more than 50 % to the combined market value of all co-functions of the analysed multifunctional process or system63. (The market value is for this purpose the value of the co-functions as provided by the multifunctional process, i.e. without any further processing). In this case, the two-step allocation procedure shall be applied (see chapter 7.9.3). I.a.iv.6) Considering functional differences: Differences in functionality between substituted and superseded function shall be considered either preferably by substituting the actually superseded amounts, or by substituting the market value corrected amount of the function (details see chapter 7.2.4.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4685, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 90, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.a.v) Cases of multifunctionality - waste and end-of-life treatment: (For terms, concepts, and details see chapter 7.2.4.6 and annex 14.5, but note the simplifications given here for Situation A): I.a.v.1) Recyclability substitution of primary route market mix: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): For waste and end-of-life treatment as cases of multifunctionality: system expansion shall be performed in accordance with the provisions for the cases of general multifunctionality. The avoided primary production of the reused part, recycled good, or recovered energy shall be substituted. This shall apply the recyclability substitution approach, with the simplification of substituting the average primary route market consumption mix of the market where the secondary good is produced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4686, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 90, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This shall apply the recyclability substitution approach, with the simplification of substituting the average primary route market consumption mix of the market where the secondary good is produced. I.a.v.2) Recyclability substitution of general, wider alternatives: For \"open loop - different primary route\" cases, the market consumption mix of alternative goods in a wider sense should be used for substitution, along the same provisions as set out in the preceding sub-provision. 63 The reasoning is that in that case it is likely that the determining co-functions would be substituted.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4687, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 90, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C I.a.v.3) Situation B?: Especially for the case of \"open loop - different primary route\" and for secondary goods with relevantly changed / downcycled properties, in addition verification is needed on whether for the reused part, recycled material, or recovered energy, functionally equivalent, alternative processes or systems, or functional equivalents in a wider sense exist. If this is the case it needs additional verification whether these are operated to a sufficient extent (as detailed above for the general cases of multifunctionality, see also footnote 58). Otherwise, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4688, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 91, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Otherwise, the study is in fact a Situation B type study, as this implies large-scale consequences on other systems. I.a.v.4) Allocation: (Simplification compared to full consequential model): if modelling the substitution is not feasible (see footnote 62) and generic data is not sufficiently accurate to represent the superseded processes / systems, then the two-step allocation procedure applied to waste/end-of-life given in annex 14.5 and chapter 7.9.3 can be applied instead. This shall not be done if it would relevantly favour the analysed process / system; this fact shall be argued or approximated. If allocation is performed, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and explicitly be considered later in the results interpretation. I.a.v.5) Considering functional differences: Differences in functionality between substituted and superseded function shall be considered either and preferably by substituting the actually superseded amounts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4689, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 91, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As second priority and if the superseded amounts are not known, market value correction of the amount of the substituted function shall be performed. Note that this applies to all cases of waste and end-of-life treatment that generate any valuable secondary good, i.e. \"closed loop\", \"open loop - same primary route\", and \"open loop - different primary route\" (concepts see 14.3). I.a.vi) Comparative studies, scenarios, uncertainty calculation: I.a.vi.1) If among the to-be-compared systems, one or more systems have additional functional units, comparability shall be achieved by system expansion. I.a.vi.2) For comparative studies of Situation A, the main model for each of the compared alternatives shall each be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. Optionally further assumption scenarios can be defined. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless it has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4690, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 91, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Optionally further assumption scenarios can be defined. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless it has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. These scenarios serve to later perform the sensitivity check (see chapter 9.3.3). The interested parties shall be involved towards a best attainable consensus on the definition of the reasonably best and reasonably worst case assumption scenarios (and uncertainty calculation) that can in principle vary all data and method provisions and assumptions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4691, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 91, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C for Situation A except for the \"shall\" provisions and assumptions / conventions. It is recommended to also perform and report such assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculations for non-comparative LCI and LCA studies. Note that for LCI data sets that are intended to support comparative studies, the reasonsbaly best and worst case scenarios may be included within these data sets or be provided as complement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4692, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 92, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that for LCI data sets that are intended to support comparative studies, the reasonsbaly best and worst case scenarios may be included within these data sets or be provided as complement. I.b) Situation B \"Meso/macro-level decision support\" (6.5.4.3): I.b.i) Provisions as for Situation A with two differences: The above provisions for Situation A shall also be applied for Situation B, with two differences: I.b.i.1) Large-scale consequences: Processes that have been identified as being affected by \"big\"64 large-scale changes as a consequence of the analysed decision shall be modelled as the expected mix of the long-term marginal processes (for details see chapter 7.2.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4693, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 92, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.b.i.2) Comparative studies, scenarios, uncertainty calculation: (Additional flexibility for assumption scenarios), for comparative studies of Situation B: The assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation can in principle vary all data and method provisions and assumptions for Situation B including the \"shall\" provisions and assumptions / conventions of the ILCD Handbook, while not those of ISO 14040 and 1404465. Note that comparative Situation B studies often include a \"zero\" option, i.e. include a scenario of \"no action\" (e.g. \"no change in existing policy Y\", or \"no strategic measure on raw material X security of supply\"). I.c) Situation C - \"Accounting\" (6.5.4.4): I.c.i) Provisions as for Situation A with two differences: The provisions for Situation A shall also be applied for Situation C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4694, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 92, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.c) Situation C - \"Accounting\" (6.5.4.4): I.c.i) Provisions as for Situation A with two differences: The provisions for Situation A shall also be applied for Situation C. With two differences: I.c.ii) Remaining cases of multifunctionality: These shall be solved as follows: I.c.ii.1) Situation C1: Multifunctionality of processes and systems shall be solved with substitution via system expansion, as in Situation A, but independently of the absolute amount of the not 64 Large-scale (\"big\") consequences shall generally be assumed if the annual additional demand or supply that is triggered by the analysed decision exceeds the capacity of the annually replaced installed capacity of the additionally demanded or supplied process, product, or broader function, as applicable (see also chapter 5.3.6, under the paragraph heading \"Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation A and B\"). 65 I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4695, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 92, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "65 I.e. these scenarios and uncertainty calculation aloow to apply the full range of method and modelling options of of ISO 14044.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4696, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 92, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C required co-function(s) that will be substituted66. The other provisions apply analogously. I.c.ii.2) Situation C2: General cases of multifunctionality of processes and systems shall be solved with allocation (i.e. applying the two-step allocation procedure; for details see chapter 7.9.3). Cases of waste and end-of-life treatment shall be solved via allocation, as described in annex 14.4.1 (with the provisions being included in the 'Provisions' of chapter 7.9.3). I.c.iii) Comparative studies: Note the restrictions for direct comparative decision support of accounting data (see chapter 5.3.7). Note that Situation C1 is thereby modelled identically to Situation A, while independently of the size of the system or processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4697, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 93, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that Situation C1 is thereby modelled identically to Situation A, while independently of the size of the system or processes. Note that substitution can lead to negative elementary flows or in rare cases even negative overall environmental impacts of the analysed systems. This must be explicitly addressed in reporting, explaining all implications and helping to avoid misinterpretation and misleading conclusions. The main guidance on attributional LCI modelling is given in chapter 7.2.3. Guidance on the two-step procedure for applying allocation is provided in chapter 7.9.3. Main guidance on consequential LCI modelling is given in chapter 7.2.4. Details on LCI modelling of reuse/recycling/recovery are provided in annex 14.4 (attributional) and annex 14.5 (consequential)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4698, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 93, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Main guidance on consequential LCI modelling is given in chapter 7.2.4. Details on LCI modelling of reuse/recycling/recovery are provided in annex 14.4 (attributional) and annex 14.5 (consequential). 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.1, 4.2.3.3.2, AND 4.2.3.3.3) 6.6.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.3.1) Overview The system boundaries define which parts of the life cycle and which processes belong to the analysed system, i.e. are required for providing its function as defined by its functional unit. They hence separate the analysed system from the rest of the technosphere. At the same time, the system boundaries also define the boundary between the analysed system and the ecosphere, i.e. define across which boundary the exchange of elementary flows with nature takes place67", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4699, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 93, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "define across which boundary the exchange of elementary flows with nature takes place67. 66 The reasoning is that the effect of superseding alternative processes / systems is existing, other than in Situation A where an additional amount of co-function is pushed into the market. I.e. in Situation C1, the check whether alternative processes / systems are operated or produced to a sufficient extent is unnecessary, as the superseding factually already occurs. 67 This is not always straightforward, e.g. for agricultural systems that need a clear definition where the technosphere (i.e. the managed field) ends and nature begins. See chapter 7.4.4.1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4700, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 93, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Terms and concepts: Technosphere and ecosphere \u2013 clearer defining the boundary The terms technosphere and ecosphere are central and it can often be observed that these two terms are interpreted differently by different practitioners: in ISO 14044:2006 the ecosphere is referred to as \u201cenvironment\u201d what can be confusing as in LCA practice e.g. also buildings and dams are referred to as \u201cman-made environment\u201d. In addition, the elementary flows that cross the system boundary are defined as \u201cmaterial or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the environment without previous human transformation, or material or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the environment without subsequent human transformation\u201d . This brings ambiguity in cases such as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4701, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 94, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This brings ambiguity in cases such as e.g. tailings from ore mining, fertiliser applied in agriculture, but also non-managed waste land-filling in general as such 'materials' are sometimes wrongly interpreted as being an elementary flow to the environment. The difficulty of impact assessment of complex flows such as land-filled end-of-life products or tailings is that LCIA relates to single substances and energy flows. In order to ensure reproducibility and an appropriate and working link with impact assessment it is necessary to completely model the named cases until emissions of single substances enter the natural environment. I.e. instead of inventorying \u201ctailings\u201d (which moreover can mean very different things in practice and for which no impact factors exist) the leaching of e.g. sulphuric acid and specific metals from the tailings is to be modelled and inventoried as \"Emissions to water\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4702, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 94, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "sulphuric acid and specific metals from the tailings is to be modelled and inventoried as \"Emissions to water\". The same applies to land-filled waste with both the emissions accounted for and the resources/products to operate the land-fill (if any). The boundary technosphere / ecosphere can hence be more suitably be defined by defining the elementary flow as \u201csingle substance68 or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the ecosphere without previous human transformation, or single substance or energy leaving the system being studied that is released into the ecosphere without subsequent human transformation\u201d. A precise definition of the system boundaries is important to ensure that all attributable or consequential processes are actually included in the modelled system and that all relevant potential impacts on the environment are appropriately covered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4703, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 94, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The levels of cut-off criteria and the maximum permissible uncertainty are - together with the achieved technical, geographical and time-related representativeness as well as method consistency - the key measure for the overall quality (i.e. accuracy, completeness, and precision) of the outcomes of the LCI/LCA study. 68 Note that while not being single substances, sum indicators such as VOC, COD can be addressed in LCIA by assuming a breakdown list of single substances. While the inventorying of actual single substances is to be preferred, LCIA can be operationalised also with such sum indicators (as long as they are sufficiently homogenous). Analogous considerations apply for energy resources such as e.g. hard coal. See however also chapter 7.4.3 on this and other overarching LCI modelling and inventorying issues.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4704, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 94, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Limitations of the system scope of the LCA approach (Accidents and other non-LCA impacts) Note that LCA only accounts for impacts related to normal and abnormal operation of processes and products, but not covering e.g. impacts from accidents, spills, and similar69. The health impact (or improvement) that products may directly exert on humans is equally not covered by LCA. This is because these impacts (or beneficial effects) occur within the technosphere and are not subject to any environmental fate and exposure chain. This applies to the use stage of a range of products such as food and drink, personal hygiene, healthcare products, tobacco products, etc. Use-phase related impacts that these products exert via an emission to the ecosphere (e.g. smoke emissions to the environment, wastewater-discharge) are however to be included", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4705, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 95, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use-phase related impacts that these products exert via an emission to the ecosphere (e.g. smoke emissions to the environment, wastewater-discharge) are however to be included. Equally, not explicitly addressed are impacts that occur directly within the technosphere (e.g. workplace exposure)70. In summary, accidents, social and other work environment aspects including workplace-exposure, and indoor-emissions are not normally covered by LCA (and not addressed in this guidance). If included they must be inventoried, aggregated and interpreted separately from the life cycle inventory that relates to inventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere and related to normal operation of the involved processes. Limited guidance in ISO on types of processes to include in attributional modelling In ISO this step is only addressed implicitly for attributional modelling; no clear guidance is given which activities or processes actually relate to the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4706, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 95, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "While it is generally agreed that extraction and direct processing of a material that ends up in the analysed good is part of the system, the general inclusion of investment goods, administration activities, marketing services, staff commuting, etc. is done differently by different practitioners. In any case depends the setting of the system boundaries on the LCI modelling framework: in case of attributional modelling the system is modelled as it is, following a existing or forecasted, specific or averaged supply-chain logic. In consequential modelling, in contrast, the consequences that the analysed system exerts on other systems are modelled, why these are the processes of a theoretically modelled supply-chain are to be included in the system boundaries. For consequential modelling, the informative ISO/TR 14049 gives illustrative guidance on the identification of these processes. This serves as starting point for updated and further detailed guidance; see chapter 7.2.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4707, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 95, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This serves as starting point for updated and further detailed guidance; see chapter 7.2.4. 69 Accidents and accident-type leakages and spills shall not be inventoried as part of the normal life cycle inventory since they are fundamentally different in nature from the production or operation related normal and abnormal operating conditions that LCA relates to (OTHER than e.g. fugitive emissions through sealings and other \u201cengineered losses\u201d that are included in LCA). Accident modelling necessarily requires dealing with frequencies and with cause-effect chains (to assign them to the causing unit processes). Work on this Life Cycle Accident Assessment is still under methodological development, while a number of explorative case-studies have been published. 70 Methods to capture work-place exposure and other social work-place aspects are in between more advanced under the Life Cycle Working Environment approach, while still lack broader application in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4708, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 95, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Methodological work on indoor-exposure in private households is equally ongoing. It is unclear and widely discussed whether both these types of impacts inside the technosphere belong under \u201cenvironmental impacts\u201d or should be addressed separately, while within the same life cycle analysis frame. Within this ILCD guidance they are not addressed for the time being until methods have been advanced and more practice experience has been gained.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4709, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 95, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how On a higher level, widely different practices are found in relation to a systematic inclusion or exclusion of accidents, the direct ingestion of food, application of e.g. cosmetics to the skin, indoor exposure at workplace and home, etc. The basic guidance for the question which activities at all are to be related to a product or process are given in the LCI work chapters 7.2.3 and 7.2.4, separately for attributional and consequential modelling, respectively. This question is to be answered early in the scope phase as one basis for identifying principle data needs. The identification of the specific processes takes then place in the LCI phase of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4710, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 96, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This question is to be answered early in the scope phase as one basis for identifying principle data needs. The identification of the specific processes takes then place in the LCI phase of the LCA. System boundaries of unit process data sets For unit process data sets and regarding product and waste flows, the system boundary is the boundary between the modelled process and the rest of the technosphere. I.e. all product and waste flows that enter or leave the process cross the boundary and hence appear in its inventory. Also all the elementary flows that directly leave the process towards the ecosphere or directly enter from there cross the system boundary are to be inventoried. System boundaries of LCI results, LCIA results, and LCA studies For LCI result and LCIA result data sets and for full LCAs, the system boundaries should ideally be set in a way that all flows crossing the boundaries are exclusively elementary flows plus the reference (product) flow(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4711, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 96, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In other words: all71 other product and waste inputs and outputs should be completely modelled until the final inventories exclusively show elementary flows. Figure 12 Cradle to grave, cradle to gate and gate to gate data sets as parts of the complete life cycle; schematic. Each type fulfils a specific function as module for use in other LCA studies. Terms and concepts: Foreground system and background system The analysed system is typically differentiated into the processes of the foreground system and those of the background system. Two different purposes are behind this differentiation that lead to two different concepts and usages, however: The first is the purpose of identifying where specific data should be used versus where average or generic background data can typically be used by default (\"specificity perspective\")", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4712, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 96, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The second is the purpose of identifying which processes can be managed by direct control or decisive influence from the point of view of the decision-context of a study (\"management perspective\"). In context of this 71 Note that exclusively for partly terminated systems selected product and/or waste flows may stay in the inventory; the life cycle data of these are then completed by the user of the data set. Company B Company C Company A End-of-life managament Extraction Material and part production Assembly Retail Gate to gate Cradle to gate (B) Cradle to grave Use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4713, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 96, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how guidance and for the purpose of data collection and compilation, the definition related to the \"specificity perspective\" is applied. Note that the specificity perspective related distinction is only indicative, as key is the accuracy, precision and completeness of the data - especially generic data can for a given case be more suitable for the foreground system (see also chapter 7.4.2.5). Note that also for the management perspective related distinction many processes cannot be clearly assigned to either foreground or background, as they can only be partially influenced. Specificity perspective Definition foreground system: In context of the \"specificity perspective\", the foreground system is defined as those processes of the system that are specific to it. This means that data for the specific e.g. technology, supplier etc. is most appropriate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4714, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 97, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This means that data for the specific e.g. technology, supplier etc. is most appropriate. These are in the example of a study on a producer-specific product the processes that are operated at the producer's facilities, but also all those processes at suppliers and downstream where only one or few operators are involved, i.e. where the specific processes cannot be replaced by e.g. market average supply data. These are hence typically the tier-one suppliers, but also suppliers more up the supply-chain, if specific relations exist, e.g. by using certified green energy or certified wood sources and the like. Definition background system: The background system is then those processes, where due to the averaging effect across the suppliers, a homogenous market with average (or equivalent, generic data) can be assumed to appropriately represent the respective process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4715, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 97, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use stage and end-of-life stage related processes belong hence to the background system from the perspective of the producer, in so far as the average use and end-of-life management processes are to be depicted. However, the specific characteristics of the product that is used and end-of-life treated are to be considered, hence combining specific properties with average/generic processes. Moreover, in case specific scenarios of use or end-of-life treatment technologies are investigated, these become part of the foreground system of the analysis and specific data is preferable. Management perspective Definition foreground system: In context of the \"management perspective\", the foreground system is defined as those processes of the system that are regarding their selection or mode of operation directly affected by decisions analysed in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4716, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 97, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The foreground processes are hence those that are under direct control of the producer of the good or operator of the service or user of the good or where he has decisive influence. This variant of the foreground / background definitions is relevant for ecodesign studies. This covers firstly all in-house processes of the producer or service operator of the analysed system. Secondly, while only for attributional modelling72, also all processes at suppliers of purchased made-toorder goods and services, i.e. as far as the producer or service operator of the analysed 72 Consequential modelling has no logic to depict existing supply-chains but models future supply-chains in consequence of the analysed decision (considering ideally constraints and secondary consequences): not the supplier-specific processes would be modelled but the general marginal / consequential processes, which at the most may consider certain supplier-characteristics (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4717, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 97, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "with which technology and in which country the supplier produces). It can even be in consequential modelling that processes under direct control of the producer or operator belong to the background system: That is if a specific decision is made that has consequences on other processes under direct control that are not directly decided upon but only via the consequence of the specific decision. That is unless a constraint applies that makes it unlikely that the concerned process is actually changed from its current technology in consequence of the analysed decision.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4718, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 97, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how system can influence them by choice or specification73. Thirdly also all product and waste flows that cross the system internal boundary to the background system can be decided upon, as it can be decided which goods or services are purchased, even though the way how they are produced can be beyond this influence. Next, the use-phase is considered part of the foreground system from the perspective of the product developer in so far as the developer strongly influences the design-related use stage characteristics. Note that this influence exists, even though e.g. wholesale and retail may be processes in between production and use, and even though the use pattern influences the final inventory. Finally, also some key aspects of the end-of-life management of the product are part of the foreground system, as far as design-related properties (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4719, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 98, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Finally, also some key aspects of the end-of-life management of the product are part of the foreground system, as far as design-related properties (e.g. upgradability, reusability, disassembility / recyclability, etc.) influence these processes. For attributional studies build around the use stage of consumer products, the foreground system would accordingly be the product use and the selection of the initial waste management (if the user has a choice of different options). Definition background system: In contrast, the background system comprises those processes that are operated as part of the system but that are not under direct control or decisive influence of the producer of the good (or operator of the service, or user of the good). For attributional modelling these are typically processes at tier-two suppliers and beyond, both upstream and downstream the supply-chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4720, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 98, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For attributional modelling these are typically processes at tier-two suppliers and beyond, both upstream and downstream the supply-chain. Examples are steel production for steel parts purchased by a manufacturer of computer-casings, or the production of the electricity used by a tier-one supplier of injection moulded plastic parts. The background processes and systems are hence outside the direct influence or choice of the producer or service operator of the analysed system. This includes hence processes at those tier-one suppliers with which long-term contractual relations exist and which hence cannot be changed. For consequential modelling the background system comprises everything except processes at the producer / operator and those tier-one suppliers with which long-term contractual relations exist and which hence cannot be changed. The foreground and background system interact with each other directly by exchanging goods or services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4721, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 98, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The foreground and background system interact with each other directly by exchanging goods or services. In a simple picture, the background system in attributional modelling of a certain market and moment in time (typically year) is the weighed average mix of the economy of that market and time into which the analysed system is embedded (and to which different processes it has quantitatively more or less relevant links via demand and supply). In consequential modelling the background system of a certain market and moment in time can be understood as the weighed future shift of the economy of that market at that moment or time-period (e.g. year ... decade), i.e. it is the quantitative mix of the newly installed and de-installed capacity of that market and during that time. Figure 13 systematically illustrates the foreground and background system and the general system boundaries as well as the flows within and those that that cross them. 73 I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4722, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 98, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 13 systematically illustrates the foreground and background system and the general system boundaries as well as the flows within and those that that cross them. 73 I.e. this can also includes external waste management services purchased, as far as the product system producer/operator can choose the way the waste is managed (within technical and legal limits).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4723, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 98, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Figure 13 Foreground system and background system in the specificity perspective (see box); (illustrative): The analysed system has boundaries (dashed border), separating it from the remainder of the technosphere and from the ecosphere. The system may be divided into the foreground system of processes that are specific to the analysed system i.e. own operations and fixed suppliers. The processes in the background system are not specific but purchased via a (theoretically fully homogenous) market. The system is the exact sum of the background and the foreground systems. Quantitatively irrelevant flows can be excluded, i.e. cut-off (dotted arrows).74 Completeness / cut-off In reality however, even for simple products, all economic activities globally are somehow part of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4724, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 99, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "cut-off (dotted arrows).74 Completeness / cut-off In reality however, even for simple products, all economic activities globally are somehow part of the system. However, the number of processes that contribute in a quantitatively relevant degree to the system is typically rather limited, why this theoretical problem has little relevance in practice: In practice, all quantitatively not relevant non-reference product flows, waste flows, and elementary flows can be ignored - they are 'cut-off'75. Care must be taken that not more flows and related impacts are cut-off than acceptable to still meet the goal of e.g. a comparative study. Respectively, that the data sets that are used to model a system do meet this need of completeness. Chapter 6.6.3 provides further details on cut-offs. Loops In addition, for system models virtually eternal loops exist: The production of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4725, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 99, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 6.6.3 provides further details on cut-offs. Loops In addition, for system models virtually eternal loops exist: The production of e.g. steel requires coal, the extraction of which requires equipment made from steel, the production of which requires again coal, etc. These loops can be solved by LCA software either 74 As the example shows a complete life cycle the system function is not shown; otherwise it would be represented by one flow that would leave from the last process step and cross the boundary to the rest of the technosphere. Note that the graphic is only illustrative and by no means complete. Also does the background system almost always contain a by far larger number of processes than does the foreground system. 75 Note that this \u201eincompleteness\u201c of the inventory is fully acceptable and has no consequences on the validity of the LCA, as the extent of the incompleteness (i.e. the quantitative cut-off criteria) are set in line with the goal and scope of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4726, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 99, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the quantitative cut-off criteria) are set in line with the goal and scope of the study. Ecosphere Technosphere Upstream Downstream Legend: Process Product or waste flow Elementary flow Excluded product or waste flow Excluded elementary flow Allocation / Substitution System (e.g. product) Background system Foreground system A/S A/S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4727, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 99, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how mathematically or by iterative calculation of the inventories, which can be assumed to show a fast conversion of the values to stable numbers. Towards an systematic qualitative and quantitative definition of the system boundaries Setting the system boundaries means deciding which life cycle stages, activity types, specific processes, and elementary flows to include and which to omit from the life cycle model. This has two aspects: A qualitative definition of what is needed to obtain the functional unit of the system and the setting of quantitative cut-off rules. Both are to be derived from the goal of the LCI/LCA study. The following subchapters explain these steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4728, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Both are to be derived from the goal of the LCI/LCA study. The following subchapters explain these steps. 6.6.2 Qualitative definition of system boundaries (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.3.2) Goal-oriented qualitative definition of the system boundaries The qualitative definition of the system boundaries shall identify those parts of the life cycle that are to be included to provide e.g. the required data set or to ensure a valid comparison in case of comparative studies. E.g. in the comparative assertion on two different production routes to obtain \u201c1 kg polyamide 6.6\u201d, a cradle-to-gate model would be appropriate, leaving out other stages of the two compared systems (provided that the technical quality, including recyclability, of the two resulting products does not differ significantly). In contrast, in the comparative assertion on e.g. \u201c1 l one-way PET bottles\u201d vs. \u201c1 l one-way glass bottles\u201d, both \u201c..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4729, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In contrast, in the comparative assertion on e.g. \u201c1 l one-way PET bottles\u201d vs. \u201c1 l one-way glass bottles\u201d, both \u201c... for still water packaging for end-consumer storage and consumption\u201d, also the transport of the bottles to the consumer would have to be considered as well as their end-of-life management (i.e. recycling or other treatment of the post-use bottles). A comparison of the bottles that would only cover cradle-to-gate would here hence be invalid as incompletely reflecting the different life cycle implications of the two alternatives: they have different transport implications and different end-of-life management that need to be included for valid decision support. System boundaries - attributional vs. consequential modelling In attributional modelling the life cycle of the system is modelled as it is, following a general supply-chain logic (plus use and end-of-life treatment in case of a product, if these are to be included)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4730, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The principle system boundaries and included life cycle stages can be derived from the goal and scope of the work. The specific processes are developed stepwise starting from the foreground system and following the process-chain and supply-chain as well as use-stage stepwise upstream and downstream (details see chapter 7.2.3). In consequential modelling, in contrast, the consequences that the decisions on the foreground system's processes of the analysed system exerts on its background system and/or other systems are modelled. In consequence, processes of other systems than the one analysed are to be included in the system boundary of the analysed system. The system boundaries of an identical product can differ hence strongly between these two approaches. Exceptions are only the processes under direct control of the producer/operator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4731, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The system boundaries of an identical product can differ hence strongly between these two approaches. Exceptions are only the processes under direct control of the producer/operator. System boundary diagram The system boundary shall be represented in a semi-schematic diagram that explicitly shows which parts and life cycle stages of the system are initially intended to be included and excluded. Note that in case of partly terminated systems, selected processes are deliberately foreseen to be excluded from the system boundary. The corresponding product and/or waste", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4732, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how flows are meant to stay in the final inventory after aggregation, i.e. cross the system boundary in the provided data set76. This shall be shown in the system boundary diagram. This initial diagram is to be adjusted in case goal and scope need to be adjusted in the course of the project. A schematic recommended system boundary diagram template is provided as Figure 35 in the annex. It is recommended to prepare a technical flow chart for the foreground system. This flow chart should show the main process steps (see example in Figure 14). It can later be refined when carrying out the data collection. Figure 14 Flow chart of the foreground system. Illustrate example of a form glass gate-togate process chain. In order to have general overview, only the main processing steps are shown; this does not imply data for other activities would be excluded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4733, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 101, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In order to have general overview, only the main processing steps are shown; this does not imply data for other activities would be excluded. Part-system relationships LCI or LCA studies on parts or even complex products that are part of a more complex system (e.g. different car starter battery technologies; use of a water-saving shower head; different window frame concepts/materials) need special attention: the technical interaction between the analysed part and the system and its other parts is to be explicitly considered in the system boundary definition. Parts that are operating in context of a larger system can typically not be analysed in isolation, especially not be compared with other parts that interact with the system in another way. This applies to both attributional and consequential modelling. The related box in chapter 7.2.2 provides more information on this issue", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4734, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 101, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This applies to both attributional and consequential modelling. The related box in chapter 7.2.2 provides more information on this issue. System-system relationships Similar as for part-system relationships also studies on systems that change the operation of other context systems (e.g. computers or coffee-machines that generate heat and change the operation of the heating and/or cooling system of the building in which they are operated) need to consider this interrelationship. The topic system-system relationship applies to both attributional and consequential modelling. The related box in chapter 7.2.2 provides more information. Systematic exclusion of activity types A systematic exclusion of e.g. transport, infrastructure, services, administration activities, etc. is not appropriate unless necessary according to the specific goal of the LCI/LCA study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4735, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 101, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "transport, infrastructure, services, administration activities, etc. is not appropriate unless necessary according to the specific goal of the LCI/LCA study (e.g. if the quantitative relevance of such activity types is to be analysed, the system would 76 When later using the data set in another system, the system model has to be completed also for these product and waste flows, of course. Melting furnace Glass forming Annealing Inspection & Testing Cullet crushing Packing Storage or shipping", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4736, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 101, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how be modelled twice, once with and once without them): in principle all quantitatively relevant activities that can be attributed to a system (or are result of the consequences, in case of consequential modelling) should be included in the system boundaries unless they are quantitatively irrelevant, applying the cut-off criteria (see next subchapter). The need for inclusion and the possibility of exclusion of activities can only be decided for the given case in view of the required completeness and precision of the results. Types of activities that are generally to be included cover for example mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services such as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4737, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 102, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, etc. An initial exclusion of activities can be justified, carefully and individually based on experience gained for comparable systems. Reduced accuracy and limitations for conclusions and recommendations are otherwise the consequence. A systematic approach for identifying activities and processes that are to be attributed to a system is given in the LCI work chapter \u2013 see chapter 7.2.3 for attributional modelling and chapter 7.2.4 for consequential modelling Emission off-setting Off-set emissions (e.g. due to carbon off-setting by the Clean Development Mechanism, carbon credits, and other system-external off-sets) are not to be included in the system boundaries and the related (reduced) emissions are not to be integrated into the inventory or used in LCA results interpretation. Note that e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4738, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 102, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that e.g. carbon capture and storage and other means that are part of the analysed systems are to be included; these must not be confused with off-setting measures that are always external to the analysed system. Such information can only be reported as additional environmental information as may be foreseen e.g. in Environmental Product Declarations (EPD). 6.6.3 Quantitative definition of system boundaries \u2013 the cut-off criteria (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.3.3) Cutting off data vs. using data estimates In general, all processes and flows that are attributable to the analysed system (or affected via consequences, in case of consequential modelling) are to be included in the system boundaries. However, not all these processes and elementary flows are quantitatively relevant: for the less relevant ones, data of lower quality (\"data estimates\") can be used, limiting the effort for collecting or obtaining high quality data for those parts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4739, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 102, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Among these, the irrelevant ones can be entirely cut-off (and the effort that would otherwise be needed to collect the data can be used to focus on obtaining better data for the relevant processes and elementary flows). Terms and concepts: Cut-off criteria \"Cut-off\" refers to the omission of not relevant life cycle stages, activity types (e.g. investment goods, storage, ...), specific processes and products (e.g. re-granulating of internally recycled polymer production waste before re-melting) and elementary flows from the system model. Cut-offs are quantified in relation to the percentage of environmental impacts that is approximated to be excluded via the cut-off (e.g. \"95 %\" relates to cutting off about 5 % of the total environmental impact (or of a selected impact category)). Obviously does it a require", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4740, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 102, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how an approximation to know what is the 100 % impact, because if one would know the total impact exactly, there would be no need for a cut-off. But the total inventory is always unknown for all life cycle approaches - the 100 % always need more or less approximation and extrapolation from the measured or calculated data. Important is that the part that is cut-off is not too big, as this has firstly the effect of having incomplete data (i.e. lower environmental impacts) that limits the suitability of the results for comparisons. Secondly does a bigger gap of off-cut processes, flows etc. also lead to higher overall uncertainty: the quantitative estimate of the % impact that is cut-off is more and more imprecise, the more is cut off. More details on cut-offs are provided in this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4741, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 103, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "More details on cut-offs are provided in this chapter. Important is also that the cut-off is determined systematically, to avoid inappropriately cutting off relevant parts. Relationship between significance of results and cut-off criteria The quantitative definition of the system boundaries concerns the permissible omission of whole life cycle stages, activity types, specific processes and products, and elementary flows. Such omissions (\u201ccut-offs\u201d) can however only be justified if they are insignificant to the outcome of the LCI/LCA study. Otherwise they have to be considered in the interpretation phase. For LCI data sets, the cut-off is one of the data quality criteria (see chapter 12) that shall be documented. The meaning of the above \u201cinsignificant\u201d is to be derived through the formulation of quantitative cut-off criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4742, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 103, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The meaning of the above \u201cinsignificant\u201d is to be derived through the formulation of quantitative cut-off criteria. These define the minimum required completeness of the data in view of its maximum permissible uncertainty, lack of accuracy and inconsistency in view of the intended application of the results. Note that the various data quality components always interrelate (e.g. can the completeness of 90 % be achieved with \"high quality\" data, or with a lower quality \"data estimate\"; see annex Table 6 for the data quality levels). The use of data estimate data again would make the approximation of the 100 % as reference less precise, and so on. It is also to be noted, that the data quality components interact in a multiplicative way and that typically the weakest of the data quality components lowers the overall data quality to its level or below. When defining e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4743, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 103, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "When defining e.g. cut-off criteria, this is hence to be done both in view of the required minimum quality along the goal and scope of the study and in view of the achieved quality for the other data quality components. An example: In a comparative assertion study of two product systems it may be found during the iterative analysis that the environmental impact of the two alternatives differs very clearly and always in favour of the same product system (say: about between 60 and 90 % of difference for the individual midpoint level impact categories). The available data might be of high to very high accuracy and precision as most key processes are in the foreground system and measured annual data is available. The minimum required final completeness of the life cycle system data of the two product alternatives could hence be identified to be e.g. 80 %77, as this might still allow demonstrating that the two alternatives differ significantly. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4744, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 103, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "80 %77, as this might still allow demonstrating that the two alternatives differ significantly. I.e. the quantitative cut-off would be set to \u201c80 % minimum completeness\u201d, i.e. a rather low degree of completeness. For LCI data sets that are application-unspecific (e.g. average data for background use in decision-context studies under Situation A), in principle the cut-off can be set freely, while the 77 The above \"X %\" can be derived only iterative after initial system modelling, of course. The use of stochastic methods would help to determine the exact minimum required degree of completeness cut-off %. This would need to also consider data accuracy and precision as all influence the overall significance of differences.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4745, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 123, "book_page": 103, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how exact cut-off set is to be documented to allow data users to evaluate the suitability of the data for their specific LCI/LCA study. Defining quantitative cut-off criteria / completeness of data Valid cut-off criteria are to be defined based on the quantitative degree of completeness of the overall environmental impacts of the product system (e.g. \u201ccovering 85 % of the overall environmental impacts\u201d). Two approaches are feasible: \uf0b7 relating the cut-off to each and any of the to-be-included impact categories (i.e. \"85 % of Climate change potential AND 85 % of Acidification potential AND 85 % of Eutrophication potential AND etc.\") This requires that the LCIA methods have been identified at that point; see chapter 6.7. \uf0b7 relating the cut-off to the normalised and weighted overall environmental impact (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4746, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 104, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 relating the cut-off to the normalised and weighted overall environmental impact (i.e. 85 % of the normalised and weighted overall environmental impact). This requires the identification and use of the normalisation basis and the weighting set, see chapter 6.7.6. The advantage of using the first named approach is that one can work without normalisation and weighting data. The advantage of the second approach is that the effort can be focussed on the most relevant impact categories, while in the first name case also data needs to be collected that is of very little relevance, i.e. for impact categories that have little relevance for the analysed process or system. Note that in case of Carbon footprints and other studies that apply a limited set of impact indicators, the cut-off will relate to the considered indicators only (e.g. \u201ccovering 90 % of the Climate change impacts\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4747, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 104, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201ccovering 90 % of the Climate change impacts\u201d). An example for the definition of the criteria in a specific study or data set is: \u201cThe cut-off criteria is the overall environmental impact of the analysed product system given by its normalised and weighted LCIA results, applying the XY LCIA methods, the XY normalisation basis, and the XY weighting set78. The study (or data set) covers the processes and flows that contribute at least 95 % of this impact.\u201d The percentage (here e.g. \u201c95 %\u201d) is to be derived for the given case from the goal and scope of the LCA study (or is directly set in the goal definition for background LCI data sets), as discussed before", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4748, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 104, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201c95 %\u201d) is to be derived for the given case from the goal and scope of the LCA study (or is directly set in the goal definition for background LCI data sets), as discussed before. Preceding remark on applying cut-off criteria in practice The application of cut-off criteria has to consider two main aspects: the translation of the cut-off criteria into operational criteria during data collection of the individual unit-processes and - before that - the procedural issue of how to overcome an apparent paradox: The apparent paradox is that one must know the final result of the LCA (so one can show that the omission of a certain process is insignificant for the overall results) to be able to know which processes, elementary flows etc. can be left out", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4749, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 104, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "can be left out. This paradox is solved through the iterative approach used when performing an LCA, as described in chapter 4 and with more details on the inventory part in Figure 5: the initial settings are to be revisited once or several times and refined in view of the outcome of the subsequent LCI data collection, modelling (including of alternative scenarios), LCIA results calculation, and interpretation (especially contribution, sensitivity, completeness checks and uncertainty analysis). These 78 Until ILCD recommended LCIA methods, normalisation data and weighting sets are available, other internationally accepted and widely used sources are to be applied for LCA studies and hence also for defining and applying the cut-off criteria. Especially when developing and publishing LCI data sets for background use it is recommended to apply more than one combination of LCIA method, normalisation, and weighting and document the respective coverages.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4750, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 104, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how iterative steps are to be repeated until the results meet the completeness, accuracy and precision requirements as needed for the intended applications of the LCI/LCA study. Details on the application of cut-off criteria in data collection and modelling are given in chapter 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2. Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) Differentiated applicability to Situation A, B, and C. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Note that these provisions will be applied only in the LCI phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4751, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 105, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Note that these provisions will be applied only in the LCI phase. I) SHALL - Scope of LCA: The following shall be covered by the LCI or LCA study (6.6.1): I.a) potential impacts on the three areas of protection Human health, Natural environment, and Natural resources, I.b) that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere, and this I.c) during normal and abnormal operation, but excluding accidents, spills, and similar79. I.d) Other kinds of impacts outside the scope of LCA that are found relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) may be identified and their relevance be justified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4752, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 105, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.d) Other kinds of impacts outside the scope of LCA that are found relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) may be identified and their relevance be justified. [ISO+] II) SHALL - Processes within the system boundary: The final system boundary/ies of the analysed system(s) shall as far as possible include all relevant life cycle stages and processes that II.a) are operated within the technosphere, and II.b) that need to be included along the provisions of identifying to-be-included processes under attributional or consequential modelling (see chapters 7.2.3 and 7.2.4, respectively), but with the specific provisions and simplifications for the applicable Situation A, B, or C (details see chapter 6.5.4). II.c) Any relevant deviation / omission from the above shall be clearly documented and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4753, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 105, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II.c) Any relevant deviation / omission from the above shall be clearly documented and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation. (6.6.1) III) SHALL - Flows across the system boundary: Next to the reference flow(s) that provide the functional unit(s) and permissible waste flows (see 7.4.4.2), no relevant other flows shall cross the boundary between the analysed system(s) and the rest of the technosphere, as far as possible. Only elementary flows (including permissible measurement indicators and flow groups, see 7.4.3.2) should cross the boundary between the analysed system(s) and the ecosphere. Any relevant deviation / omission from the above shall be reported and in case of LCA studies later be considered in the interpretation (6.6.1). [ISO!] Note: see also chapter 7.4.4 with special provisions for specific types of processes. 79 I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4754, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 105, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] Note: see also chapter 7.4.4 with special provisions for specific types of processes. 79 I.e. excluding accidents, indoor and workplace exposure, as well as impacts related to direct application or ingestion of products to humans (see text and footnote in chapter 6.6.1).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4755, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 105, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) IV) SHALL - System boundary diagram: The extent of the system model shall be identified and a schematic system boundary diagram be prepared80, 81. Next to the included life cycle stages, the following shall be provided for the different types of deliverables (6.6.2): [ISO!] IV.a) For single operation unit processes: the process step to be represented. IV.b) For black box unit processes: the to-be-represented e.g. process-chain, plant, site, etc. and the first and last process step included. IV.c) For LCI results, LCIA results and non-comparative LCA studies: the included life cycle stages. Finally, the first and/or last process step included shall be given, unless the life cycle starts or ends with the cradle or grave, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4756, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 106, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Finally, the first and/or last process step included shall be given, unless the life cycle starts or ends with the cradle or grave, respectively. IV.d) For comparative LCA studies: for each of the compared options the included life cycle stages. In addition, for each of the options the first and/or last process steps included shall be given, unless the respective life cycle starts or ends with the cradle or grave, respectively. IV.e) Flow chart: Especially for the foreground system, it is recommended to already prepare technical flow charts on the main process steps. V) SHALL - List of exclusions: Prepare an initial list of any types of activities, specific processes, product and waste flows, elementary flows or other parts that would be foreseen to be excluded from the analysed system, if any (6.6.2). [ISO+] Note that this initial list is to be (iteratively) updated to reflect the situation at the end of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4757, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 106, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] Note that this initial list is to be (iteratively) updated to reflect the situation at the end of the study. Note that any final exclusion will need to be justified referring to the cut-off criteria and may limit the applicability of the resulting data set or the conclusions that can be drawn from a comparative study. VI) SHALL - Part-system and system-system relationships: For studies on parts that have a part-system relationship and on systems that have a system-system relationship, obtain data on the effects on the related systems and their data, as far as this is necessary in line with the goal and scope of the study (6.6.2). The related boxes in chapter 7.2.2 provide more information on this issue. [ISO!] VII) SHALL - System-external off-setting: Off-set emissions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4758, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 106, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The related boxes in chapter 7.2.2 provide more information on this issue. [ISO!] VII) SHALL - System-external off-setting: Off-set emissions (e.g. due to carbon off-setting by the Clean Development Mechanism, system-external carbon credits), and other, similar measures outside the analysed system shall not be included in the system boundaries, as far as they are relevant for the results. The related (reduced) emissions shall not be integrated into the inventory or used in LCA results interpretation (6.6.2). [ISO+] 80 The recommended formal system boundary template is found in Figure 35. 81 Other systems that become part of the analysed system in case system expansion is applied should not be shown in this diagram, but the quantitatively most relevant cases of multifunctional processes (as identified in the sensitivity analysis) shall be listed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4759, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 106, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This includes the quantitatively relevant cases of part-system relationships, which only exceptionally require an expanded system boundary diagram (e.g. if the analysed product would be the \"part\" of a part-system relationship such shall be provided).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4760, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": 106, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) VIII) SHALL - Quantitative cut-off criteria: Define the cut-off % value to be applied for the analysed system's product, waste and elementary flows that cross the system boundary, but that are not quantitatively82 included in the inventory83, as follows (6.6.3): VIII.a) Overall environmental impact: The cut-off % value shall generally relate to the quantitative degree of coverage of the approximated overall environmental impact of the system84. For comparative studies the cut-off shall additionally also always relate to mass and energy. Two alternative options exist how to address the overall environmental impact: [ISO!] VIII.a.i) a) apply the cut-off individually for each of the to-be-included85 impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4761, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 107, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Two alternative options exist how to address the overall environmental impact: [ISO!] VIII.a.i) a) apply the cut-off individually for each of the to-be-included85 impact categories. This requires that the LCIA methods have been identified at that point; see chapter 6.7.7. VIII.a.ii) b) apply the cut-off for the normalised and weighted overall environmental impact. This requires that the LCIA methods, normalisation basis and the weighting set have been identified at that point; see chapter 6.7.7. VIII.b) Identify the aimed-at % cut-off: The aimed at quantitative cut-off / completeness percentage shall be identified as follows: VIII.b.i) For unit processes, LCI results and LCIA results: the cut-off value has either already been defined in the goal phase (e.g. \"Development of a single operation unit process data set of 95 % completeness\") or is to be derived from the respective completeness need of the intended application in the iterative scope steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4762, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 107, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\"Development of a single operation unit process data set of 95 % completeness\") or is to be derived from the respective completeness need of the intended application in the iterative scope steps. VIII.b.ii) For non-comparative LCA studies: the cut-off value has been identified depending on the detail of interest when analysing the system for key contributing processes and elementary flows; this has been defined typically in the goal of the study. VIII.b.iii) For comparative LCA studies: the cut-off value is set depending on how much precision, accuracy and completeness is needed to show significant differences between the compared systems. This is done in the iterations of the LCA work after at least an initial LCI model has been modelled and analysed. Note that, unless it was initially defined, the cut-off can only roughly be approximated in the initial scope phase and has to be adjusted iteratively. Note that later deviations from the initially set cut-off criteria, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4763, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 107, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that later deviations from the initially set cut-off criteria, e.g. due to lack of data (see chapter 7.4.2.11.3 82 The respective flows shall however be foreseen to be identified and stay in the inventory, but without stating an amount and being marked as \"missing relevant\" or \"missing irrelevant\", as applicable. Details see Life Cycle Inventory chapter. 83 Note that co-functions are initially part of the inventory and only later removed via allocation or addressed with system expansion/substitution. 84 While the true absolute overall impact (i.e. the \"100% completeness\") cannot be known in LCA and other such models, it can be approximated in practice in an iterative manner and with sufficient precision to serve as practical guidance and use for cut-off. Guidance of applying cut-off in practice see 9.3.2. 85 For studies with limited impact coverage (e.g. Carbon footprint), only these categories are to be considered, accordingly.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4764, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 107, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) on dealing with missing data), are to be identified in the subsequent LCI data collection and modelling and are to be documented at the end of the LCI/LCA study. The finally achieved cut-off (and any possible deviations) shall be reported and have to be fully reflected in the interpretation phase, in case of an LCA study. Both may lead to a revision of the supported intended applications of the LCI/LCA study. These issues are to be checked in the respective phase of the LCA work. 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.4, 4.4.2.2, and 4.4.5) 6.7.1 Introduction and overview Life Cycle Impact Assessment serves to aggregate the inventory data in support of interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4765, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 108, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Optionally, normalisation and weighting may be applied to further support this. See also Figure 15. Figure 15 Life cycle impact assessment. Schematic steps from inventory to category endpoints. Note that normalisation and weighting are not shown and can start from either midpoints or endpoints. At the same time impact assessment (and optionally normalisation and weighing) are also required for applying cut-off rules to assess data completeness, i.e. for all LCA/LCI studies. They are hence required if the deliverable of the study is an LCI data set. The environmental impact categories that are to be covered in the life cycle impact assessment (chapter 886) as well as the to-be-applied LCIA methods and the normalisation and weighting sets (if included) shall be determined prior to the initial inventory analysis, as far as feasible. This is to ensure that their selection is not done interest-driven in view of the initial results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4766, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 108, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to ensure that their selection is not done interest-driven in view of the initial results. This also ensures that relevant and matching inventory data is collected for the 86 As the selection of LCIA methods is understood to be a scoping issue from the perspective of performing LCA studies, all related steps are joined in this scope chapter. The later LCIA chapter is exclusively applying them, calculating LCIA results. The development of LCIA methods and factors is outside ISO 14044 and outside this document and supported by a separate document \"Framework and Requirements for Environmental Impact Assessment Methods, Models and Indicators for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\". Environmental mechanism (impact pathway) Endpoints Midpoints NOx, Cd, CO2, CH4, dioxins, hard coal, silver from ore, land use, ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4767, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 108, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental mechanism (impact pathway) Endpoints Midpoints NOx, Cd, CO2, CH4, dioxins, hard coal, silver from ore, land use, ... and other emissions and resource flows Inventory Climate change Ozone layer Acidification Summer smog Carcinogens Land-use Ecotoxicity (freshwater, marine, terrestrial) Eutrophication Resource depletion Respiratory inorganics Radiation Damage to human health Damage to ecosystem diversity Resource scarcity Human Health Natural environment Natural resources Area of Protection Human toxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4768, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 108, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how processes in the system, respectively that appropriate third-party background LCI data sets can be identified. The selection of impact categories and normalisation and weighting sets shall be consistent with the goal of the LCI/LCA study. An analysis based on the LCI alone without an impact assessment may in some cases be justified depending on the goal of a LCI/LCA study, but it should be noted that this procedure can limit a valid interpretability of results and comparisons. Comparative assertions based on LCI results alone are not permissible under ISO 14044:2006. The selection of impact categories must be comprehensive in the sense that they cover all relevant environmental issues related to the analysed system (e.g. product). This is unless in the goal definition a limitation was set as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4769, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 109, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "product). This is unless in the goal definition a limitation was set as e.g. in case of Carbon footprint studies, where exclusively Climate change relevant interventions are considered. The initial exclusion of relevant impacts shall be clearly documented and considered in the interpretation of the results, potentially limiting conclusions and recommendations of the study. The use of a globally common LCIA methodology and models with global default characterisation factors and \u2013 as far as being available and necessary \u2013 with non-generic (e.g. differentiated in location or time) characterisation factors would substantially improve comparability of LCA on a global basis. However, as such is not yet available and widely agreed, this guidance has to be operational without such. The following subchapters give the provisions on how to prepare the basis for a correct impact assessment that will then be carried out after life cycle inventory data collection and modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4770, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 109, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following subchapters give the provisions on how to prepare the basis for a correct impact assessment that will then be carried out after life cycle inventory data collection and modelling. 6.7.2 Identifying LCIA methods to be applied (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.4, 4.4.2.2, and 4.4.5) Midpoint and endpoint level impact assessment - requirements LCIA methods exist for midpoint and for endpoint level, and for both in integrated LCIA methodologies (see Figure 15). Both levels have advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed in more detail in the separate guidance document \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d. Also the concepts of midpoint and endpoint are detailed in that document", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4771, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 109, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also the concepts of midpoint and endpoint are detailed in that document. In general, on midpoint level a higher number of impact categories is differentiated (typically around 10) and the results are more accurate and precise compared to the three Areas of Protection at endpoint level that are commonly used for endpoint assessments. The following impact categories at midpoint level and Areas of Protection shall be checked per default for relevance for the study and related LCIA methods are to be identified that will be used in the life cycle impact assessment phase of the LCA: \uf0b7 Impact category: - Climate change, (Stratospheric) Ozone depletion, Human toxicity, Respiratory inorganics, Ionizing radiation, (Ground-level) Photochemical ozone formation, Acidification (land and water), Eutrophication (land and water), Ecotoxicity, Land use, Resource depletion (minerals, fossil and renewable energy resources, water)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4772, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 109, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Areas of Protection: - Human health, Natural environment, Natural resources By default all the above impact categories should be covered by the combination of selected LCIA methods. If available and eligible (see below), it is recommended to use them together with coherent impact factors on the endpoint level.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4773, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 109, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how The selection or development of any LCIA methods shall meet the following requirements, in line with ISO 14044:2006 (details are addressed as part of the separate guidance on \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d): \uf0b7 The impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models should enjoy international acceptance. LCIA methods that are endorsed by a governmental body of the relevant region where the decision is to be supported (Situation A, B) or where the reference of the accounted system is located (Situation C), if available. The ILCD System is preparing recommendations regarding impact categories, models, methods as well as related characterisation factors for the reference elementary flows. These may be the basis for such endorsements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4774, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 110, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These may be the basis for such endorsements. \uf0b7 The category indicators shall include those that are relevant for the specific LCI/LCA study performed, as far as possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4775, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 110, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Any gaps shall be documented, and be explicitly discussed in the results interpretation; \uf0b7 The characterisation model for each category indicator shall be scientifically and technically valid, and based upon a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism or reproducible empirical observation; \uf0b7 The entirety of characterisation factors should have no relevant gaps in coverage of the impact category they relate to, as far as possible; relevant gaps shall be approximated, reported and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation, \uf0b7 The category indicators - if endpoint level LCIA methods are included - are to represent the aggregated impacts of the related inputs and outputs of the system on the category endpoint(s); \uf0b7 Double counting should be avoided across included characterisation factors, as far as possible, and unless otherwise required by the goal of the study (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4776, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 110, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as covering impacts of the same elementary flows to more than one impact categories with alternative impact pathways of the elementary flow); \uf0b7 Value-choices and assumptions made during the selection of impact categories and LCIA methods should be minimized and shall be documented as part of the LCIA method data set documentation and preferably of a more extensive report; An ILCD-compliant LCIA review may be required for eligible LCIA methods. This is addressed in chapter 11 and the separate ILCD review guidance documents. LCIA methods for further impact categories can be integrated into the analysis (see chapter 6.7.4). This may be required for missing impact categories of specific relevance for the LCI/LCA study and to impact factors for study-specific, impact-relevant elementary flows that are not covered in the applied LCIA method. Also non-generic, i.e. spatially or otherwise differentiated LCIA methods may be required; see chapter 6.7.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4777, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 110, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also non-generic, i.e. spatially or otherwise differentiated LCIA methods may be required; see chapter 6.7.5. Depending on the specific system, initial knowledge based on experience gained from detailed and complete studies for sufficiently similar systems or later analysis may show that one or more of the default impact categories are of little overall relevance. Applying the cutoff rules, these impacts can hence be excluded in the further steps, but such an omission shall be quantitatively justified as being insignificant for the overall environmental impact in view of the goal definition and especially the intended applications as well as the cut-off defined for the LCI/LCA study. Note that any relevant exclusion later needs to be explicitly considered during interpretation and can lead to limitations for conclusions and recommendations.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4778, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 110, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.7.3 Carbon footprint and other selected indicators (No separate corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to chapters 4.2.3.4 and 4.4.2.2) Depending on the intended application, it may already initially be foreseen during the goal definition to operate with a limited selection of environmental impact categories (e.g. \u201cClimate change\u201d in Carbon footprint studies or \u201cEnergy resource depletion\u201d in Primary energy consumption oriented life cycle studies). If this is the case, this shall be highlighted and justified in the goal and scope definition. The specific LCIA methods (e.g. using the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) factors that are typically used for Carbon footprint studies) shall be identified here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4779, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 111, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The specific LCIA methods (e.g. using the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) factors that are typically used for Carbon footprint studies) shall be identified here. Exclusion of relevant impact is to be highlighted in the documentation of LCI studies/data sets and LCA studies, including the effect of limited comparability of the results with other systems. 6.7.4 Inclusion of non-standard impacts and of non-standard elementary flows (No separate corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to chapters 4.2.3.4 and 4.4.2.2) Additional impact categories Depending on the goal of the LCI/LCA study and the nature of the system, additional relevant environmental issues may need to be addressed. In line with ISO 14044:2006, this inclusion shall be done for missing impact categories of special relevance for the LCI/LCA study. If this is the case, such additional LCIA methods shall be included in the set or may even - in rare cases - have to be developed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4780, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 111, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If this is the case, such additional LCIA methods shall be included in the set or may even - in rare cases - have to be developed. In other cases, existing LCIA methods may have to be extended with characterisation factors for not yet covered elementary flows that are of special relevance for the analysed system. If this is the case, this need shall be identified as part of the scope definition, in order to identify the required information on elementary flows prior to the inventory analysis. Note that this may be possible only based on insights gained after the first or second iteration of the LCI data collection, modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. Note that any additional impact category, LCIA method and impact factor has to fulfil the same conditions as the ones listed here in context of the default impact categories in chapter 6.7.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4781, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 111, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that any additional impact category, LCIA method and impact factor has to fulfil the same conditions as the ones listed here in context of the default impact categories in chapter 6.7.2. Additional impact factors It may similarly be found that for the selected LCIA method a characterisation factor is missing for an elementary flow in the inventory, which is known to contribute significantly to the respective impact category or category endpoint. This will typically be identified only based on insights gained after the first or second iteration of the LCI data collection, modelling, impact assessment and interpretation. The necessity to derive / develop such a specific factor for that flow should be evaluated applying the following steps: \uf0b7 The potential importance of the missing characterisation factor should be evaluated by assuming a conservative value or realistic worst case value e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4782, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 111, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "based on chemical, physical, and/or other similarity to other elementary flows which contribute to the same impact category in question. An example might be a missing \"Acidification potential\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4783, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 111, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how factor for emissions to air of Acetic acid as a weak organic acid. Based on the similarity in terms of fate and exposure with Formic acid (as derived from its chemical, photochemical and physico-chemical characteristics such as e.g. water-solubility) a stoichiometrically adjusted factor can be assigned. Similarly, can the Eutrophication potential of an emission to fresh water of urea as a quickly biodegrading nitrogencontaining organic compound be approximated by that of nitrate to water, after stoichiometric conversion of the N-content in the urea. \uf0b7 This assumed characterisation factor should be applied to the elementary flow and be investigated whether the total result for the impact category is changed to a relevant degree (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4784, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 112, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 This assumed characterisation factor should be applied to the elementary flow and be investigated whether the total result for the impact category is changed to a relevant degree (i.e. depending on the required accuracy, especially the completeness requirements / cut-off rules, as derived from the goal of the study). \uf0b7 If the contribution from the elementary flow cannot on this basis be classified as insignificant, it should be attempted to get a more accurate and precise value for the missing characterisation factor. Note that this factor will have to fulfil the same conditions as other factors of the respective LCIA methods. \uf0b7 If this is not possible, the fact of the missing characterisation factor must be reported and the potential influence of the missing factor must be considered in the interpretation of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4785, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 112, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 If this is not possible, the fact of the missing characterisation factor must be reported and the potential influence of the missing factor must be considered in the interpretation of the results. \uf0b7 If in contrast the conservative / worst case assumption does not lead to a significant contribution from the elementary flow, the missing characterisation factor can be disregarded. It is recommended to report the fact of a \"missing factor\" nevertheless, at least for those flows that lack relevance but are not fully irrelevant. Note that this procedure requires expert knowledge of an LCIA method developer, especially fate and exposure modelling, and a good chemical and environmental sciences understanding. Also refer to the document \u201cRequirements for Environmental Impact Assessment Methods, Models and Indicators for LCA\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4786, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 112, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also refer to the document \u201cRequirements for Environmental Impact Assessment Methods, Models and Indicators for LCA\u201d. 6.7.5 Spatial and other differentiation / modification of impact factors (No separate corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to chapters 4.2.3.4 and 4.4.2.2) ISO 14044:2006 foresees that \u201cDepending on the environmental mechanism and the goal and scope, spatial and temporal differentiation of the characterization model relating the LCI results to the category indicator should be considered.\u201d Given however the lack of spatially or temporally differentiated LCI data and especially corresponding LCIA methods, for the time being such differentiation is in practice not or rarely feasible. If aimed at, the use of such non-generic (e.g. spatially or otherwise differentiated) LCIA methods shall be scientifically justified in so far, that it results in significantly different LCIA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4787, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 112, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "spatially or otherwise differentiated) LCIA methods shall be scientifically justified in so far, that it results in significantly different LCIA results. Note that independently of this, an ILCD-compliant LCIA review may be required for any applied LCIA methods. This is addressed in chapter 11 and the separate guidance document on \u201cReview schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u201d. Note that, in case non-generic impact assessment is applied, the characterisation step will have to be done on the not aggregated inventory result. After the characterisation step, the LCIA results may be summed up per impact category and can be provided together with the corresponding aggregated LCI results. If such is done, the LCIA results obtained applying non-generic LCIA methods shall be provided in the report in addition to the differentiated ones.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4788, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 112, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling. Note that for comparative LCA studies also the appropriateness of the generic LCIA methods shall be discussed in the interpretation phase of the study. If a further, especially spatial or temporal differentiation can be argued to lead to substantially different results, this finding may limit the conclusions and recommendations that can be drawn from the study. Note that LCIA results calculated from non-generic LCIA methods are later to be presented and discussed additionally separately from the default, generic ones", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4789, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 113, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that LCIA results calculated from non-generic LCIA methods are later to be presented and discussed additionally separately from the default, generic ones. 6.7.6 Selection of normalisation basis and weighting set87 (No separate corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to aspect \u201cenvironmental significance\u201d of chapter 4.2.3.4 and to chapter 4.4.3) Introduction Normalisation and weighting are optional steps under ISO 14044:2006 to support the interpretation of the impact profile and are steps towards a fully aggregated result. Note that normalisation and weighting may also be used to define the quantitative cut-off rules (see chapter 6.6.3) and to check the achieved degree of completeness of the data set inventory. This means they may be required independently of the type of deliverable of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4790, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 113, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This means they may be required independently of the type of deliverable of the LCI/LCA study. Note that not all endpoint level based weighting methods require a normalisation step: those that express the potential damages to the included Areas of protection in a common unit (e.g. monetary methods) operate without an explicit normalisation. In that case the normalisation is implicitly included in the endpoint modelling step. For such methods the use of an additional normalisation step would hence be wrong. For those weighting methods, in contrast, that require a preceding normalisation, a weighting without normalisation would provide wrong results. Frequent errors: Incompatible LCIA methods, normalisation basis, and weighting set It is important to be aware that the chosen LCIA methods, the normalisation basis and the weighting set have to be carefully chosen including that they fit together. I.e. they need to relate to exactly the same midpoint level or endpoint level categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4791, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 113, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. they need to relate to exactly the same midpoint level or endpoint level categories. Sometimes only partly or not at all compatible data are combined. This leads to distorted or meaningless results. Also a correct relation of the geographical reference is important to ensure the appropriate decision support. Note: As the development of normalisation and weighting factors is not part of the ILCD System work, these topics is not discussed in detail, but basic guidance along the ISO provisions on their selection is given here below and on their use (see chapters 8.3 and 8.4). Normalisation basis - requirements In normalisation, the indicator results for the different midpoint level impact categories or endpoint level damages are expressed relative to a common reference, by dividing the indicator results by the respective reference value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4792, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 113, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As reference values typically the impact 87 \"Grouping\" is not addressed in this guidance document as not seen as adding practical value in context of decision support. If it is planned to include a grouping step in an LCA study, please refer to the ISO 14044 provisions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4793, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 113, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how or damage results of the total annual territorial elementary flows in a country, region, or continent, or globally (or per average citizen, i.e. per capita) are used88. These reference impact or damage results are termed \u201cnormalisation basis\u201d. The normalisation basis is calculated from the inventory for each of the impact categories or damages in the same way as the impact indicators or damages of the analysed system (e.g. product) are calculated from its life cycle inventory: For midpoint level results the normalisation basis is the overall potential impact, calculated from the annual inventory of elementary flows. For endpoint level results the normalisation basis is the overall damage to the areas of protection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4794, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 114, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For endpoint level results the normalisation basis is the overall damage to the areas of protection. To ease communication (and quality checks) across studies, it is recommended to use as normalisation basis the elementary flow inventory per capita89 in the selected country/region/globally per year. The decision whether to use global data or data for a specific country, region or continent shall be made during the initial scope definition and shall be justified along the following considerations: \uf0b7 Where are the supported decisions be made (Situations A, B), or where is the reference of the accounting (Situation C)? \uf0b7 Relevance for the intended application(s) and target audience of the LCI/LCA study \uf0b7 Sufficiently complete availability of inventory data for the chosen country, region or globally, and with a sufficiently similar completeness of all impact categories / areas of protection considered in the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4795, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 114, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 The elementary flows of the normalisation basis have to be appropriate for use with the LCIA method used for the LCI/LCA study, i.e. are classified and characterised as are those of the analysed system. \uf0b7 Compatibility with the midpoint impact categories or category endpoints, as applied, and with the set of weighting factors to be subsequently applied, if any (see below). The year of the normalisation basis should be the latest year for which reliable data are available. The chosen normalisation basis should not be changed later on in the study, unless it has to be extended if in the course of the study a non-default impact category has been additionally included. Weighting factors - requirements In weighting, the (typically normalised) indicator results for the different impact categories or damages are each multiplied by a specific weighting factor, that is intended to reflect the relative relevance of the different impact categories / category endpoints among each other", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4796, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 114, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For example the impact category \"Acidification potential\" may get a weight of e.g. 2 and the impact category of \"Photochemical ozone creation potential\" a weight of e.g. 3, and so on for all included impact categories. Weighting sets can be developed by different mechanisms such as setting them by public policy makers or industry panels, broader stakeholder panels, expert panels, and so on. 88 Other time-references then one year can be used but are uncommon. 89 This is because values for typical products (e.g. 1 kg fresh tomatoes, 1 private house type X, etc.) the normalised LCIA results in this case are in the range of roughly between 10 down to 0.00001 and have a clear meaning. If a whole country is the normalisation basis the values are in the range of 10-7 down to 10-14 what makes them un-illustrative and also difficult to do quick plausibility checks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4797, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 114, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If a whole country is the normalisation basis the values are in the range of 10-7 down to 10-14 what makes them un-illustrative and also difficult to do quick plausibility checks. Also, the numbers differ considerably depending on the population size of the country (and not only due to the different overall impact of the average citizen of different countries).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4798, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 114, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how They can hence reflect a range of scientific expertise but also political and other value-based considerations. It is to be highlighted that weighting factors are intrinsically always normative/subjective and reflect value assumptions. The identification of a suitable weighting set shall be done, justified, and documented during the initial scope phase of the study and in line with its goal, especially the intended applications and target audience. The following considerations are to guide the selection/identification of weighting factors: \uf0b7 Relate to the normative/cultural/religious or other societal setting globally or of the country or region where the supported decisions are made (Situations A, B), or the reference of the accounting (Situation C)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4799, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 115, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Relevance for the intended application(s) and target audience of the LCI/LCA study \uf0b7 Refer correctly to the specific set of midpoint level impact categories or endpoint level Areas of protection provided by the LCIA method used for the study \uf0b7 Be regarding chosen country, region or global scope compatible with the set of normalisation factors that were applied, if any. The chosen weighting set should not be changed later during the study, unless it will require extension if in the course of the study a non-default impact category has been additionally included. 6.7.7 Documentation of decision on LCIA methods, impact level, normalisation basis, and weighting factors (No separate corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to chapters 4.2.3.4 and 4.4.3) Especially for comparative assertions disclosed to the public, but also for other deliverables that are meant to support product comparisons by third parties (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4800, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 115, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "EPDs), the selection of the finally to-be-applied LCIA methods and the evaluation level (midpoint or endpoint) shall be made during the initial scope definition. Equally shall the decision about the possible (optional) inclusion of a normalisation and weighting step in support of the results interpretation be made during the initial scope definition. If these decisions would be made or revised after the LCI work has been performed and results have been calculated, this could be interpreted as trying to influence the outcome of the study by selecting the most favourable impact models, impact level, and normalisation/weighting approach and data. These decisions shall be documented or published in an appropriate form and way that allows the critical reviewer to later verify the date when these have been made. Changes of these decisions shall only be possible: - if relevant impact categories and factors for individual elementary flows are added in line with the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4801, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 115, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Changes of these decisions shall only be possible: - if relevant impact categories and factors for individual elementary flows are added in line with the goal of the study. This shall moreover result in an extension of the normalisation basis and weighting set (if included) for the added impact categories and elementary flows. - if using non-generic (e.g. spatially or otherwise further differentiated) LCIA methods upon justification as indicated more above, or - excluding impact categories due to lack of relevance for the overall environmental impact (only applicable if referring the cut-off to the normalised and weighted overall LCIA results). This shall be demonstrated by applying the cut-off rules. It results in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4802, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 115, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how the removal of the normalisation value(s) and weighting factor(s) for the affected impact category/ies. Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment Applicable to Situation A, B, and C. Few differences between A/B and C. Note that an impact assessment is required for all types of LCI/LCA studies at least for systematically assessing and improving the overall data quality, including applying the cut-off rules as described in chapter 6.6.3. Impact categories and LCIA methods: I) SHALL - Goal-conform selection of impact categories and LCIA methods: Select the impact categories to be included and the corresponding LCIA methods in accordance with the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4803, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 116, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] II) SHOULD - Requirements for impact categories: II.a) All impact categories that are environmentally relevant90 for the LCI/LCA study shall be included, as far as possible and unless the goal definition would explicitly foresee exclusions (e.g. for Carbon footprint studies). Further ones can be included optionally. Note that any relevant exclusion will need to be explicitly considered during interpretation and can lead to limitations for the further use of the data (in case of an LCI study or data set) and in limitations for the conclusions and recommendations (in case of an LCA study). III) SHALL - Requirements for LCIA methods: All included LCIA methods shall meet the following requirements91 (6.7.2): III.a) They should be internationally accepted and preferably additionally be endorsed by a governmental body of the relevant region where the decision is to be supported (Situation A, B) or where the reference of the accounted system92 is located (Situation C)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4804, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 116, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III.b) They shall be scientifically and technically valid, as far as possible; the extent of this fact shall be documented. III.c) They shall have no relevant gaps in coverage of the impact category they relate to, as far as possible; otherwise the gap shall be approximated, reported and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation, III.d) They shall be based upon a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism or reproducible empirical observation, 90 As this can be judged only in view of the LCIA results, i.e. after LCI data collection, modelling, etc., it is recommended to initially foresee the inclusion of all of the default impact categories (see next action). If the impact assessment later shows irrelevance of one of more impact categories they can be left out; see also further provisions. For principally restricted assessments (e.g. Carbon footprint) see the respective action below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4805, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 116, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For principally restricted assessments (e.g. Carbon footprint) see the respective action below. 91 Under the ILCD, recommendations are under preparation on a complete set of such LCIA methods that provide characterisation factors for the ILCD reference elementary flows. These will relate to European and/or global scope, depending on their applicability. 92 \"Reference of the accounted system\" refers to e.g. the country or region for which a consumption, production, or territorial indicator is modelled, or to the country in which the company is located that models accounting data for its key products.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4806, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 116, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment III.e) They shall be related exclusively to elementary flows (i.e. interventions between the technosphere and the ecosphere) during normal and abnormal operating conditions, but excluding accidents, spills, and the like. [ISO!] III.f) They shall be free of double-counting across included characterisation factors, as far as possible and unless otherwise required by the goal of the study, and III.g) They shall be free of value choices and assumptions, as far as possible; these shall be appropriately documented and if relevant they shall explicitly be considered in the results interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4807, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 117, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The development or identification of LCIA methods that are prepared to meet these requirements is supported with the separate guidance document \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d. Note that for use in comparative assertion studies any used LCIA method and factor may need to undergo a review under ISO in order to be eligible. IV) SHOULD - Default impact categories and category endpoints: The selected LCIA methods in their entirety should by default cover all of the following impact categories and provide characterisation factors on midpoint level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4808, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 117, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is recommended that they also provide modelled category endpoint factors that are coherent with the midpoint level and that cover all relevant damages to the three following areas of protection (6.7.2): IV.a) Impact categories (\"midpoint level\"): Climate change, (Stratospheric) Ozone depletion, Human toxicity, Respiratory inorganics, Ionising radiation, (Groundlevel) Photochemical ozone formation, Acidification (land and water), Eutrophication (land and water), Ecotoxicity (freshwater, marine, terrestrial), Land use, Resource depletion (of minerals, fossil and renewable energy resources, water, ...). [ISO!] IV.b) Category endpoints (\"endpoint level\"): Damage to human health, Damage to ecosystem, Depletion of natural resources. These relate to the three areas of protection \"Human health\", \"Natural environment\", and \"Natural resources\", respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4809, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 117, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These relate to the three areas of protection \"Human health\", \"Natural environment\", and \"Natural resources\", respectively. [ISO+] V) SHOULD - Location and time generic LCIA: The LCIA methods should by default be location-generic and time-generic (but see later provision on derived LCIA methods). [ISO!] VI) MAY - LCIA methodologies: It is recommended to select available LCIA methodologies that provide a complete set of single LCIA methods, rather than selecting and combining individual LCIA methods. [ISO!] VII) SHOULD - Excluding impact categories?: Exclusions of any of the above impact categories should be justified as being not relevant for the analysed system(s). This can be done based on experience gained from detailed, complete studies for sufficiently similar systems and/or system group specific / Product Category Rule (PCR) type guidance documents", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4810, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 117, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can be done based on experience gained from detailed, complete studies for sufficiently similar systems and/or system group specific / Product Category Rule (PCR) type guidance documents. (6.7.2 and 6.7.3) [ISO+] VIII) SHALL - Adding impact categories?: Check for the specific LCI/LCA study whether next to the default impact categories given above, additional, relevant environmental", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4811, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 117, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment impacts93 need to be included in accordance with the goal and scope. If so, identify or develop94 the relevant LCIA methods to be applied. Note that these shall meet the same requirements as the other included LCIA methods (see above) (6.7.4). IX) SHOULD - Impacts outside the scope of LCA: Impacts that are outside the LCA frame95, 93 but for which scientific evidence exists that they are relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) should be clearly and individually be identified, including in the Summary and Executive summary of the report / data set. Their brief description should be foreseen in the further documentation. If it is foreseen to include them quantitatively, this requires potentially different modelling and analysis approaches and guidance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4812, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If it is foreseen to include them quantitatively, this requires potentially different modelling and analysis approaches and guidance. This should be done jointly with the LCA study, as far as possible, to ensure coherence, but inventory, impact assessment, etc. shall be kept separately for clear interpretation (6.7.4). [ISO!] Note that this step is often possible only after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment, and interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4813, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] Note that this step is often possible only after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment, and interpretation. X) SHOULD - Missing characterisation factors: If a characterisation factor is missing for an elementary flow of the analysed inventory, and that flow is known to contribute significantly to one or more of the included impact categories, considering the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study (6.7.4): [ISO+] X.a) Check the potential importance of the missing characterisation factor by assuming a conservative value or reasonably worst case value based on chemical, physical, biological and/or other similarity to other elementary flows which contribute to the same impact category/ies in question", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4814, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this procedure requires expert knowledge of an LCIA method developer, especially on fate and exposure modelling to be able to judge which similarities to consider and how; a good chemical and environmental sciences understanding is equally required. X.b) Apply the assumed characterisation factor(s) to that elementary flow and investigate whether the total result for the affected impact category/ies is changed to a relevant degree (i.e. depending on the required completeness, accuracy, and precision). X.c) If with this approach the contribution from this elementary flow cannot be classified as being not relevant, it should be attempted to get a more accurate and precise value for the missing characterisation factor and use that one for the further work. Note that this factor will have to fulfil the same conditions as other factors of the respective impact 93 Examples are Noise, Desiccation / Salination, Littering of land and sea, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4815, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this factor will have to fulfil the same conditions as other factors of the respective impact 93 Examples are Noise, Desiccation / Salination, Littering of land and sea, etc. 94 ISO 14044 requires that all relevant impacts are to be covered. In practice of performing LCA studies, the development of new LCIA methods is a rare case. The separate guidance document \"Development of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models, methods and factors\" supports LCIA method developers in this step. 95 The inventory related to impacts that are outside the frame of LCA shall not be mixed with the for LCA impacts, i.e. need separate inventorying as separate items outside the general Inputs/Outputs inventory. The LCA frame covers potential impacts on the named three areas of protection that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere during normal and abnormal operation. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4816, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The LCA frame covers potential impacts on the named three areas of protection that are caused by interventions between Technosphere and Ecosphere during normal and abnormal operation. I.e. Accidents, indoor and workplace exposure, as well as impacts related to direct application or ingestion of products to humans shall not be mixed but be modelled and inventoried separately (see also 6.8.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4817, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 118, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment category / method. X.d) If the latter is not possible or the whole provision is not feasible (e.g. for cost or timing reasons), the fact of a missing relevant characterisation factor shall be reported and the potential influence of the missing factor shall be considered when reporting the achieved data quality and (for LCA studies) in the interpretation of the results. X.e) If the conservative or reasonably worst case value does not show a relevant contribution from that elementary flow, the missing characterisation factor can be disregarded. It is recommended to report the fact of a \"missing factor\" nevertheless and marked as \"missing unimportant\", at least for those flows that lack relevance but are not fully negligible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4818, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 119, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is recommended to report the fact of a \"missing factor\" nevertheless and marked as \"missing unimportant\", at least for those flows that lack relevance but are not fully negligible. Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment, and interpretation. XI) SHALL - Location and time non-generic LCIA methods: The potential use of LCIA methods that have been derived from the original, location-generic and time-generic ones (i.e. being not generic but e.g. spatially or otherwise further differentiated or modified) shall be justified along the goal and scope of the study. It shall be demonstrated that significantly different LCIA results are obtained than with the generic methods. The non-generic methods have to meet the other applicable requirements for selected LCIA methods (6.7.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4819, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 119, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The non-generic methods have to meet the other applicable requirements for selected LCIA methods (6.7.5). [ISO!] Note that this step is often only possible after the first or second iteration of LCI data collection and modelling, impact assessment, and interpretation. Note that for comparative LCA studies also the appropriateness of generic LCIA methods shall be discussed in the interpretation phase of the study. If a further differentiation can be argued or approximated to lead to significantly different results, this finding may limit the conclusions and recommendations that can be drawn from the study. Note that LCIA results calculated from non-generic LCIA methods are later to be presented separately from the generic ones and discussed jointly. Normalisation and weighting: XII) SHALL - Cut-off criteria: Normalisation and weighting may have been used for defining the cut-off rules in chapter 6.6.3 (6.7.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4820, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 119, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Normalisation and weighting: XII) SHALL - Cut-off criteria: Normalisation and weighting may have been used for defining the cut-off rules in chapter 6.6.3 (6.7.6). [ISO!] XIII) MAY - Results interpretation: Normalisation and weighting are in addition optional steps under ISO 14044:2006 that are recommended to support the results interpretation. (6.7.6) Note that the normalisation and weighting shall be made in accordance with the intended application of the LCI/LCA study. Note that if the study includes a comparative assertion to be disclosed to the public, quantitative weighting of the published indicator results is not permitted. XIV) SHALL - Consistency between cut-off and interpretation: If used in support of results interpretation, the same normalisation and weighting set shall be used as for the cut-off rules (6.7.6)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4821, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 119, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XIV) SHALL - Consistency between cut-off and interpretation: If used in support of results interpretation, the same normalisation and weighting set shall be used as for the cut-off rules (6.7.6). [ISO!] XV) SHALL - Requirements for selecting normalisation basis and weighting set: If used for defining the cut-off and/or in support of the interpretation of the results of the study,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4822, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 119, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment select a suitable normalisation basis and weighting set96, along the following rules (6.7.6): [ISO!] XV.a) Normalisation basis: XV.a.i) As normalisation basis the annual total environmental inventory globally should be preferred. Alternatively the territory-based or consumptionbased annual total environmental inventory of the country or region should be used where the supported decisions are made (Situations A, B) or in which the accounting reference is located (Situation C). It is recommended to prefer the average citizen as normalisation basis instead of the global, regional or country total (i.e. the global, regional or country total divided by the number of citizen97). XV.a.ii) Ensure the relevance of the selected normalisation basis for the intended applications and target audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4823, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 120, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the global, regional or country total divided by the number of citizen97). XV.a.ii) Ensure the relevance of the selected normalisation basis for the intended applications and target audience. XV.a.iii) Ensure a high degree of completeness and precision of the overall environmental impact covered and a similar degree of completeness and precision for all covered impact categories. XV.a.iv) Ensure a proper link with the used LCIA methods, i.e. relate to the same impact categories / areas of protection and use to a sufficient degree the same elementary flows. XV.a.v) Ensure technical compatibility with the to-be-used weighting set, i.e. relate to the same impact categories / areas of protection. XV.a.vi) As year for the normalisation basis the year should be used for which the latest data are available that meet the above requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4824, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 120, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XV.a.vi) As year for the normalisation basis the year should be used for which the latest data are available that meet the above requirements. XV.b) Weighting set: XV.b.i) The weighting set should represent the normative and other values globally or of the country or region where the supported decisions are made (Situations A, B), or the reference of the accounting (Situation C). The weighting set should preferably be endorsed by a governmental body of the country or region where the decision is to be supported (Situation A, B) or where the reference of the accounted system is located (Situation C). XV.b.ii) Ensure the relevance of the selected weighting set to the intended applications and target audience. XV.b.iii) The weighting set shall correctly refer to the used normalisation basis and to the midpoint level or endpoint level indicators of the used LCIA methods, as applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4825, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 120, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XV.b.iii) The weighting set shall correctly refer to the used normalisation basis and to the midpoint level or endpoint level indicators of the used LCIA methods, as applied. XV.c) Extension for added impact categories: If in the course of the study a nondefault impact category has been additionally included, corresponding data for 96 The development of governmentally supported corresponding normalisation and weighting data in the different regions and countries or globally would be beneficial. 97 This brings the values of the normalised impacts for goods and services down to a better communicatable and interpretable level (typical value range 10 to 0.00001 instead of 1E-7 to 1E-14).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4826, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 120, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment the normalisation basis and a weighting factor shall be additionally provided and used98. Documentation of selected LCIA methods, and of decision / selection of normalisation and weighting: XVI) SHALL - Verifiable documentation of decision on LCIA methods, impact level, normalisation and weighting: Decide and document now, during the initial scope definition, bindingly on (6.7.7): [ISO!] XVI.a) the LCIA methods to be applied by default, XVI.b) the selected impact level to be used for reporting and interpretation (i.e. midpoint and/or endpoint level), and if foreseen to be used, XVI.c) the specific normalisation and weighting sets to be used for cut-off and for interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4827, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 121, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "midpoint and/or endpoint level), and if foreseen to be used, XVI.c) the specific normalisation and weighting sets to be used for cut-off and for interpretation. XVI.d) These decisions shall be documented or published in an appropriate form and way that allows the critical reviewer to later verify the date when these decisions have been made. XVI.e) Permissible adjustments: Adjustments of these decisions shall only be possible (6.6.7): XVI.e.i) If impact categories are added in line with the goal of the study and meeting the related provisions for their addition given more above. This shall result exclusively in an addition to the already selected LCIA methods, normalisation basis and weighting set for the added impact categories. XVI.e.ii) If using non-generic LCIA methods upon justification as indicated more above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4828, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 121, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XVI.e.ii) If using non-generic LCIA methods upon justification as indicated more above. This shall result exclusively in a differentiation of the already selected, generic LCIA methods, unless a best attainable consensus can be found among involved stakeholders on selection of another set of already available non-generic LCIA methods. The normalisation basis and weighting set shall remain unchanged. 98 This is not required for use of non-generic LCIA methods and for additionally included single elementary flows / characterisation factors, unless this would relevantly change the results, what by default can be assumed to be not the case.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4829, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 121, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.8 Representativeness and appropriateness of LCI data (Refers to aspects of ISO 14040 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) 6.8.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) Introduction LCI data quality can be structured by representativeness (composed of technological, geographical, and time-related), completeness (regarding impact category coverage in the inventory), precision / uncertainty (of the collected or modelled inventory data), and methodological appropriateness and consistency. For details and illustrative graphics see annex 12 on data quality aspects and indicators. Within the concept of \u201cData quality\u201d, the representativeness of the LCI data is a key component", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4830, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 122, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For details and illustrative graphics see annex 12 on data quality aspects and indicators. Within the concept of \u201cData quality\u201d, the representativeness of the LCI data is a key component. It is the aim of LCA to reflect the existing physical reality of an existing supply chain (attributional modelling) or the forecasted physical reality of a theoretical future supply chain steered by market mechanisms in consequence of analysed decisions (consequential modelling). This means that the life cycle models are to be in accordance with what actually happens or can be expected to happen, to the extent possible. On a system's level, the inventory data must be representative of the processes, which actually relate to the life cycle of the system (e.g. product). Representativeness and appropriateness The ability of the inventory data to represent the environmental impacts of a system can be differentiated into two closely related aspects: representativeness and appropriateness99", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4831, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 122, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The first aspect, the representativeness, addresses how well the collected inventory data represents the \u201ctrue\u201d inventory of the process for which they are collected regarding technology, geography and time. E.g. may some of the flow information be taken from similar processes, older data sources, another country, be estimated or missing, etc.; such data lacks representativeness to some degree. The second aspect, the appropriateness refers to the degree to which a process data set that is used in the system model actually represents the true process of the analysed system. E.g. when Danish office paper of 2005 is required as input to an analysed system, a process data set for \u201cDanish newsprint paper of 2006\u201d is fully appropriate regarding geography while limited in technical and somewhat limited in timerelated appropriateness. In system models, the data has to be both sufficiently representative and appropriate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4832, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 122, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In system models, the data has to be both sufficiently representative and appropriate. There is hence the representativeness of a unit process data set inventory for the represented process(es) and the appropriateness of a (unit process, LCI result, etc.) data set for a required function / product on the system level. Combined, this results in the overall representativeness of the LCI result inventory for the analysed system. Overview Representativeness is classically looked at from technological (chapter 6.8.2), geographical (chapter 6.8.3) and time-related perspective (chapter 6.8.4), while these three are closely interrelated. 99 Note that here, same as in common LCA practice, both aspects are also jointly covered by the term \u201crepresentativeness\u201d.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4833, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 122, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how It depends on the specific case, which aspect is most important: Data with good geographical and technological representativeness can be more appropriate in some instances than using the most recent data (time-related representativeness). This is to be identified for the given case: how different is the process inventory for the different geographical situation and different technology and how fast does it change with the years due to technological progress and changes in the background system? In general, it can be found - same as across all data quality aspects - that the weakest of the appropriateness components determines (i.e. lowers) the overall quality. Note that in attributional and consequential modelling representativeness refers to different technologies (and sometimes geography), as to be explained", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4834, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 123, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "lowers) the overall quality. Note that in attributional and consequential modelling representativeness refers to different technologies (and sometimes geography), as to be explained. 6.8.2 Technological representativeness (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) Technological representativeness of process and product Technological representativeness relates to two interlinked aspects: the process step (i.e. the activity) and its product (i.e. the result of the activity that represents the functional unit of the process) that are both to be explicitly considered. Terms and concepts: Technological representativeness of process and product Introduction The technological representativeness of a process or system identifies how well the inventory data represents it regarding its true technological or technical characteristics that are documented in the descriptive information of the data set or report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4835, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 123, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Aspects of technological representativeness of a process The specific technology that is used and the way in which it is operated, strongly influences the environmental impacts of the process, as to be expressed in its inventory. This applies to both the inputs (e.g. consumed energy, materials, used services) as well as the outputs (e.g. the process-specific emissions) that can differ considerably among technologies producing the same e.g. product. This is especially the case for highly variable processes. (For the difference between variance and variability - see annex 12.2 under \"Variance vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4836, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 123, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "product. This is especially the case for highly variable processes. (For the difference between variance and variability - see annex 12.2 under \"Variance vs. variability\".) The number of aspects that can for the given case be decisive for the inventory is very extensive: the raw material basis, route of synthesis, the intermediaries used, the nature of the process in terms of enclosure, abatement techniques, etc., the speed of services, the load factor and other parameters of highly variable processes such as waste treatment and transport, internal recovery rates, etc. Aspects of technological representativeness of the product The specific product that is to be represented by a data set or used in another system as input (e.g. a specific type of steel, a distinct kind of service) can differ in many technological and other aspects, i.e. its specifications. The applicability of the product for a specific purpose (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4837, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 123, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a specific type of steel, a distinct kind of service) can differ in many technological and other aspects, i.e. its specifications. The applicability of the product for a specific purpose (i.e. the appropriateness of its functional unit) differs typically very much among often only seemingly similar products. At the same time the environmental impact can differ hugely (as the case e.g. between technical quality silicon and chip-grade silicon). It appears not useful to try listing all potentially relevant aspects. All quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit and specification can matter for a given case. Often forgotten in practice are the following with the list by no means being exhaustive: purity of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4838, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 123, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how material (e.g. technical quality silicon vs. chip-grade silicon), processing depths of materials (e.g. metal bar vs. metal foil), specific treatments (e.g. surface treatment, coating, etc.), durability / life time, quality of a service, the actual composition of a material (e.g. a polymer recipe with not only the main resin but also with fillers, colouring agents, stabilisers, curing agents, etc.), the specifically achieved recyclability of a product compared to average recyclability of the contained material(s), etc. Furthermore also the specific process or mix of processes and routes that has produced the product in question (e.g. the product hydrogen either from steam conversion of natural gas, or from geothermal energy, or solar electricity,...). Hence the combined representativeness of product and process(es) needs additional attention", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4839, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 124, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Hence the combined representativeness of product and process(es) needs additional attention. Background system data for consequential vs. attributional models The technological representativeness of the different activities throughout the life cycle of the analysed system is a key feature of a valid LCA. This applies to both attributional and consequential modelling alike. Note however that these two modelling principles may require substantially different processes in the background system that are to be represented by the used LCI data sets: For attributional modelling, technology-specific data of the supply-chain should be foreseen for the foreground system and average market consumption100 mix data for the background system. These are ideally the primary data and the secondary data of the suppliers and of the downstream users (e.g. further processors, use stage, recyclers) of the e.g. product, if the system covers the full life cycle. Secondary data from e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4840, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 124, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "further processors, use stage, recyclers) of the e.g. product, if the system covers the full life cycle. Secondary data from e.g. third-party database providers, being specific, generic or average data can be used also in parts of the foreground system. This should be done only if for the given case those data is more accurate, precise, and complete. This can be if primary data and suppliers' data is of little completeness or representativeness (e.g. regarding operating conditions). Note that this can be checked only in the subsequent iterative steps of the LCI work, of course. For consequential modelling, the same data should be foreseen for the foreground system. Here this should include the suppliers' technology-specific data of the contractually fixed or planned supply-chain links to the foreground system. The appropriate short-term or long-term marginal technological mixes (see chapter 7.2.4) should be foreseen to be used for the background system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4841, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 124, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The appropriate short-term or long-term marginal technological mixes (see chapter 7.2.4) should be foreseen to be used for the background system. The named long-term mix only applies to those processes under Situation B that face \"big\" changes in consequence of the analysed decision, and - optional - for the assumption scenarios. The technology mix of marginal processes shall be foreseen to be identified depending among others on the market direction and the cost-competitiveness of potential marginal processes. The identification of the short-term and long-term mixes is not straightforward and needs the introduction of the related concepts first. For the detailed provisions, please see chapter 7.2.4.4. 100 That also applies if a market production mix data set is developed (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4842, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 124, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the detailed provisions, please see chapter 7.2.4.4. 100 That also applies if a market production mix data set is developed (e.g. \"PP granulate produced in Germany in 2005\": the fact that the data set is to represent the production mix would be achieved by combining the representative mix of producing technologies (and sites) of that market according to their production share. For the data in the background system of the individual routes nevertheless the respective consumption mix data are to be used (e.g. here: crude oil mix consumed in Germany for propylene production).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4843, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 124, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Average vs. specific mode of operation, cycle step, etc. Check along the goal of the study and the intended applications whether the data needs to represent a specific way of operation or aspect of the technology / technique (e.g. a specific load factor for transport, or a specific start, closure etc. cycle step of a process, etc.).. This can be if the goal requires deviating from the average, typical or integrated technology / technique operation. This aspect closely relates to the explanations in the \"terms and concepts\" box above. Non-scalable processes / systems in Situation A and B Where attributional modelling is to be used for the main system model in Situations A and B, a specific provision requires to use consequential aspects regarding the technological representativeness: if the process / system is not scalable (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4844, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 125, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "hydropower production in many countries) the average market mix of technologies (here: for electricity production) is to be used and not the specific supplier / technology (here: for hydropower). This is unless the user of such a not freely scalable process can demonstrate that the production is actually quantitatively increased in consequence of its specific demand, what can also be via import from not limited supply. If such an identified actual increase is only meeting a part of the demand, only that share can be modelled using the specific process data and for the remainder the market mix is to be used. This is necessary as under these conditions big differences often occur between attributional and consequential processes that at the same time can be systematically and reproducibly avoided by using the market mix instead. Figure 16 illustrates this situation of limited/non scalability. Figure 16 Limited or non-scalability of supplies in a market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4845, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 125, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 16 illustrates this situation of limited/non scalability. Figure 16 Limited or non-scalability of supplies in a market. The example of hydropower; illustrative. If the used amount of hydropower is equal or close to the usable amount, an additional demand in hydropower can be assumed to not result in more hydropower being produced; Hydropower is not relevantly up-scalable in that case. The usable amount can be restricted by other than technical factors. Here this might be nature protection or legislative restrictions. If such factors are changed and more strict this can result in an absolute nonscalability, as the used amount would be \"frozen\" by these other factors or might even be stepwise reduced. In the example of electricity procurement, a consequential modelling would require the use of the mix of marginal technologies to be used. If \u2013 as in the example of hydropower \u2013 the specific procured technology hydropower is not scalable in production (as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4846, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 125, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If \u2013 as in the example of hydropower \u2013 the specific procured technology hydropower is not scalable in production (as e.g. in Germany), the consequential demand for electricity is not resulting in additional hydropower installed but this is only resulting in a virtual shifting of electrons from the electricity market Technical potential (100%) Usable Used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4847, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 125, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how mix to the specific supplier. Using hydropower data would substantially change the results, while not being justified in the decision-making context of Situations A and B. Provisions: 6.8.2 Technological representativeness Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Fully applicable for LCI results, LCIA results, and LCA studies. For unit processes only required to complete the system model for quality control. Note that these provisions will be applied only in the LCI phase. I) SHALL - Good technological representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required technological representativeness, meeting the goal requirements of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4848, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 126, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) SHALL - Good technological representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required technological representativeness, meeting the goal requirements of the study. (See also the accuracy requirements identified in chapter 6.9.2; note that technological, geographical and time-related representativeness are closely interrelated). For both analysed processes and systems, this includes all quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s), and/or technical specification(s). This applies especially for those aspects, that matter in terms of leading to relevant differences in the LCI data. II) SHALL - Specific way or mode of process?: Identify along the goal of the study and especially the intended applications whether the data needs to represent a specific way or mode of operating the technology / technique (e.g. a specific load factor for transport, or a specific start, closure etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4849, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 126, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a specific load factor for transport, or a specific start, closure etc. cycle step of a process, etc.), if this differs from the average, typical or integrated operation. [ISO+] III) SHALL - Different technologies for attributional and consequential modelling: Note that attributional and consequential modelling often require very different processes (and to some degree also systems) for the background system. But see the simplifications set for all Situations, except for the processes that face \"big\" changes in Situation B (chapter 6.5.4): [ISO!] III.a) Attributional modelling: It should be used: III.a.i) Foreground system: Technology-specific primary data for the foreground system and for the specifications of the products and wastes that connect the foreground system with the background system. Secondary data of the actual suppliers / downstream actors should be preferred to other (third-party) secondary data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4850, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 126, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Secondary data of the actual suppliers / downstream actors should be preferred to other (third-party) secondary data. Technology-specific, generic or average data from third-parties should be used in those parts of the foreground system where this for the given case is of higher quality (i.e. more accurate, precise, complete) than available technology-specific primary or secondary data from suppliers / downstream actors. III.a.ii) Background system: Average technology as market consumption101 mix data should be used. 101 This also applies if a market production mix data set is developed: the fact that the data set is to represent the production mix would be achieved by combining the representative mix of producing technologies of that market according to their production share. For the data in the background system of the individual routes nevertheless the respective consumption mix data are to be used.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4851, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 126, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.8.2 Technological representativeness III.b) Consequential modelling: It should be used: III.b.i) Foreground system: The same applies as described above for attributional modelling. Here this includes the suppliers' / downstream actors' technology-specific secondary data of the contractually fixed or planned supply-chain. III.b.ii) Background system: The short-term or long-term marginal technology mixes should be used, as appropriate for the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and C2. Among these, the named long-term technology mix only applies to those processes under Situation B that face \"big\" changes in consequence of the analysed decision, and - optionally - to the assumption scenarios", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4852, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 127, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The technology mix of marginal processes should be identified, depending among others on the market conditions and the cost-competitiveness of the potential marginal processes. The detailed provisions and terms / concepts are given in chapter 7.2.4. III.c) Using not fully representative data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, not fully technologically representative data can be used only along the following conditions: III.c.i) For LCI and LCIA data sets / non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully technologically representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully representative data; otherwise the lower achieved representativeness shall be documented in the data set / report. For data provided for a competitor's product, lower representativeness shall not lead to higher overall environmental impacts of the LCIA results calculated for that product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4853, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 127, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For data provided for a competitor's product, lower representativeness shall not lead to higher overall environmental impacts of the LCIA results calculated for that product. For data provided for own products or for products without any competition situation (e.g. generic data from consultants or research projects for general background use), lower representativeness shall not lead to lower impacts of the overall LCIA results calculated for that product. III.c.ii) For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected, as far as possible. Otherwise the lower achieved technological representativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors' products to a relevant degree. Note that this can be implemented only in the subsequent iterative steps of the LCA work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4854, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 127, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this can be implemented only in the subsequent iterative steps of the LCA work. IV) SHALL - Non-scalable supplies: For the life cycle model of Situation A, B, and C1, the following shall be applied: if the supply of a specific required function (e.g. product) cannot relevantly be increased in the analysed market and due to inherent constraints (e.g. as for hydropower in many countries) the market consumption mix of the specific function that the product provides (e.g. electricity in the above example) shall be used as far as possible, and not the data for the specific supplier/product. To not contradict the provisions on solving multifunctionality, this provision does not apply to required cofunctions.[ISO!]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4855, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 127, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) Introduction The geographical representativeness of a process or system identifies how well the inventory data represents it regarding the location (e.g. market, site(s), region, country, etc.) that is documented in the descriptive information of the data set or report and where it is operated, produced, or consumed. Identifying the appropriate geographical scope of LCI data The level and type of technology that is applied, and the conditions under which it runs (e.g. in terms of surrounding climate or national legal requirements on emission limits), are influenced by the geographical location of the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4856, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 128, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in terms of surrounding climate or national legal requirements on emission limits), are influenced by the geographical location of the process. Also to identify the mix of marginal processes (for consequential modelling) and the background data (for both attributional and consequential modelling) a correct identification of the geographical scope is required. Apart from those processes where site or producer specific data is required, the data typically relates to a market. The below box briefly introduces the market concept: Terms and concepts: Market Market delimitation In difference to other geographical concepts such as countries or regions, markets often have a different delimitation. The market in its sense for LCA is the unit that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods and services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4857, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 128, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The market in its sense for LCA is the unit that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods and services. Markets can be usefully differentiated - geographically, - temporally, and - in customer segments (for the related concept \"niche market\" and its limitations in interpretation of related LCA study results see chapter 5.2.2). The geographical scope is typically not exact as imports and exports occur across the market border. A useful delimitation is that no relevant amounts of such occur, respectively that imports and exports are considered when modelling e.g. consumption mixes for a given market. Reasons for the forming of markets are mainly - political (legislation especially on competition and product requirements such as material bans, product safety, etc., technical and other standards, taxes, and subsidies), and - cultural (recognised markets by producers and service providers)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4858, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 128, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- natural geographical aspects play a role when de facto isolating markets via barriers to transport (islands, large distances in general especially for low value/weight goods and for services that require human presence) and climate aspects of related products. Markets can geographically be equal, smaller or larger than a country. Temporal market segmentation is relevant for many services but also certain goods (e.g. intraday segmentation such as night time / base load electricity consumption, seasonal segmentation such as agricultural products and tourist industry). Also the temporal segmentation is not always exact, as some aspects can be overcome via storage and transport (e.g. of fruits from the tropics to the moderate climate zones in the cold season, or solar power storage e.g. as hydrogen).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4859, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 128, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Types of market related data set types In LCA the main market related data set types of relevance are the market production mix, market supply mix, and the market consumption mix. The related text and figure in chapter 7.7 explain their relationship. Average or generic data that represent the consumption mix are the most widely required ones, while production mix data can be of interest for associations and for countries. For niche markets see chapter 5.2.2 The geographical coverage of the LCI data should represent the smallest, appropriate geographical unit, depending on the goal of the LCI/LCA study and the intended applications. If e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4860, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 129, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If e.g. the use of an energy-using consumer product in France would be the scope of the data set, the corresponding electricity market consumption mix (which is not automatically France102) and French product use conditions were to be considered, i.e. not European or Global average conditions. Generally, the degree of geographical or supplier-data differentiation, is to be decided considering the decision relevance and knowledge of decision makers about the market or specific supplier. In attributional modelling this can be e.g. whether a material consumed in Malaysia has a specific producer that would need to be represented. Or whether it is from an unknown origin such as e.g. electrolytic raw copper which in Europe is usually traded on the London Metal Exchange with an European average origin. In the latter case, an average European consumption market data set would be most appropriate to apply for all European countries, as there are de facto no national markets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4861, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 129, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the latter case, an average European consumption market data set would be most appropriate to apply for all European countries, as there are de facto no national markets. In consequential modelling that would be the (short-term or long-term) marginal consumption market mix that would be operated as a consequence of a decision. This means that even if e.g. a material is currently predominantly produced for the national market, consequential modelling may identify one or more other countries as source if the growing demand is met by additional imports. Transfer of inventory data from a different geographical context The use of data from one geographical area or specific supplier to another one is appropriate only if the differences in the environmental impacts have no or little relevance for the overall representativeness of the inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4862, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 129, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is only given if applied technologies of that process, the way it is operated, abatement technologies, as well as the background system of that process (e.g. the raw material route, waste treatment, etc.) are very similar or at least result in very similar inventory values. An example is when the use of a technology-specific Thai unit process data for a certain waste water treatment process with the same treatment efficiency but operated in another country in e.g. Vietnam would result in only insignificantly different inventories of the overall system (e.g. cloth washing) in which the waste water treatment process is used. Another example is the case that the production inventory of a consumer product may differ only 102 Electricity markets are relatively difficult to delimit, given the internationally connected grids. In addition and related to the time-representativeness, it matters whether the named consumer good would be operated only at peak hours (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4863, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 129, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition and related to the time-representativeness, it matters whether the named consumer good would be operated only at peak hours (e.g. an electric toothbrush) or continuously (e.g. a fridge) or only during night time at base load (e.g. an electric storage heater). These latter aspect is to be considered obviously under time-related representativeness (see related chapter).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4864, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 129, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how insignificantly among different African countries, because they all imported from the same producing country, e.g. Japan103. The above illustrates that next to the transferred unit process or LCI result data also process parameter settings are to reflect the correct geographical scope. This includes also management parameters such as e.g. achieved recycling rates. Frequent errors: Use of LCI data with another geographical scope A frequent error in LCI/LCA studies is that data that represents one country is directly used for another country. Or that only limited adjustments are done (e.g. replacing only the electricity background data) without analysing which other adjustments may actually be relevant. Different markets and countries differ not only e.g. in the mix of energy carriers used (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4865, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 130, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Different markets and countries differ not only e.g. in the mix of energy carriers used (e.g. share hard coal, natural gas, nuclear power, etc.), but also the technologies how these energy carriers are converted to e.g. electricity, the way how these technologies are operated, the installed and operation of abatement technologies (if any), the sources / routes of the e.g. energy carriers and many others. What may look similar on a more general level is in fact often substantially different. It is to be stressed that using not sufficiently representative data renders the whole LCI/LCA study invalid and misleading. While in practice limitations in data availability often require such transfer / adjustment of data, this is only valid and useful if the resulting data actually represents what it intends / claims to represent. A related risk is that the data that is used for another market may already from the beginning not be complete, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4866, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 130, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A related risk is that the data that is used for another market may already from the beginning not be complete, i.e. it may even mislead focus for own data collection. An in-depths technical understanding of the to-be-represented processes is hence key also for any transfer and adjustment of data from other markets. Finally, If the differences and hence the main inventory values are known (what was argued to be indispensible in any case), there is little need to use data from other markets, except for rough cross-checking. With an enlarged pool of consistent and quality-assured LCI data sets in the ILCD Data Network, the availability of consistent data should stepwise and substantially be improved over time and the need to use less representative data be minimised. Relationship geography of LCI and of LCIA While the above relates to the general geographical scope of where processes are operated, the inventory items typically need a different differentiation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4867, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 130, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in which environmental media an emission goes). The default compartments are given in the separate document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\" and are implemented in the ILCD reference elementary flows. Also the environmental issues of concern for the activity can vary with the geographical setting: the relevance of the use of e.g. water and construction materials that are typically extracted and used at a local to regional scale, is thus highly variable between regions. The impact assessment and interpretation may have to take this into account. This requires that elementary flows that act differently depending on where they are emitted (e.g. sulphur dioxide and particle emissions, while not carbon dioxide) would need to be reported spatially differentiated. This would allow the use of impact assessment methods with characterisation factors on e.g. resource-depletion that reflect the spatial differentiation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4868, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 130, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This would allow the use of impact assessment methods with characterisation factors on e.g. resource-depletion that reflect the spatial differentiation. However, only limitedly spatially differentiated impact assessment models are available (e.g. differentiating emissions to fresh water and sea water). Until models and factors have 103 In that case the Japanese production or export data is correct as it represents the consumption market mix of all these countries.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4869, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 130, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how been developed and tested in practice also for further sub-compartments and emissionsituations or even location-specific, the use of spatially differentiated elementary flows directly in the data set inventories is discouraged. For the time being, the spatial information should be kept and documented separately (e.g. as second inventory set) to be able to adjust data and data sets later, if needed. This applies analogously to time-specific models, methods, and factors. Please also note that the exact degree and way of spatial differentiation is still to be determined in LCIA context, i.e. whether to divide by national boundaries (countries), natural geographical units or sub-units (continents and landscape zones), sub-compartments of the environment (e.g. different types of water bodies), emission situations (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4870, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 131, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "different types of water bodies), emission situations (e.g. in areas with high or low human population density), or by geographical coordinates via a global impact grid, etc. This will need to be closely coordinated with data availability especially in industry, LCI modelling needs, review questions, and software and database management implications. Provisions: 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Fully applicable for LCI results, LCIA results, and LCA studies. For unit processes only required to complete the system model for quality control. For LCI results, LCIA results, LCA studies: be aware that the declared geographical scope of all later to be used inventory data needs to enable a correct impact assessment. This is to be checked especially carefully if a nongeneric impact assessment (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4871, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 131, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to be checked especially carefully if a nongeneric impact assessment (e.g. with differentiated characterisation factors by country, region or even site) is applied. Note that these provisions will be applied only in the LCI phase. I) SHALL - Good geographical representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required geographical representativeness, according to the goal of the study (see the accuracy requirements identified in chapter 6.9.2). This applies especially, where this matters in terms of relevant differences in the LCI data of different geographical scope. II) SHALL - Different geographical scope for attributional and consequential modelling: Note that attributional and consequential modelling may require processes/products of a different geographical scope in the background system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4872, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 131, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "But see the simplifications set for all Situations, except for the processes that face \"big\" changes in Situation B (chapter 6.5.4): [ISO!] II.a) Attributional modelling: It should be used: II.a.i) Foreground system: Site or producer/provider specific data for the foreground system, supplier-specific data for the products that connect the foreground with the background system. Generic data of geographical mixes can be used also in parts of the foreground system if for the given case justified as being more accurate, precise, and complete than available specific data (especially for processes operated at suppliers). II.a.ii) Background system: Average market consumption mix data for the background system. II.b) Consequential modelling: It should be used: II.b.i) Foreground system: Site or producer/provider specific data for the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4873, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 131, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how directly controlled processes of the foreground system, suppliers' site specific data of the contractually fixed or planned supply-chain of the foreground system plus for the products and wastes that connect the foreground with the background system. Generic data of geographical mixes can be used also in parts of the foreground system if for the given case justified as being more accurate, precise, and complete than available specific data (especially for processes operated at suppliers). II.b.ii) Background system: The short-term or long-term marginal geographical mixes should be used for the background system, as appropriate for the applicable Situation A, B, C1, and C2. The geographical mix of the marginal processes should be identified, depending among others on the market conditions and cost-competitiveness of the potential marginal processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4874, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 132, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The geographical mix of the marginal processes should be identified, depending among others on the market conditions and cost-competitiveness of the potential marginal processes. The detailed provisions and terms/concepts are given in chapter 7.2.4; but check for the simplified provisions for the applicable Situation A, B or C in chapter 6.5.4. II.c) Using not fully representative data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, not fully geographically representative data can be used only along the following conditions: II.c.i) For LCI and LCIA data sets / non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully geographically representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully representative data; otherwise the lower achieved representativeness shall be documented in the data set / report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4875, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 132, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II.c.ii) For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected; otherwise the lower achieved geographical representativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors' products in a relevant degree. 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) Introduction and overview Technology changes over time. What has been best available technology 10 years ago may today be the average technology, or even already outdated in sectors of rapid technological progress (e.g. IT, solar-electric systems, etc.). The average technology from 10 years ago may already be decommissioned or only contribute a small share to the current market mix, except for sectors with long-running production plants (e.g. for many basic materials, power plants, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4876, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 132, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for many basic materials, power plants, etc.). Thus, the temporal representativeness is closely linked to technological representativeness. The inventory of a process or system that is to represent a certain time context (e.g. present or near future situation, \u201c2025\u201d, or for a baseline scenario for accounting \u201c1990\u201d) is to be based on data that sufficiently appropriately represents that declared time. That is especially important for the quantitatively most relevant contributors to the overall environmental impact. Note that the time representativeness of the data to be used should also be in line with the intended application.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4877, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 132, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how The represented year, especially on system level The represented year of a system data set cannot always be determined straightforward: the single data values already for unit processes may stem from different sources and years. On a higher level, the unit process data sets that are combined in a system often represent different years. Which year a data set represents, is to be determined by looking at the different ages of the main contributing data (in case of unit processes) or unit processes (in case of LCI results). Weighing their contribution and age and reflecting the speed of changes of the different technologies / techniques over time the best represented year can be given by expert judgement. Figure 27 illustrates this concept", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4878, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 133, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 27 illustrates this concept. Frequent errors: Misleading/wrong use of \"time representativeness\" It is important to note that the time representativeness always refers to the actual time represented and determined e.g. by measurement, NOT the time when a used secondary data source had been published or the modelling / calculation year of the unit process or LCI results. It is a frequent error in LCA to confuse this fundamentally different age information, including when declaring in a misleading way the claimed time-representativeness of distributed LCI data sets. Reflecting on what has been said before on the speed of technology development in different industries, data of several years age, may still be sufficiently representative. Data sets should therefore show an \u201cexpiry year\u201d after which they can be assumed to be not sufficiently representative any more and typically will need revision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4879, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 133, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Data sets should therefore show an \u201cexpiry year\u201d after which they can be assumed to be not sufficiently representative any more and typically will need revision. If such data is nevertheless used in a study, the data have a lower than declared timerepresentativeness and it is to be judged how strongly this effects results, conclusions, and recommendations. Intra-annual and intra-day variations Another time-aspect, which may need to be considered in special cases, is the difference of inventory data in the course of the year (especially hot and cold season) and the day (daytime / night). It is to be checked along the goal of the study whether such intra-annual or intra-day specific data might be needed (e.g. on night-time electricity base-load data for charging electric car batteries over night). Intended application and required time-representativeness The need for time-related representativeness is very much influenced by the intended application and its requirements on e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4880, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 133, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Intended application and required time-representativeness The need for time-related representativeness is very much influenced by the intended application and its requirements on e.g. future validity of the results and conclusions that can be drawn from the LCA results: e.g. for studies in support of procurement and especially of products with a short life time, the use of data with a 1 year validity may be fully sufficient. Ecolabel criteria are typically revised regularly (e.g. every three years), and the need for future validity of data sets used to support the identification and quantification of the criteria is thus confined to this time horizon. Decisions made in the ecodesign of long-living products may be valid for 10 years. In the extreme, LCAs made to support decisions on choice of products with a long life-time (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4881, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 133, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Decisions made in the ecodesign of long-living products may be valid for 10 years. In the extreme, LCAs made to support decisions on choice of products with a long life-time (e.g. production plants, houses) or answering strategic questions may be required to provide conclusions and recommendations that strive at being valid for 20 to 30 years into the future. This points to the need in such cases to use futurerelated foreground scenarios and background data for the use / operation and end-of-life stages of these systems rather then present/recent ones.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4882, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 133, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Time-representativeness of future and past processes Many studies of high relevance - e.g. those under Situation B - relate to the future. Also the processes along the life cycles of long-living products and e.g. interventions from landfills under Situation A relate to different time-horizons, including the long-term future. The following general provision applies for all future and past processes104: Data should be as time-representative as possible and any lack of representativeness shall be documented and considered in the results interpretation. Limited time-representativeness in comparative studies shall not relatively disfavour any competitors' products. This can be operationalised as follows: \uf0b7 Processes operated within 5 years into the future or past: - The most recent data that is still valid for that to-be-represented time should be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4883, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 134, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can be operationalised as follows: \uf0b7 Processes operated within 5 years into the future or past: - The most recent data that is still valid for that to-be-represented time should be used. In the case the data is already outdated (e.g. is not sufficiently valid anymore for the year of recycling), new data should be collected or obtained. \uf0b7 Processes operated more than 5 years into the future or past - Fully time-representative data, i.e. forecasting data (or, for processes in the more remote past: historical data) should be used. - As second option, and especially for attributional modelling, the mix of the Best Available Technologies (BAT)105 should be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4884, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 134, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- As second option, and especially for attributional modelling, the mix of the Best Available Technologies (BAT)105 should be used. - As third option the present / most recent available data can be used, along the following conditions: \u00b0 The use of less time-representative data should be justifiable only if not changing relevantly the LCIA results of the LCI/LCA study compared to using fully timerepresentative data; otherwise the lack of time-representativeness shall be documented. \u00b0 For comparative studies the conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected; otherwise the lack of time-representativeness shall be considered explicitly when interpreting the results. Especially shall the use of less timerepresentative data not relatively disfavour any competitors' products in a relevant degree. Related but also different from the question of time-representativeness of a process is the question of how to inventory the future interventions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4885, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 134, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Related but also different from the question of time-representativeness of a process is the question of how to inventory the future interventions (e.g. emissions from landfills). Another related issue is carbon storage and delayed emissions (e.g. in bio-based goods or from longliving products). These two topics are discussed and guidance is provided in chapter 7.4.3.7. Provisions: 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness Fully applicable for LCI results, LCIA results, and LCA studies. For unit processes only required to complete the system model for quality control. 104 Note that all this applies analogously for past processes, if they are part of the analysis and model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4886, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 134, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For unit processes only required to complete the system model for quality control. 104 Note that all this applies analogously for past processes, if they are part of the analysis and model. 105 BAT mix example: If the present technology-routes mix for end-of-life product treatment of the analysed product would be 60% incineration with energy recovery and 40% closed-loop material recycling, the BAT mix would combine 60% of the BAT technologies for incineration with energy recovery and 40% of the BAT technologies for material recycling.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4887, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 134, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Note that these provisions will be applied only in the LCI phase. I) SHALL - Good time-related representativeness: The overall inventory data shall have an as good as required time-related representativeness, according to the goal of the study (see the accuracy requirements identified in chapter 6.9.2). This applies especially, where this matters in terms of relevant differences in the LCI data that represent a different time. Note that the represented year of a process or system shall refer to the actually represented year and not the year when the data set was calculated or the year of publication of used secondary data sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4888, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 135, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Specific seasonal or diurnal situation?: Check along the goal of the study and the intended applications whether the data needs to represent a specific seasonal or diurnal situation, if this differs from the average annual data. [ISO+] III) SHOULD - Time-related representativeness of future processes: For processes that run more than 5 years in the future or past from the time of study (e.g. of the use and end-of-life stage of long-living products or in case of backward looking analysis), fully time-representative future/past scenario data should be used, if possible. If this is not possible: [ISO!] III.a) BAT and recent data: For both attributional and consequential modelling, Best Available Technology (BAT) mix data should be used as second option, if BAT data can be argued to be sufficiently representative for the required time. The most recent data are the third option", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4889, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 135, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The most recent data are the third option. III.b) Using not fully representative data: Not fully time-representative data can be used only along the following conditions: III.b.i) For LCI and LCIA data sets / non-comparative LCI/LCA studies: The use of not fully time-representative data is justifiable only if this is not relevantly changing the overall LCIA results compared to using fully timerepresentative data; otherwise the lower achieved timerepresentativeness shall be documented in the data set / report. III.b.ii) For comparative LCA studies: The conclusions or recommendations of the study should not be affected; otherwise the lower achieved timerepresentativeness shall explicitly be considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations. Especially shall the use of less time-representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors' products in a relevant degree. Note that time-related inventorying issues and how to inventory e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4890, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 135, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Especially shall the use of less time-representative data not relatively disfavour any competitors' products in a relevant degree. Note that time-related inventorying issues and how to inventory e.g. carbon storage and delayed emissions is necessarily addressed in the LCI chapter 7.4.3.7. 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) 6.9.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) During the initial scope definition and in preparation of the subsequent work, the main types and sources of data and other information should be identified. These initially identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4891, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 135, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how types and sources will be more detailed and often also revised during the iterative steps of inventory data collection and modelling, impact assessment, and interpretation. Types of required data and other information comprise - depending on the deliverable and type of study - e.g. inventory information, statistical data, technical process / system information, market information, allocation-related information, as well as legal and other boundary conditions. Note that LCIA methods are required (at least for supporting the quantification of the achieved data completeness / cut-off). Also normalisation data and weighting factors may be required. For identifying the data and information needs and suitable sources, the required overall data quality is the key measure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4892, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 136, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also normalisation data and weighting factors may be required. For identifying the data and information needs and suitable sources, the required overall data quality is the key measure. It has been derived directly or indirectly from the goal of the LCI/LCA study in the chapters on completeness / cut-off criteria (6.6), representativeness (6.8), and precision (6.9.2). The equally relevant methodological appropriateness and consistency relates to the various method-related chapters of this document. For quality of third-party data sets that may be required, additional quality aspects relate to documentation, nomenclature and review. Unless the required precision is directly fixed in the goal (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4893, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 136, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Unless the required precision is directly fixed in the goal (e.g. \u201cmodelling of a high-quality LCI data set of maximum XY% overall uncertainty (or: for each single impact category)\") or unless specific, previous experience exists, the quality requirements on inventory data can only be identified after the first rough model of the life cycle has been established. It is then revised in context of the iterative improvement of the inventory (see Figure 5). 6.9.2 Data quality needs in light of the intended applications (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.4.2.2) Relative relevance of accuracy, completeness, and uncertainty/precision Data quality is composed of accuracy (i.e. representativeness and methodological appropriateness and consistency), precision / uncertainty and completeness of the inventory106. All of these contribute to the overall quality and typically the weakest of them determines (lowers) the overall data quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4894, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 136, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "All of these contribute to the overall quality and typically the weakest of them determines (lowers) the overall data quality. In general in LCA, the relatively lowest quality can typically be found regarding representativeness, methodological appropriateness and consistency (especially on system level), and completeness. These show the greatest need for improvement in LCA practice. Also, LCI related information often lacks quality, e.g. actual market prices in case of economic allocation under attributional modelling and forecasted market prices in support of identifying marginal processes in consequential modelling. The uncertainty of the data (that relates to stochastic uncertainty of measurements) in contrast is argued to often be of comparatively less relevance in practice, although it must not be disregarded, of course, as it can well lower otherwise high quality data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4895, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 136, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Determining data quality requirements for single data values in view of the aggregated LCIA results Data quality of LCA starts from the quality of the single inventory data values, and goes back even beyond to the raw data obtained. The required overall quality of the single data values and unit processes typically can only roughly be derived from the goal and the related overall quality requirements: the required overall quality on data set or system level is to be identified first. Only then these requirements can be translated to the level of the elementary 106 For the concepts and components of data quality and data set quality see annex 12.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4896, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 136, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how flows for which data is collected in the inventory. This can generally be done only after the first iteration of the LCA, i.e. not initially: This translation requires knowing the elementary flows' characterisation factors for the different impact categories and bring this information together with knowledge of the inventory. E.g. Climate change may be an important impact of an analysed system. In the contribution analysis it may turn out that one specific process contributes with e.g. about 95 % to the overall Climate change impact potential due to a high emission of methane. In this case it is very important to have a high quality on the data for this emission. In contrast, the emissions of e.g. CO2 from transport, energy conversion processes, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4897, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 137, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this case it is very important to have a high quality on the data for this emission. In contrast, the emissions of e.g. CO2 from transport, energy conversion processes, etc. as part of the same system can be far less precise, as they in total contribute only little to the overall impact. While it requires initial analysis of the life cycle, in practice it is often only a rather limited number of emissions and processes that relevantly contribute to the overall impacts. It is key to correctly identify and focus on these in the described iterative approach; this is described systematically in chapter 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4898, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 137, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is key to correctly identify and focus on these in the described iterative approach; this is described systematically in chapter 4. 6.9.3 Inventory data needs and sources (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) Introduction For an LCA study, two types of data are usually required: \uf0b7 specific inventory data on the one or more newly to be developed process(es) of the foreground system, and \uf0b7 average or generic (for attributional modelling) or (mix of) marginal processes (for consequential modelling) for the background system. It is important that all foreground and background data used in a LCI/LCA study are methodologically consistent and that the overall quality requirements for the analysed system are met. Note that the required processes and hence data sets for attributional modelling are typically different from those for consequential modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4899, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 137, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the required processes and hence data sets for attributional modelling are typically different from those for consequential modelling. Primary data (towards developing specific unit processes) For specific unit process data measurements at the operated processes are the as preferred option. In practice a range of other data sources is helpful (e.g. for cross-checks) or even necessary (e.g. in case of missing data). These are e.g. patents, process engineering models, stoichiometric models, process and product specifications and testing reports, legal limits, data of similar processes, BAT reference documents, and many others. As this is an operational and case-specific question it is addressed in the LCI chapter 7.3. Available data sets (primary and secondary) It is recommended to prefer well documented third party data sets as a good documentation supports correct use, quality assessment, and eases review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4900, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 137, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Available data sets (primary and secondary) It is recommended to prefer well documented third party data sets as a good documentation supports correct use, quality assessment, and eases review. Equally, for secondary background LCI data sets pre-verified data (e.g. via the ILCD Data Network) are recommended, as this reduces the efforts of own verification/review: the data itself will not require any additional review, only the correct selection and use in the analysed system model is to be reviewed. Note that for published studies the required level of review (e.g. independent external review or independent review panel) may differ for non-comparative LCA studies and comparative studies. See chapter 6.11.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4901, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 137, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Sources for available inventory data are very diverse: \uf0b7 LCI data providers for the foreground system are typically the developer or producer and/or operator of the analysed process or system and their suppliers. Often market average data is provided by business associations; this data is typically of use for the background system. These industry sources are also named \"primary data suppliers\". \uf0b7 Secondary data providers, typically for the background system, are national and international LCI databases, consultants, and research groups. The ILCD Data Network gives access to all ILCD compliant data from any kind of data provider. By working with an ILCD compliant and appropriate documentation, using the same nomenclature and elementary flows, etc. such data eases to work in line with the ILCD Handbook", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4902, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 138, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "By working with an ILCD compliant and appropriate documentation, using the same nomenclature and elementary flows, etc. such data eases to work in line with the ILCD Handbook. More details on LCI data and information collection and modelling are addressed in the LCI chapter 7. 6.9.4 Other inventory-related data and information needs and sources (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Depending whether attributional or consequential modelling principles and the related allocation or substitution approaches are to be applied, in addition to inventory data itself further data and information may be required to support the application of these methods. Which type of data is required strongly depends also on the type of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study and the specific case. Examples are market mix data of technologies, import/export statistics, and recycling rates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4903, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 138, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Examples are market mix data of technologies, import/export statistics, and recycling rates. Furthermore, especially for consequential modelling: long-term economic market competitiveness of technologies and related future market price scenarios, user behaviour data / surveys and models on reactiveness of different consumer groups, policy scenarios and their effect on future markets, experience and learning curves of technologies, and many more. Statistical agencies provide among others production, import/export and market statistics data. Equally market organisations and business associations provide such statistical data as well as other product-related information such as e.g. recycling rates and recycled contents. Regarding market prices and scenarios, technology foresight, policy scenarios, user behaviour and others, specialised research and consulting organisations, governmental organisations and business organisations work on these topics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4904, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 138, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The most suitable sources are to be identified in context of the specific LCI/LCA study. 6.9.5 Impact assessment models and factors, normalisation basis, and weighting set needs (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.4.2.2) Regarding the identification of suitable LCIA methods see chapter 6.7. Sources for LCIA methods are e.g. dedicated LCIA method developers or national and international LCA projects. Regarding the identification of suitable normalisation data and weighting sets see chapter 6.7.6. Sources for normalisation and weighting data are national LCA projects and respective recommendations of governmental bodies.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4905, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 138, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, implicitly differentiated. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. Some of the steps can be done only after the first iteration. I) MAY - Overview of the principle types of data and information: It is recommended to prepare an overview of the principle types of data and information that will be required depending on the type of deliverable of the LCI/LCA study, unless this is done in the later step on \"Planning data collection\" (chapter 7.3). Depending on the study, these are e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4906, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 139, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Depending on the study, these are e.g. technical information of the analysed process(es) or system(s), use and end-of-life management data/information, raw inventory data for foreground processes, statistical data e.g. on international trade, market delimitation information and other market characteristics, generic or average background LCI data sets, LCIA methods data sets, normalisation and weighting data, legal and other boundary conditions, etc. The previous scope chapters should be re-checked, including on different data representativeness needs for attributional and consequential modelling. (6.9.1) Note: the detailed inventory-related data needs will be identified in the Life Cycle Inventory work (see 7.3). II) SHOULD - General requirements on data and data set quality: Determine the general requirements on data and data set quality (details, terms and concepts see annex 12)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4907, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 139, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHOULD - General requirements on data and data set quality: Determine the general requirements on data and data set quality (details, terms and concepts see annex 12). Regarding newly collected LCI data this means the needs for representativeness, completeness, and precision. For third-party LCI data sets in addition method appropriateness and consistency, the use of ILCD-consistent elementary flows and nomenclature, appropriate documentation, and (potentially) an external review. (6.9.2) Note that unless the quality requirements are directly quantified in the goal, the initial data and data set quality requirements can be set only after the first loop of data collection, results calculation, impact assessment, the identification of significant issues, and the evaluation. This is described in more detail in chapter 4. These requirements will typically need to be revisited and refined in the subsequent iterations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4908, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 139, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is described in more detail in chapter 4. These requirements will typically need to be revisited and refined in the subsequent iterations. III) SHOULD - Potential sources for the required data, data sets, and information: It is recommended to already identify potential sources for the required data, data sets and information, as far as possible. Details are decided in chapter 7.3 on \"Planning data collection\" (6.9.3, 6.9.4): III.a) Well-documented data: Well-documented data and data sets should be preferred to allow judging the data appropriateness for use in context of the analysed system and to enable the (potential) critical reviewer to be able to perform an independent verification (6.9.3). [ISO!] Note that if the deliverable of the study is intended to support comparisons, a minimum documentation scope is specified; see chapter 10.3.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4909, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 139, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] Note that if the deliverable of the study is intended to support comparisons, a minimum documentation scope is specified; see chapter 10.3.3. III.b) Pre-verified data: It is recommended to prefer the use of externally and independently pre-verified data and data sets, as this provides an assurance of the claimed quality and reduces the effort and costs for review of the LCI/LCA work (6.9.3). [ISO+] Note that different types of critical review are mandatory for different types of deliverables and applications (see 6.11). Note: The ILCD Data Network is one suitable source for primary and secondary LCI data sets and potentially for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4910, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 139, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how LCIA methods. The related requirements make these data especially suitable for working in line with the ILCD Handbook. Statistical agencies, trade associations, governmental bodies, consultants and research groups are potential sources for data, data sets, and information. 6.10 Comparisons between systems (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) 6.10.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) A comparison of (product) systems is already an application of LCA, while it is covered within the general LCA standards ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. For valid comparisons a few additional aspects are to be considered. Studies that involve comparative assertions that are foreseen to be published must meet additional requirements in order to be valid, fair and hence non-misleading", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4911, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 140, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Studies that involve comparative assertions that are foreseen to be published must meet additional requirements in order to be valid, fair and hence non-misleading. ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 pose a number of further requirements on such studies. Apart from the issues addressed in this chapter these relate to review and reporting; see chapters 11 and 10.3.3. This is reflecting the consequences that the comparative use of LCA results may have for other companies, institutions and stakeholders that are not directly involved in the study. A life cycle impact assessment shall be performed for studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. Terms and concepts: \u201ccomparison\u201d vs. \u201ccomparative assertion disclosed to the public\u201d \u201cComparison\u201d relates to the LCA-based comparison of the overall environmental impact of two or more systems that may or may not provide the same function. Such studies can be worked out on-demand in an LCA study, be based e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4912, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 140, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such studies can be worked out on-demand in an LCA study, be based e.g. on available EPDs, apply ecodesign tools, etc. The results are used either internally for decision support or are published. Of interest here are the cases that are published. \u201cComparative assertion\u201d in contrast means that the superiority, inferiority or equality of alternatives is claimed based on the LCA. The addition \u201cdisclosed to the public\u201d means that these conclusions of superiority or equality are published to the general public (i.e. are made available outside a small and well defined list of actors that were involved in the LCI/LCA study). The term \"comparative study\" covers in this document both cases, i.e. both assertive and non-assertive studies that compare alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4913, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 140, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The term \"comparative study\" covers in this document both cases, i.e. both assertive and non-assertive studies that compare alternatives. 6.10.2 Strengthening affected stakeholders in non-assertive comparisons and multi system type studies Types or comparisons and affected stakeholders The following types of comparisons can often be found in published LCA studies: \uf0b7 systems or processes with the same or similar functional unit are compared with each other (e.g. different brands of 20'' TV sets, or: potato cropping in country X comparing integrated, conventional, biological, and low input farming)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4914, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 140, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how variants of a system are evaluated (e.g. design or material alternatives of a brandunspecific, i.e. generic or brand X specific kitchen chair) \uf0b7 a contribution or weak point analysis of a specific system is done (e.g. analysing the impact share of production stage vs. use stage vs. end-of-life stage of a vacuum cleaner Z, or: of the main contributing processes, materials, energy carriers, or services, etc. of a vacuum cleaner Z) \uf0b7 a multi-system type study analysis several systems with different functional units or functions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4915, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 141, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "of a vacuum cleaner Z) \uf0b7 a multi-system type study analysis several systems with different functional units or functions (e.g. a basket-of-products type study of an average citizen of country A, or: a prioritization study on the most impacting products in a country B, or: the overall environmental impact (or: per average citizen) of countries A, B, and C is compared) ISO 14044:2006 has a set of stricter requirements for studies that compare systems and make assertions on superiority, inferiority (and implicitly also: equality) of the compared systems. This is to strengthen the interests of the affected stakeholders, avoiding the misuse of LCA in market competition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4916, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 141, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the above examples the affected stakeholders are (at least): \uf0b7 the different TV set producing companies (first bullet, first example) \uf0b7 the farmers and the downstream production chain that produce/use potatoes from the respective farming methods (first bullet, second example) \uf0b7 the producers of the alternative materials (second bullet) \uf0b7 the producers of the product groups that show the highest impact in the basket-ofproducts and the prioritization study (forth bullet, first and second example) \uf0b7 the governments/people of the compared countries (forth bullet, last example) \uf0b7 In the case of the system-internal weak point analysis (third bullet) it is argued that the potential effect on the producers/service providers is limited, as related to a small market share Strengthening stakeholder interests The publication of comparisons without claiming superiority of one alternative while showing e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4917, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 141, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the results on level of impact indicators leaves it to the recipient to draw the conclusions of superiority/inferiority. This can be understood to be a misleading use of LCA, as the conclusions affect the \"loosing\" entities that represent the compared systems. This can be via purchase decisions, impacts on the image, political measures that build on such studies, etc. To protect the affected stakeholders, such studies shall at least state that the study does not support to draw conclusions or recommendations on the superiority or equality of any of the analysed systems. Finally, to avoid misinterpretation by non-technical audience or the general public, the study shall meet the same review and other requirements that apply to \"comparative assertions disclosed to the public\". To avoid this, the ISO requirements on \"comparative assertions disclosed to the public\" shall also be applied to \"product comparisons disclosed to the public\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4918, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 141, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "To avoid this, the ISO requirements on \"comparative assertions disclosed to the public\" shall also be applied to \"product comparisons disclosed to the public\". Exceptions are contribution and weak point analysis type studies on specific products / brands (see example in third bullet in the above list of types).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4919, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 161, "book_page": 141, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.10.3 Considered alternatives, the functional unit, and assumptions (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) Studies on systems that are meant to be functionally comparable In the classical case of comparative studies, the aim is to conclude the superiority, inferiority or equality of the compared alternatives and - typically - come up with recommendations. Two aspects related to the \u201cwhat is compared\u201d issue are important for those studies that look into system that are meant to be comparable: the equivalence of the functional unit of compared alternatives and the non-misleading selection of the compared alternatives. The equivalence of the functional units was already addressed in chapter 6.4.7. It is required for comparative LCAs that are to be published", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4920, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 142, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The equivalence of the functional units was already addressed in chapter 6.4.7. It is required for comparative LCAs that are to be published. In the case that some of the aspects of the functional unit differ significantly between the systems, it shall be ensured that: \uf0b7 either the functions that the compared systems provide, are still seen as sufficiently comparable by the main stakeholders affected by the LCA study and the product users \uf0b7 or the sufficient comparability is to be achieved by the respective provisions for attributional modelling (typically, but with exceptions: allocation) and for consequential modelling (typically, but with exception: system expansion). Details for Situations A, B, C107 see chapter 6.5.4. For both options a close involvement of stakeholders and product users (or their representatives) is to be foreseen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4921, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 142, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Details for Situations A, B, C107 see chapter 6.5.4. For both options a close involvement of stakeholders and product users (or their representatives) is to be foreseen. Selection of compared alternatives As to the inclusion or exclusion of compared alternatives, it should be ensured that the comparative assertion is not misleading by leaving out existing or even widely used alternative products that may perform environmentally clearly better than the compared alternatives. In the case such alternatives are left out, this shall be highlighted visibly in the interpretation including when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations, as well as in the executive summary. Selection of specific scenarios to be compared Often also the application context of the products is to be considered carefully as part of the functional unit, as it may render products with the same general functional unit to perform differently: E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4922, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 142, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "may a hybrid-vehicle with internal combustion engine and propulsion battery / electric motor perform somewhat better than a conventional vehicle with internal combustion engine, if analysed for an average use pattern. If long-distance overland transport is looked it, it may however perform clearly less good, while it may perform much better for predominantly inner-city transport. I.e. first the general technical specification of such products needs to be transformed into a functional unit that considers average or specific operation conditions of the product. Please note however that for comparative assertions that will be published, the choice of a specific application context may fulfil the criteria of 107 Note that product comparisons usually imply a decision-context. This again implies system expansion to be used here. The use of the attributional approach of allocation is only applicable in the foreseen exceptions and the cases of Situation C (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4923, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 142, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This again implies system expansion to be used here. The use of the attributional approach of allocation is only applicable in the foreseen exceptions and the cases of Situation C (e.g. accounting of progress over time in the environmental performance of specific products, product groups or functions) that need an adjustment for functional equivalence. Check carefully along the applicable goal situation A, B, or C, which approach is to be chosen (see chapter 5.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4924, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 142, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how misleading goal definition, e.g. by using very unusual application contexts. Studies that look into a-typical or otherwise specific scenarios shall highlight this fact visibly in the interpretation including when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations, as well as in the executive summary. Durability Among the positioning properties the durability of the product plays a special role, as it is directly related to the product\u201fs functional unit, and addressed there. An example is e.g. a wall hanging kitchen cupboard comparison for a house of 40 years use. Alternative A of 10 years life-time needs to be replaced three times to provide the same functional unit as another one with 15 years life time that needs replacement twice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4925, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 143, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Alternative A of 10 years life-time needs to be replaced three times to provide the same functional unit as another one with 15 years life time that needs replacement twice. Such has to be quantitatively considered, using the technical life-time of the alternatives as basis for published comparative assertions. The above example illustrates a second issue: the selection of the functional unit (here e.g. \"providing wall-hanging kitchen cup-board space of X m3 for 40 years\") can result in advantages/disadvantages for compared alternatives due to the specific values chosen. In the above example the 40 years relatively disfavour product B, because the three sets that are required to provide the functional unit for the defined 40 years still function for another 5 years (three times 15 years = 45 years). The same can apply to the chosen amount of m3, as just another aspect of the above example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4926, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 143, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The same can apply to the chosen amount of m3, as just another aspect of the above example. To ensure a fair comparison, the chosen functional unit shall reflect a well justified typical or average case and be agreed with the affected stakeholders in a best attainable consensus. Other life-time considerations should be considered in the scenario analysis, such as fashion life-time, mechanical integrity life time, technical innovation life time, cost of reuse vs. replace considerations etc. Note that legally required minimum guarantees are usually not suitable. Note also that in comparisons of product alternatives with different life times, the replacement of the alternative with the shorter life time will usually be done with a newer model that is technically equivalent and available at the time of replacement. This should be considered explicitly in the model, unless a different agreement can be achieved among the affected stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4927, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 143, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This should be considered explicitly in the model, unless a different agreement can be achieved among the affected stakeholders. Other qualitative aspects of the functional unit Depending on the specific system, a range of other qualitative system properties plays a relevant role; this is to be evaluated for the given case. Examples are e.g. cleaning, servicing, repair needs, but a range of other kinds of positioning properties are to be checked. 6.10.4 Methodological, assumptions and data consistency (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) Of particular importance is to ensure consistency of the methods, assumptions and data used in the LCA study for all compared systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4928, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 143, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Consistency is crucial when defining the functions, functional units and reference flows, the system boundaries, the requirements on representativeness (time-related, geographical and technological), completeness and precision of LCI data, the LCI modelling principles and approaches applied, as well as applied LCIA methods.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4929, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 143, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how 6.10.5 Data quality requirements (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) In studies comparing systems, the overall data quality requirements depend on the relative difference of the overall environmental impact between the compared systems: For an LCA performed e.g. in support of ecodesign decisions, comparing two or more alternative designs, the requirements may be modest if one of the alternatives has much lower impacts than the others. The initial overall data quality requirements are hence to be revised when the results of the first calculation of inventory and impact assessment are available. Regarding the completeness, for comparative assertions, and next to the overall environmental impact the cut-off criteria shall be applied also to mass and energy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4930, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 144, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Regarding the completeness, for comparative assertions, and next to the overall environmental impact the cut-off criteria shall be applied also to mass and energy. 6.10.6 Identical parts of the compared systems (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) When looking at alternatives in specific parts of otherwise identical or similar systems, the rest of the compared systems is often108 identical. Examples are comparing material alternatives for parts of a product, or comparing alternative electricity sources in the energy efficiency in the use stage of an electricity using product. If the sole purpose of such a comparison is to decide which system has the lowest environmental impact, as is often the case in applications for product improvement in ecodesign or for procurement, all those parts of the systems that are identical, can be left out when drawing the system boundaries. This can drastically reduce the effort for the LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4931, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 144, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can drastically reduce the effort for the LCA study. However, this is only possible, when they are actually identical: even apparently identical parts may in fact not be identical: E.g. the same amount of the same aluminium alloy used in the same component of two alternative product models may be left out. This shall not be done if the alloy is used in different components of these models, as the inventories of the alloys are only partly correlated in the second case. They should hence be kept in and their partial correlation shall be considered when interpreting differences. Note that the intended applications may not permit to leave out identical parts, e.g. if also the total overall impact is required or if the share of impact of parts in relation to the total shall equally be analysed, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4932, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 144, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "if also the total overall impact is required or if the share of impact of parts in relation to the total shall equally be analysed, etc. 6.10.7 Scenarios in support of comparisons (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.7) Reasonably best case / most likely case / reasonably worst case scenarios (plus optionally other scenarios) shall be performed for comparison of systems: data and method assumptions are varied to investigate the robustness of the results. Such scenarios support the later results interpretation. For comparative micro-level decision support studies (i.e. Situation A), examples for such method and data assumptions are inventory data values, parameters, relevant flow properties, relevant system properties / aspects of the functional unit, but also method assumptions including method approaches such as allocation, the mix of superseded processes used in substitution, and the like; the \"shall\" provisions of this document shall still be met however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4933, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 144, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These data and method assumptions are to be identified among the \"significant aspects\" (see chapter 9.2). 108 Note however that changes in specific parts of a product can induce other changes that must be explicitly considered (see related box on part-system relationships in chapter 7.2.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4934, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 144, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Uncertainty calculation shall be used to support the comparison of systems, especially to identify whether differences can be considered significant or too small to justify the superiority of one system over the other. For comparative meso/macro-level decision support studies (i.e. Situation B), a more extensive us of scenarios is necessary to ensure that the decision support is robust. In difference to Situation A, in Situation B and here exclusively for the assumption scenarios also the shall provisions of this document can be changed. That means e.g. that also fully consequential or fully attributional scenarios can be performed, if the affected stakeholders come to a best attainable consensus on their integration and definition (see also chapter 7.2.4.2 and 7.2.4.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4935, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 145, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Next to uncertainty calculations, also scenarios can be used to help capture the reliability of the data results of Situation C studies. 6.10.8 Carbon footprint studies and other selected comparisons (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) The remainder of chapter 6.10 on comparisons of systems equally applies to Carbon footprint studies, except for limiting the question of significance to the Climate change relevant emissions. Note however that published comparisons or comparative assertions based on Carbon footprint or other selected indicators or impact categories shall be justified by demonstrating that the compared alternatives do not differ in other relevant environmental impacts to a degree that would change the conclusions and/or recommendations of the comparison. Otherwise such studies are considered misleading. Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems Note that restrictions apply to studies under Situation C1 and C2 for use in decision support", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4936, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 145, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Otherwise such studies are considered misleading. Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems Note that restrictions apply to studies under Situation C1 and C2 for use in decision support. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. These provisions are mandatory (shall) only for comparative LCA studies that analyse more than one system or system variants. It is recommended to also apply them analogously to non-comparative LCA studies that include a system internal contribution / weak point analysis. These provisions also apply to LCI studies and data sets that are intended to be used in context of comparative studies (e.g. as background data). These provisions are planning items that need to be considered in the later LCI, LCIA and Interpretation phases and for reporting and review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4937, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 145, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as background data). These provisions are planning items that need to be considered in the later LCI, LCIA and Interpretation phases and for reporting and review. Note: these Provisions partly compile provisions from other chapters and reproduce them here in a condensed way; the complete and binding conditions are found in the referenced chapters. For all comparative studies: I) SHALL - Non-assertive, comparative studies: The ISO 14044:2006 provisions for comparative assertions shall also be applied to non-assertive, comparative studies. Both types together are grouped under the term \"comparisons\" in this document. (6.10.2). [ISO!] II) SHALL - Consistency: All elements of the scope definition shall be addressed consistently for all systems to be compared, as far as possible. Otherwise, the lack of consistency shall be reported and be considered explicitly when interpreting the results,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4938, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 145, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems giving conclusions or recommendations. Especially: (6.10.3) II.a) LCI model: The compared system models shall be constructed in an analogous way applying the same rules for system boundaries, LCI modelling principles and method approaches. II.b) Assumptions: Methodological and data assumptions shall be made in an analogous way. II.c) Data quality: The achieved completeness, accuracy and precision of the data shall be sufficiently similar for the compared systems. III) SHALL - Uncertainty and accuracy calculations: Calculations on the stochastic uncertainty and accuracy shall support this analysis. This is not required if uncertainty calculations have already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4939, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 146, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is not required if uncertainty calculations have already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. (6.10.4) IV) SHALL - Completeness / cut-off: The cut-off % that has been defined in chapter 6.6.3 shall also be met for mass and energy, next to for the overall environmental impact. V) SHALL - Excluding identical parts: If included processes / systems of the compared systems are identical for all alternatives, they may be left out of all models. Included processes / systems that are similar but not identical shall remain in the model, but their partial correlation shall be considered when interpreting differences. [ISO+] Note that the intended applications may not permit to leave out even identical parts. Note that even apparently identical parts may only be left out of the comparison if they are truly identical. E.g. the same amount of the same aluminium alloy used in the same component of two alternative models may be left out", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4940, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 146, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "E.g. the same amount of the same aluminium alloy used in the same component of two alternative models may be left out. This shall not be done if the alloy is used in different components of these models, as the inventories of the alloys are only partly correlated in the second case. (6.10.5) VI) SHALL - LCIA to be performed: A Life Cycle Impact Assessment shall be performed for LCI or LCA studies intended to support comparative studies that are intended to be published. VII) SHALL - Impact coverage limitations (e.g. Carbon footprint): Comparison studies based on selected indicators or impact categories (e.g. Carbon footprint based comparisons) shall highlight that the comparison is not suitable to identify environmental preferable alternatives, as it only covers the considered impact(s) (e.g. Climate change)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4941, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 146, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Climate change). This applies unless it can be sufficiently demonstrated that the compared alternatives do not differ in other relevant environmental impacts to a degree that would change the conclusions and/or recommendations of the comparison if those other impacts would be included in the analysis. Such demonstration should draw on robust approximations for the analysed system and/or robust information derived from detailed and complete LCA studies available for sufficiently similar systems. System / product group specific guidance document and Product Category Rules (PCR) may provide such robust information. The above shall be investigated in any case and if other environmental impacts were identified as being relevant in the above sense, they shall be named in the report. (6.10.8) [ISO!]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4942, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 146, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems For studies on systems with similar functional units: Comparisons shall be made based on the system's reference flows. VIII) SHALL - Functional equivalence: The compared systems shall have the same (or only insignificantly different) functional unit in terms of both the primary function and possible secondary functions, as far as possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4943, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 147, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the case that some of the aspects of the functional unit(s) differ significantly between the systems, it shall be ensured that: (6.10.2) VIII.a) either the functions that the compared systems provide are still seen as sufficiently comparable by the main stakeholders affected by the LCA study, VIII.b) or the sufficient comparability is to be achieved by the respective method approaches for consequential modelling or attributional modelling109, as to be applied for the respective Situation (see chapter 6.5.4). For consequential modelling this approach is system expansion. IX) SHOULD - Selection of compared alternatives: The study should include - next to the foreseen alternatives - potentially environmentally better market relevant and available alternatives, as otherwise the study would be considered misleading", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4944, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 147, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If such alternatives are not included, this shall later be highlighted in a prominent place of the conclusions and recommendations, as well as in the executive and technical summary chapters of the report, pointing to this fact. For studies on niche products, see chapter 5.2.2. (6.10.2) [ISO+] X) SHOULD - Selection of production, operation and use scenarios: To ensure a fair comparison, the chosen functional unit should reflect well-justified typical or average production / operation / use scenarios; it shall be agreed with the affected stakeholders in the best attainable consensus. If a-typical or otherwise specific scenarios need to be compared in line with to the goal definition, compared, this fact shall later be highlighted in a prominent place of the conclusions and recommendations and executive summary chapter of the report, pointing to this fact. (6.10.2) [ISO!] XI) SHOULD - Modelling replacements over time: For cases where a system (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4945, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 147, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(6.10.2) [ISO!] XI) SHOULD - Modelling replacements over time: For cases where a system (e.g. a product) needs to be replaced to meet the required duration of performance of the compared functional unit, the replacement should consider that potentially a newer model or system in general will replace the initially used model. This is unless a different agreement can be achieved among the affected stakeholders. This provision analogously relates to the need of repeating a service. XII) SHALL - Indicative only (The exact and complete provisions are given in chapter 6.5.4.2). Situation A - Assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation: For comparative micro-level studies (Situation A): each compared scenario shall be complemented with assumption scenarios of reasonably best and reasonably worst cases. This can be optionally extended to further assumption scenarios within the 109 Comparisons also can occur in accounting type studies (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4946, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 147, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can be optionally extended to further assumption scenarios within the 109 Comparisons also can occur in accounting type studies (e.g. across product groups in basket-of-product type of studies), while these shall not be used for decision support that would lead to e.g. purchases or policy measures based on superiority or inferiority of the compared alternatives.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4947, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 147, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems reasonably best and worst cases. Uncertainty calculation shall be performed, unless such has already been used to derive the reasonably best and worst case scenarios. The interested parties shall be involved in achieving a best attainable consensus on the definition of the reasonably best and reasonably worst assumption scenarios. The assumption scenarios can in principle vary all methods, data and assumptions except for the \"shall\" provisions. (6.10.7) XIII) SHALL - Indicative only (The exact and complete provisions are given in chapter 6.5.4.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4948, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(6.10.7) XIII) SHALL - Indicative only (The exact and complete provisions are given in chapter 6.5.4.3). Situation B - Assumption scenarios and uncertainty calculation: For comparative meso/macro-level studies of Situation B: the scenarios for each of the analysed alternatives shall apply the modelling guidance of Situation A, except for process that are affected by large-scale consequences of the analysed decision. The assumption scenarios can in principle vary all methods, data and assumptions including the \"shall\" provisions, but excluding the shall provisions of ISO 14040 and 14044. (6.10.7) XIV) SHALL - Involvement of interested parties in review: For their involvement in the critical review, see chapter 6.10 and separate guidance document on \"Review schemes for LCA\". [ISO!]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4949, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(6.10.7) XIV) SHALL - Involvement of interested parties in review: For their involvement in the critical review, see chapter 6.10 and separate guidance document on \"Review schemes for LCA\". [ISO!] . 6.11 Identifying critical review needs (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.8.3) Introduction A critical review shall be performed by experts that have not been involved in the performance of the LCI/LCA study. This is generally beneficial for the quality and credibility and hence value of the study. This holds true also for exclusively in-house applications, even though in such cases there is no formal requirement for a critical review. Type of review and ILCD compliance The required type of critical review (e.g. independent internal review, independent external review, (external) panel review, etc.), depends on the intended applications of the LCI/LCA study. In the ILCD Handbook this is defined in the separate document \u201cReview schemes for LCA\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4950, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the ILCD Handbook this is defined in the separate document \u201cReview schemes for LCA\u201d. An accordingly performed review meeting the ILCD minimum requirements will automatically include conformity with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 (and 14025 for Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs)). Note that certain LCA application schemes (such as e.g. Type I Ecolabel schemes) have own review requirements that have to be met as well. The details on the review scope, methods and review documentation can be found in the separate document \"Review scope, methods and documentation\". The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification are given in the separate document \"Reviewer qualification\". This qualification covers knowledge and experience in LCA methodology, in the review process, and in the analysed processes / sectors.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4951, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how Early decision on review It is useful already during the scope definition to decide whether a critical review will be done, and if so which form of review and performed by whom (see chapter 11 and separate guidance document on review in LCA). This early decision will allow the data collection, documentation and reporting of the LCI/LCA study to be tailored to meet the requirements of the review, typically shortening and lowering the overall effort. An early decision also allows running an inter-active concurrent review process. In a concurrent review the reviewers are given the opportunity to comment already on the goal and scope definition prior to the onset of the inventory analysis, and possibly on interim results of the impact assessment and interpretation before the reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4952, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 149, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This way their comments can guide the process of the LCA and can often prevent unpleasant surprises at the end of the project, e.g. additional data needs or even unsuitable comparisons that can set back a comparative assertion by many months. A concurrent review generally also further improves the credibility of the study. For \u201cMeso / macro-level decision support\u201d LCAs (Situation B) the affected stakeholders shall be involved in deciding about the assumption scenarios. This can be done as part of the review; in this case, it is beneficial to start the review process from the onset of the study. For the reference to the scope and methods of the review and its documentation, see chapter 11. Provisions: 6.11 Identifying critical review needs Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, implicitly differentiated. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4953, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 149, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 6.11 Identifying critical review needs Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, implicitly differentiated. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - Review?: Decide whether a critical review shall be performed and if so: [ISO!] I.a) Review type: Decide along the provisions of the separate document \u201cReview schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u201d which type of review is to be performed as minimum. Note that an accompanying review can be beneficial. For Situation B, it can moreover help to organise the best attainable consensus among interested parties, which is required for certain scope decisions (see provisions of chapter 6.5.4). I.b) Reviewer(s): It is recommended to decide at this point who is/are the reviewer(s). The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification are given in the separate documents \"Reviewer qualification\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4954, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 149, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The minimum requirements on reviewer qualification are given in the separate documents \"Reviewer qualification\". Notes: An overview of the review requirements and the reference to the review scope methods and documentation requirements are given in chapter 11. 6.12 Planning reporting (Refers to aspects of several ISO 14044:2006 chapters and relates to chapter 5) Introduction Reporting is a vital element of any LCA. Without clear and effective documentation to experts and communication to decision makers, LCAs can be subject to erroneous and misleading use and will not contribute to improving environmental performance. Reporting shall be objective and transparent, and there should be a clear indication of what has and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4955, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 149, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how what has not been included in the study and which conclusions and recommendations the outcome a comparative study supports and what now. The form and levels of reporting depends primarily on three factors: \uf0b7 the type of deliverable(s) of the study, \uf0b7 the purpose and intended applications of the study and report, and \uf0b7 the intended target audience (especially technical or non-technical and internal or thirdparty/public). This ensures that the actually required documentation will be collected throughout the project. Next to general purpose reports that will be sketched in this chapter and chapter 10.3, the various applications of LCA may have their own, specific form of reporting (e.g. Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) or the reporting of indirect effects in Environmental Management reports of sites or companies, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4956, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 150, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) or the reporting of indirect effects in Environmental Management reports of sites or companies, etc.). These will not be addressed in this document as they are out of the scope. Please refer to the respective application to identify the specific reporting needs. Forms of reporting Three principally different forms of reporting are relevant that are often used also in combination (more details see chapter 10.3): \uf0b7 a \u201cclassical\u201d detailed project report, i.e. an often comprehensive text document typically with graphics and tables and that provides all relevant details e.g. on the analysed system(s) or developed LCIA methods, and the project in which the work was done. It is directed at LCA experts, but should contain an executive summary for non-technical audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4957, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 150, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "on the analysed system(s) or developed LCIA methods, and the project in which the work was done. It is directed at LCA experts, but should contain an executive summary for non-technical audience. The full report provides detailed documentation about the system (or LCIA methods), their modelling, on assumptions and \u2013 especially in case of comparative assertions \u2013 on interpretation including conclusions and recommendations, if any. Confidential information can be foreseen to be documented in a separate, complementary report that is not published but only made available to the reviewers under confidentiality. If the detailed report is used for third party information, it shall contain a reference (preferably a hyperlink) where any related review reports can be easily accessed. \uf0b7 a more condensed and formalised, electronically exchangeable report in form of a data set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4958, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 150, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 a more condensed and formalised, electronically exchangeable report in form of a data set. A data set is suitable for documenting individual unit processes or systems (as Process data set) but not for documenting the outcome of comparisons. It is also suitable for LCIA methods (LCIA method data set). This form is also directed at LCA experts, mainly as data input for use in other LCA studies. As an electronic data set it allows other users importing the inventory and other technical details without manual transfer of values to their LCA software, i.e. limiting errors and directly using the inventory data (or impact factors) for modelling and analysing their own systems. \uf0b7 a very condensed Executive Summary report of e.g. 1 to 2 pages that condenses the detailed project report to its essence in non-technical language. Note that this report is the one that should also be used in the detailed project report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4959, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 150, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "1 to 2 pages that condenses the detailed project report to its essence in non-technical language. Note that this report is the one that should also be used in the detailed project report. If it is used as separate report for third-party information it shall contain a reference (preferably a hyperlink) where the detailed report and any related review reports can be easily accessed. Whenever the final output type of the study is a data set or when data sets are developed and should stay available for subsequent uses, the most useful way of reporting is to combine a well documented Process data set or LCIA method data set (being a condensed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4960, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 150, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how version of the detailed report) and the detailed report and any review reports as electronic attachment to that data set. The ILCD Handbook comes along with an electronic template for LCA reports and with the ILCD reference format as an electronic data set format that both should be foreseen to be used (details see chapter 10). Levels of reporting Three levels of reporting should be distinguished: \uf0b7 reports or data sets for internal use, \uf0b7 reports or data sets for external use (i.e. to be made available to a limited, well defined list of recipients with at least one organisation that has not participated in the LCI/LCA study), and \uf0b7 comparative assertion reports that are foreseen to be made available to the (nontechnical) public. The different levels of reporting and the specific requirements for each of them are presented in chapter 10.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4961, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 151, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The different levels of reporting and the specific requirements for each of them are presented in chapter 10.3. Provisions: 6.12 Planning reporting Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, implicitly differentiated. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, differentiated. I) SHALL - Reflecting on the main type of deliverable (i.e. study or data set) and in line with the decision on the target audience(s) and intended application(s) (see chapter 5.2), decide on form and level of reporting: I.a) Form of reporting: Decide which form(s) of reporting shall be used to meet the need of the intended application(s) and target audience(s): [ISO!] I.a.i) detailed report (including non-technical executive summary), I.a.ii) data set, I.a.iii) data set plus detailed report, or I.a.iv) non-technical executive summary (with references to the full report and review reports, if review has been performed)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4962, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 151, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.a.v) The electronic ILCD LCA report template and LCI data set format should be foreseen to be used for reporting. Confidential information can be documented in a separate, complementary report that is not published but only made available to the reviewers under confidentiality. Note that any form of reporting, also more condensed ones, shall ensure that the contained information cannot easily and unintentionally be misunderstood or misinterpreted beyond what is supported by the study. I.b) Level of reporting: Decide which level of reporting shall be used in accordance with the defined goal. The main levels are: I.b.i) internal I.b.ii) external (but limited, well defined recipients)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4963, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 151, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 6 Scope definition - what to analyse and how I.b.iii) third-party report, publicly accessible I.b.iv) report on comparisons, publicly accessible For the detailed reporting requirements see chapter 10.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4964, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 152, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3) 7.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.3 and other aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3) Introduction During the life cycle inventory phase the actual data collection and modelling of the system (e.g. product) is to be done. This is to be done in line with the goal definition and meeting the requirements derived in the scope phase. The LCI results are the input to the subsequent LCIA phase. The results of the LCI work also provide feedback to the scope phase as initial scope settings often needs adjustments. Typically, the LCI phase requires the highest efforts and resources of an LCA: for data collection, acquisition, and modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4965, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 153, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Typically, the LCI phase requires the highest efforts and resources of an LCA: for data collection, acquisition, and modelling. Note the limitation of the scope of the LCA approach: it relates exclusively to impacts that are potentially caused by interventions between the analysed system and the ecosphere, and caused during normal and abnormal operating conditions of the included processes, but excluding accidents, spills, and the like. See the related information in chapter 6.8.2. If non-LCA effects are analysed, they must be inventoried, aggregated and interpreted separately from the life cycle inventory. This document is not explicitly providing guidance on these. While it may help to ensure taking a consistent approach, dedicated guidance and tools should be consulted or used. Overview The first steps of the LCI work further detail and concretize the requirements derived in the scope phase, e.g. on specific data sources to be used, planning data collection, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4966, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 153, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Overview The first steps of the LCI work further detail and concretize the requirements derived in the scope phase, e.g. on specific data sources to be used, planning data collection, etc. The requirements themselves are however always to be understood to be a scope issue. The inventory phase involves the collection of the required data for ... \uf0b7 Flows to and from processes: - Elementary flows110 (such as resources and emissions but also other interventions with the ecosphere such as land use), - Product flows (i.e. goods and services both as \"product\" of a process and as input/consumables) that link the analysed process with other processes, and - Waste flows (both wastewater and solid/liquid wastes) that need to be linked with waste management processes to ensure a complete modelling of the related efforts and environmental impacts. \uf0b7 Other information identified in the scope definition as relevant for the analysed system. This includes statistical data (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4967, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 153, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Other information identified in the scope definition as relevant for the analysed system. This includes statistical data (e.g. market mix data), process and product characteristics 110 The ILCD reference elementary flows should be used wherever possible and relevant, ensuring compatible inventories and avoiding multiple occurrences of the same flows in joint/aggregated inventories, when combining data sets from different sources.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4968, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 153, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results (e.g. functions and functional units), and all other data and information, except for those directly related to impact assessment. The specific kind of life cycle inventory work depends on the deliverable of the study; not all of the following steps are required for all of these. In its entirety, life cycle inventory work means: \uf0b7 Identifying the processes that are required for the system (7.2.3 for attributional and 7.2.4 for consequential modelling), \uf0b7 Planning of the collection of the raw data and information, and of data sets from secondary sources (7.3) \uf0b7 Collecting (typically) for the foreground system unit process inventory data for these processes (7.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4969, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 154, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An important aspect is the interim quality control and how to deal with missing inventory data (7.4.2.11) \uf0b7 Developing generic LCI data, especially where average or specific data are not available and cannot be developed, typically due to restrictions in data access or budget (7.5) \uf0b7 Obtaining complementary background data as unit process or LCI result data sets from data providers (7.6), \uf0b7 Averaging LCI data across process or products, including for developing production, supply and consumption mixes (7.7) \uf0b7 Modelling the system by connecting and scaling the data sets correctly, so that the system is providing its functional unit (7.8). \uf0b7 This modelling includes solving multifunctionality of processes in the system. For this step see 7.9 for attributional modelling and \u2013 given the different modelling logic - chapter 7.2.4.6 for consequential modelling where this is integral part of the identification of included processes. \uf0b7 Calculating LCI results, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4970, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 154, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Calculating LCI results, i.e. summing up all inputs and outputs of all processes within the system boundaries. If entirely modelled, only the reference flow (\u201cfinal product\u201d) and elementary flows remain in the inventory (7.10). These steps are done in an iterative procedure, as explained in chapter 4 and illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5. 7.2 Identifying processes within the system boundaries (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) 7.2.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) If the LCI/LCA study goes beyond the analysis and modelling of a single unit process and is to deliver e.g. an LCI results data set or a product comparison report, the whole system is to be analysed: For all life cycle stages included in the system boundaries those processes are identified that must be covered by the later data collection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4971, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 154, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The way how processes are identified within the system boundaries differs considerably between attributional and consequential modelling. Different processes and data are accordingly required based on the modelling approach; chapters 7.2.3 and 7.2.4 provide the detailed procedures to identify them.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4972, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 154, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results It is reiterated here what was already stressed in the scope chapter on system boundary setting and what applies to both attributional and consequential modelling: Types of activities that are generally to be included in LCA are all activities under normal and abnormal operating conditions that are related to the analysed system, while not accidents, spills and the like. The system boundary of LCA includes hence for example mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance processes as well as transport, waste treatment and other purchased services such as e.g. cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting, business travel, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4973, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 155, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting, business travel, etc. In short: all nonaccident activities that are carried out in relationship to the analysed system and that can either be attributed (attributional modelling) to it or expected/modelled to be a consequence of a decision in the foreground of the analysed system (consequential modelling) should be included unless they are quantitatively not relevant, applying the cut-off criteria. Any other omissions shall be documented and considered in the interpretation. 7.2.2 Part-system and system-system relationships A special topic are part-system relationships and system-system relationships that relate to both attributional and consequential modelling and that effectively need the same modelling solution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4974, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 155, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The related boxes below explain the concepts: Terms and concepts: Part-system relationships including energy related products A part-system relationship refers to a subsystem that is regular part of another system and contributes to its function(s). It can be challenging to correctly model the life cycle of such relationships (both typically being goods, e.g. a starter battery as part of a car; a watersaving shower head as part of a shower; a window as part of a building, etc.): the technical interaction between the analysed part and the full system and its other parts/components is typically to be explicitly considered in the system boundary definition. This is unless the goal and the scope of the study requires or at least permits to look at the part in isolation. The relationship shall be taken into account if the part would be compared with other parts with somewhat different interaction with the system or if analysing improvement options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4975, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 155, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The relationship shall be taken into account if the part would be compared with other parts with somewhat different interaction with the system or if analysing improvement options. This applies also for attributional modelling, as the part alone cannot perform its ultimate function in isolation, e.g. in time series monitoring of the part with the different models having a different interaction with their systems. If the part can be modelled in isolation and the data and/or report (e.g. an EPD) will be made available externally, the necessity to include the part-system relationship in further uses of the data (e.g. for comparative studies etc.) should be explicitly documented nevertheless. E.g. will different car starter batteries of a substantial different weight result in e.g. a changed battery mount, wiring, etc. The resulting different total weight of the car will also affect the acceleration properties of the car", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4976, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 155, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a changed battery mount, wiring, etc. The resulting different total weight of the car will also affect the acceleration properties of the car. The car therefore needs to be modelled with an accordingly differently sized engine, to keep the comparability of the functional unit of the two car variants. Figure 17 illustrates this. In the mentioned example of the water-saving shower head, the lower water flow allows to save water and energy while still delivering a comparable functional unit. Hence the amount of water and energy consumed in the use stage is to be considered when comparing the use of different shower heads. Depending on the exact goal of the LCI/LCA study (e.g. use of the water-saver for new homes only, or replacement in existing homes) also the potentially smaller water heater installed needs to be considered. This results in the need for different scenarios and hence different processes to be included in the system boundaries. Such", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4977, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 155, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results energy related products require a clear definition of the relationship and the reality, measurability / quantifiability of the effect. Also intended interactions between processes can be understood as cases of part-system relationships: e.g. a servicing process that is affecting the serviced good and changes its performance (e.g. low friction motor oil), life time (e.g. maintenance and repair processes in general or e.g. differently aggressive cleaning agents), or that causes specific emissions (e.g. Chromium solving / abrasion by aggressive cleaning agents)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4978, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 156, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "maintenance and repair processes in general or e.g. differently aggressive cleaning agents), or that causes specific emissions (e.g. Chromium solving / abrasion by aggressive cleaning agents). In the earlier example of windows, their performance can only be compared in the context of the whole building, as the building\u201fs heating (and/or cooling) system, solar gains that depend on the window area and orientation, and other aspects must be included for correctly assessing the windows\u201f use stage. As said earlier, LCI data of the window itself can still be developed and made available but their use in decision support must be done from a system's perspective. These examples illustrate again that a good technical understanding of the analysed product/part and related systems is an essential pre-requisite for performing a valid LCA, and in an even higher degree for studies that involve part-system relationships. See also the next box for system-system relationships", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4979, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 156, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See also the next box for system-system relationships. Figure 17 Part-system relationships: example of car starter battery for a comparative study or time-series monitoring that cannot be analysed in isolation, as different battery variants (grey) require different e.g. mounts and other parts (blue) and result in different fuel use during the use stage. If they are substantially different in weight this results even in different engine sizes to not change the car (=system) performance, what needs to be considered as well. An apparently similar case to part-system relationships are system-system relationships; the below box explains them and the implications for identifying processes and modelling the system. Terms and concepts: System-system relationships System-system relationships refer to the use of the \"analysed system\" (e.g. product) in context of one or more, other, generally independent systems (called hereafter \"context system\"). I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4980, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 156, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "product) in context of one or more, other, generally independent systems (called hereafter \"context system\"). I.e. the analysed system is not regular part of the context system and does not contribute to its function(s) but has primarily other, distinct functions. However, the analysed system is affecting the context system via a co-function, generated waste (e.g. waste heat), or specific emissions111. It may thereby modify the context systems performance and functions. System-system relationships can hence methodologically be a special case of multifunctionality of processes or products. In other cases, the context system \"treats\" the 111 As these \"emissions\" are emitted inside the technosphere, i.e. the context system, they are formally no emissions but equivalent to untreated emissions such as raw gas or raw wastewater. For simplicity they are nevertheless called emissions here, looking at them from the perspective of the analysed system. + \u2212 + \u2212", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4981, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 156, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results emission before it leaves the technosphere. The use of e.g. computer or a coffee machine as analysed system in an office building as context system are examples, with heat as a coproduct (during the cold season) and a waste (in the warm season). Note that both systems can be usefully operated also fully independently, other than in part-system relationships. The analysed system and the context system can interact in two different ways that require different modelling: In one case, one or more secondary functions of the analysed system cause changes in the operation of the context system (e.g. for the above examples the heat generated by the analysed computer results in less need for heating of the building and/or more need for cooling - i.e. treating the waste heat - depending on season and country)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4982, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 157, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "treating the waste heat - depending on season and country). This case is methodologically very similar to the specific short-term marginal consequence known in consequential modelling (see chapter 7.2.4.4) and modelled accordingly; this will be detailed in the respective chapter. The main difference is that the consequence here acts directly and not via a market mechanism. In attributional modelling, the co-function (e.g. heat during the cold season) needs to be allocated, applying the 2-step allocation procedure of chapter 7.9.3. For the warm season, when the co-generated heat is in fact a waste heat and cannot be considered a valuable coproduct that would call for an allocation, the de-facto operated waste heat treatment process \"air conditioner\" is to be modelled within the system boundary112. In another case, the same secondary functions may in addition to changing the operation of the context system also alter it, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4983, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 157, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In another case, the same secondary functions may in addition to changing the operation of the context system also alter it, e.g. the installed machines or other goods used to operate in the context system. This is the case if the operation of the analysed system is considered in the planning of the context system: E.g. the installed capacity of the building's heating and/or cooling equipment may be different in the above example, if the heat production of the computer is considered when planning the office building. For attributional modelling this case is of relevance if future data is modelled attributionally (e.g. for extrapolating accounting data for future years) and the context system is modelled either considering the effect of the analysed system or not. Note that this is however not a methodological issue of modelling consequences, but of forecasting system planning", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4984, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 157, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this is however not a methodological issue of modelling consequences, but of forecasting system planning. For consequential modelling this is methodologically equivalent to the specific long-term marginal, except that the change in installed capacity is not caused due to the size of the effect in the market, but due to the specific and close micro-level system-system relationship when planning the context system. It is applicable if the secondary consequences are explicitly considered in the planning of the context system. Which of the two cases applies depends on the question whether the secondary functions, waste and emissions have been considered when designing the context system. System-system relationships hence play a role in solving multifunctionality of processes and products and are addressed again in the respective chapters, providing the specific provisions. 112 Note that this is not system expansion.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4985, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 157, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Figure 18 System-system relationships: example of an electricity using product (e.g. computer, coffee machine, fridge, etc.) as analysed system that is operated within a context system (here: a private home). Due to its secondary product \"heat\" it is lowering the need for heating in the cold season / high latitudes. At the same time is this \"waste heat\" increasing the demand for air conditioning in the warm season / tropical climates. Provisions that relate to part-system and system-system relationships are addressed in several chapters that provide LCI modelling provisions, drawing on the concepts detailed here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4986, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 158, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions that relate to part-system and system-system relationships are addressed in several chapters that provide LCI modelling provisions, drawing on the concepts detailed here. 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) 7.2.3.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) Attributional modelling depicts the system as it can be observed/measured, linking the single processes within the technosphere along the flow of matter, energy, and services (i.e. the existing113 supply-chain) (see Figure 19 and see again the box in chapter 6.5.2). Figure 19 Schematic and simplified supply-chain life cycle model of a product. The system model is depicting the actual supply chain of production, the product use, and the waste management chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4987, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 158, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 19 Schematic and simplified supply-chain life cycle model of a product. The system model is depicting the actual supply chain of production, the product use, and the waste management chain. Not shown in the graphic are the waste management processes for production waste, recycling, as well as transport and other e.g. service processes that are included identically as in the real supply-chain. 113 In the case of extrapolation or scenario modelling this can also be the future supply-chain. heating system air-conditioner electricity using product ... ... ... Use Manufacturer Waste service provider A Waste service provider Aa Waste service provider Ab Tier-2 supplier Aa Tier-1 supplier A Tier-2 supplier Ac Tier-1 supplier B Tier-2 supplier Ab", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4988, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 158, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results This step of \u201cattribution\u201d is crucial, but only implicitly addressed in ISO. Different approaches have accordingly developed in practice, resulting in inconsistent system boundaries, models, and final results. The following subchapters provide a stepwise guidance for identifying the processes that are to be attributed to the analysed system under attributional modelling. The questions whether to rather collect specific data or to obtain average or generic data sets and whether to work with unit process data or with LCI results are addressed in chapter 7.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4989, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 159, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The questions whether to rather collect specific data or to obtain average or generic data sets and whether to work with unit process data or with LCI results are addressed in chapter 7.3. 7.2.3.2 Processes to be attributed to the analysed system (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) Introduction and overview The following text guides to a reproducible identification of processes that are to be included in the system boundaries. As a starting point it is good to remember that attributional modelling aims at depicting the reality of the analysed system's processes and life cycle stages (as far as required for the analysed system) in analogy to the supply-chain, use stage, and end-of-life: accordingly, any process that physically handles the analysed product (system) and the goods and services that are physically used to produce it or that causes costs for the production, use, or waste treatment is likely part of the system boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4990, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 159, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the production of goods and provision of services as well the waste and end-of-life treatment, the identification of to-be-attributed processes is therefore rather straightforward. For the use stage by final consumers additional criteria have to be used. In practice however this straightforwardness seems not always to result in an appropriate identification of the required processes. Guidance is hence required. Conceptually this guidance starts from the system's functional unit or reference flow (i.e. starting from the central process of the foreground system) to systematically check for to-beincluded processes in the entire foreground system. It then follows a descriptive \"supplychain - use - end-of-life\" logic to identify all those product and waste flows (or their functional units) that cross the border to or from the background system. All processes that this way can be attributed and quantitatively related to that process are to be identified and quantified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4991, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 159, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "All processes that this way can be attributed and quantitatively related to that process are to be identified and quantified. The technical process flow diagrams for the processes of the foreground system that were initially available or have been developed or expanded during the following procedure help during the inventory data collection, interim quality control, and - if foreseen - third-party review. During the work it is recommended to document the identified processes of the foreground system and the links to the background system in a flow-chart type diagram for each analysed system. This flow chart might be developed starting from the initial one made when defining the system boundary and can serve as starting point for the sub-sequent planning of the data collection. The final version of that flow-chart may also be added to the documentation in the final data set or report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4992, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 159, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The final version of that flow-chart may also be added to the documentation in the final data set or report. Note also that in practice there is no need to identify the further next indirect levels for an analysed process if \uf0b7 the identified and to be included process is part of the background system, and \uf0b7 a sufficiently good quality LCI data set for this process and its further (upstream or downstream) life cycle is available from former studies or can be obtained from thirdparty data providers.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4993, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 159, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Identifying the processes Looking at the identification in a more functional/technical perspective, the following levels of processes should in principle114 be attributed to the analysed process or system, starting from the system's functional unit or reference flow, i.e. its central process at level 0. Note that the steps below are no strict and exact, complete requirement, but help in structuring the process of identifying the to-be-included processes for which data is required (see also Figure 20): Level 0 - central process or analysed system \uf0b7 On level115 0 stands that process of the foreground system that directly provides the analysed functional unit(s) or reference flow(s) as its function: E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4994, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "an \u201cinjection moulding machine116\u201d that produces a plastic part as a good, a \u201ctruck\u201d that is used to provide a transport service as its function, a \u201cfield\u201d that grows wheat and straw as goods, a \u201clight bulb\u201d that is used to provide light as a service, a \u201cwaste incineration oven\u201d that treats waste as a service, a \"vacuum cleaner\" that is used to provide a carpet cleaning service in private homes, etc. Note that some of these processes are goods, while others are services or product-service systems. Some processes may physically be perceived as persons117 (e.g. a \u201cpainter\u201d118 that paints a fa\u00e7ade). Also the use-phase of products is covered by this level. Note that the same applies when working with generic processes that combine properties of one or more processes. The same applies analogously in case wider systems are analysed (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4995, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the same applies when working with generic processes that combine properties of one or more processes. The same applies analogously in case wider systems are analysed (e.g. an event, the individual mobility of the citizen of a whole country, or the total governmental consumption within a country as accounting indicators): The difference is that more than one level 0 process is to be identified that together provide the system's functional unit. Level 1 \u2013 physical embodiment in the good119 \uf0b7 On level 1 stand those goods that (partly or fully) physically end up in the analysed good or other goods that are part of the system: Expanding on the initial examples, these are e.g. the \u201cLPPE polymer\u201d that enters the injection moulding machine that produces the before-mentioned plastic part, or the \u201cN-P-K fertiliser\u201d that partly end ups in the wheat plants cropped on the field", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4996, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the \u201cLPPE polymer\u201d that enters the injection moulding machine that produces the before-mentioned plastic part, or the \u201cN-P-K fertiliser\u201d that partly end ups in the wheat plants cropped on the field. Other examples: specific \"stainless steel parts\" that are assembled to form a complex product, \u201cbenzene\u201d and \u201cchlorine\u201d that enter a 114 Note that in practice, the relevance of the various processes for the overall environmental impact of the analysed system differs widely. Typically only a quite limited number of processes and flows actually contribute to a relevant degree to the overall impact. The application of cut-off rules along with expert judgement helps in effectively and efficiently identifying the actually relevant processes to be attributed. 115 Note that these levels are used as simple, pragmatic guidance and that the exact definition of the levels can be done somewhat differently, depending on the level of the process (i.e. black box or single operation) one looks at", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4997, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "black box or single operation) one looks at. This does not affect the applicability of the guidance as the levels only serve for rough orientation. 116 Note that e.g. a \"machine\" is no process, but the process is the operation of the machine. For simplicity and clarity the used equipment or other kind of system that is performing the process is used synonymously for the process of the level. 117 Note that by commonly applied convention the processes that meet the general individual needs of such persons (e.g. food, housing etc.) that e.g. as workers contribute to the production of goods etc. are NOT to be included into the analysed product system. In the cases of physically heavy human work as part of an analysed product system, the additional need for calories should however be included, if relevant according to the cut-off criteria. 118 Strictly the \"brush\" is the good performing the \"painting\" process, but this would be rather confusing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4998, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "118 Strictly the \"brush\" is the good performing the \"painting\" process, but this would be rather confusing. 119 This step is not applicable to analysed services.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 4999, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 160, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results reactor that produces various chlorinated benzenes as co-products, the \"paint\" that is used to paint the fa\u00e7ade, etc. Level 2 \u2013 contact with the central process or analysed good \uf0b7 On level 2 stand those goods and services that only handle or touch the good or level 0 process by performing a supporting function that supports the provision of the analysed function: E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5000, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 161, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "auxiliary materials such as \u201cform oil\u201d to release the injection moulded plastic part, \u201cdiesel\u201d, \u201cgrease\u201d and other consumables that are needed to operate the truck, \u201cpesticides\u201d that help that the wheat is achieving its yield, \u201celectricity\u201d that operates the lamp but also its \u201clamp-holder\u201d and \u201cfixings\u201d and the \"light bulb packaging\", supplementary \u201cfuels\u201d to ensure the necessary waste incineration temperature is reached, \u201clight\u201d and \u201cheat\u201d that are provided in the manufacturing line so the workers can assemble the complex product as well as the \u201chall\u201d of the line that protects against the weather, \"packaging materials\" of the vacuum cleaner and the paint, \u201ccatalysts\u201d that support the production of the chlorinated benzenes. Other examples: \u201cdetergents\u201d and \u201chot water\u201d used for a floor cleaning process, \u201csolvents\u201d that are used in the paint that is applied in a paint shop, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5001, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 161, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Other examples: \u201cdetergents\u201d and \u201chot water\u201d used for a floor cleaning process, \u201csolvents\u201d that are used in the paint that is applied in a paint shop, etc. These level 2 processes include part-system relationships that need special attention; see the related box in chapter 7.2.2. Level 3 \u2013 services for the central process or system \uf0b7 On level 3 we find those processes that do not even touch the analysed process' equipment or analysed good or would provide a direct function for the provision of a service, but that are required to nevertheless run in the background in relationship to the process. Examples are administration, guarding, marketing and legal services, etc. 0) Window 2) Heating / cooling system, ... 1) Window glass, window frame, ... 3) Glass cleaning, ... 0) Window glass 2) ... 1) ... 3) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Figure 20 Identifying processes within system boundary, starting from the central process or analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5002, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 161, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "0) Window glass 2) ... 1) ... 3) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Figure 20 Identifying processes within system boundary, starting from the central process or analysed system. Example of a window, illustrative: The window is the analysed system and hence set as level 0 (oval to the left). After having identified the processes at the levels 1 to 3, each of them becomes a new level 0 process (here shown: \"window glass\" as oval in the middle). The related processes on the levels 1 to 3 are identified for each of the new level 0 processes, and so on. Indirect processes beyond level 3 \uf0b7 Beyond that level 3 we come to surrounding processes that in fact do not relate directly to the central process or system that we look at but to those processes that were identified in the levels 1 to 3. These indirect processes are identified by now looking at", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5003, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 161, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results each of the processes that were identified as level 1 to 3 and that are part for the foreground system (or connect the foreground with the background system), applying the same logic of the levels 0 to 3 (see also Figure 20). This is repeated again for the next level processes identified in this way and so on. Note that this does not result in an endless list of processes to be included, as by applying cut-off rules - drawing on experience for similar processes and expert judgement - by far most of these can be excluded. (On applying cut-off rules see chapters 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2). Examples of such processes that only indirectly via other processes relate to the initially analysed level 0 process are e.g. the \u201cproduction\u201d, \u201cmaintenance\u201d, \u201crepair\u201d, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5004, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 162, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Examples of such processes that only indirectly via other processes relate to the initially analysed level 0 process are e.g. the \u201cproduction\u201d, \u201cmaintenance\u201d, \u201crepair\u201d, etc. of any of the above equipments such as of the injection moulding machine, light bulb, truck, hall, reactor, etc. Other examples are the \u201ctractors\u201d that distribute the named fertilisers and pesticides to the field. Beyond these, we find \u201cR&D\u201d of the equipment and processes, \u201ccorporate legal services\u201d, \u201ccorporate marketing activities\u201d, \u201cbusiness trips\u201d, \u201cstaff commuting\u201d, etc. Frequent errors: General or un-reflected exclusion of activity-types As already addressed in chapter 6.6.2, in LCA practice it can still often be fond that certain types of activities that should be attributed to the analysed system are omitted without sufficient justification. Among these processes, services and investment goods are the most common ones. While it might be justified to e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5005, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 162, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Among these processes, services and investment goods are the most common ones. While it might be justified to e.g. ignore the construction and demolishing of the power plant itself when modelling electricity production (depending of course on the cutoff criteria set), the limited relevance of investment goods certainly does not apply in general. Similarly, are many services in many cases of limited quantitative relevance, but also this can clearly not be generalised. A good example is the wind-power plant, where the plant production and maintenance make up the vast majority of impacts. It is to be checked for the given case along approximations and drawing on former experience, which product and waste flows and which processes can be excluded in line with the cut-off criteria and which not. Chapters 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2 provide the respective guidance for unit processes, chapter 7.8 for systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5006, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 162, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapters 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2 provide the respective guidance for unit processes, chapter 7.8 for systems. This cannot be done on the general level \u201ctype of activity\u201d, unless quantitatively justified. 7.2.3.3 Initial description of identified processes (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2) Especially for the processes of the foreground system, an initial description is required. This will be revised when collecting and documenting the unit process data. Details on documentation are given in chapter 10. Unless the deliverable of the LCA is a unit process data set: For those product flows that connect the foreground system with the background system, a detailed specification including of their function and functional unit is required. Provisions: 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling Applicable to Situation A and C, as well as the life cycle model(s) of Situation B, except for those process steps that are affected by large-scale consequences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5007, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 162, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also applicable to the assumption scenarios under Situation B for which it has been decided to apply attributional modelling. Fully applicable for LCI results, partly terminated systems, LCIA results, and LCA studies (and for unit processes only to complete the system model for completeness check and precision approximation). For black box unit processes as deliverable, only those processes that are foreseen to be included are to be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5008, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 162, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling identified, as are the product and waste flows that enter or leave the unit process. For single operation unit processes only the product and waste flows that enter or leave the unit process are to be identified and specified; the named technical flow diagram in that case only consists of one process plus product and waste flows. I) SHALL - Identifying processes within the system boundary: All quantitatively relevant processes shall be identified that are to be attributed to the analysed system(s) and that lay within the system boundary: [ISO+] I.a) Start from central process: This identification should start from the system's functional unit or the reference flow (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5009, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 163, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "from the central process of the foreground system or the analysed system itself). (7.2.3.2) I.b) Foreground system: Stepwise it should be expanded to the entire foreground system. Following a descriptive \"supply-chain - use - end-of-life\" logic it shall as far as possible identify all relevant product and waste flows (or their functional units) that cross the border to or from the background system. (7.2.3.2) I.c) Background system: The processes in the background system shall be identified in the same \"supply-chain - use - end-of-life\" logic as applied in the foreground system. A recommended systematic procedure for identification is detailed in the main text of the chapter. (7.2.3.2) Note that it is established practice to embed the foreground system into a third-party or in-house developed general background system of LCI results and/or unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5010, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 163, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(7.2.3.2) Note that it is established practice to embed the foreground system into a third-party or in-house developed general background system of LCI results and/or unit processes. That means that in practice the identification described above ends with the identification of the product and waste flows that connect the foreground system with the background system. Systems or processes that would be missing in such a general background system are for a given case collected or obtained from third parties as required for the analysed system. I.d) Justify and document exclusions: Any exclusion of relevant individual processes or activity types shall be justified using the cut-off criteria (as defined in chapter 6.6.3). This can build on previous experience including as detailed in related system / product-group specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5011, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 163, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can build on previous experience including as detailed in related system / product-group specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs). The systematic check is described jointly with the same procedure for unit process interim quality control and application of cut-off criteria in chapters 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2, respectively. In principle all processes are to be inventoried that are to be attributed to the system, as far as they relevantly contribute to the overall environmental impact of the analysed system. This includes in principle - depending on the included life cycle stages and the system boundary in general - activities such as e.g. mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services linked to the analysed system, such as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5012, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 163, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services linked to the analysed system, such as e.g. cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting and business travel, etc. (7.2.3.2) I.e) Part-system and system-system relationships: Part-system and systemsystem relationships need special attention (e.g. for energy related products) and correct inventorying (concepts see chapter 7.2.2.). (7.2.3.2) I.f) Technical flow diagram, lists of product as and waste from/to background system: It is recommended using the system boundary scheme for overview. Technical flow diagrams of the foreground system and lists of the products and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5013, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 163, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling waste that link the foreground with the background system may be used to document the main resource bases, trade-partner countries for consumption mix data and production routes, etc. This can form the basis for the data collection planning and the starting point for later documentation. (7.2.3.1) Note that individual processes within the background system may need to be identified as well - in context of identifying sensitive issues (see 9.2) or if required to meet the specific goal of the study. The requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-related representativeness of the scope chapter 6.8 shall be met", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5014, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 164, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-related representativeness of the scope chapter 6.8 shall be met. (7.2.3.2) Note that the resulting initial list of processes, product and waste flows typically will need a refinement in view of the results of the completed initial life cycle model, impact assessment and interpretation. II) SHALL - Initial processes' description: It is recommended to provide an initial description of the identified unit processes of the foreground system, as well as the details of the functional units of those product and waste flows that link it to the background system. This should be updated in the iterative steps of LCI work and shall reflect in the end the final unit processes of the foreground system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5015, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 164, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This should be updated in the iterative steps of LCI work and shall reflect in the end the final unit processes of the foreground system. (7.2.3.3) 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2, 4.2.3.6.2, and 4.3.2.1) 7.2.4.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2, 4.2.3.6.2, and 4.3.2.1) Introduction If the modelling approach is consequential, the relevant consequences and the related processes are to be identified as detailed below. This is relevant exclusively for cases of multifunctionality in Situations A, B and C1, for processes that are affected by \"big\" changes (large-scale consequences) in Situation B, and for the \"assumption scenarios\" in Situation B, in case these include consequential modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5016, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 164, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "While this chapter describes the consequential approach in detail, note that some key simplifications are made in the provisions for Situations A, B, and C1 that render the work substantially simpler without relevantly changing the robustness of the results (see chapter 6.5.4). Exclusively for processes that are affected by \"big\" changes (large-scale consequences) in Situation B and in the assumption scenarios of Situation B this chapter is required to be applied in its detail. The \u201cconsequential\u201d LCI modelling framework aims at identifying the consequences of a decision in the foreground system on other processes and systems of the economy and builds the to-be-analysed system around these consequences. One important aspect of consequential modelling is that it is not depicting the actual processes of e.g. the suppliers of a specific product supply-chain as an attributional model does, but it is modelling the forecasted consequences of decisions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5017, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 164, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the suppliers of a specific product supply-chain as an attributional model does, but it is modelling the forecasted consequences of decisions. These consequences are those processes that are assumed to be operated as reaction to the named decision. In unconstrained and fully informed markets they will in general be those processes that most cost-effectively provide the required function (and the processes that a co-function would supersede). However, unconstrained and fully informed markets are a theoretical, ideal case. In practice other aspects need to be considered.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5018, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 164, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Primary and secondary consequences, constraints A wide range of mechanisms is discussed among LCA practitioners, how a decision in the foreground system affects other processes and products and what are the primary and secondary consequences (the concept of secondary consequences is explained in chapter 7.2.4.2). These mechanisms range from causing the need to build new production plants in consequence of additionally required materials, parts etc., to market displacement of competing products due to marginal market price changes, consumer behaviour changes, and the like. However, next to far reaching consequences, often secondary consequences and constraints counteract and partly or fully compensate the primary consequences or change them to other consequences. Among these are e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5019, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 165, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Among these are e.g. the economy\u201fs elasticity, the counteracting changes in the demand for the analysed product, reduced consumption of additional required products in other systems due to market-price changes, and many other secondary consequences (e.g. so called \u201crebound effects\u201d) as well as contractual, political and other constraints. Required expertise To identify the detailed consequences and marginal processes, next to LCA expertise the following expertise is required, while this depends on which of the mechanisms and models are to be considered in the consequential model: \uf0b7 expertise of technology development forecasting (learning curves, experience curves), \uf0b7 scenario development, \uf0b7 market cost and market forecasting, \uf0b7 technology cost modelling, \uf0b7 general-equilibrium modelling, and \uf0b7 partial-equilibrium modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5020, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 165, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Overview The following subchapters explain the steps towards modelling the consequences for the consequential model: \uf0b7 The first step towards identifying the marginal processes that provide the function and the superseded processes is to identify / decide which primary and secondary consequences and constraints are to be integrated in the model. (chapter 7.2.4.2). \uf0b7 Next is the identification of the processes that are operated or displaced due to the identified consequences (chapter 7.2.4.4). \uf0b7 Analysing the considered consequences and taking into account the selected constraints, the processes are identified and the consequential life cycle is modelled stepwise. This starts from the analysed decision in the foreground system. Figure 21 provides a schematic overview of the provisions on identifying processes in consequential modelling; but note the simplified provisions set for Situation A and B in chapters 6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5021, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 165, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Figure 21 Decision tree for consequential modelling120. Terms, concepts, and explanations see text. Formal and detailed provisions see \"Provisions\". The collection of the individual unit process data is in principle the same as for attributional modelling and addressed jointly in chapter 7.3. The use of average and generic background data is addressed separately in chapter 7.6. 7.2.4.2 Consequences to be considered (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to aspects of chapters 4.2.3.3.2, 4.2.3.6.2, and 4.3.2.1) Wherever in practice consequential modelling is to be applied, the relevant consequences to be considered are to be decided upon", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5022, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Central in a consequential modelling is a quantitative understanding of the market and how direct and indirect changes in supply and demand of the analysed good or service operate through the market to cause real changes in demand and supply of other goods and services. The range of questions that can be put to consequential LCA studies is vast and these can explicitly or implicitly require including a huge variety of consequences. There is no possibility to identify this in a generally applicable, generic way. It is hence to be decided for the given case. 120 Note that the specific provisions for Situation A and B use some simplifications, as detailed in chapters 6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5023, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is hence to be decided for the given case. 120 Note that the specific provisions for Situation A and B use some simplifications, as detailed in chapters 6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3. Extent of additional demand or supply on process in question (primary consequence only)? Characteristics: \u2022 Additional demand does not change market direction, AND does not result in additional / reduced capacity \uf0e0affected processes / systems = \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d \u2022 Additional aspect: in real, non-monopolised markets never only one marginal process / supplier. \u201csmall\u201d \u201cbig\u201d LCI model of extra supply and demand: \u2022 mix of \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d processes / systems (as above) of given time and market (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5024, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201csmall\u201d \u201cbig\u201d LCI model of extra supply and demand: \u2022 mix of \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d processes / systems (as above) of given time and market (e.g. 2020, France) \u2022 superseded amount to be adjusted considering secondary consequences and constraints Solving multifunctional processes, order of preference: 1) subdivision 2) virtual subdivision 3) substitution of mix of short-term marginal processes / systems*,**, excluding the to-be-substituted co-function 4) substitution of mix of short-term marginal functions 5) 2-step allocation System-system relationships: Specific short-term marginal or long-term marginal processes / systems. Current market direction? Growing, stable or slightly declining Strongly declining \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d = least cost-competitive processes / systems \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d = most cost-competitive processes / systems Secondary consequences and constraints counteract and change extent back to \u201csmall\u201d? no, i.e. \u201csmall\u201d yes, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5025, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201csmall\u201d yes, i.e. still \u201cbig\u201d Extent of additional demand or supply changes market direction? yes no Secondary consequences and constraints counteract and avoid relevant effect? no yes \u201cshort-term marginal\u201d = market consumption mix of processes / systems Characteristics: \u2022 Additional demand does not change market direction, BUT does result in additional / reduced capacity \uf0e0affected processes / systems = \u201clong-term marginal\u201d \u2022 Additional aspect: in real, non-monopolised markets never only one marginal process / supplier. LCI model of extra supply and demand: \u2022 mix of \u201clong-term marginal\u201d processes / systems (as above) of given time and market (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5026, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "LCI model of extra supply and demand: \u2022 mix of \u201clong-term marginal\u201d processes / systems (as above) of given time and market (e.g. 2020, France) \u2022 superseded amount to be adjusted considering secondary consequences and constraints Solving multifunctional processes, order of preference: 1) subdivision 2) virtual subdivision 3) substitution of mix of long-term marginal processes / systems*,** 4) substitution of mix of long-term marginal functions 5) 2-step allocation System-system relationships: Specific long-term marginal processes / systems. Current market direction? \u201clong-term marginal\u201d = least cost-competitive processes / systems \u201clong-term marginal\u201d = most cost-competitive processes / systems * Interim steps (e.g. purification, transport, etc.) shall be modelled inside the system boundary until the quality of the to-be-substituted co-function is actually replacing the superseded process(es)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5027, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "purification, transport, etc.) shall be modelled inside the system boundary until the quality of the to-be-substituted co-function is actually replacing the superseded process(es). In case of closed-loop or open-loop same primary route recycling and the substitution is not equal 1:1 (e.g. due to down-cycling), the actually substituted amount should be credited; if the specific substituted processes are not known, market value correction shall be applied to the superseded processes\u201f inventories. ** The provisions apply also when extra supply is partly or fully unused (e.g. deposited) or undergoing low-value uses (e.g. waste incineration with energy-recovery). These processes contribute to the marginal mix. Analogously, if the extra demand uses otherwise partly or fully unused functions, the \u201cavoided waste treatment\u201d, if any, should be credited to the using system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5028, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Analogously, if the extra demand uses otherwise partly or fully unused functions, the \u201cavoided waste treatment\u201d, if any, should be credited to the using system. Characteristics: \u2022 Additional demand DOES change market direction, AND hence results in additional / reduced capacity \uf0e0affected processes / systems = specific combination of \u201clong-term marginals\u201d (specific combination of the least and the most costcompetitive ones) \u2022 Additional aspect: in real, nonmonopolised markets never only one marginal process / supplier. Growing, stable or slightly declining Strongly declining LCI model of extra supply and demand: \u2022 to be analysed specifically, drawing on the other provisions for long-term marginals under the different market directions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5029, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 166, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Notwithstanding this but providing basic guidance on this question, the following provisions are made: The following primary consequences should be evaluated for inclusion (unless they are in any case already explicitly required or directly derived from the specific goal of the study): \uf0b7 (a) Processes that are operated as direct market consequence of the decision to meet the additional demand of a product (i.e. \u201cconsequential modelling of direct consequences; applied for the full system\u201d). \uf0b7 (b) Processes that supersede / complement co-functions of multifunctional processes that are within the system boundary (i.e. \u201csolving multifunctionality by substitution\u201d) The following consequences are secondary consequences but should be evaluated for inclusion121", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5030, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 167, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201csolving multifunctionality by substitution\u201d) The following consequences are secondary consequences but should be evaluated for inclusion121. Note that they may counteract the primary consequences and partially or completely compensate them, in that case they are rebound effects. \uf0b7 Increased general demand for a not required co-function if its market-price is reduced due to its additional availability in secondary consequence of an additional demand for the analysed co-function. \uf0b7 Incentive-effect on processes to increase their efficiency as secondary consequence of a higher price for its determining co-function(s) in consequence of the increased demand. E.g. increased recycling rates (by more collection, better separation etc.) in consequences of a higher market price for the secondary good, off-setting partially the primary route substitution. Or e.g. increased productivity of biofuel crops (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5031, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 167, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Or e.g. increased productivity of biofuel crops (e.g. by putting more fertiliser etc.) in consequence of an increased market price for biofuels, off-setting partially the additional indirect land-use demand that was exemplified above. \uf0b7 Decreased demand for competing functions (e.g. products) of a not required co-function as secondary consequence of the decreased price of this not required co-function due to increased demand for the analysed co-function and the additional availability of its not required co-function. \uf0b7 Consumer behaviour changes (e.g. additional car use in cities in secondary consequence of reduced traffic-jams in consequence of better traffic management or attractive public transport). Consequences that should only be considered if directly subject of the work and correspondingly named in the goal setting, but not for consequential studies in general", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5032, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 167, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Consequences that should only be considered if directly subject of the work and correspondingly named in the goal setting, but not for consequential studies in general. Among others: \uf0b7 Increased general consumption by consumers due to the reduced price of a product (as they save the money and can spend it on other products). Note that this secondary consequence is counteracted by the fact that the workers in the supply-chain of the cheaper product receive less overall salary and will hence consume less. 121 Note that for a number of cases the secondary consequences may not be applicable at all or it is very difficult to interpret / transfer them. This is often caused by constraints to the analysed process / system or its cofunctions. In some cases, the effect can be that strong, that the consequence is not acting via a homogeneous market, but directly (e.g. district heating with the constraint of very limited mobility of the co-product heat)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5033, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 167, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "district heating with the constraint of very limited mobility of the co-product heat). In such cases, it should be considered to model the specific or generic situation instead of a market consequence.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5034, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 167, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Changed consumption patterns as secondary consequence of more time availability to consumers as consequence of a consumer product saving the consumer's time (e.g. dishwashing machine vs. manual dishwashing). \uf0b7 accelerated product / technology investments in the analysed process/technology or competing products or technologies (e.g. solar electricity or competing energy technologies). Terms and concepts: Secondary consequences Secondary consequences are also known as \u201crebound effects\u201d, \u201cback-fire effects\u201d, \u201coffsetting effects\u201d, \u201cripple effects\u201d: When modelling consequences in the market as result of the decision to produce a good, a range of mechanisms exist that counteract and partly or fully may compensate them, hence the term \u201crebound effect\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5035, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, such secondary consequences may also increase the effect of the identified consequence or lead to fully different consequences than the direct ones modelled considering only the primary consequences, hence here the use of the broader and more encompassing term \"secondary consequences\"122. It is important to note that these effects are typically far from linear and when certain thresholds are passed a complete shift of parts of the market can be the effect (e.g. when the production cost of wind-power makes it fully competitive in certain market segments). A list of these mechanisms is found above this box. That list indicates the complexity of identifying and especially quantifying the typically very specific consequences. For some of these there is even a lack of theoretical models to capture the various primary and secondary consequences and their interaction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5036, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For some of these there is even a lack of theoretical models to capture the various primary and secondary consequences and their interaction. This is of course no problem that would be inherent to LCA but to all models that aim at forecasting future developments in market and society context.123 122 It is a relevant characteristic that the primary and secondary consequences on the inventory of analysed product system can be both positive and negative, depending on the specific consequence. The question of increasing or declining markets plays furthermore a large role in identifying the superseded marginal process highly uncertain in future scenarios. For the model of the main product system this has the tendency of higher impacts than obtained with attributional modelling in case of rising markets or lower ones for falling markets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5037, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the model of the main product system this has the tendency of higher impacts than obtained with attributional modelling in case of rising markets or lower ones for falling markets. In fact does the respectively superseded processes represent (very roughly) the extremes in terms of best and worst environmental performance in the market of that product. This is unless investment limitations may lead to install an older technology nevertheless in a growing market. For solving multifunctionality the possible influence on the results is bigger, as often other kinds of products are superseded. That means that already the uncertainty of knowing whether a specific market of e.g. a material or part is growing or falling is a very substantial factor that can change the outcome of the analysis. 123 One effect may be illustrated that shows the difficulty to identify the superseded process due to the complexity of interrelating consequences in the market", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5038, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "123 One effect may be illustrated that shows the difficulty to identify the superseded process due to the complexity of interrelating consequences in the market. It also serves to illustrate the greater robustness of using e.g. the market mix in substitution as a simplified requirement: counteracting market price shifts due to additionally available co-products: An extra availability of the co-produced material \u201cX\u201d would in classical consequential modelling supersede/avoid the production of the least cost-competitive material \u201cY\u201d (or another production route for material \u201cX\u201d: \u201cXa\u201d). This would be credited by subtracting the inventory of \u201cY\u201d (or \u201cXa\u201d). However, the additional availability of \u201cX\u201d results - along the same logic of market consequences - also in a marginal decrease of the market price for \u201cX\u201d. That means that \u201cX\u201d becomes economically more attractive compared to other competing, functionally equivalent materials (e.g. \u201cU\u201d and \u201cZ\u201d) in all types of applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5039, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That means that \u201cX\u201d becomes economically more attractive compared to other competing, functionally equivalent materials (e.g. \u201cU\u201d and \u201cZ\u201d) in all types of applications. In marginal consequence, marginally less of \u201cU\u201d and \u201cZ\u201d would be produced, as \u201cX\u201d would be replacing them to some degree. Hence the market mix production of \u201cU\u201d and \u201cZ\u201d can equally be argued to be superseded by the co-produced \u201cX\u201d, and not only \u201cY\u201d or \u201cXa\u201d as considering only the primary consequences.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5040, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 168, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.2.4.3 Constraints and other market imperfections to be considered Real markets face various constraints and other market imperfections. Real markets are moreover not fully informed, i.e. the operated technologies and products on the market are not only the most cost competitive ones. Similarly as for the mechanisms and consequences, also constraints can be very diverse. There is no possibility to identify the relevant ones on a general level. They are hence to be identified for the given case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5041, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 169, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There is no possibility to identify the relevant ones on a general level. They are hence to be identified for the given case. Notwithstanding this but providing basic guidance on this question, the following recommendations are made: Constraints that should be considered in consequential modelling are: \uf0b7 Existing long-term supply-contracts or co-operations that cannot easily be changed \uf0b7 Prohibitingly high costs that are a barrier to changes, such as limited mobility of the products (e.g. for basic construction materials over longer distances, for heat) \uf0b7 Existing or expected political measures / legal constraints that stimulate perceived positive developments or counteract perceived negative developments (e.g. take-back fees for packaging materials, land-fill bans and other technology-related constraints, green tax incentives e.g. for solar energy, material bans, etc.) \uf0b7 Non-scalability of supply of products or natural resources that are required for the modelled system. E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5042, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 169, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for solar energy, material bans, etc.) \uf0b7 Non-scalability of supply of products or natural resources that are required for the modelled system. E.g. hydropower, depending on the country/market (see also chapter 6.8.2), or recycled materials which achieve already a recycling rate close to the feasible maximum. Fully used, dependent co-products of joint production, whose production cannot be scaled up, are of this type of constraint. \uf0b7 Monopolies, where there is hence no choice of the supplier or technology Constraints that may additionally be considered in consequential modelling are: \uf0b7 Other constraints in place or expected to be in place that increase, decrease or block a primary or secondary consequence 7.2.4.4 Identifying the processes of the consequential model (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to aspects of chapters 4.2.3.3.2, 4.2.3.6.2, and 4.3.2.1) Overview The next step is to identify the specific processes that are to be modelled, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5043, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 169, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the processes that are operated or displaced as effect of the considered consequences and taking into account the relevant constraints. Apart from using or developing data that sufficiently represents the year for which the scenario is made (e.g. 2020), as a general guidance the following criteria are to be considered for the consequential modelling of the primary consequences \"(a)\" and \"(b)\" (see above in chapter 7.2.4.2): \uf0b7 Size of effect (either \"small\" or \"big\"), \uf0b7 market situation (i.e. either \"growing, stable or slightly declining\" OR \"strongly declining\" market), and \uf0b7 cost-competitiveness of alternative processes (i.e. technologies). The following text provides more details:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5044, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 169, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results The first step: consider the primary consequence and the size of the effect The size of the effect of the consequences on other processes in the economy matters in so far, as there are two main cases to be differentiated. In the first step only the primary consequence (a) in the market (see above) is considered; this is the consequence classical consequential modelling has initially only been looking at: \uf0b7 Is the size of the effect \"small\"?: - The size of the effect is so small that it can be assumed that the analysed decision is NOT able to via market effects directly cause an increase in capacity to meet the additional demand or a reduction of existing capacity in consequence of the additional supply, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5045, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 170, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This increase or reduction in capacity is understood to be a change in addition to anyway ongoing installation or decommissioning in the market. Note that this applies - as always - not only to production capacity e.g. of materials or energy carriers, but also to the available capacity of services. - The effect should generally be considered small in this sense, if the annual amount of additional demand or supply is smaller than the average percentage of annual replacement of capacity (see chapter 5.3.6) of the annual supply of that function or system in the given market; if that average percentage is over 5 %, 5 % should be used instead. This is for orientation only and can be for a given case changed to be smaller or bigger upon the argumentation that the change in demand or supply is directly triggering changes in demand and not only via a marginal accumulative effect in contribution to the general market demand/signal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5046, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 170, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Given the elasticity of markets, counteracting secondary consequences and constraints, it can be assumed that small changes in demand and supply do not trigger long-term investments in real markets. The signal they send is too small to overcome the threshold that would have to be overcome to structurally change capacity. \uf0b7 Is the size of the effect \"big\"?: - The size of the effect is big enough that it can be assumed that the analysed decision IS able to via market effects directly cause an increase in capacity to meet the additional demand or a reduction of existing capacity in consequence of the additional supply, respectively. - This should be generally assumed, if the annual amount of additional demand or supply is bigger than the average percentage of annual replacement of capacity (see chapter 5.3.6) of the annual supply of that function or system in the given market; if that average percentage is over 5 %, 5 % should be used instead", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5047, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 170, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As above, the percentage is for orientation and can be changed upon analogous argumentation as for the \"small \" effect above. If the size of the effect is \"small\", the affected processes / systems are always the \"shortterm marginal\" processes / systems. If it is \"big\": The second step: consider secondary consequences and constraints Depending on the size of the effect and considering secondary consequences and constraints, the processes mix that best represents the superseded processes is to be narrowed down, as follows: \uf0b7 If the size of the effect - considering only the primary market consequence - is \"small\", it should first checked whether secondary consequences and constraints in the market counteract the primary consequence (rebound), so that the net effect is \"close to zero\" (i.e. different from \"small\" in the previously described sense), compared to the full effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5048, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 170, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results after the primary consequence. Is that the case, the \"short-term marginal\" is best represented by the \"average market consumption mix\" of the processes / systems (i.e. the same as the average background data in attributional modelling). \uf0b7 If the size of the effect - considering only the primary market consequence - is \"big\", it should next be checked whether secondary consequences and market constraints counteract the effect, so it is not \"big\" anymore, but \"small\". In that case the above provisions for \"small\" effects apply for this process. \uf0b7 If secondary consequences and market constraints do not counteract the primary consequences effect strong enough to change it be \"small\" it must still be considered \"big\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5049, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 171, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 If secondary consequences and market constraints do not counteract the primary consequences effect strong enough to change it be \"small\" it must still be considered \"big\". However, the quantitative extent and the affected processes might have been changed by the secondary consequences and constraints. This has to be analysed specifically, as to correctly identify the final consequences. The next steps: market situation and the cost-competitiveness The processes / systems that will be affected depend on the specific market situation and the cost-competitiveness of the alternative processes that can provide the required function. Two cases are to be differentiated regarding the market situation: \uf0b7 a mid-term growing, stable or only slightly declining market, i.e. declining not more than the average displacement rate of capital equipment, \uf0b7 a mid-term strongly declining market, i.e. declining more than the average displacement rate of capital equipment for the respective equipment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5050, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 171, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "declining more than the average displacement rate of capital equipment for the respective equipment. The above named average displacement rate in % is obtained by dividing 100 years by the average or typical life time of the capital equipment. E.g. a plant for producing a material X might have a life time of 25 years. Accordingly, 100 years / 25 years = 4 % are replaced annually. Regarding the \"market\" it is to be stressed that here the market of the specific e.g. commodity or product should be used and not their broader functions or product groups but also not the market of the specific brand: the market for a specific commodity (e.g. cadmium) or product (e.g. lead based solder paste) might be declining, while the market of some of the functions of the commodity (e.g. energy-storage in batteries, solar energy capturing in thin film solar panels) or the product group to which the product belongs (e.g. solder paste in general) might be growing, and vice versa", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5051, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 171, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "energy-storage in batteries, solar energy capturing in thin film solar panels) or the product group to which the product belongs (e.g. solder paste in general) might be growing, and vice versa. As especially constraints may often act directly or indirectly on specific commodities or products (while seldom on the level of brands), their specific market is of relevance here. Based on the above definitions and two cases, the next question for the situation of \"big\" effects is whether the extent of additional demand or supply is changing the direction of the market, i.e. from a \"strongly declining\" market to a \"slightly declining, stable, or growing\" market OR vice versa. If this is NOT the case, the affected processes / systems are always the \"long-term marginal\" processes / systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5052, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 171, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If this is NOT the case, the affected processes / systems are always the \"long-term marginal\" processes / systems. The next question - for both \"small\" and \"big\" effects (while not changing the market direction) is the question of the current market direction and how it modifies which processes are affected by additional demand or supply: In a growing (or at least not strongly declining) market, an additional demand for more capacity for a function can be reasonably assumed to be met by installing the most cost-competitive e.g. technology, using the most costcompetitive raw material route, operating the most cost-competitive waste treatment service, etc. Similarly, for additional short-term demand, the most cost-competitive processes will be used. If a market is however strongly declining, additional demand for more capacity will not be met by installing new capacity, but by NOT decommissioning existing capacity (that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5053, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 171, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results otherwise would have been decommissioned, i.e. keeping the least cost-competitive ones in operation). Again, in analogy, also for additional short-term demand, the least costcompetitive supplies will be used. Accordingly, if the market is \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\", the \"short-term marginal\" (for \"small\" effects) and the \"long-term marginal\" (for \"big\" effects) are the most cost competitive processes / systems. If the market is \"strongly declining\" these are the \"least cost-competitive\" processes / systems, for both \"small\" and \"big\" effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5054, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 172, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If the market is \"strongly declining\" these are the \"least cost-competitive\" processes / systems, for both \"small\" and \"big\" effects. If however the extent of additional demand or supply is \"big\" and IS also changing the direction of the market, a part of the affected processes / systems are those that are affected in strongly falling markets and another part those of growing, stable or slightly declining markets, i.e. a specific combination of two different sets of \"long-term\" marginals, depending on the share of capacity affected. The final step: identifying the mix of \"short-term\" or \"long-term\" marginal processes / systems There is the general lack of full information in the market and a high uncertainty in determining future cost competitiveness of processes and systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5055, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 172, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This has the effect - as reality shows - that in most markets several alternative, similarly cost-efficient alternatives compete and are installed at the same time; there is no strict \u201cthe one, most cost-efficient technology only\u201d logic in the real world124. An example may be the production of steel in China in 2015, where the (one or several) marginal processes are those steel plants and ore/scrap routes that are forecasted to be most cost-effective among the potentially newly installed ones in the reference year of the study. Also in the consequential model therefore not a single, short-term or long-term marginal process should be modelled but a mix of the most likely marginal processes, resulting in much more robust models. This is especially important if the various most likely marginal processes have a similar, not significantly different cost competitiveness and at the same time their environmental profile is significantly different", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5056, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 172, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "To restrict the model to a single marginal process or system is only justifiable if there are no other, similarly cost-competitive processes or systems and hence the use of a single one is more appropriate. 7.2.4.5 Further aspects, recommendations, and observations Various items If the market is close to or at the border between slightly and strongly declining, it is recommended using the average market consumption mix. Note that these cases are identical to attributional modelling of the main system. Note that all the above also applies when the extra supply is partly or fully unused (e.g. deposited) or undergoing low-value uses (e.g. waste incineration with energy-recovery). These processes contribute to the marginal mix. Analogously, if the analysed extra demand uses otherwise partly or fully unused functions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5057, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 172, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "waste incineration with energy-recovery). These processes contribute to the marginal mix. Analogously, if the analysed extra demand uses otherwise partly or fully unused functions (e.g. originally deposited or incinerated waste), the \u201cavoided waste treatment\u201d, if any, is credited to the using system.All interim steps 124 Reasons are among others that different actors seem to identify different technologies as the most costcompetitive ones and hence implement not all the same. And then there are issues of patents and available knowledge/experience on technologies or raw material routes etc. by the different actors, as well as political or society constraints and strategies (e.g. \"coal power, CHP natural gas, or nuclear power for electricity baseload?\").", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5058, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 172, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results from the generation of the end-of-life product or waste to the secondary good(s) (e.g. sorting, purification, transport, etc.) are to be modelled inside the system boundaries until the quality of the to-be-substituted co-function is actually replacing the superseded processes. In the case of \"closed loop\" and \"open loop - same primary route\" recycling, and if the substitution is not equal 1:1 (e.g. due to down-cycling), the actually substituted amount should be credited. If the specific substituted processes are not known or the amount cannot be quantified, market value correction should be applied to the superseded processes\u201f inventories. The correction factor is hence the ratio of the market prices for the secondary good versus that of the same amount of the primary good", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5059, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 173, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The correction factor is hence the ratio of the market prices for the secondary good versus that of the same amount of the primary good. Indirect land use changes - overview Indirect land use changes (ILUC) are an aspect under consequential modelling. This issue refers to the situation that an additional demand for land, e.g. to produce a crop-based biofuel, means that the crop that would be produced otherwise on this land has to be produced elsewhere, it is \"displaced\". The assumption behind this is that additional production of e.g. the biofuel does not change the total amount of other crops produced globally or in that region, i.e. is in addition on a net basis. As the land where that other crop now needs to be produced is also producing something else, ultimately former un-used land (i.e. nature, fallow) needs to be transformed to produce that \"displaced\" crop. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5060, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 173, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "nature, fallow) needs to be transformed to produce that \"displaced\" crop. I.e. the additional demand for biofuel is assumed to result in indirect land use changes elsewhere (see also the related example in footnote 20). This is a primary consequence of the type (a) listed in chapter 7.2.4.2. One example for secondary consequences is that the marginally increased price of the displaced crop (and potentially to some degree even of land intensive goods in general) might be an incentive for achieving higher yields by use of more fertilisers and better management. This might partly off-set/reduce the need for an indirect land use change and less land needs to be changed elsewhere than the amount now used for the biofuel. At the same time is it necessary to consider the different productivity of the used and the indirectly changed land e.g. may the \"displaced\" crop have had a harvest of 5 t per ha on the land now used for biofuel, while the indirectly changed land of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5061, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 173, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "may the \"displaced\" crop have had a harvest of 5 t per ha on the land now used for biofuel, while the indirectly changed land of e.g. rainforest may yield only 3 t per ha, i.e. more than one ha is necessary for each ha from which the former crop is displaced. Note that in the logic of consequential modelling this applies to all land uses, including food production, industrial plants, private homes etc., whenever a decision support is intended with the study. Indirect land use changes in consequential modelling As no widely accepted provisions exist for indirect land use, but such are still under development by several organisations, no specific provisions are made at this point. The appropriate way how to integrate indirect land use changes is hence to be developed for the specific case, in line with the general provisions o consequential modelling. This is unless specific provisions would be published under the ILCD. Such provisions might be part of a future supplement.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5062, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 173, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.2.4.6 Solving multifunctionality of processes in consequential modelling (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.2) Introduction Multifunctionality in consequential modelling is solved - somewhat similarly as in attributional modelling - in a two-step procedure next to subdivision / virtual subdivision. The preceding step (subdivision and virtual subdivision) is identical, with one exception: partial subdivision that cuts through a multifunctional process should be avoided as it renders the substitution (see below) distorted. The first step, if subdivision and virtual subdivision are not possible or feasible, depends on the question whether the amount of the co-functions can be entirely independently varied. Details see below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5063, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 174, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Details see below. Subdivision and virtual subdivision For subdivision and virtual subdivision of black box unit processes the related provisions of chapter 7.4.2.2 apply analogously for consequential modelling. The logic is that the additional amount of the not required co-function can be assumed to be counteracted by changing the production scheme of the other plants that produce the same co-functions so that the total amount of all of them is unchanged. Note that under consequential modelling, virtual subdivision shall not be done if it \"cuts\" through a physically not subdividable multifunctional joint process. This would distort the substitution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5064, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 174, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that under consequential modelling, virtual subdivision shall not be done if it \"cuts\" through a physically not subdividable multifunctional joint process. This would distort the substitution. Physical causality in case of true combined production, substitution for joint production In the case subdivision and virtual subdivision are not possible or feasible, the next step depends on the question whether the multifunctional process is a case of combined production or of joint production: if the amount of the co-functions can be entirely independently varied without changing the production facilities, this is called combined production. Examples are most cases of multi-waste incineration, combined transport of different goods. If this is not the case, this is called joint production Examples are NaOH and Cl2 production by electrolysis of NaCl, production of wheat grains and wheat straw", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5065, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 174, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If this is not the case, this is called joint production Examples are NaOH and Cl2 production by electrolysis of NaCl, production of wheat grains and wheat straw. Note that many processes that appear to be combined processes are in fact not fully variable without changing the installed capacity or the nature of the processes, often at high costs (e.g. refinery with its many products that can be varied only to a certain extent without resulting in the need to install additional production plants, purchase external hydrogen, etc.). For true combined production, the determining physical causality (i.e. the first of the two steps of allocation under attributional modelling) equally applies. For joint production, substitution as a special case of system expansion is the solution to multifunctionality. This is drawing closely on the provision for general consequential modelling. This is detailed in the further parts of this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5066, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 174, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is drawing closely on the provision for general consequential modelling. This is detailed in the further parts of this chapter. Joint production - substitution in general cases of multifunctionality For the primary consequences of solving multifunctionality via substitution (primary consequence \"(b)\" of above chapter 7.2.4.2), the same provisions apply as detailed in the preceding chapter on the primary consequences \"(a)\". Methodologically these cases are equivalent to general consequential modelling, as also acknowledged in ISO 14044:2006. There are however a few, practical differences of relevance to consider, that can in principle also occur in general consequential modelling, but", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5067, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 174, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results are much more frequent in cases of solving multifunctionality. These are namely the need for interim treatment steps, especially for cases of waste treatment where the valuable coproduct is only generated after several steps and the change in inherent properties of e.g. secondary goods; there is not always an (alternative) production route for exactly that secondary good. For these reasons specific approaches have often been developed and additional ones for modelling substitution in end-of-life product and waste treatment. A special case of multifunctionality is the system-system relationship (concept see box in chapter 7.2.2), that under consequential modelling effectively requires the substitution of the short-term marginal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5068, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 175, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Joint production - substitution/credits in end-of-life and waste treatment models A special case is the waste and end-of-life product recycling that typically requires additional steps: \uf0b7 The modelling of the process steps that condition, modify, transport, etc. the end-of-life products or waste until the valuable function (e.g. a recycled metal bar) is available in a quality and at a place where it is superseding an alternative production (e.g. primary production of this metal bar). These steps are part of the system boundary of the analysed system. In other words: the related inventories are assigned to the analysed system. \uf0b7 The identification and quantification of differences between the function resulting from the end-of-life product or waste treatment, e.g. due to downcycling (e.g. shortened fibres, reduced mechanical performance of polymers, tramp elements in metals, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5069, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 175, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "due to downcycling (e.g. shortened fibres, reduced mechanical performance of polymers, tramp elements in metals, etc.). This can be done in two ways: either by substituting the reduced amount of function that the to-be-substituted co-function replaces (e.g. may 1 kg recycled polymer replace 0.8 kg primary polymer in the analysed application). Or and especially if the specific uses are unknown, the market-price ratio secondary/primary is used to scale down the inventory of the substituting process or system (e.g. if the secondary, recycled polymer has a market value of 0.7 $ per kg and the same, primary produced polymer of higher quality costs 0.9 $/kg, the substituted inventory is reduced by 0.7/0.9, i.e. a factor of 0.778); this is also called \"value correction\". In this context, also the true joint co-producing processes are to be identified. The detailed provisions are given in a separate chapter in annex 14.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5070, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 175, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this context, also the true joint co-producing processes are to be identified. The detailed provisions are given in a separate chapter in annex 14.5. 7.2.4.7 Initial description of identified processes (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2) Especially for the processes of the foreground system, an initial description is required. This will be revised when collecting and documenting the unit process data. Details on documentation are given in chapter 10. Unless the deliverable of the LCA is a unit process data set: For those product flows that connect the foreground system with the background system, a detailed specification including of their function and functional unit is required. Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling Applicable for those processes in Situation B that have large-scale consequences, and for use in assumption scenarios in Situation B (if consequential elements are included in those)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5071, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 175, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, except for unit processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5072, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 175, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling Expertise (7.2.4.1) [ISO+] I) SHOULD - Required expertise: Experts in the following domains should be involved in the study, especially for identifying and modelling large-scale consequences: I.a) technology development forecasting (e.g. learning curves, experience curves), I.b) scenario development, I.c) market cost and market forecasting, I.d) technology cost modelling, and I.e) general-equilibrium and partial-equilibrium modelling. II) SHOULD - Policy scenario experts required?: The involvement of domain experts for policy scenarios is recommended regarding their function as setting constraints. In the case policy scenarios are explicitly analysed in the study, such experts should be involved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5073, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 176, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the case policy scenarios are explicitly analysed in the study, such experts should be involved. Identifying consequences and constraints to be considered [ISO+] III) SHALL - Modelled consequences: Identify among the following ones those consequences that will be modelled; this step may be taken separately case for each process. Their potential exclusion shall be justified by demonstrating at least argumentative / semi-quantitative that they are not relevant for the results; otherwise the exclusion shall be considered when reporting achieved accuracy (in case of data sets) and when interpreting the results (in case of LCA studies): (7.2.4.2) III.a) Primary market consequences: III.a.i) SHALL - (a) Processes that are operated as direct market consequence of the decision to meet the additional demand of a product (i.e. \u201cconsequential modelling of direct consequences; applied for the full system\u201d). This includes among many others also indirect land use effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5074, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 176, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cconsequential modelling of direct consequences; applied for the full system\u201d). This includes among many others also indirect land use effects. III.a.ii) SHALL - (b) Processes that supersede / complement not required cofunctions of multifunctional processes that are within the system boundary (i.e. \u201csolving multifunctionality by substitution\u201d, reducing the system boundary to exclude the not required function(s)). III.b) Secondary market consequences: III.b.i) SHOULD - Increased demand for a co-product if its market-price is reduced. III.b.ii) SHOULD - Incentive-effects on a process to increase its efficiency due to a higher price for its product(s). III.b.iii) SHOULD - Decreased demand for competing products of a co-product due to the decreased price of the co-product. III.b.iv) SHOULD - Consumer behaviour changes III.b.v) SHOULD - Further consequences should only be included if explicitly addressed in the goal of the study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5075, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 176, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling IV) SHALL - Constraints: Identify the constraints that will be included in the model and that may partly or fully prevent that the marginal process mix as identified along the primary and secondary consequences can directly be used in the system model. The likely specific effect of any included constraint shall be considered when identifying the effective marginal process(es). Their potential exclusion shall to be justified by demonstrating at least argumentative / semi-quantitative that they are not relevant for the results; otherwise the exclusion shall be considered when reporting achieved accuracy (in case of data sets) and when interpreting the results (in case of LCA studies)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5076, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 177, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following constraints should be considered (7.2.4.3): IV.a) Existing long-term supply-contracts or co-operations that cannot easily be changed. IV.b) High costs that act as a barrier (e.g. limited mobility of some products due to high transport costs). IV.c) Existing or expected political measures / legal constraints that stimulate perceived positive developments or counteract perceived negative developments. (E.g. a political binding target of X % of energy carrier Y in the fuel mix means that energy carrier X is already pre-set and cannot be assumed to be a long-term marginal product in consequence of the analysed decision.) IV.d) Non-scalability of supply of products or natural resources; including of fully used, dependent co-products of joint production. IV.e) Monopolies, i.e. lack of choice of the supplier or technology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5077, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 177, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV.e) Monopolies, i.e. lack of choice of the supplier or technology. IV.f) It is recommended to also consider other constraints in place or expected to be in place that increase, decrease or block a primary or secondary consequence. Identifying the mix of superseded processes /systems [ISO+] V) SHOULD - Stepwise identification of the mix of superseded processes / systems: Identify the processes / systems within the system boundary that are superseded as consequence of the analysed decision on the investigated system(s) 125", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5078, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 177, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For each process the following steps should be applied, starting from the system's functional unit or reference flow to the entire foreground system and following the identified consequences and constraints of a theoretical \"supply-chain - use - end-of-life\" logic to include identifying as minimum all product and waste flows (or their functional units) that cross the border to the background system126: (7.2.4.4) V.a) Primary market consequence and the size of the effect: First step - consider the primary market consequence and the size of the effect: V.a.i) Identify the processes that are assumed to be additionally operated or taken out of operation as primary market consequence of the analysed decision and the directly related additional or reduced demand for a 125 See also the related decision tree diagram in Figure 21", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5079, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 177, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "126 It depends on the chosen background system model solution whether the processes of the background system also need to be individually identified or whether - if embedding the foreground system into an existing background system - this work has been already done.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5080, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 177, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling function/product, considering the following: V.a.ii) Size of effect:, EITHER V.a.ii.1) \"small\" - affecting only the extent of operation of one or more existing processes --> the short-term marginal process(es) are the ones that should be assumed to be superseded, OR V.a.ii.2) \"big\" - resulting in additionally installed or de-installed capacity - -> the long-term marginal processes are the ones that should be assumed to be superseded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5081, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 178, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V.a.ii.3) The effect should generally be considered \"small\", if the annual amount of additional demand or supply is smaller than the average percentage of annual replacement of capacity (see chapter 5.3.6) of the annual supply of that function or system in the given market; if that average percentage is over 5 %, 5 % should be used instead. Otherwise it is \"big\". The percentage is for orientation only and can be for a given case changed to be smaller or bigger upon the argumentation that the change in demand or supply is directly triggering changes in demand and not only via a marginal accumulative effect in contribution to the general market demand/signal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5082, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 178, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V.b) Secondary consequences and constraints: Second step - consider secondary consequences and constraints: V.b.i) If the size of the effect of the primary market consequence is \"small\", check whether the secondary consequences and constraints in the market counteract the primary consequence (rebound), so that the net effect of the consequences is so small that it is not significantly different from being zero. In that case, the \"short-term marginal\" is best represented by the \"average market consumption mix\" of the processes / systems (but see next sub-provision). V.b.ii) For the specific case of multifunctionality, a key constraint occurs if the required co-function is an already fully used, dependent co-function of a joint production process (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5083, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 178, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V.b.ii) For the specific case of multifunctionality, a key constraint occurs if the required co-function is an already fully used, dependent co-function of a joint production process (e.g. copper ore mining with silver as dependent but fully used co-product, egg-laying chicken with the dependent co- \"product\" chicken being fully used for human food or animal fodder), as additional demand cannot be met by additional supply on a net basis. In that case, the required function/product will have to be produced in another way (e.g. for the above examples: silver from silver mine, or meat-chicken directly raised for food or fodder). V.b.iii) If the size of the effect of the primary market consequence is \"big\", check next whether secondary consequences and market constraints counteract the primary consequence, so that the net overall effect is not \"big\" but \"small\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5084, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 178, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V.b.iv) For those processes that are still facing \"big\" effects, explicitly consider that the affected processes might have been changed by the secondary consequences and constraints. This has to be analysed specifically to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5085, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 178, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling correctly identify the final effect / superseded processes. V.c) Market situation and the cost-competitiveness: Third step - market situation and the cost-competitiveness of alternatives: V.c.i) Market direction, EITHER V.c.i.1) a \"growing, stable, slightly declining market\" (i.e. declining less than the average equipment replacement rate, OR V.c.i.2) a \"strongly declining market\" (i.e. declining faster than the average equipment replacement rate). The above named average displacement rate in % is obtained by dividing 100 years by the average or typical life time of the capital equipment, expressed in years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5086, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 179, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The above named average displacement rate in % is obtained by dividing 100 years by the average or typical life time of the capital equipment, expressed in years. V.c.ii) Based on this: analyse whether the extent of additional demand or supply for the effect \"big\" is changing the direction of the market, i.e. from a \"strongly declining\" market to a \"slightly declining, stable, or growing\" market OR vice versa. V.c.iii) If this is NOT the case, the affected processes / systems are always the \"long-term marginal\" processes / systems. V.c.iv) For all \"small\" and \"big\" cases in addition the cost-competitiveness of alternative processes / systems is relevant: V.c.iv.1) If the market is \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\", the \"short-term marginal\" (for \"small\" effects) and the \"long-term marginal\" (for \"big\" effects) are the most cost competitive processes / systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5087, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 179, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V.c.iv.2) If the market is \"strongly declining\" the \"short-term marginal\" (for \"small\" effects) and the \"long-term marginal\" (for \"big\" effects) are the \"least cost-competitive\" processes / systems. V.c.v) If in contrast the market direction IS changing, both the least and the most cost-competitive processes / systems are superseded and their specific type and share needs to be identified individually, drawing on the other provisions of this chapter. V.d) Identifying the mix of processes /systems: Final step - identifying the mix of \"short-term\" or \"long-term\" marginal processes / systems: V.d.i) In the consequential model, not only one single, short-term or long-term marginal process should be modelled but a mix of the most likely marginal processes, given the high uncertainty of market price forecasts and the often large differences of the environmental profiles among alternative marginal processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5088, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 179, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "To restrict the model to a single marginal process or system is only justifiable if there are no other, similarly costcompetitive processes or systems and hence the use of a single one is more appropriate. V.d.ii) The final amount of function (process or system) that is superseded shall be approximated considering the combined effect of primary and secondary consequences and constraints.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5089, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 179, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling Note that in case the market direction has changed as consequence of the analysed decision, the superseded processes are a specific combination of the least cost-competitive ones and partly the most cost-competitive ones. Further provisions, comments, and recommendation on documentation (7.2.4.5) [ISO+] VI) SHALL - Observe that: VI.a) Part-system and system-system relationships: These need special attention (e.g. for energy related products) and correct inventorying. Note that these cases are modelled identically in attributional modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5090, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 180, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for energy related products) and correct inventorying. Note that these cases are modelled identically in attributional modelling. VI.b) Individual processes within the background system: These may need to be identified as well when identifying significant issues (see chapter 9.2) or if required to meet the specific goal of the study. VI.c) Meet representativeness requirements: The requirements regarding technological, geographical and time-related representativeness shall be met. VII) SHOULD - Indirect land use changes: The appropriate way how to consider indirect land use changes should be developed. If done this shall applying the general provisions on consequential modelling as applicable. This is unless specific provisions would be published under the ILCD. Such provisions might be part of a future supplement. VIII) MAY - Schematic consequential model diagram: It is recommended using the system boundary scheme for overview", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5091, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 180, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such provisions might be part of a future supplement. VIII) MAY - Schematic consequential model diagram: It is recommended using the system boundary scheme for overview. Schematic decision-consequence and flow diagrams of the most relevant consequences and marginal processes of the system(s) may be used to document the main identified consequences and constraints and the resulting resource bases, technologies, affected markets, etc. This can serve as basis for a data collection planning and later documentation. Note again, that any exclusion of individual processes or activity types shall be justified using the cut-off criteria (see chapter 6.6.3). In principle all processes are to be inventoried that are operated in consequence of the analysed decision. This includes in principle - depending on the system boundary - activities such as e.g. mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services such as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5092, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 180, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "mining, processing, manufacturing, use, repair and maintenance, transport, waste treatment and other purchased services such as e.g. cleaning and legal services, marketing, production and decommissioning of capital goods, operation of premises such as retail, storage, administration offices, staff commuting and business travel, etc. IX) MAY - Initial processes' description: It is recommended to also provide an initial description of the identified unit processes of the foreground system and the detailed functional units of those product and waste flows that link it to the background system. This should complement the documentation of the consequences and constraints and be completed with details during the iterations of the LCI work. (7.2.4.7) Solving multifunctionality of processes and systems (7.2.4.6) [ISO!] X) SHALL - Subdivision and virtual subdivision: Subdivision and virtual subdivision shall be applied in preference to substitution. Provisions see chapter 7.4.2.2127", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5093, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 180, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions see chapter 7.4.2.2127. 127 Observe that virtual subdivison shall not be done if it \"cuts\" through physically not separable joint processes, as this would distort the substitution.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5094, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 180, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling XI) SHALL - Combined production: For cases of truly combined production, the determining physical causality (i.e. the first of the two steps of allocation under attributional modelling) equally applies analogously; see chapter 7.9.3.2. XII) SHALL - Joint production: For joint production, substitution as a special case of system expansion is the preferred solution to multifunctionality. This shall be done as follows: XII.a) The same provisions shall apply as for general consequential modelling of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5095, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 181, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This shall be done as follows: XII.a) The same provisions shall apply as for general consequential modelling of the system. XII.b) Note the specific constraint for already fully used, dependent co-products of joint production: since their production cannot be increased with that same multifunctional process/technology, their additional provision cannot be modelled. Instead, alternative routes need to be modelled for their supply. This means that the determining co-product shall not be substituted. XII.c) If for the not required co-function functionally equivalent alternative processes / systems are operated / provided in a commercially relevant58 extent, the not required co-function shall be substituted with the mix of the superseded marginal processes (excluding the substituted process-route, if quantitatively relevant)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5096, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 181, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Differences in functionality between superseding and superseded function shall be considered by correction of the actually superseded amount of the superseded process(es) or by market price correction of the superseded process(es)' inventory (if the superseded amount is not known in sufficient detail). XII.d) If such alternative processes / systems do not exist128 or are not operated in a commercially relevant extent, the provided function in a wider sense should be used for substitution129. Note that the substituted processes or products may also have secondary functions. This can theoretically lead to the problem of an eternally self-referring and/or very extensive, multiply extended system. As the amount of these secondary functions and their relevance within the overalls system goes down with each process step, this problem can be avoided / reduced by applying the cut-off rules", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5097, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 181, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As the amount of these secondary functions and their relevance within the overalls system goes down with each process step, this problem can be avoided / reduced by applying the cut-off rules. Substitution for multifunctional processes and systems in reuse / recycling / recovery (7.2.4.6) [ISO!] XIII) SHALL - Recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: Substitution shall be applied for cases of recycling, recovery, reuse, further use: (7.2.4.6, and for all details see annex 14.5) XIII.a) Applying general rules to these cases: Substitution of products recycled or recovered from end-of-life product and waste treatment follows the same rules as 128 E.g. for wheat grain production, many refinery products, etc. 129 E.g. as for NaOH apart from NaCl electrolysis, or if for a mobile phone the individual function SMS would not be available as commercially relevant, separate consumer product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5098, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 181, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "129 E.g. as for NaOH apart from NaCl electrolysis, or if for a mobile phone the individual function SMS would not be available as commercially relevant, separate consumer product. NaOH provides the general function of neutralising agent and hence other, technically equivalent and competing neutralising agents, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Na2CO3, etc. can be assumed to be superseded. For the case of wheat grain and straw production: instead of straw other dry biomass (e.g. Miscanthus grass, wood for heating, etc.) provides equivalent functions and can be assumed to be superseded.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5099, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 181, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling for the general cases of multifunctionality. They shall be applied for all cases of waste and end-of-life treatment (i.e. \"closed loop\" and of \"open loop - same primary route\" and \"open loop - different primary route\"). Subdivision and virtual subdivision shall be applied in preference to substitution. Provisions see 7.4.2.2. XIII.b) Specific aspects and steps (true joint process, interim processes to secondary good, recyclability, ...): Specific for reuse/recycling/recovery is that interim treatment steps occur more regularly and that often no truly equivalent alternative process / system exist130. In this context, also the true joint process of the secondary good is to be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5100, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 182, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this context, also the true joint process of the secondary good is to be identified. Finally, the steps of reuse/recycling/recovery need to be modelled explicitly until the secondary good is obtained that is actually superseding an alternative process / system. The actual mix of superseded processes shall be identified for the given case and along the following steps: XIII.b.i) The true joint process of the secondary good is that process step in the product's life cycle that provides the good with the closest technical similarity to the secondary good; the thereby identified primary good shall not have a lower market value than the secondary good131. XIII.b.ii) The recyclability substitution approach shall be used for substitution. That implies that all interim waste management, treatment, transport etc. steps are to be modelled and assigned to the analysed system including the step that is producing the valuable co-function (e.g. secondary metal bar)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5101, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 182, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "steps are to be modelled and assigned to the analysed system including the step that is producing the valuable co-function (e.g. secondary metal bar). XIII.b.iii) The amount/degree of recyclability shall refer to the actually achieved recyclability, i.e. accounting for all kinds of losses, e.g. loss due to incomplete collection, sorting, recovery, during recycling processing, rejection etc. In short, the recyclability is the %132 of the amount of end-oflife product or waste that is found in the secondary good(s). For practical reasons and for long-living products this should per convention be the currently achieved recyclability for this product (or for new / projected products the achieved recyclability of comparable products in the same market). This can be another reference if the goal of the study explicitly relates to recyclability scenarios. 130 This is as secondary goods often have distinctly different properties from primary produced goods (e.g. recycled aged plastics vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5102, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 182, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "130 This is as secondary goods often have distinctly different properties from primary produced goods (e.g. recycled aged plastics vs. primary plastics), what makes a clear assignment to the equivalent or most similar process / system more difficult. 131 This serves to avoid a potentially misleading upscaling of the superseded function's inventory in case of applying market value correction when correcting for the functional differences. 132 Note that this % needs to relate to the appropriate property and unit of the secondary good, e.g. Mass in kg for recycled materials, Lower calorific value in MJ for recovered energy, Pieces in number for reused parts, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5103, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 182, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling XIII.b.iv) The superseded process(es) / system(s) shall be identified applying the general consequential modelling guidance as detailed in the above provisions133. XIII.b.v) Also here not one marginal process should be used but the average inventories of several of the potential marginal processes. XIII.b.vi) For application-unspecific secondary goods, any reduced technical properties of the secondary good should be corrected in the accredited inventory by using the market price ratio (value correction) of the secondary good to the primary produced replaced function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5104, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 183, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XIII.b.vii) For application-specific uses of the secondary goods, sufficient functional equivalence with the superseded good shall be ensured and the credited inventory be reduced to the amount that is effectively superseded. In the case this cannot be determined, the market price ratio (value correction) shall be applied as in the application-unspecific case. XIII.b.viii) Especially for the case of \"open loop - different primary route\" in addition it is to be checked whether commercially relevant alternative processes are operated. Otherwise, the provisions for the general case of solving multifunctionality under consequential modelling shall be applied. XIII.b.ix) The other guidance aspects of this chapter on identifying the superseded processes (e.g. constraints, secondary consequences, etc.) apply analogously", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5105, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 183, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "XIII.b.ix) The other guidance aspects of this chapter on identifying the superseded processes (e.g. constraints, secondary consequences, etc.) apply analogously. Note that for scenario formation in comparisons, the various primary and secondary consequences and constraints should be varied jointly when defining \"reasonably best case\" and \"reasonably worst case\" scenarios. 7.3 Planning data collection (No corresponding chapter in ISO 14044:2006; addressed in many chapters across the standard) 7.3.1 Overview Based on the scope settings and the initially identified principle data and information needs (see chapter 6.9.2) and the initially identified processes within the system boundaries 133 That means that the earlier named constraint for already fully used, dependent co-products of joint production also applies here: since the production of e.g. a recycled metal as dependent co-product cannot be increased with that same multifunctional process/technology (i.e. by producing more e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5106, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 183, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a recycled metal as dependent co-product cannot be increased with that same multifunctional process/technology (i.e. by producing more e.g. metal goods, what is of course not happening), its additional provision via primary production cannot be assumed. Instead, alternative routes need to be modelled for the supply of the recycled metal. As stated for the general case, the determining co-product shall not be substituted. The following example explains what that means and why for \"closed loop\" and \"open loop - same primary route\" cases nevertheless the primary production is to be substituted: Example: the determining coproduct of primary and secondary metal is the primary metal. The secondary metal, after recycling, is the dependent co-product. If this one is fully used in the same or other products and from the perspective of the metal product made of primary metal, recyclability substitution is applied, substituting the secondary good by primary metal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5107, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 183, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "From the perspective of the user of the secondary good \"recycled metal\", the metal primary production shall not be substituted, but alternative ways of supplying the recycled metal shall be modelled. This alternative way is however - what makes this case apparently specific - the primary production of that metal as this is the only way to increase the availability of the required metal on a net basis. Hence in both cases, primary production is to be substituted, but for different reasons.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5108, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 183, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results (see chapter 7.2), their actual collection and acquisition is to be planned. As for most steps in LCA work, also the data collection planning is iterative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5109, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 184, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As for most steps in LCA work, also the data collection planning is iterative. Before the actual planning of data and information collection can be done it is recommended to get clarity on some fundamentally different options and considerations: \uf0b7 Foreground system - specific, average, or generic data? \uf0b7 Background data for attributional and consequential modelling \uf0b7 Need for multi-annual average data or generic data \uf0b7 Primary and secondary data sources \uf0b7 Focus efforts 7.3.2 Foreground system data - specific, average, or generic (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2 and 4.3.2.1) Avoiding black-box unit processes When aiming at collecting data for the identified processes within the system boundaries, aim should be to collect data for the actually required processes and not for agglomerates of these with other processes that are not required", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5110, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 184, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is important for accuracy of the data, for review reasons, as well as for avoiding multifunctionality problems that are otherwise unavoidable. This can be done by either collecting data exclusively for the required processes or, at least in some cases, by virtual subdivision of collected data, singling out the relevant inventory for the required function. Chapter 7.4.2.2 provides the details. Aiming at specific data for the identified processes within the system boundaries Ideally, the final model of the life cycle of a any system would be represented by producer or operator specific data, i.e. modelling the exact life cycle depicting - as far as required for the study - the supply-chain, use, end-of-life (for attributional modelling) or theoretical consequential supply-chain, use, end-of-life (for consequential modelling). In practice, and as a general rule, for foreground processes specific inventory data should be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5111, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 184, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In practice, and as a general rule, for foreground processes specific inventory data should be used. This data is typically compiled as primary data from the product/technology developer134, goods producer, or service operator and should include specific secondary data from the tier-one suppliers (incl. waste service suppliers). As initial steps during data collection, generic or average secondary background data may be used to identify the need for more representative or specific data. This fully applies to attributional modelling and to a lesser extent to consequential modelling. For processes that are not expected to be key processes of the system, estimations (e.g. based on modelling from process knowledge) may equally provide a first idea of the process data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5112, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 184, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For processes that are not expected to be key processes of the system, estimations (e.g. based on modelling from process knowledge) may equally provide a first idea of the process data. Generic or average data for the foreground system in attributional modelling Generic or average data may be more appropriate for processes of the foreground system in case the quality of available specific data is considerably lower and the generic or average data sufficiently represents the process. It is important to note that there is no free choice between producer-specific and average or generic data, but the equivalence / representativeness determines this decision. 134 E.g. data on the use stage of consumer products. Other, independent sources may complement this.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5113, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 184, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results For attributional modelling, generic or average background data sets can also be used for foreground processes of little quantitative contribution to the overall environmental impact. They also can be used \u2013 as parameterised processes or partly terminated systems \u2013 for modelling foreground processes that operate standard machines (e.g. trucks for goods transport, injection moulding machines etc.) where only the specific operating conditions need to be adjusted. Generic or average data for the foreground system in consequential modelling For consequential modelling generic or average background data sets may equally help in the foreground system, in case available specific data lacks quality or to fill smaller data gaps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5114, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 185, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The use of generic parameterised unit process data sets is equally useful as in attributional modelling, if suitable for the specific process / system. 7.3.3 Background data for attributional and consequential models (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter but relates to aspects of chapters 4.2.3.3.2, 4.2.3.6.2, and 4.3.2.1) Types of background data As detailed in the related box and figure of chapter 6.6.1, the term background system relates to its concept from a data collection perspective135. The types of required background data differ between attributional and consequential modelling. For attributional modelling this type is the market consumption mix of processes / systems. For consequential modelling these are: \uf0b7 mix of \"short-term marginal\" processes / systems, \uf0b7 mix of \"long-term marginal\" processes / systems, and All these mixes relate to a specific or generic process, good or service (or a wider group of these) in a given market and a given time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5115, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 185, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The marginal mixes would either be the most cost-competitive processes or systems (in case of \"growing, stable or slightly declining\" markets, i.e. declining not more than the average displacement rate of capital equipment) or the least competitive ones (in case of strongly declining\" markets; dito). This is unless secondary consequences and constraints change this or even counteract and fully compensate the primary consequences so that the average consumption mix better represents the superseded processes / systems than the marginal mix (respectively in that case both would be identical). Note that for substitution under Situation A and B, somewhat simplified provisions are made (see chapters 6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3). 135 Often also foreground processes are affected by an analysed decision. E.g. may a new production technology result in a strongly reduced process steam demand, what poses the question how the current on-site steam producers are affected as consequence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5116, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 185, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "E.g. may a new production technology result in a strongly reduced process steam demand, what poses the question how the current on-site steam producers are affected as consequence. In such cases however one would rather model a scenario of the likely technology to be installed (or decide whether the steam producer would continue to operate at lower load factor) instead of applying a formal and theoretical consequential identification of the processes. This situation is identical to other micro-effect consequences that can be assumed to rather not change the installed processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5117, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 185, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Unit process, parameterised unit process or LCI results data sets for background use Background data sets can be of different types: LCI results or unit processes (plus variants of these). Both have their clear advantages and disadvantages. It depends primarily on the availability and quality of the specifically required data, but also on the available expertise in modelling and other aspects, which approach is more suitable. If modelled consistently, combinations are equally possible. For both unit process and LCI results a good documentation and a qualified and independent external review or panel review are recommended or may be required, depending on the intended application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5118, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 186, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For both unit process and LCI results a good documentation and a qualified and independent external review or panel review are recommended or may be required, depending on the intended application. When working with unit processes and wherever possible, \u201cSingle operation unit processes\u201d should be preferred for data collection over \u201cBlack box unit processes\u201d (see Figure 7). This avoids potential problems of multifunctionality and substantially improves verification/review of the data. For some processes fixed LCI results or unit process inventories may be inadequate. This is if the inventory strongly depends on the specific operating conditions or specific e.g. inputs used. In those cases parameterised unit process data sets or partly terminated system data sets may be required or at least be more efficient and flexible. Examples are e.g. transport processes, flow injection and similar flexible processing machines, waste management processes, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5119, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 186, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Examples are e.g. transport processes, flow injection and similar flexible processing machines, waste management processes, etc. Specific, average, or generic data? Under attributional modelling and for the situation where no specific supplier is used, as well as for data sets further in the background, country/market technology average or generic background LCI sets are more appropriate, but still the data should represent the level of technology (i.e. real market average or \u2013 for scenarios - worst case and best case available), to appropriately represent the products in question. Under consequential modelling, average data is not well suitable in theory, unless there is a high uncertainty on which are the superseded processes, what often is the case. 7.3.4 Need for multi-annual average data or generic data Using data that is averaged over several years may also be necessary in cases where a single year is not representative for the general, \u201ccurrent\u201d situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5120, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 186, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This applies in cases where data varies considerably among years. This could for example be the case for agricultural products, where e.g. yield, the resulting nitrogen surplus and related emissions, pesticide amounts applied, etc. can differ considerably among years due to different meteorological conditions, disease incidents, and the like. Also the load of industrial plants and e.g. import-mixes of raw materials can vary considerably among years. This especially applies to data that represents a specific producer as the data can be expected to vary stronger than the data of the market mix. Similar as average data also generic data can in such cases often better represent the process or system than specific data. Such situations can be identified along historical data from different years of the analysed or similar process that differ significantly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5121, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 186, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such situations can be identified along historical data from different years of the analysed or similar process that differ significantly. It may also be that only for the intended year of modelling specific incidents have occurred that quantitatively have affected the process\u201f output or other relevant inventory items in a unique and hence not generally representative way. This case is also one example where average or generic data may have higher overall quality than specific data.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5122, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 186, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.3.5 Primary and secondary data sources LCI data Based on the specific data needed and the quality requirements, and with the above considerations, the sources for the data and information are to be identified. Consistency and quality as well as quality assurance of data (i.e. review) are important requirements that support valid studies. As already addressed in chapters 6.9.3 and 6.9.4, a wide range of potential LCI data sources exist: \uf0b7 Primary data sources are the producers of goods and operators of processes and services, as well as their associations. \uf0b7 Secondary data sources which either give access to primary data (possibly after remodelling / changing the data) and to generic data are e.g. national databases, consultants, and research groups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5123, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 187, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Secondary data sources which either give access to primary data (possibly after remodelling / changing the data) and to generic data are e.g. national databases, consultants, and research groups. The ILCD Data Network helps in identifying suitable secondary sources. It is recommended to well consider the specific data sources, as changing data sources during the process of modelling is likely to not only delaying the work, but also likely to result in considerable additional costs. Other data: recycling rates, statistical data, etc. Similarly as for the LCI data, also for other data the choice of the sources is an important step that should be taken systematically. See also chapter 6.9.4. 7.3.6 Focus on most relevant data and information It is recommended to balance the effort of data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5124, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 187, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See also chapter 6.9.4. 7.3.6 Focus on most relevant data and information It is recommended to balance the effort of data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information. To be efficient and to effectively using the available resources of time and money to provide the best attainable quality, LCA work needs to be focussed, avoiding to get lost in the huge amount of theoretically contributing processes, flows and aspects. Building on existing experience that sufficiently reflects the analysed process or system and that is of high quality is an essential guide. Product Category Rules (PCR) and product-group specific guidance documents can represent this experience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5125, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 187, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Product Category Rules (PCR) and product-group specific guidance documents can represent this experience. Frequent errors: Wrong focus of data collection It can often be found in LCA practice that the focus of data collection is not properly guided by relevance of that data for the final results: Personal interests in certain processes, lack of experience on what is key for the analysed process or system, no consideration of available experience elsewhere (e.g. as condensed in appropriate and high quality Product Category Rules (PCRs)), getting lost in the many options for substitution and allocation without checking whether it matters from the system's perspective, and many other reasons lead to using up the available time and resources to collect lots of detailed and accurate data for processes or flows that contribute little to the total. At the same time, rough estimate data or gaps remain unsolved for main contributing processes and flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5126, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 187, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "At the same time, rough estimate data or gaps remain unsolved for main contributing processes and flows. Efficient and effective good practice in data collection requires to focus on what matters. At the same time it should be warned to not entirely rely on existing experience and PCRs, as those sources may have often drawn on other existing experience and so on, without necessarily verifying what else matters. Using high quality experience is necessary, as well as making sure that the experience actually reflects the analysed situation and the specific process or system studied.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5127, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 187, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Also the often found entire reliance on readily available background from third-parties, as e.g. included in LCA software (not checking for quality or data gaps in those data, where other third-party data may be needed) contribute to the lack of quality of the results and robustness of conclusions. It is recommended therefore to always foresee that high quality data may have to be also specifically collected or obtained also for key background processes. The following steps are recommended for systematically and efficiently determining quality requirements on LCI data. Unless the quality requirements are defined directly in the goal, this is done only after the first loop of data collection, results calculation, impact assessment, the identification of significant issues, and the evaluation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5128, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 188, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The requirements may need to be fine-tuned / adjusted in subsequent loops: \uf0b7 For the identification of quantitative LCI data quality needs, determine / estimate the accuracy, completeness and precision of the LCIA results that is required by the intended application, e.g. to allow identifying significant differences among compared alternative products. \uf0b7 Translate these requirements to related requirements at the level of elementary flows by taking into account the impact potentials of the individual elementary flows and by disregarding the uncertainties / inaccuracies associated with the characterisation factors. \uf0b7 Based on the above, use the requirements on the elementary flows to determine the maximum permissible uncertainties, inaccuracies and incompleteness of the overall inventory of the to-be-collected or purchased processes' or systems' inventories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5129, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 188, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this includes systematic uncertainties from LCI methods and models applied in the system and from assumptions made when setting up the system (e.g. product life cycle model). \uf0b7 Use this information as indicative guidance on quality requirements in the collection or purchase of inventory data (i.e. unit process or LCI results and similar data sets). For third-party LCI data sets it is recommended to consider the following additional quality aspects: appropriate documentation, the use of compatible elementary flows and nomenclature, methodological consistency, and (potentially) a qualified external review. Provisions: 7.3 Planning data collection Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5130, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 188, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 7.3 Planning data collection Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - Identify newly required, study-specific unit processes: Identify for which processes of the analysed system new, study-specific unit processes have to be developed with producer or operator specific primary and secondary data. This is typically the case for the entire foreground system (including for those parts of existing or planned contractual relationships). The use of technical process or flow diagrams is recommended. (7.3.2) II) SHALL - Average and generic data: Identify for which parts of the analysed system the use of average or generic LCI data sets is more appropriate. Note that for a given case, average or generic data may be more accurate, complete and precise also for some processes of the foreground system. If such will be used, this shall be justified. (7.3.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5131, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 188, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Note that in case only a single unit process is the deliverable of the LCI study, only data for that process are to be collected, of course, and the provisions apply analogously. III) MAY - Identify data and information sources: It is recommended to systematically identify sources for the required data and information. This includes considering working for the background system primarily with LCI results or with unit process data sets, which both have advantages and disadvantages that are for the given case to be evaluated. Combinations are possible if the data is consistent. Among the LCI data sources, primary and secondary sources can be differentiated. Guiding principle should be the availability and quality of the most appropriate data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5132, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 189, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Among the LCI data sources, primary and secondary sources can be differentiated. Guiding principle should be the availability and quality of the most appropriate data. Working with well documented and already reviewed data sets is recommended. This supports a correct use of the data sets, a sound documentation of the analysed system, and its review. (7.3.3, 7.3.5) [ISO+] IV) MAY - SI units: It is recommended to aim at collecting data in the Syst\u00e8me international d'unit\u00e9s (SI) units, to minimise conversion efforts and potential errors. [ISO+] Note that SI units shall be used for reporting (see chapter 10.2). V) SHOULD - Multi-annual or generic data to be preferred?: Evaluate along the goal of the study whether multi-annual average data or generic data should be preferred over annual average data as better representing the process / system. This applies for processes with strong inter-annual variations (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5133, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 189, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This applies for processes with strong inter-annual variations (e.g. agriculture; producer-specific data in general), to ensure sufficient time-related representativeness. (7.3.4) [ISO+] VI) MAY - Relevance-steered data collection: It is recommended to steer the effort for data collection by the relevance of the respective data and information. Building on existing experience that sufficiently reflects the analysed process or system and that is of high quality is an essential guide. Product Category Rules (PCR) and product-group specific guidance documents can represent this experience. The following is meant to help focussing data collection efforts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5134, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 189, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Product Category Rules (PCR) and product-group specific guidance documents can represent this experience. The following is meant to help focussing data collection efforts. The initial data quality and data set quality requirements as identified in 6.9.2 may need to be fine-tuned / adjusted in subsequent loops as follows (but see also chapter 4) (7.3.6): [ISO+] VI.a) For the identification of quantitative LCI data quality needs, determine / estimate the accuracy, completeness and precision of the LCIA results that is required by the intended application (e.g. to allow identifying significant differences among compared alternative products). VI.b) Translate these requirements to related requirements at the level of elementary flows by taking into account the impact potentials of the individual elementary flows and by disregarding the uncertainties / inaccuracies associated with the characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5135, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 189, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VI.c) Use these requirements on the elementary flows to determine the maximum permissible uncertainty, inaccuracy and incompleteness of the overall inventory of the to-be-collected or purchased processes' or systems' inventories. Note that this includes systematic uncertainties from LCI methods and models applied and from assumptions made when setting up the system model. VI.d) Use this information as indicative guidance on quality requirements in the collection or purchase of inventory data (i.e. unit process or LCI results and similar data sets). For secondary LCI data sets it is recommended to consider the following additional quality aspects: appropriate documentation, the use of compatible elementary flows and nomenclature, methodological consistency, and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5136, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 189, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results a completed qualified external review. Note that in case the later collected or purchased data sets do not meet the requirements, the results of the study may not meet the overall consistency, quality and review requirements. Note that all publicly accessible data sources shall later be referenced. Various descriptive information shall later be provided for all significant data, such as the data collection process, the age of the data and data quality indicators. 7.4 Collecting unit process LCI data (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2 and aspects of 4.3.3) 7.4.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.1) Introduction For all processes that have been identified (see chapters 7.2.3 or 7.2.4), the inventory data have to be collected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5137, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 190, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An actual collection of inventory data is typically only required for the foreground system, provided all data in the background system can be sourced from available background databases. Unit process data are at the basis of all LCI work. The provisions for their collection are essentially the same for attributional and consequential LCI modelling. Ideally they relate to a single operation unit process of a specific process (e.g. bulk goods transport performed by a specific 7.5 t truck model). This is what this chapter relates too. However they can also refer to an averaged mix of processes (e.g. market mix of bulk goods transport by all the specific brands of EURO 4, 7.5 t trucks in Germany). This builds on this chapter, with the averaging being addressed in the later chapter 7.7. Or they can be generic in nature and hence depict a process or technology in general rather than its operation in a specific or average way (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5138, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 190, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Or they can be generic in nature and hence depict a process or technology in general rather than its operation in a specific or average way (e.g. market mix of the same truck type as before, but obtained generically instead of averaging data of the specific truck models, which might not be available). Development of generic data sets is addressed in the later chapter 7.5, with many provisions of this chapter to be applied as well. All these data set types can include parameterisation, yielding technology models as parameterised unit process. Note that all of these can also refer to a set of interconnected single-operation unit processes (e.g. a plant or whole site), i.e. be a black box unit process for which the inventory data is collected136. For this mostly the same provisions apply as for single operation unit processes. Which of these forms of unit processes is used depends on a range of issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5139, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 190, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For this mostly the same provisions apply as for single operation unit processes. Which of these forms of unit processes is used depends on a range of issues. These include: \uf0b7 goal and scope of the study (especially type of process / system analysed, intended applications), \uf0b7 data availability and quality, and 136 Note that unless explicitly aim of the study, the collection of single operation unit processes should be aimed at and the collection of black box unit processes should be avoided. Black box unit processes cause difficulties to review and often in addition multifunctionality problems. The latter require extra information and effort to be solved and in any case distort the results to some degree. If during data planning or raw data collection a process turns out to be a black box unit process, one should check whether it can be split by subdivision before data collection or virtual subdivision afterwards.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5140, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 190, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results available resources (finance, experts). Overview This chapter starts with the main guidance on the initial step of collecting raw data towards obtaining unit processes (7.4.2). This includes the important step of interim quality control and dealing with missing data. The next two subchapters give provisions on a range of methodological issues for elementary flows (7.4.3) and specific process types (7.4.4). The last subchapter 7.4.5 details conventions in naming and other aspects. A more tailor-made, but also much more condensed, technical guidance on the development of LCI data set is given in the separate guidance documents on \u201cSpecific guidance document for LCI data sets\u201d. That document builds on the \"Provisions\" of this general guidance and focuses on the relevant items for LCI data set development", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5141, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 191, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That document builds on the \"Provisions\" of this general guidance and focuses on the relevant items for LCI data set development. 7.4.2 Basic data collection towards unit processes (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.2. and 4.3.3) 7.4.2.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5142, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 191, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and 4.3.3) Before providing the overarching methodological provisions and nomenclature and other conventions to be applied to processes and flows, in this chapter the provisions and recommendations are given on the basic collection of raw data137 and the way towards unit process inventories: \uf0b7 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision or virtual subdivision (7.4.2.2) \uf0b7 Describing what the unit process represents (7.4.2.3) \uf0b7 Types of input and output flows to collect (7.4.2.4) \uf0b7 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets (7.4.2.5) \uf0b7 Reference amount of the reference flow (7.4.2.6) \uf0b7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions (7.4.2.7) \uf0b7 Checking legal limits (7.4.2.8) \uf0b7 From raw data to unit process inventory per reference flow (7.4.2.9) \uf0b7 Solving confidentiality issues (7.4.2.10) \uf0b7 Interim quality control (7.4.2.11) , and as an important aspect of this \uf0b7 Dealing with finally missing inventory data (7.4.2.11.3) 137 A more comprehensive guidance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5143, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 191, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "issues (7.4.2.10) \uf0b7 Interim quality control (7.4.2.11) , and as an important aspect of this \uf0b7 Dealing with finally missing inventory data (7.4.2.11.3) 137 A more comprehensive guidance and an approach for systematic documentation of this basic step could be a future work.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5144, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 191, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.2) General approach If the unit process for which data will be collected is a combination of more than one, physically separate process steps, this is a black box unit process; see Figure 8. Black box unit processes can cause difficulties to review. This is the case especially if the process is developed as generic process (see chapter 7.5) and the reviewer would be better able to judge on the level of the single process steps than on an integrated chain of steps. On the other hand and especially for specific data that is based on measurements, the review can well be done on basis of the measured data; subdivision does not help in that case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5145, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 192, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "On the other hand and especially for specific data that is based on measurements, the review can well be done on basis of the measured data; subdivision does not help in that case. At the same time, black box unit processes often cause multifunctionality problems. These require extra information and effort to be solved and in any case distort the results to some degree. If subdividing a multifunctional black box unit process can solve the multifunctionality, this is to be preferred. Subdivided process chains may also be required by the specific application, e.g. a detailed weak-point analysis or ecodesign purpose is more interested in the single contributors and how to reduce their impact than on the value of the absolute, overall results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5146, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 192, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a detailed weak-point analysis or ecodesign purpose is more interested in the single contributors and how to reduce their impact than on the value of the absolute, overall results. In summary: if during data planning or raw data collection a process turns out to be a black box unit process, one should check whether the process can be split by subdivision and whether that would ease review, improve accuracy and applicability, and avoid multifunctionality. Subdivision is generally done before data collection or virtual subdivision afterwards. Subdivision First choice is to subdivide the concerned black box unit process into its included processes. This subdivision is performed prior to the final raw data collection. The relevant inventory data is collected separately and only for those of the included unit processes that relate to the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5147, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 192, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The relevant inventory data is collected separately and only for those of the included unit processes that relate to the analysed system. An example is an assembly hall, where data on electricity, consumables and parts consumption would be collected separately for the different production lines as single operation unit processes. The data on the hall itself, the heating, lighting etc. would also be collected separately as single operation unit processes, while being multifunctional processes, as they serve all production lines. Subdivision is especially important if the black box unit process provides more than one function, i.e. is multifunctional and the resulting single processes are all mono-functional.. If it is theoretically possible in this way to separate the delivery of the targeted good or service from that of the co-function(s), subdivision and sometimes virtual subdivision (see below) are the only approaches that can provide accurate data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5148, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 192, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the preceding example this is not possible, as e.g. the hall and the hall heating cannot be modelled separately for the contained lines. Still, the split has probably substantially improved the data accuracy. Partial subdivision If it is not possible to split the black box entirely, a partial subdivision should nevertheless be done. Partial subdivision can lead to two types of results:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5149, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 192, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results one or more included processes are singled out as single operation unit processes and one or more included processes are still black box unit processes (e.g. in an integrated site for production of the analysed system Melamine, the included Ammonia production plant and the Carbon dioxide co-product separation and compression can be singled out as separate single operation unit processes, while the Urea and Melamine production plants data are available only jointly.) \uf0b7 only some information can be singled out separately for the analysed function but one or more of the included processes are only partly split up, i.e. the \"split\" is cutting through a single process step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5150, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 193, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the \"split\" is cutting through a single process step. Note that under consequential modelling this form of partial splitting of processes can result in distortions when later substitution is used to separate the processes of the analysed function entirely. Under attributional modelling this form is appropriate. Virtual subdivision There are different possibilities for obtaining the inventory data of the included unit processes: actual data collection (preferable option) and \u2013 in many but not all cases \u2013 the use of knowledge about the involved processes: This can be the basis to split up the data of the multifunctional process and assign the inventory items to the included unit processes. Such knowledge can e.g. be the simple understanding that emissions to water can only come from the processes that contribute waste water, that certain parts or consumables are only required as input for certain processes, and the like", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5151, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 193, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In some cases, the assignment and virtual subdivision is qualitatively and quantitatively clear and exact, as in the above example. In other cases the subdivision needs to draw on expert judgement and will not be exact while still improving the data quality. E.g. in a manufacturing line several electricity consuming steps might be metered jointly. Along other machine information (e.g. nominal power uptake, load factor, and running time) it may be possible to sufficiently accurately virtually subdivide the black box to the single process steps, even though not exactly. This way, qualitative production / operation system information can be sufficient to subdivide the black box partly and in some cases even entirely and correctly assign all or most of the quantitative information to the single included unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5152, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 193, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also in those cases where this \u201cvirtual subdivision\u201d cannot provide all single data values, it will often significantly lower the effort, as only remaining missing data needs to be directly collected for the individual included processes. However, note that virtual subdivision can be applied in consequential modelling only if it results in complete separation of the inventory of the analysed function; otherwise the substitution would be distorted. From the perspective of the resulting data sets, virtual subdivision can mean to either generate more than one unit process from the black box data. Or - relevant for black box unit processes that cannot be entirely virtually subdivided but it cuts through the process - the process is not split into more than one, but the subdividable single inventory flows are assigned entirely or partly to the corresponding co-function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5153, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 193, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Virtual subdivision can also in principle be applied to physically not subdividable processes: in a chemical reactor, organic compounds may be chlorinated with Chlorine, resulting in different co-products with one, two and three chlorine groups. The total amount of Chlorine consumed in the reactions as reactant can be assigned to the co-products in proportion to the amount of Chlorine they have bound. This is also an example of partial subdivision that cuts through the single process step. Note that in this example any surplus of Chlorine and any Chlorine emissions require a separate and typically different approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5154, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 193, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results for solving the multifunctionality. It is reiterated that \"cutting\" through not further subdividable joint processes, as done in this example, shall not be applied in consequential modelling / substitution as the results would be distorted. Note that virtual subdivision is equivalent to identifying and using the determining physical causality as allocation principle, i.e. of depicting the quantitative inner relationships between the non-functional flows and the co-functions. Provisions: 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5155, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 194, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) SHOULD - Multifunctionality solvable by subdivision?: Investigate whether the analysed unit process is a black box unit process (concept see Figure 7): does it contain other physically distinguishable sub-process steps and is it theoretically possible to collect data exclusively for those sub-processes? Next, check whether subdivision can solve the multifunctionality of this black box unit process: can a process-chain within the initial black box unit process be identified and modelled separately - preferably process step by process step - that provides only the one required functional output? II) SHOULD - Based on the outcome, the following steps should be followed: II.a) If possible subdivide: If it is possible to collect data exclusively for those included processes that have only the one, required functional output: inventory data should be collected only for those included unit processes, i.e. subdivision be performed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5156, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 194, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "subdivision be performed. II.b) If not possible, partially subdivide: If this is not possible (i.e. the analysed unit process contains multifunctional single operation unit processes that are attributed to the required functional output) or not feasible (e.g. for lack of data access or for cost reasons): inventory data should be collected separately for at least some of the included unit processes, especially for those that are main contributors to the inventory and that cannot otherwise (e.g. by virtual subdivision - see more below) clearly be assigned to only one of the co-functions. [ISO+] II.c) If also not possible, virtually (fully or partly) subdivide: If neither subdivision nor partial subdivision is possible or feasible, it should be checked whether it is possible by reasoning to virtually partly or fully sub-divide the multifunctional process based on process/technology understanding", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5157, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 194, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is the case wherever a quantitative relationship can be identified and specified that exactly relates the types and amounts of a flow with at least one of the co-functions / reference flow(s) (e.g. the specific mechanical parts or auxiliary materials in a manufacturing plant that are only used for the analysed product can be clearly assigned to that product by subdividing the collected data). For those processes where this can be done, a virtual subdivision should be done, separating included processes as own unit processes without separate data collection. [ISO+] Note that under attributional modelling, singling out required process steps from a black box unit process by virtual subdivision can also improve the basis for a subsequent allocation, with more accurate results.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5158, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 194, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Note that virtual subdivision is applying the same logic as the physical causality as allocation principle, i.e. of depicting the quantitative inner relationships between the non-functional flows and the co-functions. Note that under consequential modelling, actual or virtual partial subdivision within processes results in distortions in case substitution would later be used to separate entirely the analysed function. III) MAY - Other reasons to subdivide / virtually subdivide?: If according to the initial step of these \"Provisions\" the unit process is a black box but is not multifunctional, check whether it would improve the reviewability of the data or whether it is required for the intended applications to subdivide or virtually subdivide the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5159, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 195, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If so, it is recommended to fully or partly subdivide or virtually subdivide the process. [ISO+] 7.4.2.3 Describing what the modelled unit process represents (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.2) Starting from the identification and possibly initial description of the required process (chapter 7.2), describe the actually modelled process in more detail: This includes information of its actual technological, geographical and time-related representativeness and especially the functional unit(s) and reference flow(s), and other quantitative and qualitative information. This information helps in preparation of the actual inventory data collection and quality control. During data collection, quality control etc. it will be fine-tuned towards obtaining the required description and specification of the final process as it has been modelled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5160, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 195, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "During data collection, quality control etc. it will be fine-tuned towards obtaining the required description and specification of the final process as it has been modelled. Frequent errors: Misleading description beyond what is represented by the actual data It can be quite often found that published data sets do not describe what they actually represent (i.e. based on the used data), but what they were intended or are meant to represent. E.g. may the data reflect a single technology, but the data set in such cases is claimed to represent a market mix. Or the data is directly derived from a research study or lab data, theoretical models etc., but is described as being a representative industry process, reflecting average operation at a large scale. This must be avoided by clearly stating what the data set represents. It can of course be that a data set is to some degree representing e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5161, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 195, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This must be avoided by clearly stating what the data set represents. It can of course be that a data set is to some degree representing e.g. a market mix, even though it does not cover all technologies, routes, etc., but this is to be clarified in a prominent place: If combining data from different sources or having otherwise lack of representativeness, this shall be stated in the data set and any accompanying documentation, if published. Note that at the end of the data collection the final documentation of this meta data is to be completed, e.g. naming operating conditions, assumptions made, use of data from other sources, data gaps, achieved completeness and precision of the inventory, etc. Details on documentation are given in chapter 10. Provisions: 7.4.2.3 Describing what the unit process represents Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5162, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 195, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) SHALL - Characterise the unit process: I.a) Representativeness: Characterise the unit process regarding the technology /", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5163, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 195, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results technique, geographical / market scope, and the time (e.g. year, plus seasonal / diurnal differentiation, if applicable) it represents and any possibly limited representativeness. This characterisation includes identifying the relevant operating conditions and/or other factors influencing its inputs and outputs to a relevant degree. See chapter 6.8 for details. I.b) Reference flow(s) / functional unit(s): If the deliverable is an LCI study or data set, one or more reference flows are the key identifiers and quantitative reference of the life cycle inventory and documentation. Determine and name the reference flow(s) as the amount of product(s) of the system that provide the function as specified in the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5164, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 196, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Determine and name the reference flow(s) as the amount of product(s) of the system that provide the function as specified in the functional unit. For recommendations on product flow naming see document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\". Also the functional unit(s) should be specified if appropriate and/or technical specifications be given (provisions for different process / system types see chapter 6.4.6). [ISO+] Note that a variety of meta data about the process and/or its product(s) is later to be provided to the user and reviewer, e.g. on its technical applicability, method assumptions, who has modelled it, etc. It is recommended to ensure proper documentation already on level of the single unit process, also if the deliverable is an LCI result or LCA study, by using the ILCD data set format (see also chapter 10 on \u201cReporting\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5165, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 196, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.3) Types of flows The final unit process inventory lists input and output flows. These are based on various kinds of data and information and only seldom the collected data can directly be inventoried. This chapter identifies first what is the kind of flows that finally will be found in the inventory, as guidance for orientation: Process inventory data is collected or modelled on input side and output side. Input side flows include elementary flows such as material and energy resources, land use, product flows such as energy carriers, chemicals and materials, consumables, parts and components, semi-finished products, complex products, and services of all kind, and. Output side flows include \u2013 next to the one or more product(s) - generated waste, emissions to air, water and soil, and other environmental aspects that may be of relevance for the impact assessment (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5166, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 196, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "noise, nature littering, etc.) and for the given case. Specifically for waste management processes, waste flows will additionally occur on the input side; see chapter 7.4.4.2. The Provisions list the types of flows systematically. Provisions: 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect I) SHALL - Types of input and output flows: Quantitative data of all relevant138 inputs and outputs that are associated with the unit process shall be collected /modelled, as far as possible. Where not possible, the gasp shall be documented and if they cannot be overcome be considered when reporting the achieved data quality and when interpreting results of a study. These flows typically include, if relevant for the modelled 138 See Action on \"applying cut-off rules\" more below in this chapter.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5167, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 196, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results process / system: I.a) Input of \u201cconsumed\u201d products (i.e. materials, services, parts, complex goods, consumables, etc.), as product flows. I.b) Input of wastes (only in case of waste servicing processes), as waste flows. I.c) Input of resources from nature (i.e. from ground, water, air, biosphere, land, etc. and with possible further sub-compartment specifications as required by the impact assessment methodology to be applied), as elementary flows. I.d) Emissions to air, water, and soil (with possible further sub-compartment specifications as required by the impact assessment methodology to be applied), as elementary flows I.e) Other input and output side interventions with the ecosphere (if required by the applied LCIA methods), as elementary flows. I.f) Output of wastes (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5168, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 197, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.f) Output of wastes (e.g. solid, liquid, gaseous waste for waste management within the technosphere139), as waste flows. I.g) Output of valuable goods and services provided by the process, as product flows. 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2.2. and 4.3.3) Specific data collection - measurements and tailored questionnaires The most representative sources of data for specific processes are measurements directly performed on the process, or obtained from operators by interviews or questionnaires (see morebelow inthis chapter). Seldomly the data can directly be inventoried, but it needs scaling, aggregation or other forms of mathematical treatment to bring them in relation to the process' functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s). This is addressed in chapter 7.4.2.9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5169, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 197, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is addressed in chapter 7.4.2.9. Among others the following types of directly or indirectly measured data and information can be differentiated for existing processes and products: \uf0b7 process or plant level consumption data \uf0b7 bills and stock/inventory-changes of consumables \uf0b7 emission measurements (concentrations plus corresponding off-gas and wastewater amounts) \uf0b7 composition of waste and products, especially the elementary composition and energy content in support of element and energy balances that support quality control and quality improvement (cut-off) Further data sources for specific processes Next to measurements, it is typically helpful (also for cross-checks) or even necessary (to fill gaps) to draw on other data sources. These include: 139 The emissions resulting from waste that is directly discarded into the environment shall be modelled as part of the LCI model, with the processes considered to be part of the technosphere (details see chapter 7.4.4.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5170, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 197, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results recipes and formulations, \uf0b7 part lists, \uf0b7 patents, \uf0b7 process engineering models, \uf0b7 stoichiometric models, \uf0b7 process and product specifications and testing reports, \uf0b7 legal limits, \uf0b7 data of similar processes, and \uf0b7 BAT reference documents. For future processes and for generic data sets, data and information on existing processes and on models of the future or generic processes need to be used jointly. Future processes - models, foresight, lab data For future processes this will be more on the side of models, drawing on all kinds of available data and information, including e.g.: \uf0b7 process modelling or planning, \uf0b7 patents, \uf0b7 lab data or pilot plant data, \uf0b7 data of existing, similar technologies / techniques, \uf0b7 BAT reference documents, and again \uf0b7 legal limits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5171, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 198, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Generic data - process and system characteristics For generic data sets technical characteristics of the to-be-modelled processes can often be measured and then averaged towards getting representative parameters for the generic model. Such technical characteristics can be e.g. \uf0b7 principle list of relevant flows of the process or e.g. bill of material and processing level of the good, \uf0b7 efficiency ratios of e.g. energy conversion or yield, \uf0b7 stoichiometric and other physical limits to the range of flow-amount ratios, \uf0b7 ranges of existing technologies / techniques, and again \uf0b7 BAT reference documents, and \uf0b7 legal limits. On the development of generic processes see 7.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5172, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 198, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "On the development of generic processes see 7.5. Use stage and initial waste management data of consumer products In the case \u2013 depending on the goal of the study \u2013 also the use stage and initial waste management of a consumer product (either by final consumers or by a service operator) is included in the system boundaries, the data collection faces different challenges than for production processes:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5173, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 198, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results In difference to production processes, the way how the product is used is often much less homogeneous and much less well-defined. Very different use scenarios exist. At the same time, consumer products often have an important use stage when they perform their function, e.g. by consuming energy (\"energy-using products\"), by being related to energy-consumption (\"energy related products\"), or by having other relevant characteristics (e.g. being potentially problematic regarding initial waste management by the consumer such as waste separation questions, discharge via toilet, etc.). This affects in a similar degree processes operated at final consumers and as supporting processing in business", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5174, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 199, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This affects in a similar degree processes operated at final consumers and as supporting processing in business. Another example - also related to the use stage of products but less obvious - is the use of personal consumer products such as clothes, watches, mobile phones, laptops, and the like: many of them are transported during their use stage, e.g. by car, train, or plane. Their weight, the related fuel consumption, emissions, etc. should be considered in principle, if quantitatively relevant and using e.g. an average or typical transport situation. The data for these steps can in addition to measurements and technical specifications from the producer come from surveys that aim at identifying the representative average or typical user behaviour. This often requires different forms of data collection. Questionnaires and other means to collect data For the data collection, it is recommended to use tailor-made data collection sheets together with specific (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5175, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 199, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Questionnaires and other means to collect data For the data collection, it is recommended to use tailor-made data collection sheets together with specific (e.g. technical) flow charts to ensure proper inventorying and documentation already on level of the single unit processes. The initial and fine-tuned flow charts that were prepared in context of the scope definition and when identifying to-beincluded processes are useful for this purpose. During data collection and iterative with feedback from the process operator they may be revised to better capture the respective process(es). It is recommended to depict in these flow-charts the level of the desired detail, e.g. singleoperation unit processes and not on the aggregated level of black box unit processes. This supports decisions on the eventual need for subdivision of multifunctional processes and the review of the inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5176, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 199, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This supports decisions on the eventual need for subdivision of multifunctional processes and the review of the inventory. Provisions: 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets I) SHOULD - Raw data types: Raw data types that should be used for the process, as required: [ISO+] I.a) Measured data collected by/at process operators should be preferred if possible and appropriate. Measurements are not only physical measurements of e.g. emissions but also other specific information for the operated process such as e.g. bills and consumption lists, stock/inventory changes, and similar. I.b) Element composition and energy content of product and waste flows. This data should later be inventoried as flow property information for these flows to support interim quality control, review, and improving data quality. I.c) Various other data can be helpful (also for cross-checks) or even necessary (to fill gaps). These are e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5177, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 199, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.c) Various other data can be helpful (also for cross-checks) or even necessary (to fill gaps). These are e.g. recipes and formulations, part lists, patents, process engineering models, stoichiometric models, process and product specifications and testing reports, legal limits, market shares and sizes, data of similar processes, BAT reference documents, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5178, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 199, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results I.d) Use stage information: For modelling the use stage of consumer products and initial waste management, it is recommended to use surveys and studies that analyse the average or typical user behaviour to complement product specifications and user manuals. Information provided in product category rules (PCR) can be supporting. II) MAY - Tailor-made data collection forms: It is recommended to use tailor-made data collection forms together with technical flow charts. Specific data collection forms are recommended over generic forms. [ISO+] 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.3) The individual data for the inventory must each be quantitatively expressed as flows per functional unit (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5179, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 200, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the mass of carbon dioxide that is emitted to air in relation to the reference flow of the system, e.g. 1 MJ lower calorific value heat generated in case of a water boiler). In attributional modelling, the inventories and the model are linearly to the amount of function, i.e. it does not matter whether 1 kg copper wire is used or 100,000 t. In consequential modelling however, the amount of the required or provided function influences whether a small-scale or large-scale situation exists. In modelling of Situation B (see chapter 5.3) it depends on the actual amount in relation to the market size whether large-scale consequences can be assumed to occur. To ease the identification of those processes where this applies, it is therefore recommended to check the amount in context of the system model, e.g. by scaling the model to the total scale of the analysed process in the foreground system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5180, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 200, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "by scaling the model to the total scale of the analysed process in the foreground system. Together with the information of the market size, that is recommended to be documented in any process data set for use in consequential modelling, it can be easily checked - starting from the foreground process and going stepwise into the background system - which processes are affected. To ease reporting, reading, reviewing and jointly using inventory data from different data providers, a convention for the selection of these reference flow properties and reference units is helpful: Unless explicitly differently set by the goal of the study, it is recommended to express the inventory always in relation to \"1 unit\" of the function of the process / system (e.g. 1 kg \"Copper wire XY standard; 0.1 mm\"), using the flow properties and reference units as defined in the already named document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d (see also chapter 7.4.5). This is unless a different unit (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5181, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 200, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is unless a different unit (e.g. one year of production) is explicitly required for the intended applications. If there is more than one function, only one of them can be set to \"1 unit\" and the other in proportion, of course. Provisions: 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow Differentiated applicability to Situations A, B, and C. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Differentiated applicable for different types of deliverables. Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) MAY - \"1 reference unit\" for the reference flow: It is recommended to use the amount of \"1 reference unit\" of the reference flow (e.g. \"1 kg\" Copper wire...) and to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5182, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 200, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results express the inventory of the process in relation to this amount. This is unless a different amount would be required for the intended application (e.g. \"1 year of production\" of a site). [ISO+] II) SHALL - Document absolute amount of the central process: For LCA studies under Situation A and B, the absolute amount of the central process in the foreground system shall be documented. The total market size of the function of this process shall be documented. This shall be done with the sufficient precision to later check whether the product or waste flows that link the foreground with the background system and potentially further process steps in the background system or any multi-functional foreground processes need to be modelled under Situation B, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5183, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 201, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "whether the analysed decision has large-scale consequences beyond the foreground system. [ISO+] 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6.2) General The representativeness regarding operating conditions is part of the technological representativeness: The collection of inventory data is to take into account the full cycle of the process, i.e. in addition to the actual operation of the process also e.g. start, closure, and eventual stand-by times. It may well be that under these special operation conditions, which may not be seen as directly contributing the system, a large share of the emissions occurs. The above applies unless the data set is meant to represent only a partial cycle. The provisions apply analogously to services, i.e. preparation of the work, performing the service, stand-by/waiting times, after-service activities such as e.g. cleaning of the equipment, performing warrantee activities, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5184, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 201, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "preparation of the work, performing the service, stand-by/waiting times, after-service activities such as e.g. cleaning of the equipment, performing warrantee activities, etc. In order to get a representative impression of the inputs and outputs associated with the process, they should be quantified for a running time of the process that covers at least one full cycle. The results are then divided by the functional output of the process during this time, hereby directly expressing it in unit process form. For operating plants it is recommended (also in ISO 14044:2006) to use one full year as data basis, to capture these are other issues. Parameterised processes Data used for developing the formulas of for parameterised processes should cover all relevant technical and management aspects of the to-be-represented process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5185, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 201, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Parameterised processes Data used for developing the formulas of for parameterised processes should cover all relevant technical and management aspects of the to-be-represented process. In principle all these variables that relate one or typically several inputs and outputs to them (or to other inputs and outputs) needs to be covered and expressed in mathematical relations. These variables and the parameters that will later be used to adjust the process to represent the specific way the process is run can be e.g. load-dependent yield and consumption of consumables, input-composition dependent emissions, yield-dependent consumption of products, collection and recycling rates, and many others. Provisions: 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5186, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 201, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) SHALL - Full operational cycle of the process, if required: The collected inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5187, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 201, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results data for a specific process shall as far as possible and required to meet the goal represent the full operational cycle of the process. This includes all quantitatively relevant steps such as e.g. preparation, start, operation, closure, stand-by and cleaning as well as maintenance and repair of the process / system and under normal and abnormal operating conditions. This is unless the data set is meant to represent only a partial cycle. The above applies analogously also to services. The achieved representativeness of the data shall be documented. II) SHOULD - One full year as data basis: For measured data of operated processes, data for at least one full year should be used as basis for deriving representative average data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5188, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 202, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHOULD - One full year as data basis: For measured data of operated processes, data for at least one full year should be used as basis for deriving representative average data. A sufficient number of samples should be taken and the uncertainty be considered when reporting the precision. III) SHOULD - For parameterised processes: The mathematical relations should represent the relevant changes of the inventory in dependency of the influential parameters, which can be e.g. technical, management, or others. This can include quantitative and qualitative relationships between inventory flows. [ISO+] Note that the mathematical model and its relevant assumptions and limitations later will need to be documented as well. 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) It is additionally advisable to refer to legal limits and reporting obligations that exist for the analysed process or the sector in which the process is operated (or relates to)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5189, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 202, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "All emissions that are specifically regulated should be checked for relevance and \u2013 if given \u2013 be quantified and reported in the inventory. However, to avoid later questions it is advised to report regulated emissions also in case they are not relevant for the LCIA results. In the case the country where the process is operated does not have legal limits or these are very limited in international comparison, it is advisable to identify the inventory items for which legal limits exist in other countries with stricter legislation (e.g. Japan, the EU, or the USA). The values that are set for legal limits can also be used to check whether the measured data is plausible, and in some cases legal limit values can \u2013 after scaling them in relation to the reference flow \u2013 also be used as worst case estimate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5190, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 202, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is however only feasible if the legal limits apply to the specific process and country where it is operated and if compliance with these limit values is actually controlled and enforced. The default use of legal limits for the inventory is not appropriate, unless this is checked and justified for applicability in the analysed process and specific situation. Provisions: 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits Limited applicability for future processes beyond some years from present. Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) MAY - Check legal limits: It is recommended to check for the existence of relevant legal limits as guidance on which flows to in any case include. One may use existing legal limits of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5191, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 202, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) MAY - Check legal limits: It is recommended to check for the existence of relevant legal limits as guidance on which flows to in any case include. One may use existing legal limits of e.g. Japan, the EU, the US in case of limited environmental legislation in the country where the process is operated and as far as the limits are technically transferable. If the legal limits apply in the country / market in which the represented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5192, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 202, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results process is operated and are also enforced, they give an indication of the possible maximum values of the amounts of these flows. [ISO+] Note that legal limit values - also of the country where they originally apply - normally cannot be used as inventory values, unless this is checked and justified for the modelled process and in line with the goal. 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.3) The amount of products produced by a production unit process (or of functions performed in case of services) is required in order to relate the emissions and other flows to the functional unit and reference flow of this unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5193, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 203, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In data collection often accounts are available that report the total annual load of emissions and consumption of fuels, materials and ancillary chemicals of a process or a plant. These annual account figures must be quantitatively related to the amount of goods or services provided during the period which is covered by the account. Frequent errors: Un-reflected use of machine specifications A very common error, which is difficult to detect in review, is to model the performance of a process based on some theory on how it operates and not verifying this with data from the process in real operation. For electrical equipment, sometimes the specified maximum power consumption (e.g. \u201c10 kW\u201d) is used, implicitly assuming to be the average consumption. This does not consider that the equipment is not running all the time and that when it runs it typically is running not on maximum load. In other cases of collecting the raw data, only concentration measurements for emissions are available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5194, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 203, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In other cases of collecting the raw data, only concentration measurements for emissions are available. This applies e.g. to flue gas concentrations of priority air pollutants as required by legal authorities, to concentrations of specific pollutants in wastewater discharges, but also to product concentrations measurements in continuous processing operations. In order to be of use in the data compilation for the inventory, concentrations must be translated to mass flows, and this requires information about the volume of the e.g. flue gas, wastewater, product flow in which the concentration is measured. To relate the resulting numbers correctly to the reference flow, in a second step they must be scaled to the amount of product(s) of the process. Errors in this scaling including when converting additionally between units (e.g. from \u201cng/m3\u201d to \u201ckg\u201d) can often be observed and must be carefully avoided", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5195, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 203, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Errors in this scaling including when converting additionally between units (e.g. from \u201cng/m3\u201d to \u201ckg\u201d) can often be observed and must be carefully avoided. This is best done by documenting all the calculation steps from the raw data to the final inventory data e.g. in one spreadsheet. This also eases interim quality control, review, and later updating of the data set. Frequent errors: Unit conversion errors Unit conversion errors resulting in values being in the range of 1,000 or more too large (e.g. when interpreting kg instead of g or mg) are easily detected. In the other direction, e.g. erroneously downscaling an e.g. PAH emission by a factor 1,000 or more is very difficult to detect as it does not peak out in the inventory analysis. Such cases need deeper expert inside to be observed as conspicuously low numbers. Even worst are errors of below one order of magnitude, as they can much easier pass unnoticed, while still rendering the data and conclusions invalid", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5196, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 203, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Even worst are errors of below one order of magnitude, as they can much easier pass unnoticed, while still rendering the data and conclusions invalid. One potential source for such errors is the use of the \u201c.\u201d and the \u201c,\u201d for decimal separator that is handled differently in different regions and countries. Other unit conversion errors relate to using different unit systems (e.g. Imperial system to SI).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5197, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 203, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Per default the SI units shall be used for reporting, while - depending on data availability - other units will be necessarily used when collecting raw data. Provisions: 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory Note that these provisions are to be applied to each unit process separately, in case more than one is modelled (e.g. in the foreground system of an analysed system). I) SHALL - Correct scaling to the functional unit(s) / reference flow(s): Correct scaling to the functional unit(s) / reference flow(s) shall be ensured when converting the raw data to inventory flows. Note that the e.g. measured concentrations, annual numbers, relative stoichiometric data, yield percentages, etc. usually need to be mathematically processed to correctly relate to the functional unit of the unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5198, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 204, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "usually need to be mathematically processed to correctly relate to the functional unit of the unit process. II) MAY - Documentation of all steps: It is recommended to document all data treatment steps from the raw data to the inventory flows of the unit process, such as averaging/aggregation, scaling, unit-conversion etc. This substantially facilitates the review process in case questions come up and it eases later updating of the data set. Details see chapter 10 on reporting. [ISO+] 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 5.2) Confidentiality issues may occur in data collection and they need to be respected in view of protecting technology know-how and patent rights. Such issues occur both for the foreground system data of the process operator and its tier-one suppliers, but may also occur in background data in cases where there are only 1 or 2 producers in a country or region", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5199, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 204, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In all such cases special confidentiality agreements may be necessary for data collection and modelling, but also review. This may in extreme cases involve that the processes or system is modelled in-house and the external review is equally done in-site, i.e. without sending out the sensitive unit process information. For publication purposes the use of (independently and externally reviewed) LCI result data sets (e.g. aggregated from cradle to gate) can in most cases fully address or sufficiently reduce the confidentiality concerns, as such data does not allow to derive sensitive details about the operations. To ensure the necessary transparency for review, confidential information can be documented in a separate \"confidential report\" that is made accessible only to the critical reviewers under confidentiality; see in chapter 10.3.4. Similar confidentiality issues of protecting know-how and ownership exists for data developed e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5200, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 204, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Similar confidentiality issues of protecting know-how and ownership exists for data developed e.g. by consultants and research groups as secondary data providers. Equally here an independent external review can assure that the claimed data quality has actually been achieved and is correctly documented. Provisions: 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues I) MAY - Aggregation: Confidential and proprietary information can be protected by aggregation to LCI results data set and partly terminated system data sets. [ISO+] II) MAY - Confidential report: Transparency can be ensured by documenting confidential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5201, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 204, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results information in a separate \"confidential report\" that is made accessible only to the critical reviewers under confidentiality; see chapter 10.3.4. 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control for improving data quality (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.3.3.2, 4.3.3.4 and in several other chapters) 7.4.2.11.1 General approach Quality control of the collected data on unit process as well as in the context of the system is an important part of data collection. The approaches that can be applied for this are the same as those foreseen for an external review and drawing on the procedures of chapter 9 on interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5202, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 205, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The approaches that can be applied for this are the same as those foreseen for an external review and drawing on the procedures of chapter 9 on interpretation. While these step as are in principle the same as the ones taken at the end of each iterative round of doing the LCI / LCA study, they can be applied in a less extensive way and only drawing on their aspects. The interim quality control can hence include: \uf0b7 identifying significant issues, \uf0b7 completeness check, \uf0b7 sensitivity check, and \uf0b7 consistency check. This way, the data sets' accuracy, completeness and precision can be improved already in parallel to data collection. This can limit the number of full iterative rounds needed to achieve the required or aimed at quality of the final results. Drawing on these steps, the following can be checked in parallel to data collection and modelling: \uf0b7 Does the unit process inventory include all relevant product, waste and elementary flows that would be expected based on e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5203, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 205, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the input of processed materials, of the nature of transformations occurring in the process, and/or based on experience gained with similar processes? When doing so, make sure to reflect the required technological, geographical and time-related representativeness. \uf0b7 Are the amounts of the individual flows and of the chemical elements, energy and parts in the input and output in expected proportion to each other? There are often stoichiometric or other systematic relationships that can help to check whether measured data is plausible. Performing chemical element and energy balances, as well as cost balances between the input and the output of a unit process (and also LCI result) are key checks for improving data completeness, but also for identifying errors. \uf0b7 Controls may also be based on impact assessment results that are calculated ad hoc for the process as well as for the whole system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5204, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 205, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Controls may also be based on impact assessment results that are calculated ad hoc for the process as well as for the whole system. They may reveal errors in the inventory results through showing unexpected high or low values of contributing elementary flows. It is also recommended to compare the LCIA results with data of the same or similar processes / systems from other sources to identify possible problems. However, this is only useful if the other sources are of high quality and especially high completeness. It must be avoided to assume completeness of a data set only because it includes all flows that are found in a similar process from another source. \uf0b7 On the system level, carefully check that methods have been applied consistently. This especially applies if combining data from different sources. Both for the steps from raw data to unit processes, but also and especially for combining LCI result data sets in a life cycle model.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5205, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 205, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Critically check the findings and aim at clearly qualitatively and quantitatively explaining any observed discrepancies in the inventory data. This can be done by consulting additional data sources or technical experts for the analysed process. They may also help to improve the data, at least qualitatively. \uf0b7 It is recommended providing for each unit process data set an at least brief internal quality control report on the above findings. If the process is intended to support comparative assertions (e.g. as background data set) it shall be accompanied by a third-party report, as also required in ISO 14044. \uf0b7 Finally, reflect the findings in the reported data set quality criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5206, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 206, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as background data set) it shall be accompanied by a third-party report, as also required in ISO 14044. \uf0b7 Finally, reflect the findings in the reported data set quality criteria. Make sure that the data set documentation appropriately describes the process and the finally achieved accuracy, precision, and completeness as well as any limitations. 7.4.2.11.2 Obtaining better unit process data Identify and prioritise the need for obtaining better data Based on the above steps and for any still missing data or quantitative information, the following is recommended: To identify exactly which specific or higher quality data needs to be collected or obtained, for the initially missing data \"reasonably worst case\" flows and values would be used. These can be obtained via expert judgment. E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5207, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 206, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These can be obtained via expert judgment. E.g. an unknown \"metal\" emission could be \"Lead\" and/or \"Arsenic\" in case of a lead-zinc-ore roasting process, a missing \"unspecific polymer part\" could be an \"injection moulded ABS or PUR\" for a consumer electronic product. Note that this information and data is for the given case to be identified. Using these \"reasonably worst case\" approximations, LCI results and LCIA results are calculated for the compete system and a contribution analysis performed. Based on that, the most relevant flows and processes of this missing data/information are identified. If feasible and timely, this information can be used during data collection to better steer this step. Taking a system's perspective The procedure described above works directly on the level of the unit process and is straightforward for the flows' chemical elements\u201f mass, energy, and cost and for other potentially relevant emissions. For the final completeness assessment criteria, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5208, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 206, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the final completeness assessment criteria, i.e. for quantifying the completeness of the data in terms of covered overall environmental impact, the environmental impacts related to the consumed goods and services of the unit process need to be included as well. This means that the unit process is first to be completed to a complete system over its life cycle. Using generic or average background data sets to complete this draft inventory, the completeness of the overall impact can be evaluated, and the collection of better unit process data can be focussed on the main contributing goods and services, i.e. their exact specification and amount. This check is again supported by quantifying the share of data of different quality levels among the aggregated LCIA results, i.e. which share is of \"high quality\", \"basic quality\" and which share only of \"data estimate\" quality, next to the share of lower quality data that is to be cut off (see more below)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5209, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 206, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "which share is of \"high quality\", \"basic quality\" and which share only of \"data estimate\" quality, next to the share of lower quality data that is to be cut off (see more below). It is important to reiterate that completeness / cut-off criteria and precision / uncertainty calculations always relate to the final aggregation level of the developed data set: In the case the individual unit process data set is the deliverable of the LCI/LCA study, the procedure is as described above. However, any limited completeness in the background LCI data sets is not considered, as those were only added to complete the system and to identify the relevance of the product and waste flows of that unit process.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5210, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 206, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Potential sources for data and information to fill gaps First step to deal with initially missing data is the attempt to measure/obtain the data at the process operator. If this fails, data can be obtained from a third-party LCI data provider. While data gaps are acceptable for purely methodological studies, a complete lack of funds or time cannot be an excuse for data gaps: If relevant data gaps remain at the end of the LCI/LCA study, it cannot deliver quality results and may fail to answer the initial question. However, budgets are always limited and data gaps will often occur also in appropriately funded LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5211, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 207, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, budgets are always limited and data gaps will often occur also in appropriately funded LCI/LCA study. At least the following principle options exist for dealing with missing information: \uf0b7 calculation from other, known information, \uf0b7 using information from similar processes or regions with similar process operation (and background processes in case of LCI results) or older data, \uf0b7 estimate the value based on specific expertise, \uf0b7 using methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data (what mainly refers to LCI data sets for background use), or \uf0b7 accept and document the gap. Which is the best solution, depends on the specific case: qualified estimates may be very accurate while using data from not sufficiently similar processes or regions may result in relevant errors. A good technical understanding of the process is indispensible to correctly deal with missing data. Measures taken are to be documented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5212, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 207, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A good technical understanding of the process is indispensible to correctly deal with missing data. Measures taken are to be documented. Calculating data values Often available information can be combined to generate the missing information, e.g. by stoichiometrically calculating CO2 emissions of an incineration process by multiplying the carbon content of the fuel with the stoichiometrical factor 44/12, assuming a full combustion140. Completing the inventory via correlations Another approach is to improve incomplete but measured foreground data (which often has only few emitted substances measured) via correlation with further elementary and waste flows as well as consumables, services etc. from generic data of the same process, thereby completing and improving the inventory. Adjusting data from other countries / markets or from similar technologies Another principle possibility is to adjust existing data that represent a similar situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5213, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 207, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Adjusting data from other countries / markets or from similar technologies Another principle possibility is to adjust existing data that represent a similar situation. However, to do so requires a very good understanding of which differences exist e.g. in the technology mix between two countries, which specific raw material basis is used, which raw gas treatment technologies are applied, etc. (and also which legal emission limits may apply). The number of aspects is very extensive and specific for each case. As was already highlighted in a frequent error box in chapter 6.8.3, it can be found often in practice that data receive just a basic adjustment (e.g. by replacing electricity background data) and are assumed to sufficiently represent another country. Without working together with technical experts of the respective sector and / or country, and without a systematic and case-wise adjusted approach such an adjustment can be expected to not result in sufficient data quality. 140 I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5214, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 207, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "140 I.e. 44 g per mol of CO2 divided by 12 g per mol of C.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5215, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 207, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Expert estimates For still missing data, a value may be estimated based on expert judgment e.g. using data from a sufficiently similar process or the same process modelled for another country (given the technology, operation conditions, and e.g. abatement technologies are comparable). If a sensitivity analysis based on such estimates shows that the process may be important, the estimated data may have to be replaced by data that are more precise in order to meet the requirements on the precision of the overall results. Also here the expert should primarily have the necessary technical expertise. The also required LCA expertise can come from the LCA expert that performs the data modelling. An example: If e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5216, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 208, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also here the expert should primarily have the necessary technical expertise. The also required LCA expertise can come from the LCA expert that performs the data modelling. An example: If e.g. particle emissions are only available as \u201cParticles\u201d without particle size information, a worst case assumption would be \u201cPM < 0.2 \u03bcm\u201d, a reasonable case assumption would look at the typical particle size class of a similar process and use that one (e.g. \u201cPM 2 to 10 \u03bcm\u201d). If no information on particle emissions is available at all, but expert judgement reveals that the process is known to emit relevant amounts (e.g. as it is an ore roasting or incineration process), it is inserted as PM flow and the appropriate particle size would be determined by looking into processes that generate particles in a comparable way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5217, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 208, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Using methodologically not fully consistent data As a last resort and upon individual justification methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data can be used to fill remaining data gaps. Data of methodologically different nature and entirely different modelling approaches cannot be used to fill data gaps, as no information can be given on the achieved accuracy, completeness, and precision and as the degree of methodological consistency equally cannot be stated. Only including data that improve the overall quality In order to actually improve the overall data quality, only data or data sets that effectively increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data or data set's quality (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5218, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 208, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That means that the individual data or data set's quality (i.e. combined accuracy, precision, completeness and its methodological appropriateness and consistency) has to be at least equivalent to the \"Data estimate\" quality level (see annex on data quality indicators and levels). It is argued to be better to report a gap (while documenting which specific information is available, e.g. the type of flow) instead of using e.g. background LCI data sets to fill the gap while at the same time reducing the overall data quality. The available information should however be kept, while without including them in the final inventory, quantitative impact assessment, etc. The next chapter has more on how to deal with such remaining gaps. On worst-case assumptions Note that reasonable worst-case or conservative assumptions are problematic if the data is foreseen to be used for comparisons: While a rather conservative (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5219, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 208, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "On worst-case assumptions Note that reasonable worst-case or conservative assumptions are problematic if the data is foreseen to be used for comparisons: While a rather conservative (i.e. higher) value may be seen as appropriate when providing inventory data of own products, this affects also subsequent uses on other systems and may result in distortions of the results of other systems and related comparisons. Conservative or reasonable worst-case assumptions are however useful as initial estimate for identifying whether a flow or process is to be inventoried at all. Conservative assumptions can also be used to evaluate he robustness of comparisons, i.e. to evaluate whether the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5220, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 208, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results superiority of an alternative is still valid if conservative or even worst-case assumptions are made for its inventory values. Any form of conservative or worst-case estimates or processes must however not stay in the final process or system model. 7.4.2.11.3 Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps / missing data Overview After the above steps, some data may still be missing, qualitatively or quantitatively. This chapter deals with the question how to deal with these gaps in reporting. Types of missing data and information Missing information can be of different type and have different characteristics, and they require different ways to deal with them. There can be missing: \uf0b7 qualitative information (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5221, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 209, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There can be missing: \uf0b7 qualitative information (e.g. specific kind of emission or consumable, such as \"metals\" emission to air, or \"energy\" consumed) \uf0b7 quantitative information (e.g. sufficiently precise amount of a flow, such as \"below 0.005 kg\", or \"between 0.1 and 2.5 kg\", \"unknown amount\") This can relate to \uf0b7 product or waste flows (what implies that the life cycle inventory of the provision of the product or treatment of the waste is equally qualitatively or quantitatively not sufficiently known) \uf0b7 elementary flows (what implies that often the classification, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5222, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 209, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "link to the relevant impact category/ies is/are missing, and in any case the specific characterisation factor(s) cannot be given) An additional difficulty is that the limited available information could be documented in the inventory of an unit process level, while when calculating LCI results, an appropriate solution is to be found how to combine such partial data gaps (qualitative or quantitative) with available information (e.g. how to sum up an unclear or unknown amount of lead emission to air with the same emission of another process that is known to be e.g. 0.00026 kg. Unknown kg plus 0.00026 kg = ?)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5223, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 209, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "how to sum up an unclear or unknown amount of lead emission to air with the same emission of another process that is known to be e.g. 0.00026 kg. Unknown kg plus 0.00026 kg = ?). Principles to be followed The principles that are followed here to derive a suitable approach are \uf0b7 to keep the available information for further uses, including for interpretation of the relevance of gaps and for review \uf0b7 to support an automated use of the available information, while acknowledging that a use shall also be possible if uncertainty calculation is not performed and without increasing the complexity of the inventory with many specific flows and semiquantitative information \uf0b7 to avoid combining highly uncertain information / data with more certain data, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5224, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 209, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "to report a gap instead of decreasing the overall quality of the inventory item How to deal with remaining missing inventory data / information The following provisions are made: \uf0b7 Missing qualitative information for a unit process inventory item: The respective flow should be created and used in the regular inventory only if it is a product or waste flow.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5225, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 209, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Unclear elementary flows (e.g. \"Metals to air\") shall not be kept in the regular inventory but this information shall be documented in another way. This can be either as clearly marked flows that shall not be combined with the elementary flows of the regular inventory when aggregating the data sets of the analysed system, The flows can be marked e.g. as \"missing important\" or \"missing unimportant\", as applicable (see more below), and be excluded from the aggregation. Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). \uf0b7 Missing quantitative information for a unit process inventory item: The flow should be inventoried", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5226, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 210, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as attached lists). \uf0b7 Missing quantitative information for a unit process inventory item: The flow should be inventoried. If no quantitative information can be given, this has to be documented by marking the flow as \u201cmissing important\u201d to avoid misleading readers, as the true value is not zero. The omission must be explicitly addressed and considered in the interpretation of the results. If a conservative estimate for a missing data fails to show any quantitative importance, a zero value141 may be entered for this data, but marking it as \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d. If a mean value or a wide range of values (Min and Max) can be given, this should be entered in the inventory. Uncertainty information such as standard deviation and distribution type should be given if possible and if this information has sufficient precision. For both the above cases, the values shall not be aggregated when calculating LCI results. This can be achieved e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5227, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 210, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For both the above cases, the values shall not be aggregated when calculating LCI results. This can be achieved e.g. by marking theses inventory items as \"missing important\" or \"missing unimportant\", as applicable (see more below), and excluding such flows from the aggregation. \uf0b7 Missing qualitative and quantitative information: See preceding two points that are to be combined. \uf0b7 Missing LCI data for processes / systems in the background system: When aggregating the unit processes of the analysed system to LCI results, product and waste flows for which background data of sufficient quality is not available, these flows shall remain in the aggregated inventory, i.e. making the data set a \"partly terminated system\". The user of such data shall be explicitly informed in a prominent place that these parts of the system need to be still completed or the gap be considered in the further use and interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5228, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 210, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The user of such data shall be explicitly informed in a prominent place that these parts of the system need to be still completed or the gap be considered in the further use and interpretation. The above referenced classification \"Missing important\" and \"Missing unimportant\" relates to the question whether the flow is relevant for the LCI results of the unit process data set in which it occurs, if completed to a system data set. Note that this shall include both the type of flow and its amount; for product and waste flows this includes the respective life cycle inventories of the system that they represent (for product flows) or of their management and treatment (for waste flows). The approximation of the flow's relevance may be supported by uncertainty calculation and quantitative calculation of data accuracy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5229, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 210, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The approximation of the flow's relevance may be supported by uncertainty calculation and quantitative calculation of data accuracy. 7.4.2.11.4 Documentation It is recommended to document all such combinations, extrapolations, calculations, correlations, expert judgements, approximations and measures to fill data gaps, etc. on individual data values on unit process level to support a review of the data. This can be done directly inside the unit process data set or in accompanying raw data documentation files. 141 LCA software generally does not have empty values or support inventory values such as \u201d<0.5\u201d and the like. Also, such unspecified values cannot be summed up with existing values from other processes when calculating the LCI results. For these reasons the value \u201d0\u201d is to be entered in the inventory. If information of the named type \u201d<0.5\u201d is available, such should be documented as comment for the respective inventory flow or the raw data background documentation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5230, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 210, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control These provisions can be applied for the entire system or the single unit process that is analysed / developed. Many of the following provisions on interim quality control are only recommendations, but the same controls may be part of a subsequent mandatory external review. General approach (7.4.2.11.1) I) SHALL - Validity check: A validity check of the collected data shall be performed during the process of data collection and unit process development, to confirm that the data is in line with the goal and scope requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5231, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 211, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following provisions provides related operational recommendations on this requirement: II) MAY - Interim quality control as review along \"interpretation\" provisions: For the interim quality control on the unit process level, it is recommended to apply the data quality related technical aspects of the critical review (chapter 11) regarding the scope and methods of review together with the guidance of chapter 9 on interpretation (especially significant issues, sensitivity check, completeness check, and consistency check). These steps can however be done in a less formal way. Among others, the following may be done at this point: [ISO+] II.a) All relevant flows?: Does the unit process inventory include all relevant product, waste and elementary flows that would be expected based on e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5232, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 211, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the input of processed materials, of the nature of transformations occurring in the process, and/or based on experience gained with similar processes? Reflect the required technological, geographical and time-related representativeness. II.b) Flow amounts are proportionate?: Are the amounts of the individual flows and of the chemical elements, energy and parts in the input and output in expected proportion to each other? II.c) Support control by impact assessment: Controls may also be based on impact assessment results for the process as well as for the whole system. They may reveal errors in the inventory results through showing unexpected high or low values of contributing elementary flows. Compare the LCIA results with data of the same or similar processes / systems from other sources to identify possible problems. Make sure the other sources are of high quality and especially high completeness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5233, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 211, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Make sure the other sources are of high quality and especially high completeness. II.d) Method consistency?: On the system level, carefully check that methods have been applied consistently. This especially applies if combining data from different sources. II.e) Follow up on discrepancies: Check and explain or correct any observed discrepancies in the inventory data by consulting additional data sources or technical experts for the analysed process. II.f) Report on findings: It is recommended providing for the unit process data set an at least brief internal quality control report on the above findings. II.g) Reflect findings in data set quality indicators: Make sure that the data set documentation appropriately describes the process and the identified accuracy, precision, and completeness as well as any limitations.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5234, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 211, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control Obtaining better unit process data (7.4.2.11.2) III) SHALL - Dealing with initially missing data: The potential importance of initially missing data shall be checked in the following way and relevant gaps shall be filled if possible and as detailed below: [ISO!] III.a) SHOULD - Identify relevance of initially missing data: A reasonable worst case or at least conservative value for the missing data should be used in a first screening to see if they may influence the overall results of the LCI/LCA study. This reasonable worst case or conservative value may be derived by inference from knowledge of similar or related processes or from correlation or calculation from other flows of the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5235, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 212, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This reasonable worst case or conservative value may be derived by inference from knowledge of similar or related processes or from correlation or calculation from other flows of the process. This includes identifying and inventorying flows that were initially not known to occur in the analysed process but that could not be excluded entirely. III.b) SHOULD - Dealing with relevant, initially missing data: If this screening shows that the missing data may be of importance, in further iterations of the LCA work it should be attempted to first identify whether the flow is actually occurring in the analysed process and if so to get the yet missing data. As second option sufficiently good estimates should be obtained. As third option, if also that is not possible, the gap should be kept and reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5236, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 212, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As second option sufficiently good estimates should be obtained. As third option, if also that is not possible, the gap should be kept and reported. (Details see separate provisions more below): III.c) SHALL - Filling data gaps with estimates of defined and minimum quality: III.c.i) SHALL - For each newly modelled unit process any initially missing data should be documented in a transparent and consistent way. At the end of the iterative steps of improving the data set, the finally missing data and the potential use of data estimates to fill data gaps shall be documented in a transparent and consistent way (see chapter 10 on reporting). III.c.ii) MAY - For judging the relevance of an initial data gap, it is necessary to approximate the achieved accuracy, completeness and precision of the overall environmental impact on system level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5237, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 212, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III.c.ii) MAY - For judging the relevance of an initial data gap, it is necessary to approximate the achieved accuracy, completeness and precision of the overall environmental impact on system level. This necessarily needs that the subsequent steps of modelling the life cycle and calculating LCI results and LCIA results need to be done first (see next chapters). It is recommended to do this in parallel to developing the unit process data set. For unit processes this means completing the life cycle model around the unit process with background data. Any limited completeness in the used background data shall be not considered when calculating the achieved degree of completeness for the unit process for the final reporting. III.c.iii) MAY - For filling data gaps for single flows estimate data (sets) may be considered to be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5238, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 212, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III.c.iii) MAY - For filling data gaps for single flows estimate data (sets) may be considered to be used. Such may be e.g.: III.c.iii.1) generic or average data for missing specific data, III.c.iii.2) average data of a group of similar products for missing inventory data for other, not yet analysed products of that group, III.c.iii.3) correlation with other, more complete and high quality data for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5239, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 212, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g. industry average data for improving a producer-specific process), III.c.iii.4) justified judgements of technical experts / process operators. III.c.iv) SHALL - Data gaps shall generally be filled methodologically consistent data. Gaps of low relevance may also be filed with methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data sets while being developed along the guidance of this document and meeting the overall quality requirements as detailed below. III.c.v) SHALL - Only data that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data / data set's overall quality (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5240, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 213, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That means that the individual data / data set's overall quality (i.e. combined accuracy, precision, completeness, and methodological appropriateness and consistency) shall be equivalent to at least the \"Data estimate\" quality level; see annex 12.3. Note that this shall include both the quality of the used data estimate and of the amount of the flow. That semi-quantitative approximation of the integrated data estimate plus flow amount quality shall be based at least on an individually, briefly justified expert judgement, explicitly considering the named shortcomings; this may be supported by uncertainty calculation and quantitative calculation of data accuracy. Note that both the approach(es) used to estimate initially missing data and the resulting lack of representativeness, precision and methodological consistency on data set level is later to be clearly documented and explicitly considered when declaring the achieved data set quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5241, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 213, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps / missing data (7.4.2.11.3) IV) SHALL - Document remaining data gaps: If data estimates cannot be made available that would meet the above requirements, the data gap shall be kept and be documented instead. The following provisions are made: [ISO!] IV.a) Missing qualitative information for a unit process inventory item: The respective flow should be created and used in the regular inventory only if it is a product or waste flow. Little specified elementary flows (e.g. \"Metals to air\") shall not be kept in the regular inventory but this information shall be documented in another way. This can be either as clearly marked flows that shall not be combined with the elementary flows of the regular inventory when aggregating the data sets of the analysed system, The flows can be marked e.g. as \"missing important\" or \"missing unimportant\", as applicable (see more below), and be excluded from the aggregation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5242, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 213, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as \"missing important\" or \"missing unimportant\", as applicable (see more below), and be excluded from the aggregation. Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). IV.b) Missing quantitative information for a unit process inventory item: The flow should be inventoried. If no quantitative information can be given, this has to be documented by marking the flow as \u201cmissing important\u201d to avoid misleading readers, as the true value is not zero. The omission must be explicitly addressed and considered in the interpretation of the results. If a conservative estimate for a missing data fails to show any quantitative importance, a zero value may be entered for this data, but marking it as \u201cmissing unimportant\u201d. If a mean value or a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5243, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 213, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control wide range of values (Min and Max) can be given, this should be entered in the inventory. Uncertainty information such as standard deviation and distribution type should be given if possible and if this information has sufficient precision. For both the above cases, the values shall not be aggregated when calculating LCI results. This can be achieved e.g. by marking theses inventory items as \"missing important\" or \"missing unimportant\", as applicable (see more below), and excluding such flows from the aggregation142. Or they can be documented exclusively in the descriptive information of the data set (e.g. as attached lists). IV.c) Missing qualitative and quantitative information: See preceding two points that are to be combined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5244, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 214, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as attached lists). IV.c) Missing qualitative and quantitative information: See preceding two points that are to be combined. IV.d) Missing LCI data for processes / systems in the background system: When aggregating the unit processes of the analysed system to LCI results, product and waste flows for which background data of sufficient quality is not available, these flows shall remain in the aggregated inventory, i.e. making the data set a \"partly terminated system\". The user of such data shall be explicitly informed in a prominent place that these parts of the system need to be still completed or the gap be considered in the further use and interpretation. Note that any kind of worst case or conservative data and assumptions shall not be kept in the inventory of LCI data that are foreseen to be applicable for comparisons, unless the representing process operators or system producers themselves wish so (e.g. to align LCI data reporting with other values reported on e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5245, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 214, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "to align LCI data reporting with other values reported on e.g. site or company level). Note that reasonably worst-case data may however be used for scenarios and for checking the robustness of comparisons when doing the sensitivity analysis. Note the specific requirements for product comparisons such as on e.g. the consistency of methods, data quality, and assumptions across the compared alternatives (for details see chapter 6.10). 7.4.3 Overarching method provisions for specific elementary flow types (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.5 and 4.3.2.2) 7.4.3.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.5 and 4.3.2.2) A couple of issues are of overarching relevance and require the same, compatible solutions in support of integration of data compiled along supply-chains and by different developers. They also serve to improve reporting and easing review of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5246, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 214, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "They also serve to improve reporting and easing review of the LCI/LCA study. They equally are of interest for defining the reference elementary flows of the ILCD system and Data Network, together with the provisions on \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d that are given in the respective separate guidance. At the same time they provide guidance for further, consistent elementary flows to be created expanding that initial list. 142 LCA software generally does not have empty values or text entries for the amount of an inventory flow, as it must be able to sum up the entries. If hence a value zero is (automatically) assigned, the classification \"missing important\" ensures that this gap is clearly documented and that flow can be treated differently.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5247, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 214, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Furthermore, some issues are strongly interlinked with LCIA method development and characterisation factor provision (e.g. sum indicators and elementary flow groups, see next subchapter). Other overarching provisions relate to product and waste flows. These were already mentioned earlier such as the inventorying of their energy content and chemical element composition in support of interim quality control, review and improving data quality. Others relate to specific process types and are addressed in the sub-sequent chapter. A number of considerations are being made to derive the most appropriate solutions to these overarching methodological issues, especially for elementary flows: \uf0b7 Distorted impact assessment and \u201chidden\u201d highly impacting flows in aggregated inventory values must be avoided", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5248, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 215, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Incomplete impact assessment due to \u201cforgotten\u201d newly created flows is to be avoided. \uf0b7 The number of flows in the inventory should be kept as low as reasonably possible without relevantly affecting impact assessment, i.e. the differentiation of flow data sets should be not more fine than supported by state-of-the-art LCIA methods and not coarser than required to capture differences in the LCIA results. \uf0b7 The normal LCA practitioner cannot generally be expected to calculate and assign specific or composed impact factors. \uf0b7 Limitations in data availability (or the possibility to derive data via calculations, or sum indicator break-down lists derived from similar processes, etc.) and in budgets are to be accommodated as far as possible, without affecting the quality or robustness of the analysis. \uf0b7 A broad compatibility of elementary flows, independently of applied LCI modelling frameworks is to be achieved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5249, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 215, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 A broad compatibility of elementary flows, independently of applied LCI modelling frameworks is to be achieved. Common for both attributional and consequential modelling are a couple of overarching methodological issues that relate to inventory flows and inventory modelling. Among these are question on inventorying sum indicators and resource flows, how to inventory future longterm emissions, how to model CO2 uptake, storage and release, and the like. These are to be dealt with in the same way, to ensure that LCI data from different data developers can usefully be combined with each other when modelling systems. Equally these serve to ensure that LCIA factors are readily available and elementary flows are not \u201cforgotten\u201d, as a LCIA factor does not exists and practitioners cannot regularly derive specific factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5250, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 215, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7.4.3.2 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Introduction and overview Elementary flows should wherever possible be inventoried as individual substances / interventions rather than as measured indicators such as \u201cAOX\u201d (Adsorbable organic halogenated compounds) or \u201cCOD\u201d (Chemical Oxygen Demand) emissions or elementary flow groups like \u201cheavy metals\u201d or \u201chydrocarbons\u201d emissions. Such measured and grouped elementary flows are in general are not suitable for a subsequent impact assessment and can cause large bias in the results, either exaggerating or underestimating the real impact potential.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5251, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 215, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Practical approach Measurement indicators (i.e. measured emission characteristic such as \u201cVOC\u201d (Volatile Organic Compounds) and \u201cCOD\u201d) and to a lower degree also certain flow groups (i.e. groups of elementary flows such as \u201cAlcohols\u201d) are common in industry practice of measuring emission data e.g. due to legal compliance requirements, measurement techniques (e.g. flame ionization detectors) or in order to limit highly costly measurements of many single substances. Directly measured data on the level of single substance elementary flows are hence often not available. This is (and will stay) the LCI reality the LCA practitioner has to face", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5252, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 216, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Directly measured data on the level of single substance elementary flows are hence often not available. This is (and will stay) the LCI reality the LCA practitioner has to face. It is hence acknowledged that measurements of individual species are often not possible or affordable, but technology experts with knowledge about a specific process or process type (e.g. \u201csolid fuel incineration\u201d) may be able to quantitatively differentiate the emissions on a more detailed level. Such process-type-specific \u201cemission fingerprints\u201d (e.g. for heavy metals composition of the off-gas from a steel blast furnace refinery or the VOC composition from diesel motor off-gases) can be taken case-by-case from industry or research studies. Default break-down lists of the most commonly measured indicators for a range of relevant technology processes could be developed in subsequent work under the ILCD System", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5253, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 216, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Default break-down lists of the most commonly measured indicators for a range of relevant technology processes could be developed in subsequent work under the ILCD System. For some processes with very heterogenic emission profiles and for some sum indicators and flow groups a simple splitting up into its components is not directly possible but needs a further differentiation, by also considering the process\u201f operation condition, i.e. having more than one profile for such processes. However, a number of LCIA-wise rather homogeneous sum indicators and flow groups can be used, until default break down lists are generally available (the \u201cProvisions\u201d give the detailed provisions). The situation is more complicated, if some of the constituents are measured separately and the remainder amount is inventoried (e.g. the amount of Carbon monoxide emissions would be known and its mass subtracted from the amount of \u201cDiesel engine off-gas\u201d in the inventory)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5254, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 216, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the amount of Carbon monoxide emissions would be known and its mass subtracted from the amount of \u201cDiesel engine off-gas\u201d in the inventory). This distorts the composition of the sum parameter and typically renders the LCIA impact factor distorted for the remaining amount of the \u201cDiesel engine off-gas\u201d (i.e. without the CO). A partial split of measured indicators should be avoided, as the remainder will typically lead to a distorted impact assessment. At the same time is it not permissible to hide highly impacting (e.g. toxic) substances in common sum indicators (e.g. may PAHs (Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) not be hidden in COD, etc.). These particularly impacting substances should be singled out, if they were measured separately or their existence and amount can be derived in other ways. Partial splitting with singling out flows with a lower than average impact shall not be done in any case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5255, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 216, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Partial splitting with singling out flows with a lower than average impact shall not be done in any case. As one exception for sub-stance groups, for Dioxins it is very wide praxis to inventory them as 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalents (2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin human toxicity equivalents). This is argued to be acceptable as the equivalent number already relates to the relevant impact of interest, i.e. eco-toxicity and human toxicity. However, if available individually, the single species shall be inventoried. The resulting detailed lists of permitted measurement indicators and substance flow groups is given in the \"Provisions\". Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups I) SHALL - Measurement indicator and substance group elementary flows: These shall be inventoried as follows: [ISO!]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5256, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 216, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results I.a) Avoid indicators and flow groups; with permissible exceptions: Measurement indicator and substance group elementary flows shall be avoided in the inventory by splitting them up to single substances. Exclusively the following exceptions are permissible, while they should be split as well: COD143, BOD, AOX, VOC, NMVOC, PAHs, PCBs, TOC, DOC, Nitrogen in Nitrogen compounds (excluding N2, N20), Phosphorus in Phosphorus compounds, Dioxins (measured as 2,3,7,8-TCDD human toxicity equivalents). I.b) Restrictions on partial splitting: A partial splitting up of measurement indicators and substance group flows should be avoided. This is except for singling out exclusively elementary flows that have higher impacts than the average of the indicator / group and that should be singled out", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5257, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 217, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is except for singling out exclusively elementary flows that have higher impacts than the average of the indicator / group and that should be singled out. Partial splits with singling out elementary flows with less than average impacts shall not be done. If singling out single substance elementary flows from the above indicators / flow groups, only the remainder amount of the indicator or flow group shall be inventoried. I.c) No double-counting: Double-counting across the above indicators / flow groups and with the contained individual substances shall be avoided (i.e. correct is to inventory either \"BOD\" or \"COD\"; either \"VOC\" or \"NMVOC\" plus \"Methane\"; either \"Nitrate\" plus \"Ammonia\" plus ... or \"Nitrogen in Nitrogen compounds\"; etc.). I.d) Document composition: If measured composition information of a split measurement indicator or substance flow group is not available, an assumed composition can be used. Approach and assumptions shall be documented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5258, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 217, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Approach and assumptions shall be documented. Note that the composition of a measurement indicator or substance flow group can often be derived without direct measurement from process know-how (e.g. processed materials, educts, etc.) or those of sufficiently similar process can be considered144. I.e) Do not combine measured flows: Individually measured substances shall not be integrated/combined into measurement indicators and elementary flow groups but be inventoried individually. II) MAY - Use \"Reminder flow\" to keep originally measured indicator or flow group: It is recommended to document the originally measured amount of the split indicator or flow group in the inventory as a \u201cReminder flow\u201d. \"Reminder flows\" shall later be excluded from the impact assessment, i.e. have no characterisation factors and be clearly identified as \"Reminder flows\" (on naming see chapter 7.4.3.8)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5259, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 217, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\"Reminder flows\" shall later be excluded from the impact assessment, i.e. have no characterisation factors and be clearly identified as \"Reminder flows\" (on naming see chapter 7.4.3.8). [ISO+] Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 143 COD = Chemical oxygen demand, BOD = Biological oxygen demand, AOX = Adsorbable organic halogenated compounds, VOC = Volatile organic compounds, NMVOC = Non-methane volatile organic compounds, PAH = Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PCB = Polychlorinated biphenyls, TOC = Total organic carbon, DOC = Dissolved organic carbon. 144 Default-composition tables for different process-types and industries might be developed in PCR-type or sector-specific guidance documents.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5260, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 217, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Introduction and overview For a number of compounds methodological questions arise how to inventory them, e.g. is the ionic but environmentally very stable substance CdS to be inventoried as the two ions Cd2+ and S2- or as the compound CdS? For the impact assessment this is crucial, as the fate strongly depends on water solubility. For particle emissions only those that do not dissolve in the lungs act carcinogenic. To limit the number of elementary flows and to avoid \"forgetting\" flows that have no impact factors assigned, it is desirable to limit the number of single elementary flows by inventorying the ions separately", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5261, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 218, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Along the initially named considerations, the following solution is derived: Easily water soluble ionic compounds (e.g. salts such as Ammonium nitrate, Cadmium chloride, etc.) are to be inventoried as the ions of which they exist: These compounds, when released to the environment (with some exceptions however) behave largely as if dealing with the ions separately. Looking at a single particle and its solubility in one droplet of water of 1mm diameter and hence about 0.0005 ml (formed as rain or in the lung tissue), the limit is set roughly where at 20oC less than half of a particle of 2 \u03bcm diameter dissolves in that amount of water. This depends also on the density of the material, but for orientation assuming the density to be 2 kg/litre resulting in a particle mass of about 8*10E-12 g, the border is at 0.5*8*10E-12 g / 0.0005 ml = 8*10E-9 g/ml (or 8*10-6 g/litre, i.e. about 10 \u03bcg/litre)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5262, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 218, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "about 10 \u03bcg/litre). As convention the limit is hence set at a solubility in water at 20oC of below 10 \u03bcg/litre145,146. Less good water soluble compounds are to be inventoried as compound. Note that this provision - other than the similar provision on particles does not apply for water-soluble, dissociating organic compounds. Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds I) SHALL - Inventory easily water soluble salts as ions: For data sets as deliverables, emissions to air, water, or soil of easily water-soluble ionic compounds (salts) shall be inventoried as separate ions, unless the selected LCIA methods would require otherwise. As convention, the limit is set at a solubility in water at 20oC of 10 \u03bcg/litre, above which the ions shall be inventoried separately, below which the compound shall be inventoried. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5263, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 218, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. [ISO!] Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Overview Three issues play a role for particulate mater: 145 Some examples: CaCO3 = 600 \u03bcg/l, Cu(OH)2 = 17 \u03bcg/l, CdS = 0.0001 \u03bcg/l. 146 For orientation: for a substance of 100g/mol this is hence 0.001 mol/litre.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5264, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 218, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Particle size classes, water solubility, and additivity of impacts. Particle size classes Firstly, and given the different impact, particulate matter should be split up into different size classes with different toxicity implications (as the size determines the access to the lungs and uptake into the lung tissue). Water solubility Secondly for particulates it is to be considered that only particulate matter emissions to air that are insoluble in water are relevant for human toxicity. The easily water-soluble ones such as e.g. Ammonium nitrate when inhaled will immediately solve in the tissue water and pose no carcinogenic effect due to their particle character", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5265, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 219, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The easily water-soluble ones such as e.g. Ammonium nitrate when inhaled will immediately solve in the tissue water and pose no carcinogenic effect due to their particle character. Hence, not to overestimate the impact, the composition of the measured PM should be identified or derived from the sourceprocess to determine whether/how much of it is water-soluble. Note that this applies not only to inorganic salts but also to e.g. organic substances. The third issue also relates to other types of emissions: Emission of substances with several additive / serial action schemes Elementary flows with additive / serial action schemes (e.g. NOx as contributing to both Photochemical ozone creation (summer smog) and Eutrophication) need to carry more than one characterisation factor. Complex elementary flows may need a special treatment in inventorying. E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5266, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 219, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Complex elementary flows may need a special treatment in inventorying. E.g. an emission to air of 0.0001 kg Particles (<2.5 \u03bcm) that contains 50 % Chromium VI implies an additive cancer potential from both being a particle and being (to 50 %) Chromium VI. To avoid that a huge number of \u201cParticle XY\u201d elementary flows with different composition needs to be inventoried (including the problem for LCA practitioners to correctly assigning the impact factors), a splitting up into the single components (e.g. in the given example into 0.0001 kg \u201cParticles <2.5 \u03bcm\u201d plus 0.00005 kg \u201cChromium VI\u201d) is recommended. In this case (and analogously if both the amount of particles and the amount of chromium are separately measured but in the same off-gas stream), both amounts are inventoried as separate elementary flows. Note that this results in a (in absolute terms however very small) double counting of the mass. The impact effect however is more appropriately addressed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5267, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 219, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that this results in a (in absolute terms however very small) double counting of the mass. The impact effect however is more appropriately addressed. As an exact mass-balance of LCI results is never given in practice (as e.g. incineration air is left out, certain water losses are not inventoried etc.) this minor double counting of the masses (while correctly addressing the effect of the inventory) is acceptable147. Note: In the cases of interest in a more detailed impact modelling and taking into account more details such as speciation, in such specific application cases also more specific elementary flows can be created, of course, while for background databases this should be avoided, as to ensure a consistent databases and to have appropriate LCIA factors available and fully linked to the inventory. 147 Discussion of other options: Other solutions could be, to inventory only the most important aspect as a flow (in the above example e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5268, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 219, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "147 Discussion of other options: Other solutions could be, to inventory only the most important aspect as a flow (in the above example e.g. as particles <2.5 \u03bcm without Chromium) or to enter only the most important impact factor into the combined flow. This however creates problems, where the substance contributes to different impact categories (e.g. \"NO2 to air\" to Human Toxicity and Eutrophication), since it is not possible to determine independently, which of the different impacts is quantitatively more important. The possibility to apply reduced characterisation factors for both effects - which may be developed in the future by LCIA \u2013 is kept. This is however not expected to solve this issue, as it causes a number of other problems in LCI practice. Among others a steadily growing set of elementary flows of slightly different composition that would require the final users / LCA practitioners to correctly calculate and assign the impact factors to these new flows.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5269, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 219, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air I) SHALL - Inventory only poorly water soluble compounds as particles: Particulate matter (PM) emissions to air shall include only poorly water-soluble compounds below a solubility in water at 20oC of 10 ug/litre, as far as feasible. Expert judgement may be needed to identify the composition of the particles. [ISO!] II) SHOULD - Differentiate particle size classes: Particles should be reported split up by particle size class <0.2 \u03bcm, 0.2-2.5 \u03bcm, 2.5-10 \u03bcm, >10 \u03bcm if the information is available. <10 \u03bcm may be used alternatively is a more differentiated information below 10 \u03bcm is not available. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5270, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 220, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "<10 \u03bcm may be used alternatively is a more differentiated information below 10 \u03bcm is not available. This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. [ISO!] III) SHALL - Inventory particles additionally as the substances they are composed of: Particles shall be inventoried as both PM and additionally as elementary flows of their environmentally relevant components (e.g. metals contributing to cancer effects), i.e. double counting their mass in the inventory, as far as possible. This applies analogously to other emissions with additive action schemes. [ISO!] Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5271, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 220, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.4.3.5 Emission of substances of complementary, alternative action schemes (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) For the emission of substances of complementary, alternative action schemes, the fate is fully modelled in the LCIA method and the impact factors consider this fact. An example are NOx emissions to air that either have a Human toxicity effect (inorganic respiratory effect) or an Eutrophication effect on land and water bodies)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5272, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 220, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An example are NOx emissions to air that either have a Human toxicity effect (inorganic respiratory effect) or an Eutrophication effect on land and water bodies). 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) 7.4.3.6.1 Energy resources (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Taking into account the initially made considerations, the following can be concluded for energetic resources: To evaluate the resource depletion of energetic resources, with currently used and practice-tested impact models do not require differentiating them by their specific energy-content/mass ratio or by the country or origin. This allows to keep the number of non-renewable energy resource elementary flows low, i.e. instead of hundreds of elementary flows of the type \"Crude oil Norway\", \"Crude oil Saudi Arabia\", or \u201cBrent Spar\u201d, \u201cTia Juana Light\u201d etc., or \"Crude oil 42.6 MJ/kg\", \"Crude oil 42.3 MJ/kg\", etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5273, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 220, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "instead of hundreds of elementary flows of the type \"Crude oil Norway\", \"Crude oil Saudi Arabia\", or \u201cBrent Spar\u201d, \u201cTia Juana Light\u201d etc., or \"Crude oil 42.6 MJ/kg\", \"Crude oil 42.3 MJ/kg\", etc. only 1 (most energy resources) to 3 (crude oils) elementary flows are required (see below). To support established practice in resource-depletion impact assessment of energetic resource elementary flows, exclusively a differentiation by type of deposit/source is required, i.e. primary, secondary, tertiary crude oil and open pit or underground mining of hard coal. Other fossil fuel resource elementary flows (natural gas, oil shale, tar sand, lignite, peat) do currently not need a differentiation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5274, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 220, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results For renewable energy forms, the usable amount of energy that is extracted from nature is to be inventoried. E.g. for solar electricity and heat this relates to the amount of electricity and/or heat captured by the solar cells (i.e. not the total solar energy, but what is delivered directly by the cells as electricity and/or usable heat). For biomass from nature this is the amount physically embodied, measured as Lower calorific value, however of the water-free substance (i.e. measured as if the e.g. wood would be oven-dry). Note that biomass from fields and managed forests is no elementary flow. In that case, the named energy resources shall be inventoried directly as the respective elementary flows, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5275, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 221, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that biomass from fields and managed forests is no elementary flow. In that case, the named energy resources shall be inventoried directly as the respective elementary flows, e.g. \"Solar energy\" as \"Renewable energy resources from air\", expressed as Lower calorific value and measured in the reference unit MJ. As to the reference flow property and the reference unit of energetic resources see the respective chapter in the separate document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d. 7.4.3.6.2 Ores for winning metals or other elemental constituents (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Taking into account the initially made considerations, the following can be concluded for non-energetic resources: To evaluate the resource depletion of most non-energetic resources with currently used and practice-tested LCIA methods, it is not required to differentiate them by their specific element-content/mass ratio or by the country or origin", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5276, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 221, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This allows lowering the number of elementary flows in the inventory, following a similar approach as for the non-renewable energetic resource elementary flows (see also previous point). The inventorying of (metal) ore elementary flows shall hence be based on a differentiation of ore bodies or minerals into the single elements' elementary flows (e.g. 0.012 kg \u201cLead\u201d and 0.023 kg \u201cZinc\u201d elementary flows are inventoried, when e.g. 1 kg Lead-zinc ore (1.2 % Pb, 2.3 % Zn) is extracted. 0.78 kg \"Anhydrite\" is inventoried, when e.g. an anhydritecontaining body of 1 kg Anhydrite-containing rock (78 % anhydrite) is extracted.) This at the same time allows to overcome the problematic current situation of having a huge number of \u201cimpact-free\u201d/forgotten specific ores and minerals in the inventory for which by-default no impact factors are provided. For functional/material resources it is however necessary to capture their specificity (e.g. \u201cGranite\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5277, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 221, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For functional/material resources it is however necessary to capture their specificity (e.g. \u201cGranite\u201d). To complete the mass flow of the resource, the non-resource part of the ore is to be inventoried as \u201cinert rock\u201d \u201cResources from ground\u201d (or water, as applicable)148. 7.4.3.6.3 Land use (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Direct land use and land transformation shall be inventoried along the needs of the applied LCIA method (if included in the impact assessment). Specific guidance is not provided at this point but might be given in a supplement or revised version. For CO2 release caused by land use and land transformation, the use of the most recent IPCC CO2 emission factors shall be used, unless more accurate, specific data is available. Detailed provisions and table with the current IPCC factors: see chapter 7.4.4.1 and annex 13. 148 In practice, the inventory of a lead-zinc ore mining process would have in the input-side the above named e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5278, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 221, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "148 In practice, the inventory of a lead-zinc ore mining process would have in the input-side the above named e.g. \u201cLead\u201d, \u201cZinc\u201d, and \u201cInert rock\u201d elementary flows, while in the output side the product flow (!) \u201cLead-zinc ore; 1.2% Pb, 2.3% Zn\u201d. (After processing the \u201ctailings\u201d would be a waste that is modelled to the leached emissions.) This has the effect that when calculating LCI results, only the relevant elementary resource flows \u201cLead\u201d and \u201cZinc\u201d remain in the inventory, resulting in the desired reduction of the number of elementary flows in the inventory.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5279, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 221, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Other emissions in result of land transformation (e.g. NO3 - losses to water, emissions from biomass burning, soil erosion etc.) should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources. See chapter 7.4.4.1 also for related issues when modelling agricultural systems. Indirect land use is an issue under consequential modelling that applies to all kinds of land uses and is hence addressed in chapter 7.2.4.4. 7.4.3.6.4 Fossil and biological CO2 uptake and release of CO2 and CH4 (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) For better methodological clarity and flexibility as well as easier communication, the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and Methane (CH4) is recommended to be additionally differentiated between fossil and biological sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5280, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 222, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Land use change-related CO2 emissions from soil, peat etc. in all cases and from biomass and litter of virgin forests shall be inventoried as \"Carbon dioxide (fossil)\". Emissions from biomass and litter of secondary forests shall be inventoried as \"Carbon dioxide (biogenic)\". See also chapter 7.4.3.7.3 on uptake of CO2 by plants and release at the end-of-life (\"carbon storage\"). 7.4.3.6.5 Water use (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.5) Taking into account the indicator \"water use\" is still complex since water can come from various sources some of which are renewable (e.g. seawater), others not (e.g. fossil / deep groundwater). Also the release of used water to the environment can have very different forms and ways, some of which only distribute the water from one place to another (e.g. irrigation water), some changing its state (e.g. river water to steam for cooling), and some mainly its quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5281, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 222, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "irrigation water), some changing its state (e.g. river water to steam for cooling), and some mainly its quality. It is recommended to differentiate at least the following on the input side: \uf0b7 surface freshwater, \uf0b7 renewable groundwater, \uf0b7 fossil / deep groundwater, \uf0b7 sea water. On the output side it is recommended to at least differentiate: \uf0b7 Emission in liquid form (e.g. infiltration to soil from irrigation systems, emission of treated wastewater to rivers), and \uf0b7 emission in form of steam (e.g. cooling water loss as steam from e.g. cooling towers, loss from irrigation systems by evaporation and evapotranspiration). Emissions in form of steam are lost for other uses. They also change the hydrological and microclimatological situation, hence would require a specific impact assessment. No specific recommendation is made for water use in hydropower stations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5282, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 222, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "They also change the hydrological and microclimatological situation, hence would require a specific impact assessment. No specific recommendation is made for water use in hydropower stations. The gained renewable energy shall be inventoried separately and the effect of land use, changed hydrology and ecosystem-connectivity in case of dam systems is addressed with other instruments. Changes in the quality of the used water shall be inventoried via separate elementary flows, i.e. as emissions of substances or of heat to water.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5283, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 222, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Important is to clearly differentiate between internally recycled water (e.g. cooling water) and the actual net consumption of water in form of extracting it from the environment. Provisions: 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows I) SHALL - Provisions for inventorying resource elementary flows: Resource elementary flows shall be inventoried as follows, with exceptions only if necessary to meet the need of the applied LCIA method: [ISO!] I.a) Energy resources (7.4.3.6.1): I.a.i) Non-renewable: These shall be inventoried as type of energy resource and in few cases (only primary, secondary, tertiary crude oil and open pit or underground mining of hard coal) these should be differentiated exclusively by resource extraction type, if this information is available (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5284, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 223, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cCrude oil, secondary extraction\u201d but not \u201cCrude, Tia Juana Light\u201d; \"Hard coal, underground\" but not \"Hard coal, Western Germany; 39.4 MJ/kg\"). The energy/mass relationship shall be provided for all energy resource flows except for nuclear ores. The energy content shall be expressed in the Lower calorific value of the water-free resource, measured in the reference unit MJ. See also separate document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\". Note that peat, biomass of primary forests, and some other biogenic energy resources are \"non-renewable\". I.a.ii) Renewable: Renewable energy resources shall be inventoried as the amount of usable energy extracted from nature. E.g. for solar electricity and heat this relates to the amount of electricity and/or heat captured by the solar cells (i.e. not the total solar energy, but what is delivered directly by the cells as electricity and/or usable heat)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5285, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 223, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "not the total solar energy, but what is delivered directly by the cells as electricity and/or usable heat). For biomass from nature this is the amount physically embodied, measured as Lower calorific value, however of the water-free substance (i.e. measured as if the e.g. wood would be oven-dry). Note that biomass from fields and managed forests is no elementary flow. In that case, the named energy resources shall be inventoried directly as the respective elementary flows, e.g. \"Solar energy\" as \"Renewable energy resources from air\", expressed as Lower calorific value and measured in the reference unit MJ. I.b) Avoid geographical differentiation: Resources shall not be inventoried geographically differentiated (i.e. \u201cLignite\u201d but not \u201cLignite, Eastern Germany\u201d). This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. (7.4.3.6.1) I.c) Chemical element resources: Resources for production of metals or other chemical elements should be inventoried as chemical element (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5286, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 223, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(7.4.3.6.1) I.c) Chemical element resources: Resources for production of metals or other chemical elements should be inventoried as chemical element (e.g. \u201cIron - Resources from ground\" elementary flow). (7.4.3.6.2) I.d) Functional/material resources: These shall be inventoried as target material resource (e.g. \u201cSchist\u201d, \u201cLime stone\u201d, \"Anhydrite\"). Few exceptions exist where the mineral itself is in industry understood to be the target good; these are reflected in the ILCD reference elementary flows (e.g. \"Rock salt\", etc.). Other exceptions and exclusively for resources not included in the ILCD reference elementary flows shall be justified by following analogous logic. (7.4.3.6.2) I.e) Flows for completing mass balance: For completion of the mass balance, a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5287, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 223, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows complementary amount of \"Inert rock\", \"Water\", or \"Air\" (or other, as applicable) shall be inventoried for extracted resources (e.g. 0.96 kg \u201cInert rock\u201d in case of mining 1 kg copper ore with 4 % copper content). (7.4.3.6.2) I.f) No minerals or ore bodies: Inventorying of other minerals (unless these are functional / material resources such as \u201cGranite\u201d) or of specific ore bodies shall not be done (i.e. \u201cCopper\u201d, but not \u201cMalachite\u201d and not \u201cSulphidic copper-silver ore (3.5 % Cu; 0.20 % Ag)\u201d). (7.4.3.6.2) Note that when applying the above rules double counting shall be avoided. Newly created elementary flows shall be checked whether they require carrying a characterisation factor for the applied LCIA method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5288, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 224, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Newly created elementary flows shall be checked whether they require carrying a characterisation factor for the applied LCIA method. II) SHALL - Land use and transformation: Direct land use and land transformation shall be inventoried along the needs of the applied LCIA method (if included in the impact assessment)149. (7.4.3.6.3) III) SHALL - Emissions from land use and transformation: If land use and/or land transformation are modelled, carbon dioxide and other emissions and related effects should be modelled as follows: [ISO!] III.a) Soil organic carbon changes from land use and transformation: For CO2 release from or binding in soil organic carbon (SOC) caused by land use and land transformation, the use of the most recent IPCC CO2 emission factors shall be used, unless more accurate, specific data is available. Detailed provisions and table with the IPCC factors: see chapter 7.4.4.1 and annex 13", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5289, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 224, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Detailed provisions and table with the IPCC factors: see chapter 7.4.4.1 and annex 13. (7.4.3.6.3) III.b) Land use and transformation related CO2 emissions from biomass and litter: For virgin forests and for soil, peat, etc. of all land uses shall be inventoried as \"Carbon dioxide (fossil)\". Emissions from biomass and litter of secondary forests shall be inventoried as \"Carbon dioxide (biogenic)\". This applies unless the selected LCIA method requires otherwise. (7.4.3.6.4) III.c) Nutrient losses: Emissions of nutrients shall be modelled explicitly as part of the land management process. Detailed provisions see chapter 7.4.4.1. III.d) Other emissions: Other emissions in result of land transformation (e.g. emissions from biomass burning, soil erosion etc.) should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources. Detailed provisions see chapter 7.4.4.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5290, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 224, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "emissions from biomass burning, soil erosion etc.) should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources. Detailed provisions see chapter 7.4.4.1. (7.4.3.6.3) IV) MAY - Water use: It is recommended to differentiate at least: [ISO+] IV.a) on the input side: surface freshwater, renewable groundwater, fossil / deep ground water, sea water IV.b) on the output side: Emission/discharge of water in liquid form emission in form of steam 149 While this document has been finalised no established and globally applicable practice was available, but several approaches with either only regional applicability or lack of practice experience. These work with fundamentally different inventorying approaches. Any specific recommendation or requirement on inventorying land use and conversion would be implemented and published via revised ILCD reference elementary flows and recommended LCIA methods, and/or a revision of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5291, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 224, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows IV.c) Other water quality changes, especially by chemical substances shall be inventoried as separate elementary flows. Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) 7.4.3.7.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) The issue of future interventions (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5292, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 225, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "during the use-stage of long-living goods and their end-of-life-treatment, as well as delayed emissions from landfills) are addressed jointly with the issue of mid- and long-term removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere via storage in long-living bio-based goods as well as with the permanent removal in CO2 storages e.g. underground. The provisions on time-representativeness of processes that are operated in the future (e.g. recycling of long-living products) were already made in scope chapter 6.8.4. This present chapter focuses on complementary aspects of emissions that occur in the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5293, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 225, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "recycling of long-living products) were already made in scope chapter 6.8.4. This present chapter focuses on complementary aspects of emissions that occur in the future. 7.4.3.7.2 Differentiating the inventory of interventions in the more remote future (long-term emissions beyond 100 years) (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.5, 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) General Impacts from processes that run in the future but that are not (necessarily) man-managed but determined today (especially long-term emissions from landfills by leaching and landfill gas) need a convention to provide unambiguous decision support: These are to be modelled by separately inventorying emissions that occur within the next 100 years from the time of the LCI/LCA study (e.g. as \u201cEmissions to water\u201d) and those that occur beyond that time frame over an indefinite time (e.g. as \u201cEmissions to water, unspecified (long-term)\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5294, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 225, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as \u201cEmissions to water\u201d) and those that occur beyond that time frame over an indefinite time (e.g. as \u201cEmissions to water, unspecified (long-term)\u201d). For the long-term emissions it is hence implicitly assumed that no measures are taken by mankind to sanitize/encapsulate the landfill permanently. Note that the operation of the landfill (including e.g. post closure leachate treatment) will necessarily be modelled as implemented / operated today. LCIA of long-term emissions The emissions within the first 100 years are subject to the same LCIA impact assessment as are all other interventions from the system. The emissions beyond 100 years are not included into the general LCIA results calculation and aggregation, but are to be calculated, presented and discussed as separate LCIA results. This approach is evolving to be widely used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5295, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 225, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This approach is evolving to be widely used. It is important to note that this separate calculation does not indicate per se a lower relevance of long-term emissions; LCA is not including the discounting of future impacts unless this would be part of an explicit weighting. The logic for the separation of short-term and long-term emissions is that both have often fundamentally different uncertainty: emissions today can be measured, emissions from landfills in 100 years can only be roughly forecasted. At the same time, will the inventory of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5296, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 225, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results landfills - if the emissions are modelled for e.g. 100,000 years - easily dominate the entire LCA results. This is important to know, but needs a separate interpretation. At the same time does this issue illustrate one weakness of LCA: LCIA methods usually do not account for thresholds, but aggregate all emissions over time. Hence even if the concentrations in the waste deposit leachate after 1,000 years might be below any eco-toxic effect, the total amount of these emissions over tenths of thousands of years will be summed up and be considered the same way as the same amount emitted at much higher concentrations over a few years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5297, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 226, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It could be argued that as/if landfills are environmentally relevant long-term emitters, mankind will eventually (potentially well before 100 years have gone by) dig them out to sanitize them and/or gaining back e.g. copper and other secondary resources from them. In summary: emissions within the next 100 years and beyond need a separate impact assessment and appropriate interpretation in view of their different certainty. 7.4.3.7.3 Temporary carbon storage, delayed greenhouse gas emissions, delayed credits for solving multifunctionality (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.5, 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) Inventorying and impact assessment of biogenic and fossil CO2 and CH4 Uptake of \u201cCarbon dioxide\u201d by plants shall be inventoried under \u201cResources from air\u201d. Both the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere and the release of both fossil and biogenic CO2 are assigned characterisation factors for the impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5298, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 226, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Both the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere and the release of both fossil and biogenic CO2 are assigned characterisation factors for the impact assessment. The lack of knowledge whether a carbon dioxide or methane emission is biogenic or fossil (i.e. inventoried as \"unspecfied\") therefore does not render the results erroneous. The link between temporary CO2 removal, delayed emissions and the \"Global Warming potential 100 years\" The temporary removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by incorporation into longliving bio-based products, into bio-based material remains in landfills, or in CO2-undergroundstorages is accounted for in the inventory. It is however not considered per default in the overall LCIA results calculation, as LCA per se is not discounting emissions over time150; this is unless the goal of the study would directly require that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5299, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 226, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The inventorying is done as follows: the duration for which LCIA impacts of released emissions is calculated, is typically explicitly or implicitly indefinite. Exclusively in case of the Global Warming Potential (GWP) the much shorter perspective \u201cGWP 100 years\u201d is widely used (details and recommendations are provided in the separate LCIA guidance documents of the ILCD Handbook). The related characterisation factors used are typically those provided as part of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports. Climate change is hence implicitly considered to be a problem of the next 100 years (3 to 4 generations). The long-term removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and storage in long-living goods is hence politically promoted (see also further notes and aspects in footnote 152). The difficulty is that the GWP 100 relates to the effect after the emission has taken place i.e. it counts the climate change impact of emissions that occur nowadays exert within the next 100 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5300, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 226, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The difficulty is that the GWP 100 relates to the effect after the emission has taken place i.e. it counts the climate change impact of emissions that occur nowadays exert within the next 100 years. However, these emissions may also occur in the future (in e.g. 80 years when a now newly built house is broken down). Assigning a full GWP 100 factor to these emissions that happen in 80 years would contradict the logic of the GWP 100 detailed above, as in that case their climate change effect for 180 years from now would be accounted for. 150 But see chapter 7.4.3.7.2 regarding long-term emissions that need a separate interpretation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5301, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 226, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Also, no incentive would exist to temporarily store the CO2 e.g. in the wooden beams of the house in the above example. On the other hand does temporary storage of CO2 and the delayed emissions not consider that the CO2 will in any case exert its full radiative effect, only later. For that reason carbon storage should only be considered quantitatively if this is explicitly required to meet the needs of the goal of the study. Otherwise, i.e. per default, temporary carbon storage and the equivalent delayed emissions and delayed reuse/recycling/recovery within the first 100 years from the time of the study shall not be considered quantitatively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5302, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 227, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the provided inventorying solution allows to do both with the same data set, as the storage / delay information is inventoried as separate inventory item: Modelling / inventorying provisions and examples: To account for this and to at the same time ensure a transparent, plausible, and practiceapplicable life cycle inventory, the following provisions are made: As all emissions that occur within the next 100 years from the year of the analysis are inventoried as normal elementary flows, and all emissions that occur after 100 hundred years are inventoried as long-term emissions, simply a correction elementary flow of storage/delayed emission can be introduced for each contributing substance. For fossil carbon dioxide this flow is named \"Correction flow for delayed emission of fossil carbon dioxide (within first 100 years)\" as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d. It is measured in the flow property \u201cMass*years\u201d and the reference unit \u201ckg*a\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5303, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 227, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is measured in the flow property \u201cMass*years\u201d and the reference unit \u201ckg*a\u201d. The flow is to carry a GWP 100 impact factor of \u201c-0.01 kg CO2-equivalents\u201d per 1 kg*a. The information about the assumed time o emission and the actual amount of the emission shall be documented in the unit process and hence available for review. Flows for biogenic (i.e. temporarily stored) carbon dioxide and methane, but also for other, fossil greenhouse gases with delayed emissions can be developed analogously. These new elementary flows should be used in addition to the normal elementary flows including the flow \u201cCarbon dioxide\u201d as \u201cResources from air\u201d that model the physical uptake of CO2 into biomass. A quantitative example: In the case of the above example of the end-of-life of a newly build house that is assumed to be demolished in 80 years, releasing the stored e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5304, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 227, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A quantitative example: In the case of the above example of the end-of-life of a newly build house that is assumed to be demolished in 80 years, releasing the stored e.g. 4 tons of carbon in the 10 tons of wood beams as CO2 would carry the following inventory flows and values: \uf0b7 Inputs: - 4,000*44/12 = 14,666 kg \u201cCarbon dioxide\u201d as \u201cResources from air\u201d \uf0b7 Outputs: - 4,000*44/12 = 14666 kg \u201cCarbon dioxide (biogenic)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d - 4,000*44/12*80 = 1,173,333 kg*a \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of biogenic carbon dioxide (within first 100 years)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d In an impact assessment the result would be calculated as follows, with the biological uptake and release of the carbon dioxide cancelling each other out151, giving a correct resulting GWP 100 benefit for the 80 years storage, as 1,173,333 kg*a * -0.01 kg CO2eq./(kg*a) = -11,733.33 kg CO2-eq. 151 Note that this works independently whether both have a GWP factor assigned or both not", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5305, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 227, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "151 Note that this works independently whether both have a GWP factor assigned or both not. That means that both modelling approaches can be supported by the mechanism of the CO2 temporary storage flow.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5306, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 227, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Note that in the above example in total a negative Climate change effect is accounted for in the LCIA results, if considering the short-term perspective. If however the indefinite perspective would be considered, being the default perspective under the ILCD, the delayed emissions are not considered. Note that this approach is applicable also to wood from primary forests that is used as wood product for a certain time: in case the forest is effectively removed and e.g. a pasture established this loss of C-storage is already addressed via the provisions for land transformation, i.e. not accounting for the CO2 uptake from air. Equally is the calculation applicable to temporal storage of CO2 in landfilled bio-based materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5307, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 228, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "not accounting for the CO2 uptake from air. Equally is the calculation applicable to temporal storage of CO2 in landfilled bio-based materials. An example for delayed fossil CO2 emissions: In the case of a delayed emission of fossil greenhouse gases, for clarity assuming the above example of the house would have e.g. 4 tons of fossil carbon in it, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5308, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 228, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "4 tons of fossil carbon in it, e.g. in insulation material and window frames, the example looks as follows: \uf0b7 Inputs: - (none, as the CO2 is fossil) \uf0b7 Outputs: - 4,000*44/12 = 14,666 kg \u201cCarbon dioxide (fossil)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d - 4,000*44/12*80 = 1,173,333 kg*a \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of fossil carbon dioxide (within first 100 years)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d In an impact assessment the result would be calculated as follows, with the correction for the delayed emissions partly (here by - 80 % as the storage time is 80 years) compensating the release of fossil CO2, giving a correct resulting GWP 100 result for the 80 years delayed emission, as 14,666 kg CO2-eq. + 1,173,333 kg*a * -0.01 kg CO2-eq./(kg*a) = +2,932.67 kg CO2-eq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5309, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 228, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "+ 1,173,333 kg*a * -0.01 kg CO2-eq./(kg*a) = +2,932.67 kg CO2-eq. Hence, in comparison, the biogenic wood has still its full advantage of having extracted CO2 from the atmosphere, while the delayed emissions are a benefit that both systems have in common (note that the difference between both examples is 14666 kg CO2-eq.). The above works analogously with Nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases. Note that for the use stage of long-living goods the inventory would contain the integral of the emissions at different ages. This can be simplified in the common case that the use stage emissions are the same for all years: the total amount of use stage emissions would be multiplied with half of the assumed life time years. The maximum amount of each correction flow that can be inventoried per kg delayed emission shall be 100 kg*a. That is if the delayed emission takes place exactly 100 years into the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5310, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 228, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The maximum amount of each correction flow that can be inventoried per kg delayed emission shall be 100 kg*a. That is if the delayed emission takes place exactly 100 years into the future. The correction flow shall be inventoried only if the emission is forecasted to take place at a maximum of 100 years into the future from the time of study. It shall not be inventoried if the emission takes place beyond the 100 years : An emission that takes place more than 100 years into the future shall be reflected in the inventory exclusively by inventorying the future emissions with the long-term emission elementary flows such as e.g. \u201cCarbon dioxide, biogenic (long-term)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d. I.e. in that case no correction flow is required but would be wrong (see footnote 155).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5311, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 228, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Substitution / crediting for general cases of multifunctionality and for reuse / recycling / recovery that take place in the future In analogy to rewarding delayed emissions of greenhouse gases with credits, also substitution when solving general cases of multifunctionality need to consider the delay, e.g. when crediting the benefit of a co-product that supersedes an alternative production. This is if the temporary storage is considered in the first place as it is required to meet the specific goal of the study. The provisions for delayed greenhouse gas emissions apply analogously, i.e. respective \"Correction flows...\" should be inventoried with negative values. This results in a positive value (i.e. additional impact) for the Climate change impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5312, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 229, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "respective \"Correction flows...\" should be inventoried with negative values. This results in a positive value (i.e. additional impact) for the Climate change impacts. In analogy to treating general cases of multifunctionality, the delayed substitution for reused parts/goods, recycled materials and recovered energy needs to consider the delay. 7.4.3.7.4 Long-term storage of potential emissions beyond 100 years In the case the CO2-storage in goods, landfills or dedicated e.g. underground storages is longer than 100 years and the emission occurs somewhen in the future beyond 100 years, the maximum accountable CO2-removal of 100 years storage is inventoried as detailed above. The quasi-permanent storage of CO2 and generally of potential emissions in dedicated long-term storage forms (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5313, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 229, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The quasi-permanent storage of CO2 and generally of potential emissions in dedicated long-term storage forms (e.g. injection into former natural gas fields) is accounted for by inventorying no emissions, if the respective storage form can \"guarantee\" according to current scientific knowledge, and under independent external and qualified expert review, that the substance is not emitted for at least 100,000 years (number set by convention). (Partial) emissions before that time are inventoried as long-term CO2-emission elementary flows; emissions within the first 100 years are inventoried as normal CO2 emissions. Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows Implicitly differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. V) SHALL - Separate inventory items for emissions more than 100 years into the future: Emissions and other elementary flows that occur beyond the next 100 years from the time of the LCI/LCA study shall be inventoried separately (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5314, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 229, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as \u201cEmissions to water, unspecified (long-term)\u201d) from those that occur within the first 100 years (e.g. \u201cEmissions to water, unspecified\u201d). [ISO!] Note that the ILCD reference elementary flows include a set of such long-term emissions to air, water and soil. VI) SHALL - Uptake of \u201cCarbon dioxide\u201d by plants: This shall be inventoried under \u201cResources from air\u201d. This applies to all photosynthetic organisms. [ISO!] Note that both the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere and the release of both fossil and biogenic CO2 should be assigned characterisation factors for the impact assessment. The lack of knowledge whether a carbon dioxide or methane emission is biogenic or fossil (i.e. inventoried as e.g. \"Carbon dioxide (unspecified)\") therefore does not render the results erroneous", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5315, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 229, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The lack of knowledge whether a carbon dioxide or methane emission is biogenic or fossil (i.e. inventoried as e.g. \"Carbon dioxide (unspecified)\") therefore does not render the results erroneous. VII) SHALL - Inventory temporary carbon storage and delayed GHG emissions: If \"temporary carbon storage in bio-based goods\" is considered, the temporary removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, storage in long-living bio-based products or landfills, and delayed emission as CO2 or CH4 shall be modelled analogously to delayed emissions of fossil carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The difference is that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5316, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 229, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows for fossil emissions the uptake from the atmosphere is not considered, but only the delayed emission152. See also chapter 9 on interpretation and note that the temporary storage shall only be considered if explicitly required to meet the specific goal of the study. If this is the case, it shall both be modelled as follows: [ISO+] VII.a) Special correction elementary flows shall be used to inventory the amount of CO2 that is emitted in the future. This can be both due to temporary storage as embodied biogenic carbon in long-living and land-filled bio-based goods and due to processes with fossil GHG emissions that take place in the future", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5317, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This can be both due to temporary storage as embodied biogenic carbon in long-living and land-filled bio-based goods and due to processes with fossil GHG emissions that take place in the future. If this is done, the following correction flows shall be used: VII.a.i) \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of biogenic carbon dioxide (within first 100 years)\u201d and \"Correction flow for delayed emission of fossil carbon dioxide (within first 100 years)\", respectively. Both as elementary flows and classified on the general level as \"Emissions\", measured in the reference flow property \u201cMass*years\u201d of storage and the reference unit \u201ckg*a\u201d. Both flows shall carry a GWP100 impact factor of \u201c-0.01 kg CO2equivalents\u201d per 1 kg carbon dioxide and 1 year of storage/delayed emission; this exclusively if \"temporary carbon storage\" is considered in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5318, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VII.a.ii) \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of biogenic methane (within first 100 years)\u201d and \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of fossil methane (within first 100 years)\u201d, respectively. Both as elementary flow and classified on the general level as \"Emissions\", measured in the reference flow property \u201cMass*years\u201d of storage and the reference unit \u201ckg*a\u201d. Both flows shall carry a GWP100 impact factor of \u201c-0.25153,154 kg CO2152 The logic behind accounting for biogenic carbon storage is that for the duration of storage the CO2 is not exerting a radiative forcing. This makes sense only in case near-term radiative forcing is considered more relevant than future radiative forcing, as the later re-emitted biogenic CO2 will still exert its full radiative forcing effect, only later. That is reflected by the commonly used one hundred years perspective for GWP100: the higher radiative forcing per unit (kg) of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5319, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That is reflected by the commonly used one hundred years perspective for GWP100: the higher radiative forcing per unit (kg) of e.g. Methane and Nitrous oxide is weighted higher then the relatively lower radiative forcing per unit of CO2, always for 100 years. To reward the temporary removal of CO2 from the atmosphere is fully equivalent to the effect of avoided radiative forcing due to delayed emission of fossil carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gases: While the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere is unique for biomass and considered in the impact assessment as negative impact, it does not matter whether one burns a block of wood or of plastic and releases the CO2 as emission: both biogenic and fossil CO2 are identically contributing to radiative forcing when emitted. For Climate change it is the same whether one keeps a piece of wood or of plastic unburned for e.g. 60 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5320, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For Climate change it is the same whether one keeps a piece of wood or of plastic unburned for e.g. 60 years. If the time when an emission takes place is considered for biomass it must also be considered for fossil materials. Some examples/aspects: Note that on a net basis temporarily stored biogenic carbon has a negative Climate Change impact: at 60 years storage of e.g. 1 kg CO2: CO2 uptake (negative value -1 kg CO2-eq.) plus emission after 60 years (+1 kg CO2-eq.) minus the credit for 60 years temporary storage, = -1 + 1 - 0.6 = -0.6 kg CO2-equiv. in total. For delayed fossil emissions the net impact is always positive: CO2 emission minus credit for 60 years delayed emission, e.g. for 1 kg CO2 = 1 - 0.6 = 0.4 kg CO2-equiv. in total. Note that the difference between biogenic and fossil delayed emissions for the same time of delay is always the same (i.e. 1 kg CO2-equiv. difference per kg CO2 emitted), rewarding both biogenic carbon storage and long-living products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5321, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "1 kg CO2-equiv. difference per kg CO2 emitted), rewarding both biogenic carbon storage and long-living products. 153 This factor uses the IPCC GWP100 factors of 2007 by multiplying the base-value for carbon dioxide of 0.01 with the substance-specific factor (e.g. 25 for methane, 298 for nitrous oxide (laughing gas, N2O)). The substance-specific factor shall be adjusted in line with any ILCD recommendations on LCIA methods or updated factors from the IPCC if the former is not available.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5322, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 230, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows equivalents\u201d per 1 kg methane and 1 year of delayed emission; this exclusively if \"temporary carbon storage\" is considered in the study. VII.a.iii) \u201cCorrection flow for delayed emission of nitrous oxide (within first 100 years)\u201d. As elementary flow and classified on the general level as \"Emissions\", measured in the reference flow property \u201cMass*years\u201d of storage and the reference unit \u201ckg*a\u201d. This flow is to carry a GWP100 impact factor of \u201c-2.98153 kg CO2-equivalents\u201d per 1 kg nitrous oxide and 1 year of delayed emission; this exclusively if \"temporary carbon storage\" is considered in the study. VII.a.iv) For other greenhouse gases analogous factors can be developed and used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5323, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 231, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VII.a.iv) For other greenhouse gases analogous factors can be developed and used. VII.b) The maximum amount of each correction flow that can be inventoried per kg delayed emission shall be 100 kg*a. That is if the delayed emission takes place exactly 100 years into the future. The correction flow shall be inventoried only if the emission is forecasted to take place at a maximum of 100 years into the future from the time of study. It shall not be inventoried if the emission takes place beyond the 100 years155: An emission that takes place more than 100 years into the future shall be reflected in the inventory exclusively by inventorying the future emissions with the long-term emission elementary flows such as e.g. \u201cCarbon dioxide, biogenic (long-term)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d. I.e. in that case no correction flow is required but would be wrong", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5324, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 231, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cCarbon dioxide, biogenic (long-term)\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d. I.e. in that case no correction flow is required but would be wrong. VIII) SHALL - Inventory future substitution analogous to delayed emissions: The provisions for delayed greenhouse gas emissions as detailed above apply analogously for delayed reuse/recycling/recovery in case this is modelled with substitution. The same applies generally for substitution that occurs in the future. The respective \"Correction flows...\" shall be inventoried with negative values, i.e. debiting for the delay in the substitution. Note that only if \"temporary carbon storage and delayed emissions\" is required to meet the specific goal of the study the correction flows will be considered and result in an additional contribution to the Climate change impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5325, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 231, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] IX) SHALL - Document details and assumptions on delayed emissions / substitution: The information about the assumed storage time or time of future reuse/recycling/recovery and other cases of substitution, as well as the amounts and substances of the emissions in the unit process shall be documented and made available for review. [ISO+] X) SHALL - Provision for long-term / quasi-permanent storage of potential emissions: The quasi-permanent storage of CO2 and other potential emissions in 154 Note that both fossil and biogenic Methane carry the same factor, as the uptake of the CO2 by the plants is to be modelled explicitly in any case (see chapter 7.4.3.6.4) and the elementary flow carries a GWP factor of -1 kg CO2-equiv. per kg CO2 uptake. Fossil and biogenic Methane would require different factors only if the uptake would not be modelled explicitly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5326, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 231, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "per kg CO2 uptake. Fossil and biogenic Methane would require different factors only if the uptake would not be modelled explicitly. 155 The reason is that otherwise the LCIA results for the short-term perspective (first 100 years) would carry a full credit of negative climate change impacts while the long-term LCIA results carry the emission as it takes place beyond 100 years. If in results interpretation a short-term perspective is taken (and the long-term emissions excluded / discounted) an incorrect negative impact would be found.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5327, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 231, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows dedicated long-term storage forms (e.g. injection into former natural gas fields) shall be accounted for by inventorying no emissions at all, if the respective storage form can guarantee that it is not emitted to the atmosphere for at least 100,000 years (duration set by convention). [ISO+] XI) SHALL - Document details and assumptions on long-term / quasi-permanent storage: The information about the storage form and assumed storage time shall be concisely documented and made available for review. This documentation shall be done via a respective waste inventory flow. [ISO+] Note: The other inventory work is done as usual: I.e. inventorying emissions that occur within 100 years from present with the normal elementary flows (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5328, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 232, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] Note: The other inventory work is done as usual: I.e. inventorying emissions that occur within 100 years from present with the normal elementary flows (e.g. \u201cMethane, biogenic\u201d as \u201cEmissions to air\u201d). Note that only if \"temporary carbon storage\" is considered in the study, in the later interpretation the results shall be analysed individually with and without the credit, showing explicitly the effect of the credit for storage/delayed emissions. Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) Introduction and overview Reminder flows are no own category of flows, but an additional classification applicable to any flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5329, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 232, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7.4.3.8 Reminder flows (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) Introduction and overview Reminder flows are no own category of flows, but an additional classification applicable to any flow. It is excluding it from the impact assessment and system modelling, while keeping it in the inventory as a \u201creminder\u201d also when creating LCI results. Reminder flows can be used for product flows such as \"electricity, reminder flow\" to keep the information in the LCI results what is the overall amount of electricity used over the life cycle. Such is sometimes required for certain life cycle applications such as Environmental Product Declarations (EPD). Or it can be used for indicator flows such as \u201cVOC, reminder flow, not impact relevant\u201d that is inventoried in addition to the single emissions which it is composed of. Presently \u201creminder flows\u201d are used in few LCA software systems and databases, but this approach is seen very beneficial, as explained above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5330, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 232, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Presently \u201creminder flows\u201d are used in few LCA software systems and databases, but this approach is seen very beneficial, as explained above. It is implemented as an option in the ILCD reference format where individual Input/Output flows can be marked as \"Reminder flow\". It is to be stressed again that reminder flows do not have any relevance regarding classical LCI results or LCIA results information, i.e. must not carry any LCIA impact factors and are not to be connected with up-stream or down-stream processes. Such reminder flows should have an own, specific name to lower the risk of double counting in the inventory. Provisions: 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows I) MAY - Use reminder flows to keep original information for specific purposes: It is recommended to use reminder flows to inventory the original information of split measurement indicators and sum flows (see 7.4.3.2). They may be used to keep other", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5331, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 232, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results flows in LCI results inventories for information purposes. [ISO+] II) SHALL - Exclude reminder flows from impact assessment: Reminder flows shall not carry an LCIA impact factor. [ISO+] III) SHALL - Clearly identify reminder flows in the flow name: The fact of being a reminder flow shall also be identified in the flow name (e.g. \u201cVOC, reminder flow, not impact relevant\u201d). [ISO+] Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5332, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 233, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.4.4 Overarching method provisions for specific process types (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.5 and 4.3.2.2) 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.3 and 4.2.3.5) Introduction Industrial production processes typically have a well defined and controlled boundary between the technosphere and the ecosphere and are operated with equally well-defined or at least controlled (and hence measurable) operational parameters. Agricultural, forestry and similar (e.g. fish farming) production systems largely lack this. They therefore typically need to include different, model-based approaches for data collection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5333, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 233, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Agricultural, forestry and similar (e.g. fish farming) production systems largely lack this. They therefore typically need to include different, model-based approaches for data collection. The common needs of these systems of the economy's primary sector need specific guidance on some specific aspects: System boundaries Similar to modelling waste, also for agricultural and forestry systems the interpretation of the system boundary differs in LCA practice: a clear separation between emissions to soil, water and air in inventories of agricultural and forestry production requires a clear guidance in inventorying, separating correctly and consistently between the technosphere and the ecosphere: Pesticide and fertilizer applications are no emission, but part of the product flows within the (man-managed) technosphere. The emissions are the flows form the e.g. field or forest to the ecosphere via leaching and run-off of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5334, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 233, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The emissions are the flows form the e.g. field or forest to the ecosphere via leaching and run-off of e.g. Nitrates and Phosphate, off-drift of pesticides during application and their volatilisation from plant and soil surface etc. The amount of these emissions has to be modelled case-specific as they can differ extremely: plant-uptake, site-properties, climate and geographical conditions, as well as farming practice determine the conversion of e.g. applied Ammonium nitrate fertiliser to nitrate emissions to water and to NH3 and N2O emissions to air. Equally the uptake of heavy metals into the harvested goods and removal from the site are elementary flows and are to be inventoried individually for the given case. At the same time, some inputs to soil do not leave the technosphere via leaching etc., but are accumulated in the soil, such as e.g. cadmium that typically accompanies most phosphate fertilisers at least to some extent. The amount of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5335, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 233, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "cadmium that typically accompanies most phosphate fertilisers at least to some extent. The amount of e.g. cadmium within the phosphate fertiliser that is applied to the field is directly inventoried as emission to agricultural soil.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5336, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 233, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Also a part of the nutrients from fertilisation may remain in the field after harvest and serves as input to the next crop, hence crosses the system boundary within the technosphere over time. In this case the substance is a co-function of the preceding crop, making that process multi-functional. The general provisions for solving multifunctionality apply. Net accumulation or depletion of a substance is hence to be recorded in the inventory, disregarding the nature of this substance (agrochemical, nutrient, heavy metal, carbon, etc.) and to be correctly considered in the system model or the impact assessment, as applicable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5337, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 234, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Carbon stock changes and CO2 emissions resulting from land use and land transformation Land transformation and land use often change the amount of soil organic carbon: after transformation from land occupations with higher soil organic carbon (e.g. forests) to those with a lower level (e.g. agriculture), over a number of years a new equilibrium is reached156. The differences in soil organic carbon is mostly emitted as CO2. In turn, land use changes can also result in net accumulation of soil organic carbon, which is sequestered from the air as CO2. To account for that effect and for the release/binding of climate change related gases (especially CO2, but potentially others) caused by land use and land use changes, the most recent data and emission factors provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) should be used, unless more accurate, specific data is available. For calculating these IPCC-based factors from the basic land use information (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5338, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 234, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For calculating these IPCC-based factors from the basic land use information (e.g. climate zone, soil type, land use type, etc.), guidance, data, and default factors related to CO2 emissions / binding are given in annex 13. The following text provides guidance on assigning or sharing the inventory to the land uses' functions after the transformation: The land use transformation related direct and indirect inventory (e.g. machine use, peak emissions occurring e.g. when the forest biomass is incinerated, long-term CO2 emissions from soil carbon) shall be allocated to the land use functions (e.g. crops) of the following years by area and year. Two cases are to be differentiated: \uf0b7 a) inventory items that occur over a longer period than one year (e.g. CO2 emissions from loss of soil organic carbon due to biodegradation of e.g. humus) \uf0b7 b) inventory items that occur in direct context of the transformation and not longer than one year afterwards (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5339, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 234, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "humus) \uf0b7 b) inventory items that occur in direct context of the transformation and not longer than one year afterwards (e.g. machine use during conversion and peak emissions e.g. from biomass burning) For case a), and for both attributional and consequential157 models, the inventory should be assigned to the land use functions in proportion to the inventory that occurs during the 156 It is important to note that each even minor change in land use (e.g. cropping wheat where the year before sugar beets were cropped) is formally a land transformation. It depends on how different the uses are, whether they effectively result in changes e.g. of the long-term soil organic carbon equilibrium. The following examples are assuming that for the different crops named to be produced after transformation, do not change this equilibrium, i.e. do not imply each another land transformation. Otherwise, a new transformation step would need to be calculated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5340, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 234, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "do not imply each another land transformation. Otherwise, a new transformation step would need to be calculated. This would then need to consider that the equilibrium has not yet been achieved and hence start with the interim achieved soil organic carbon level and considering the new equilibrium for the next land use. To work out the details might be a topic e.g. for a sector-specific guidance document or Product Category Rule (PCR). 157 Note that indirect land use changes are a topic under detailed consequential modelling; see chapter 7.2.4.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5341, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 234, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results time the land use function is occupying the land or otherwise blocking it for other uses (e.g. 1 year fallow as part of crop rotations). For loss / binding of CO2 in form of soil organic carbon, towards reaching the equilibrium of the land use after transformation, a default period of 20 years shall be assumed (see Formula 1). This is, unless it can be demonstrated that the period during which about 90 % the main losses / binding occurs is significantly longer or shorter for the given case. In that case, that duration shall be applied and Formula 2 be used. For simplification, the total loss shall be assumed be to occur linearly with time over the period until the about 90 % loss / binding towards the new equilibrium have been reached; this is assumed, as said above, to occur per default over 20 years. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5342, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. a triangle-shaped allocation pattern shall be used over the considered years (as expressed in Formula 1). This approach is giving higher burdens to the first years after transformation. This is motivated under consequential modelling by the closer link to the decision to convert that land. Under attributional modelling, the reasoning is that that amount is inventoried, which physically occurs158 in the period of the land use (including periods of blocking it for other uses). If the initial years after transformation are without harvest (e.g. as typical for in plantations), the inventory shall be assigned to the first harvest / function of the land use after transformation. If only one kind of crop is harvested (e.g. fruits of a 25 year running fruit tree plantation without wood use), the entire inventory can be allocated to the total amount of the crop, independently of the specific year when the crop has been harvested; i.e. each kg has the same inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5343, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "each kg has the same inventory. In the case more than one crop is harvested per year, the calculated inventory for that year (see below) shall be linearly allocated between these crops over the time of that year that they use the land or block it for other uses; i.e. for simplification no further differentiation needs to bee made between months earlier and later in that year. If the land use function (e.g. harvesting of wood) occurs after the considered period (here: 20 years), the entire inventory shall be assigned to that function, i.e. not only the share of that year, i.e. the inventory of preceding years is assigned to the crops harvested later, as otherwise it would be lost / not accounted for. If a joint production e.g. of annual crops and a final crop occurs (e.g. latex during the years and rubber wood at the end), the final crop should be considered to have been harvested after half the total period", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5344, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "of annual crops and a final crop occurs (e.g. latex during the years and rubber wood at the end), the final crop should be considered to have been harvested after half the total period. The % share of the total inventory that shall be allocated to a given year (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then calculated using Formula 1. Formula 1 * * i X \uf0b7 X = % of inventory to be allocated to the year i of the analysed crop \uf0b7 20 = number of years after transformation over which the inventory is to be allocated, i.e. until when 90 % of the losses / bindings of the CO2 from / into the soil have occurred. The number of years is counted from the transformation onwards. 158 It is noted that the actual distribution over time is about exponential. The triangle is hence a simplification.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5345, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results i = number of years after transformation during which the analysed crop is cropped; the first year after transformation is year i = 0 (Additional condition: if i > 20-1 then X = 0, i.e. nothing shall be allocated after 20 years). Example: After transformation of a former land use to permanent agriculture, after 2 years the first crop might be harvested (e.g. pineapple). In year 3 e.g. corn is harvested, and in year 4 e.g. papaya. Applying Formula 1, the pineapple receive for the first year (100*2)/(20+1)*(20-0)/20 % = 200/21*1 % = 9.5 % plus for the second year (100*2)/(20+1)*(20-1)/20 % = 200/21*0.95 % = 9 %, in sum 18.5 % of the total CO2 inventory related to the transformation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5346, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 236, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The corn of year 3 receives (100*2)/(20+1)*(20-2)/20 % = 200/21*0.9 % = 8.6 %, the papaya of year 4 (100*2)/(20+1)*(20-3)/20 % = 200/21*0.85 % = 8.1 %, and so on. In sum over 20 years, 100 % are assigned to the various land use functions. For land uses during the considered period but that are shorter than one year, the inventory shall be linearly shared among the uses according to their duration of using or blocking the land. The data, tables, factors and formula for calculating this CO2 inventory that is to be shared as detailed above, is given in annex 13. For case b), and both under attributional and consequential modelling: the subsequent years of land use e.g. for agriculture of different crops can be considered to be analogous to the reuse/further use e.g. of refillable bottles or recycled metals. I.e. they each share the same share of the \"production\" inventory (here: the land transformation) per function (here: year of land use)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5347, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 236, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "of refillable bottles or recycled metals. I.e. they each share the same share of the \"production\" inventory (here: the land transformation) per function (here: year of land use). Also under consequential modelling, the reuse/further use of the land leads to the same burdens are shared per function provided (see the example on further use of a metal table in the \"Terms and concepts: Recyclability substitution approach\" box in annex 14.5.2). Per default and set as convention for sub-annual, annual and bi-annual crops, the total amount of uses over which the \"production\" inventory of the land transformation is to be shared shall be 20 years159. This is the same duration over which by default the soil organic carbon changes are modelled. This is unless the foreseeable duration of the transformed land use is shorter, ending foreseeably with nature or no use other than short-term/managed fallow (e.g. slash-and-burn agriculture of 3 years use before abandoning)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5348, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 236, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "slash-and-burn agriculture of 3 years use before abandoning). Or the foreseeable minimum use is longer (e.g. plantations with 30 years plantation cycle). In that case, that duration of one plantation / use cycle shall be used. The % share of the total inventory that shall be assigned to a given year of land use (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then proportional to the duration of land use / blocking it for other uses. I.e. other than for the preceding case of soil carbon changes it does not depend how long after transformation the land use occurs, as long as it is within the period that is considered as defined above160. 159 This and the following settings assume that the decision to change the land use is not motivated for the next single crop year, but over a longer period", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5349, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 236, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "159 This and the following settings assume that the decision to change the land use is not motivated for the next single crop year, but over a longer period. 160 The reasoning that the emissions that occur in year 0 are linearly shared by the following land uses over several years, while the emissions that occur over a longer period are shared in a triangular shape, i.e. giving a higher share to the land use directly following the transformation, is as follows: The \"peak\" inventory of transformation is equivalent to a production inventory, e.g. of a refillable bottle. The emissions that occur over a longer period are still related to the transformation, but it depends on the specific land use in a given year, whether the e.g. soil organic carbon loss is stopped by e.g. better land management, i.e. is an operational emission (similar to washing a refillable bottle). Hence it is to be inventoried as and when it occurs.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5350, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 236, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Example: if the agricultural production of slash-and-burn for three years' harvests bananas in the first year and manioc in the second and cassava in the third year, the harvests of bananas, manioc and cassava receive each 1/3 = 33.3 % of the inventory (assuming here for simplification that they use the land each for one year. For both cases a) and b): In the case of co-products, the same provisions apply as for general cases of multifunctionality under attributional modelling (see chapter 7.9) and consequential modelling (see chapter 7.2.4.6), respectively. If the natural goods from the converted land (e.g. wood) are also at least partly used, they shall be considered one function as part of the multifunctional system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5351, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If the natural goods from the converted land (e.g. wood) are also at least partly used, they shall be considered one function as part of the multifunctional system. The same provisions apply analogously to land transformation between other than agricultural, pastoral or forestry uses. The focus is put here on these processes, as for these the effects or often highly relevant for the LCI results. Other emissions resulting from land use and land transformation (with equilibrium, excluding nutrients) Other emissions that occur over a longer period than one year after transformation, but similar as the soil organic carbon in an exponential way, should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources with generic data if available. This formula is also used if under case \"a)\" 90 % of the equilibrium of the soil organic carbon is reached after more or less then the 20 years that are set per default (see more above in this chapter)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5352, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The % share of the total inventory that shall be assigned to a given year (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then calculated using Formula 2, being the general form of Formula 1: Formula 2 n i n n X * * \uf0b7 X = % of inventory to be allocated to the year i of the analysed crop \uf0b7 n = number of years after transformation over which the inventory is to be allocated, i.e. until when 90 % of the losses / bindings have occurred. The number of years is counted from the transformation onwards. \uf0b7 i = number of years after transformation during which the analysed crop is cropped; the first year after transformation is year i = 0 (if i > n-1 then X = 0, i.e. nothing shall be allocated after the number of considered years). Example: Inventorying the XY leaching losses after land transformation of tropical forest by slash-and-burn agriculture: 90 % of the leaching may occur over 3 years (value illustrative only)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5353, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Example: Inventorying the XY leaching losses after land transformation of tropical forest by slash-and-burn agriculture: 90 % of the leaching may occur over 3 years (value illustrative only). In these three years, the following is cropped and harvested: bananas in the first year, and manioc in the second year, and cassava in the third year. The bananas harvest receives (100*2)/(3+1)*(3-0)/3 % = 50*1 % = 50 % of the total inventory related to the transformation. The manioc of the second year receives (100*2)/(3+1)*(3-1)/3 % = 50*(2/3) % = 33.3 % and the cassava (100*2)/(3+1)*(3-2)/3 % = 50*(1/3) % = 16.7 %, in sum 100 %. Note that the total amount of the loss of XY and the actual duration of the main losses until about 90 % of the equilibrium of the land use are reached need to be identified first. Emissions without an equilibrium Emissions that do not have an equilibrium or that reach that state in a not exponential way, (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5354, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Emissions without an equilibrium Emissions that do not have an equilibrium or that reach that state in a not exponential way, (e.g. soil erosion) need to be modelled differently, while following an analogous", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5355, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results reasoning as the other inventory items addressed in this chapter. E.g. surface erosion by water and wind and related mass flow transfer of these substances together with the eroded soil to waterways or air shall be inventoried as \"Emission to fresh water\" or \"Emission to air\", respectively. These losses are directly related to the operation of the cropping process, hence belong to its inventory. Nutrients as emissions and as product flows Note that emissions especially of NO3 -, PO4 3- and other substances that are part of the nutrient system of the land and crop should be modelled as they occur during the respective land use. In fact are these nutrients a product flow input from the preceding land use and hence a co-function that needs to be solved as other cases of multifunctionality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5356, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 238, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In fact are these nutrients a product flow input from the preceding land use and hence a co-function that needs to be solved as other cases of multifunctionality. Any remaining nutrients such as nitrate in the field are a co-product of the crop are an input for the production of the next crop. These cases of multifunctionality shall be solved in principle via system expansion (consequential modelling) or allocation (attributional modelling), applying the same provisions are foreseen for other cases of multifunctionality; see 7.2.4.6 and 7.9, respectively. Temporary removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by plants and release at end-of-life See chapter 7.4.3.7.3. Indirect land use changes Indirect land use is an issue under consequential modelling that applies to all kinds of land uses and is hence addressed in chapter 7.2.4.4. Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5357, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 238, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. I) SHALL - Agro- and forestry systems: Their modelling shall be done as follows: [ISO!] I.a) Inventory net interventions: Only the net interventions related to human land management activities shall be inventoried. Interventions that would occur also if the site was unused shall not be inventoried (e.g. not the basic Nitrate leaching resulting from N input via rain): I.a.i) Reference system under attributional modelling: The \"no use\" reference system shall be the independent behaviour of the site, starting from the status of the land at that moment when the area of the analysed system is prepared for the modelled system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5358, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 238, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.a.ii) Indirect land use under consequential modelling: The indirect land use (mix) shall be modelled (provisions see chapter 7.2.4.4); net interventions may need to be modelled for those indirect land uses / transformations. Note that land transformation happening in the past may need to be allocated to the analysed system. I.b) Model site as part of the technosphere: Of the applied fertilisers and agrochemicals (e.g. fungicides) only the amounts that leave the site (i.e. the field, plantation, managed forest etc.) shall be inventoried as emissions to air or water,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5359, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 238, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems as appropriate. I.c) Carried over nutrients as co-functions: Any remaining nutrients such as N in crop residues are a co-product of the crop are an input for the production of the next crop. These cases of multifunctionality shall be solved in principle via system expansion (consequential modelling) or allocation (attributional modelling), applying the same provisions are foreseen for other cases of multifunctionality; see 7.2.4.6 and 7.9, respectively. Also emissions especially of Nitrate, Phosphate and other substances that are part of the nutrient system of the land and crop should be modelled as they occur during the respective land use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5360, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 239, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Also emissions especially of Nitrate, Phosphate and other substances that are part of the nutrient system of the land and crop should be modelled as they occur during the respective land use. I.d) Model immobile substances to cross the system boundary over time: Strongly soil-bound heavy metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) that remain in the site for many decades shall be inventoried as \u201cEmissions to soil, unspecified\u201d. Leaching of these substances to the groundwater shall not be inventoried additionally, but is covered via the impact assessment of this emission to soil. In contrast, surface erosion by water and wind and related mass flow transfer of these substances together with the eroded soil to waterways or air shall be inventoried as \"Emission to fresh water\" or \"Emission to air\", respectively. These losses are directly related to the operation of the cropping process, hence belong to its inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5361, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 239, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These losses are directly related to the operation of the cropping process, hence belong to its inventory. Note that the amount inventoried as emission to soil is to be reduced by the respective erosive losses. Double-counting shall be avoided. I.e) Model emissions form land use and transformation: Carbon dioxide and other emissions resulting from land use and land transformation shall be modelled as follows, for both attributional and consequential modelling: I.e.i) CO2 emissions: These shall be calculated using the most recent Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) factors per default, unless more accurate, specific data is available. Other, relevant inventory items should be measured or modelled for the given case or using similar authoritative sources, if available. Formulas for assignment to different subsequent land uses see below. The data, tables, factors and formula for calculating this CO2 inventory that is to be shared as detailed below, is given in annex 13", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5362, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 239, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The data, tables, factors and formula for calculating this CO2 inventory that is to be shared as detailed below, is given in annex 13. I.e.ii) Two cases of inventory related to land transformation: The land transformation related direct and indirect inventory shall be allocated to the following crops by used/occupied land area and duration of cropping, as follows. Two cases are to be differentiated: a) inventory items that occur over a longer period than one year, exponentially reaching a new quasi-equilibrium (e.g. CO2 emissions from loss of soil organic carbon due to biodegradation of e.g. humus). b) inventory items that occur in direct context of the transformation and not longer than one year afterwards (e.g. machine use during conversion and peak emissions e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5363, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 239, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "humus). b) inventory items that occur in direct context of the transformation and not longer than one year afterwards (e.g. machine use during conversion and peak emissions e.g. from biomass burning) I.e.ii.1) For case a), and for both attributional and consequential models, the inventory should be assigned to the land use functions in proportion to the inventory that occurs during the time the land use function is occupying the land or otherwise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5364, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 239, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems blocking it for other uses (e.g. include 1 year fallow as part of crop rotations). For loss / binding of CO2 in form of soil organic carbon, towards reaching the equilibrium of the land use after transformation, a default period of 20 years shall be assumed. This is meant to reflect about 90 % the main losses / binding. I.e.ii.2) For simplification, the total loss shall be assumed to occur in a triangularly shaped distribution with time over the period until the about 90 % loss / binding towards the new equilibrium have been reached. Formula 1 shall be used to allocate the calculated total emission/binding to the crops; if the above default period can be demonstrated to be different from 20 years, Formula 2 shall be used instead", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5365, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Formula 1 shall be used to allocate the calculated total emission/binding to the crops; if the above default period can be demonstrated to be different from 20 years, Formula 2 shall be used instead. I.e.ii.3) Formula 1 * * i X \uf0b7 X = % of inventory to be allocated to the year i of the analysed crop \uf0b7 20 = number of years after transformation over which the inventory is to be allocated, i.e. until when 90 % of the losses / bindings of the CO2 from / into the soil have occurred. The number of years is counted from the transformation onwards. \uf0b7 i = number of years after transformation during which the analysed crop is cropped; the first year after transformation is year i = 0 (Additional condition: if i > 20-1 then X = 0, i.e. nothing shall be allocated after 20 years). I.e.ii.4) If the initial years after transformation are without harvest (e.g. as typical for in plantations), the inventory shall be assigned to the first harvest / function of the land use after transformation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5366, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "as typical for in plantations), the inventory shall be assigned to the first harvest / function of the land use after transformation. I.e.ii.5) If only one kind of crop is harvested (e.g. fruits of a 25 year running fruit tree plantation without wood use), the entire inventory can be allocated to the total amount of the crop, independently of the specific year when the crop has been harvested; i.e. each kg has the same inventory. I.e.ii.6) In the case more than one crop is harvested per year, the calculated inventory for that year shall be linearly allocated between these crops over the time of that year that they use the land or block it for other uses; i.e. for simplification no further differentiation needs to bee made between months earlier and later in that year. I.e.ii.7) If the land use function (e.g. harvesting of wood) occurs after the considered period (here: 20 years), the entire inventory shall be assigned to that function, i.e. not only the share of that year, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5367, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "harvesting of wood) occurs after the considered period (here: 20 years), the entire inventory shall be assigned to that function, i.e. not only the share of that year, i.e. the inventory of preceding years is assigned to the crops harvested later, as otherwise it would be lost / not accounted for. I.e.ii.8) If a joint production e.g. of annual crops and a final crop occurs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5368, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems (e.g. latex during the years and rubber wood at the end), the final crop should be considered to have been harvested after half the total period. I.e.ii.9) The % share of the total inventory that shall be allocated to a given year (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then calculated using Formula 1 (see above). I.e.ii.10) For land uses during the considered period but that are shorter than one year, the inventory shall be linearly shared among the uses according to their duration of using or blocking the land", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5369, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e.ii.11) For case b) and per default for sub-annual, annual and biannual crops, the total amount of uses over which the \"production\" inventory of the land transformation is to be shared shall be 20 years. This is unless the foreseeable duration of the transformed land use is shorter, ending foreseeably with nature or no use other than short-term/managed fallow (e.g. slashand-burn agriculture of 3 years use before abandoning). Or the foreseeable minimum use is longer (e.g. plantations with 30 years plantation cycle). In that case, that duration of one plantation / use cycle shall be used. I.e.ii.12) The % share of the total inventory that shall be assigned to a given year of land use (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then proportional to the duration of land use / blocking it for other uses. I.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5370, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. other than for the preceding case of soil carbon changes it does not depend how long after transformation the land use occurs, as long as it is within the period that is considered as defined above. I.e.ii.13) Other emissions resulting from land use and land transformation (with equilibrium, excluding nutrients): I.e.ii.14) Other emissions that occur over a longer period than one year after transformation, but in an exponential way, should be measured or modelled for the given case or using authoritative sources with generic data if available. The following Formula 2 can be applied, being the general form of Formula 1: I.e.ii.15) The % share of the total inventory that shall be assigned to a given year (assuming the crop occupies that land for the full year or otherwise prevents its use for a full year), is then calculated using Formula 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5371, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e.ii.16) Formula 2 n i n n X * * \uf0b7 X = % of inventory to be allocated to the year i of the analysed crop \uf0b7 n = number of years after transformation over which the inventory is to be allocated, i.e. until when 90 % of the losses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5372, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 100, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems / bindings have occurred. The number of years is counted from the transformation onwards. \uf0b7 i = number of years after transformation during which the analysed crop is cropped; the first year after transformation is year i = 0 (if i > n-1 then X = 0, i.e. nothing shall be allocated after the number of considered years). I.e.ii.17) Note that the total amount of the loss of XY and the actual duration of the main losses until about 90 % of the equilibrium of the land use are reached need to be identified first. I.e.ii.18) Emissions of items without an equilibrium: I.e.ii.19) Emissions that do not have an equilibrium state or that reach that state in a not exponential way, (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5373, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 242, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e.ii.18) Emissions of items without an equilibrium: I.e.ii.19) Emissions that do not have an equilibrium state or that reach that state in a not exponential way, (e.g. soil erosion) need to be modelled differently, while following an analogous reasoning as the other inventory items addressed in this chapter. These losses are directly related to the operation of the cropping process, hence belong to its inventory. I.e.iii) If the natural goods from the converted land are also at least partly used (e.g. harvested primary forest wood), they shall be considered one function as part of the multifunctional system. I.e.iv) The same provisions apply analogously to land transformation between other than agricultural, pastoral or forestry uses. I.e.v) Emissions that do not have an equilibrium state or reach that state in a not exponential way, (e.g. soil erosion) need to be modelled differently, while following an analogous reasoning as the other inventory items addressed in this chapter", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5374, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 242, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "soil erosion) need to be modelled differently, while following an analogous reasoning as the other inventory items addressed in this chapter. Temporary removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by plants and release at end-of-life: see chapter 7.4.3.7.3. Indirect land use is an issue under consequential modelling and is in chapter 7.2.4.4. Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.3) Overview This chapter focuses on modelling waste for deposition, the system boundary technosphere / ecosphere, and inventorying convention for waste flows. See also the specific provisions for modelling reuse, recycling and recovery under attributional modelling in annex 14.4 and consequential modelling in annex 14.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5375, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 242, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See also the specific provisions for modelling reuse, recycling and recovery under attributional modelling in annex 14.4 and consequential modelling in annex 14.5. Complete modelling of waste management to elementary flows Waste flows (e.g. household waste, end-of-life products, wastewater from a process, tailings from ore processing, and the like) are no elementary flows but are flows inside the technosphere. Therefore their further management and treatment needs to be modelled until", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5376, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 242, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results the related elementary flows cross the system boundary. This is the same as for any other process in the system. Waste flows therefore shall not be left as such in the inventory, with one exception: for radioactive waste, so far no agreed modelling is available; radioactive waste flows are to remain in the inventory and are to be differentiated at least into highly, medium and low radioactive waste. If other waste flows are left in the inventory, this shall be clearly documented and the user be advised to complete the model. Otherwise the lack of accuracy and completeness shall be considered in the results interpretation. Frequent errors: Incomplete modelling of waste management In LCA practice it can still often be observed that relevant amounts of waste flows are kept in the inventory, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5377, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 243, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Frequent errors: Incomplete modelling of waste management In LCA practice it can still often be observed that relevant amounts of waste flows are kept in the inventory, i.e. the LCI work and hence LCIA results are incomplete. That should be avoided or otherwise must be reported and explicitly considered in interpretation of results. Sometimes this is caused by an unclear/inappropriate definition of the system boundary between technosphere and ecosphere (see chapter 6.6). This results in errors such as e.g. inventorying tailings from ore processing as such instead of modelling the leaching of e.g. sulphuric acid and metals emissions from these tailings. A complete modelling of all relevant waste flows - e.g. using generic or sector-average waste management models - is a single means that can help substantially to complete existing inventory data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5378, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 243, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A complete modelling of all relevant waste flows - e.g. using generic or sector-average waste management models - is a single means that can help substantially to complete existing inventory data. Optionally, waste flows can additionally be kept in the inventory as \u201cReminder flows\u201d that are clearly identified as not being part of the normal (i.e. impacting) inventory. Note that this option is only as additional information for reporting purposes as sometimes required by individual EPD systems, but is not substituting the complete modelling of waste management to the elementary flows. Inventorying convention for waste Modelling of waste treatment can be done in two ways: \uf0b7 either by inventorying it as a physical flow of waste in the output (i.e. in sense of the material flow direction, as for all material and god flows along the supply-chain), \uf0b7 or as service flow in the input (i.e. in sense of a purchased service, as incurred cost on the input side, the same as for other services)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5379, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 243, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in sense of a purchased service, as incurred cost on the input side, the same as for other services). It is recommended to model generated waste in the output of processes, as this results in less confusion especially when calculating process mass and element balances, but also already during modelling and depicting the systems flow chart, as well as in external communication. Littering / discarding to nature For littering of complex goods such as for example batteries, the emissions from the battery shall be modelled/estimated and inventoried as elementary flows. I.e. not the \"battery\" itself would be the emission flow but the emissions that effectively leave the battery to the surrounding soil, water and air. This is necessary as complex goods cannot be well captured with LCIA methods, but remain an inventory issue that needs specific modelling of the littering situation. Hence, although the littered goods ends up in the environment, it is modelled as part of the technosphere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5380, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 243, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Hence, although the littered goods ends up in the environment, it is modelled as part of the technosphere. In line with the definition of interventions, only single substances are the emission elementary flows that are inventoried. It is recommended to keep the information of the littered good in the inventory as reminder flow (see chapter 7.4.3.8). The modelled assumptions of the releases shall be documented.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5381, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 243, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Preferably, the process of the behaviour of the littered good is modelled as separate unit process. An example is a physical effect that materials that may exert on wildlife e.g. if littered to rivers or the sea. In that case, the effect is to be inventoried in a respective elementary flow, as required by the applied LCIA method (next to e.g. emissions that may take place in addition). Provisions: 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment I) SHALL - Waste and end-of-life product deposition: This shall be modelled as follows: [ISO!] I.a) Model waste management completely: Waste and waste water treatment shall be modelled consistently to the boundary between technosphere and ecosphere; otherwise this shall be clearly documented and be explicitly considered in later interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5382, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 244, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This modelling includes all treatment steps up to and including disposal of any remaining waste to waste deposits or landfills and inventorying the emissions from these sites to/from the ecosphere. Two exceptions are radioactive wastes and wastes in underground deposits (e.g. mine filling), which should be kept as specific waste flows in the inventory, unless detailed, long-term management and related interventions have been entirely modelled also for these. I.b) Modelling discarding of goods into nature: For unmanaged landfilling, discharge, and littering (i.e. discarding goods individually into nature) the related individual interventions that enter the ecosphere shall be modelled as part of the LCI model. This also applies analogously to other interventions than emissions, if the used LCIA method covers such. The littered / landfilled good should be additionally inventoried as reminder flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5383, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 244, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This also applies analogously to other interventions than emissions, if the used LCIA method covers such. The littered / landfilled good should be additionally inventoried as reminder flow. I.c) Modelling waste as output: Waste flows should be modelled following the material flow logic. That means inventorying the waste on the output side of those processes where it is generated (e.g. production waste or end-of-life product as output of the use stage). For waste management processes that means that the waste flows should accordingly be modelled on the input side if the process, with any potentially produced secondary goods and remaining wastes being on the output side. This eases mass and element balancing. For cost calculation purposes, the cost of the waste treatment service may be assigned to the waste flow as additional flow property. Note: The use of generic waste treatment models / processes may be considered to limit time and resources required for data collection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5384, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 244, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note: The use of generic waste treatment models / processes may be considered to limit time and resources required for data collection. 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.3.2.2 and 4.3.2.3) Equally common across attributional and consequential modelling are a number of conventions around nomenclature and other conventions. These identify and define the same commonly required objects (e.g. \u201cCarbon dioxide\u201d as \u201cEmission to air\u201d, \u201ckg\u201d as unit for the property \u201cMass\u201d, etc.). This is a pre-requisite for being able to combine and integrate inventory data sets from different data developers to systems and LCA studies and to link LCIA methods correctly to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5385, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 244, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results the resulting inventory results. Otherwise multiple occurrence of flows, incomplete impact assessment, and fundamental incompatibility of the inventories would be the consequence. These conventions also provide the basis for proper identification and naming of e.g. new elementary flows, including the need for CAS No and the like, their measurement in appropriate and compatible units and the like. While most elementary flows are reported in the flow property \u201cmass\u201d and expressed in measurement units such as \u201ckg\u201d, some elementary flows are to be reported as \u201clower calorific energy value\u201d and expressed in the unit \u201cMJ\u201d (e.g. for energy resources), others as \u201cionising radiation activity\u201d in the unit \u201ckBq\u201d (for emitted radioactive isotopes)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5386, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 245, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for energy resources), others as \u201cionising radiation activity\u201d in the unit \u201ckBq\u201d (for emitted radioactive isotopes). Product and waste flows are measured in the individually identified, appropriate flow property and unit. The separate document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d gives the detailed provisions on this. The set of ILCD reference elementary flows, flow properties and unit groups implement this nomenclature guidance document and provide a ready-made set of 19000+ elementary flows and the commonly required flow properties and unit groups. For more details on naming of flows and other conventions see the document on \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d161. Provisions: 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions I) SHALL - Elementary flows: [ISO+] I.a) Use ILCD reference elementary flows: The 19000+ pre-defined ILCD reference elementary flows, flow properties (named \u201cproperties\u201d in ISO/TS 14048 and \u201cquantities\u201d in ISO 31) and unit groups shall be used per default, if available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5387, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 245, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.b) Define new elementary flows consistently: New elementary flows shall be created meeting the methodological requirements of this document (see chapter 7.4.3). They shall per default be measured in flow properties (e.g. upper or lower calorific value) and units (e.g. MJ or kWh) applying the guidance given in the separate document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d. Exceptions are only possible if a different unit (e.g. one year of production) is explicitly required for the intended applications; in that case the use of not ILCD-compliant units shall be brought to the awareness of the data set user. I.c) Use ILCD elementary flow categories: New elementary flows shall be classified in the elementary flow categories and sub-categories as defined in the guidance document \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d (e.g. \u201cEmissions to fresh water\u201d, \u201cResources from ground\u201d, etc.). If required for the applied LCIA method (see chapter 6.7.5), differentiated compartments may be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5388, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 245, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201cEmissions to fresh water\u201d, \u201cResources from ground\u201d, etc.). If required for the applied LCIA method (see chapter 6.7.5), differentiated compartments may be used. II) SHOULD - Product and waste flows and processes: The naming and classification of product and waste flows as well as processes should apply the recommended nomenclature and they should be measured in the flow properties and units given in the guidance on \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d. [ISO+] III) SHALL - Flow properties and unit groups: The assignment and naming of new flow 161 The guidance foresees also, specifically for chemical substances (both inputs and emissions) the identification through CAS No. to avoid errors.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5389, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 245, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results properties and unit groups shall apply the recommended nomenclature given in the guidance on \u201cNomenclature and other conventions\u201d. [ISO+] Note that the need to create new units is a rare exception for LCA practitioners; creating new flow properties will be seldom. For LCIA method developers the need to create new unit groups occurs frequently. Note that if the above provisions cannot be fully met, this shall be explicitly considered when reporting achieved data quality and when interpreting the results of LCA studies. Note that LCI data sets' inventories that do not meet the above requirements are not compliant with the ILCD nomenclature. 7.5 Developing generic LCI data Overview In LCA, specific, average and generic data sets are often differentiated. In practice typically a combination is found", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5390, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 246, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "7.5 Developing generic LCI data Overview In LCA, specific, average and generic data sets are often differentiated. In practice typically a combination is found. The \"pure\" concepts are nevertheless explained here, as they imply relevant differences in data collection, modelling, documentation, and review. Terms and concepts: Specific, average and generic data sets Specific data A specific data set in its pure form represents a single process (e.g. a specific technology as operated on a given site) or system (e.g. a specific product model of a single brand) . It exclusively contains data that has been measured at the represented process. For data sets on whole systems that would means that all data for all processes has actually been measured. Average data An average data set ideally combines different specific data sets and/or other average data in an averaging way to represent a combination of processes (e.g. different waste incineration technologies) or systems (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5391, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 246, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "different waste incineration technologies) or systems (e.g. a products group). The averaging can - among others - go across technologies, products, sites, countries, and/or time. Generic data A generic data set has been developed using at least partly other information then those measured for the specific process. This other information can be stoichiometric or other calculation models, patents and other plans for processes or products, expert judgement etc. Generic processes can aim at representing a specific process or system or an average situation. Both specifically measured data and generic data can hence be used for the same purpose of representing specific or average processes or systems. A generic data set represents a typical variant of the process or system, an average data set represents the average situation for the process or system, in both cases within a specified geographic region and time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5392, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 246, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The difference lies in how the data set is modelled: in the first case the product and its life cycle is specified with typical (or representative) characteristics and the inventory is modelled accordingly. In the second case several products (or technologies or production plants) are separately modelled and the inventories are subsequently averaged. Collecting data for generic data sets For generic data sets, plan the data collection and system model based on knowledge about the typical or representative/average characteristics of the process or product. Typical characteristics are: the technology routes and raw material bases which are used, emission", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5393, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 246, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results abatement technologies and emission limits to be met, operation parameters, material composition, etc. Note that an averaging of process or product characteristics is not always useful (e.g. in case of averaging of two very different technologies that produce the same material) or may result in allocation problems (if one of the averaged processes is multifunctional). In those cases a combination of generic modelling and averaging should be foreseen. The generic data set can also reach a high quality IF the information and data for the typical characteristics of the system or technologies are available. The effort for modelling generic data sets is clearly smaller, but it has limited applications, basically its use as background data set, and \u2013 if high quality could be achieved \u2013 as benchmark", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5394, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 247, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The effort for modelling generic data sets is clearly smaller, but it has limited applications, basically its use as background data set, and \u2013 if high quality could be achieved \u2013 as benchmark. Specific data has the clear advantage of representativeness compared to generic data. In practice specific data is however not always the most appropriate source for a required data set. This is e.g. if the available specific data has lower quality than generic data. Generally the aim should be to first look for available specific data or measure it and then go for generic approaches. 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.3.2) Overview Secondary data refers to data that is not based on measurements of the respective process(es) in the foreground system. I.e. if data for a missing foreground process is derived from patents this is secondary data, even if done by the process operator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5395, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 247, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. if data for a missing foreground process is derived from patents this is secondary data, even if done by the process operator. Also all data that is obtained for use in background system is secondary data, even if provided by the suppliers162. For the background system, data from secondary data providers (especially generic or average process data sets) are provided in LCI databases of national or regional LCA projects, consultancies and research groups. One way to identify suitable data sets is the upcoming ILCD Data Network that allows all data providers to distribute their data sets, upon own conditions \u2013 as long as the data meets the minimum requirements of the ILCD Handbook or other, entry-level requirements that might be set. Frequent errors: Insufficient methodological consistency of background data When selecting secondary data sets, it is important is to ensure that all data sets used in the modelling of the system model are methodologically consistent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5396, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 247, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The use of inconsistent data can unfortunately often be observed in practice. This is done due to a lack of awareness of the problem, or ignoring it to save efforts or costs. However, the use of inconsistent data from different data systems makes the whole LCI/LCA study unreliable and distorted, often with wrong conclusion and recommendations drawn. The analysis of methodological consistency is hence one key issue to be covered by an independent external review process. The selection of secondary data (e.g. generic and average data for background use) has to consider their appropriateness and consistency in terms of methodology and regarding the data quality of the inventories, i.e. their representativeness, completeness, and precision. This is indispensible to ensure that together with the primary data they achieve the required completeness and precision of the system\u201fs LCI", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5397, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 247, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "their representativeness, completeness, and precision. This is indispensible to ensure that together with the primary data they achieve the required completeness and precision of the system\u201fs LCI. An appropriate documentation of these data 162 Note that the term secondary data provider usually refers to all other sources than the producing or service providing businesses and their trade associations. That can be e.g. consultants or research groups.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5398, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 247, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results sets, e.g. in the ILCD data format that has been developed for this purpose, substantially supports their correct selection and use, as well as supports interpretation of results. Pre-verified data The use of already independently reviewed generic background data sets (but also average data e.g. form trade associations) is recommended as it has two advantages: it gives an independent guarantee about the claimed quality of the data set. In addition, it considerably lowers the review effort, as the data set has already been reviewed and when using the data set only the appropriateness of the selected process for the analysed system is to be judged", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5399, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 248, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Provisions: 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets Note that these provisions also apply to the development of unit process and partly terminated system data sets as deliverables, as the cut-off rules need to be evaluated from the system's perspective. Attributional and consequential modelling and the Situations A, B and C need at least partially differently modelled data sets. I) SHALL - Use consistent secondary data sets: The secondary data (generic, average or specific data sets) to be used in the system model shall be methodologically sufficiently consistent among each other and with the primary data sets that were specifically collected. II) SHOULD - Quality-oriented selection of secondary data sets: Secondary data sets should be selected according to their data quality in a stricter sense, i.e. their technological, geographical and time-related representativeness, completeness and precision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5400, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 248, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "their technological, geographical and time-related representativeness, completeness and precision. Their reference flow(s) and/or functional unit(s) should moreover be sufficiently representative for the specific processes, good or service that they are meant to represent in the analysed system. III) MAY - Prefer pre-verified data sets: It is recommended to give preference to already critically reviewed data sets (\"pre-verified data\") as this limits the effort for an review of the analysed system: only the appropriate use of these data sets in the analysed system needs to be reviewed. [ISO+] IV) MAY - Prefer well-documented data sets: It is recommended to give preference to data sets that are supported by a comprehensive and efficiently organised documentation. This allows the modeller (and later a reviewer) to judge the data set's quality and its appropriateness for the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5401, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 248, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This allows the modeller (and later a reviewer) to judge the data set's quality and its appropriateness for the analysed system. [ISO+] The combined use of data from different sources is facilitated by using either single operation unit process data set background systems that can be adjusted / re-modelled by the user to be consistent with the analysed system, or by using LCI results data sets that are consistent with the methodology applied in the analysed system. 7.7 Averaging LCI data Overview Figure 22 illustrates the main different forms of processes averaging (also named horizontal averaging) and systems averaging (also named vertical averaging): In process averaging, two or more processes that provide the same functions but represent different e.g. technologies, sites, years, etc. are averaged. This typically includes a weighing a non-", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5402, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 248, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results even of the inventories according to their contribution to the to-be-represented average situation. E.g. may the steel industry develop a global sector-average Blast Oven Furnace (BOF) process data set, by inventorying the BOF processes one by one at the individual sites and summing up the inventories, weighted / scaled by the relative contribution of each site to the total BOF steel output. In such averaging any missing data is typically filled with data from similar e.g. sites, to ensure that the e.g. technology and country mix represents well the aimed at average. Systems' averaging analogously averages the cradle-to-gate or cradle-to-grave inventories of two or more systems. E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5403, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 249, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "technology and country mix represents well the aimed at average. Systems' averaging analogously averages the cradle-to-gate or cradle-to-grave inventories of two or more systems. E.g. expanding on the above example, could the cradleto-gate inventories of BOF steel of the various sites be summed up and averaged in a weighted way. This would include the background system of the BOF process, i.e. resulting in global average BOF steel as a product (\"system\"). Figure 22 Processes averaging (\"horizontal averaging\", top) and systems averaging (\"vertical averaging\", bottom); schematic. As initially mentioned, in practice often a combination of both specific and generic approaches will be found, as e.g. different production routes with different raw material bases cannot usefully be integrated into one \"typical\" process (or even full life cycle), so that the main variants are modelled as generic data sets and the inventories are subsequently averaged", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5404, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 249, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A specific and often used type of average data sets are production, supply and especially consumption mix data sets; the latter is the most commonly required one in LCA. Figure 23 illustrates the concepts: \uf0b7 The production mix of a given product of Country A is the average of the inventories of the different technologies/routes that produce that product, weighted by output in that time period as operated in the territory of country A. The weights that should be used in LCA are the physical units of the product (e.g. mass, volume, pieces), not the production or market value. \uf0b7 The consumption mix is the inventory of the production mix plus the inventories of the imported products minus the inventory of the exported products. The composition and the amounts of the imports from the different countries is to be considered when averaging the data to the weighed consumption mix", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5405, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 249, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The composition and the amounts of the imports from the different countries is to be considered when averaging the data to the weighed consumption mix. Note that other than exemplified in the figure, the export mix of a country often differs from its production mix and also among the target countries; it is to be analysed whether the differences are relevant for the analysed system and question. The same applies analogously of course for the import mix. Process A x% Process B y% Process C z% Average process 100% + +... + System A x% System B y% System C z% Average system 100% + +... +", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5406, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 249, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results The supply mix is then the production mix plus the import mix, i.e. the mix of what is available in the country for consumption. Figure 23 Illustration of the trade-relations between countries, as basis for calculating the production, consumption and supply mixes of products. Note that when calculating the mix of services of a country, care needs to be taken to avoid double-counting as imported services may be physically performed in the countries territory (e.g. on-site consulting services), while others are performed in the foreign country (e.g. tourism services to citizen of the analysed country). I.e. other than for goods, where the physical flow of the good goes from the source to the sink, for services the physical flow of e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5407, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 250, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "tourism services to citizen of the analysed country). I.e. other than for goods, where the physical flow of the good goes from the source to the sink, for services the physical flow of e.g. staff performing the services in another country or tourists receiving the service in a another country makes this less clear. In general and for both goods and services, the direction of a product is opposite to the direction of the money flow. This helps identifying and calculating such trade-mixes. Collecting data for average LCI data sets When basing average data sets on the combination of producer specific data sets, plan the data collection to be based on information on e.g. the relative contribution of the individual producer or a certain production route to the overall production (see earlier examples on the average BOF process and BOF steel product data sets). This is necessary to be able to calculate a representatively weighted average data set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5408, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 250, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is necessary to be able to calculate a representatively weighted average data set. In the frequent case, that data is not available for all production sites or service operators, other additional information is required, especially for which share of the market the available inventory data and the specific technologies, countries etc. is representative. The average data set is hence often more representative of the process or system than the generic data set. This is valid provided that sufficiently representative data is available for Country C Country A Country D Various oversea trade partner countries Import Export Export Import Country A production mix Country D production mix Legend:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5409, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 250, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results all relevant product variants, sites, etc. and can be accompanied by statistical information of how much data varies between the underlying products or sites. The effort for data collection is clearly higher for average data sets than for generic data sets, but this approach offers in return other advantages such as the possibility of internal benchmarking, weak point / improvement analysis, generation of producer-specific EPDs etc., i.e. the intended applications largely determine which variant is preferable. 7.8 Modelling the system (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.2) Introduction and overview The system is to be modelled applying the LCI modelling framework that was identified in chapter 6.5.4 as part of the scope definition and in accordance with the goal of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5410, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 251, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This has two interrelated aspects: how to actually model the system along the used LCI modelling framework. This is addressed in this chapter. Regarding overarching methodological issues see chapters 7.4.3 and 7.4.4. As the second and more complicated issue, multifunctionality of processes has to be solved, i.e. allocation criteria are to be identified and applied (for attributional modelling) or superseded processes to be used in case of substitution are to be identified (in case of consequential modelling). The issue of solving multifunctionality for attributional modelling is given in the next subchapter. The guidance on identifying superseded processes for consequential modelling has already been addressed in chapter 7.2.4.6, as it belongs to that earlier step of identifying processes within the system boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5411, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 251, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Filling initial data gaps For a cradle-to-gate or cradle-to-grave system, in principle the same interim quality control criteria apply as for the unit process (see chapters 7.4.2.11 and 9.3.2 for the systematic approach). It additionally plays a role which amount of the specific unit processes is required in context of the whole product system: for those parts of the product system that contribute little to the final results (i.e. to the overall environmental impacts of the product), the cut-off criteria can be less strict, while still achieving the overall requirements to completeness and precision. E.g. if a laptop is analysed over its life cycle, the PVC used for insulation of the internal wiring may contribute little and \"data estimate\" quality data may be sufficient. Whereas the electricity consumption in the use stage might be found to contribute e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5412, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 251, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Whereas the electricity consumption in the use stage might be found to contribute e.g. to 50 % or more to the overall environmental impact and its production must hence be included with high quality data to achieve a high accuracy and precision for the whole data set. For filling data gaps, estimate data sets may be considered to be used. Such may be e.g.: \uf0b7 generic or average data for missing specific data, \uf0b7 average data of a group of similar products for missing inventory data for other, not yet analysed products of that group, \uf0b7 correlation with other, more complete and high quality data for the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g. industry average data for improving a producer-specific process), \uf0b7 justified judgements of technical experts / process operators.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5413, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 251, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Relevant data gaps generally shall be filled with methodologically consistent data. Gaps of low relevance may also be filed with methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data sets, while being developed along the guidance of this document and meeting the overall quality requirements. Only data estimates that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data sets quality level shall be at least equivalent to a \"Data estimate\" (see annex). Scaling all processes of the system Modelling the system means to correctly scale the inventories of all processes that are included in the system boundaries of the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5414, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 252, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Scaling all processes of the system Modelling the system means to correctly scale the inventories of all processes that are included in the system boundaries of the analysed system. In practice that means to ensure that all product and waste flows that connect the foreground system with the background system are \u201csaturated\u201d with the appropriate background processes163. If the inventories of all required processes have been collected or compiled from data providers, this step is rather straightforward. Two main approaches exist in the widely used LCA software tools: \uf0b7 In the \u201cprocess-flow\u201d approach the modelling is done by manually or semi-automatically connecting processes via their input and output product and waste flows. \uf0b7 In the \u201cmatrix\u201d-approach this connection is done automatically, provided all to-beconnected product and waste flows on the output and input side of all processes are identically named", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5415, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 252, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 In the \u201cmatrix\u201d-approach this connection is done automatically, provided all to-beconnected product and waste flows on the output and input side of all processes are identically named. In practice very often not exactly the required process data set is available, but data sets of similar products (e.g. \u201cCarbon steel billet 9SMn28\u201d instead of \u201cCarbon steel billet 9SMn36\u201d) or similar regions (\u201cNL \u2013 Ammonia; technical, liquid\u201d instead of \u201cBE \u2013 Ammonia; technical, liquid\u201d) are to be used. In \u201cmatrix\u201d tools such cases need additional mechanisms and/or manual renaming or duplicating of processes as workaround to ensure a correct modelling. In \u201cprocess-chain\u201d tools such processes need manual connection of these product or waste flows. For details refer to your LCA software manual", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5416, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 252, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In \u201cprocess-chain\u201d tools such processes need manual connection of these product or waste flows. For details refer to your LCA software manual. Additional quality control While formally a step done when collecting data or compiling data from background databases of data providers, in practice the modelling of the system is the moment when the LCI modeller is again to check the appropriateness of the used background processes. This is done along the data set documentation, especially regarding the data sets\u201f technological, geographical and temporal representativeness as well as methodological appropriateness and consistency. The overall completeness and accuracy of the system model results is checked later along the calculated LCI results (see chapter 7.10) and controlled in view of the system boundaries as defined in chapter 6.6, leaving no quantitatively relevant unconnected product and waste flows in the inventory. Parameter settings Whenever parameterised processes are used (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5417, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 252, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Parameter settings Whenever parameterised processes are used (e.g. for transport, waste management, but also for mixer-processes that mix different processes to represent a market mix or technology mix), the case-specific correct parameter values have to be set for all these processes. 163 This applies independently whether working for the background system with LCI results or with unit processes, as in practice the practitioner will embed the specific foreground system of the analysed product system into a background system (database).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5418, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 252, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.8 Modelling the system Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, differentiated. Differentiated for attributional and consequential modelling. Applies also to the development of unit process and partly terminated system data sets as deliverables, but only to quantify the achieved completeness and precision, as they need to be evaluated from the system's perspective. I) SHALL - Scale inventories correctly: The inventories of all processes within the system boundary shall be correctly scaled to each other and to the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) of the analysed system164", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5419, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 253, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Complete system model: No quantitatively relevant product or waste flows shall be left unmodelled / unconnected, with exception of the reference flow(s) that quantitatively represent(s) the system's functional unit (additional provisions on waste flows see 7.4.4.2). Otherwise these flows shall be clearly documented and the resulting lack of accuracy and completeness be considered in the interpretation of results. [ISO!] Note that for unit processes all and for partly terminated systems selected inventories of the corresponding products and/or wastes modelling processes are intentionally left out of the system boundary. Their systems are nevertheless completed, while only for applying the cut-off rules. III) SHALL - Set parameter values: Set the parameter values to the required values in all used parameterised process data sets, if any", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5420, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 253, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III) SHALL - Set parameter values: Set the parameter values to the required values in all used parameterised process data sets, if any. [ISO+] IV) MAY - Perform another round of interim quality control: It is recommended to precheck during modelling whether the data set or system is properly modelled and meets the quality requirements as identified/fine-tuned in the scope phase; the provisions for interim quality control of unit processes apply analogously (see chapter 7.4.2.11). For filling initial data gaps of included processes and systems estimate data sets may be considered to be used. Such may be e.g.: [ISO+] IV.a) generic or average data sets for missing specific processes / systems, IV.b) average data sets of a group of similar processes or systems (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5421, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 253, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such may be e.g.: [ISO+] IV.a) generic or average data sets for missing specific processes / systems, IV.b) average data sets of a group of similar processes or systems (e.g. products) for missing processes / systems for other, not yet analysed processes or systems of that group, IV.c) correlation with other, more complete and high quality process data sets for the same or similar process but from other data sources (e.g. industry average data for improving a producer-specific process). V) SHALL - Use consistent data to fill data gaps: Data gaps shall be filled methodologically consistent data sets, while gaps of low relevance may also be filed with methodologically not fully but sufficiently consistent data sets while being developed along the guidance of this document and meeting the overall quality requirements as detailed below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5422, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 253, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] VI) SHALL - Use sufficiently quality LCI data sets top fill gaps: Only data and data sets 164 This can be visualised by having all processes connected with each other via their reference flows of interim products and wastes, in the correct amounts. Starting from central process and the amount(s) of the system's functional unit(s) or reference flow(s), all other processes are stepwise, relatively scaled. LCA software with graphical modelling interface shows the system in this way and/or the user is modelling the system explicitly by connecting the processes on that interface. Depending on the modelling approach implemented in the software, other mechanisms can be found that serve the same scaling purpose.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5423, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 253, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results that increase the overall quality of the final inventory of the analysed system shall be used to fill data gaps. That means that the individual data or data set's quality shall be equivalent to at least the \"Data estimate\" quality level. See also chapter 7.4.2.11.3 and annex 12.3. Remaining data gaps shall be reported. [ISO!] Note that both the approach(es) used to fill initial data gaps and the resulting lack of representativeness, precision and methodological consistency of the whole data set is later to be clearly documented and explicitly considered when declaring the achieved data set quality or when drawing conclusions or recommendations from an LCA study. Note that the final check on the achieved overall environmental completeness / cut-off is detailed in chapter 9.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5424, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 254, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the final check on the achieved overall environmental completeness / cut-off is detailed in chapter 9.3.2. Note that decisions on any omissions of life cycle stages, types of activities, individual processes or elementary flows must be clearly reported and should be justified by the fact that they do not contribute significantly to the LCI results in view of the intended application(s) of the outcome of the LCI/LCA study. Otherwise they need to be reported and considered when declaring the achieved data set quality and/ drawing conclusions and recommendations from the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5425, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 254, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Otherwise they need to be reported and considered when declaring the achieved data set quality and/ drawing conclusions and recommendations from the study. 7.9 Solving multifunctionality of processes in attributional modelling (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4) 7.9.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.1) The problem of multifunctionality (For an overview of multifunctionality and the different approaches of how to solve it see also chapter 6.5.3.) Many processes contribute to the provision of more than one function by yielding more than one product (co-products, i.e. co-goods and co-services) or by servicing more than one input (e.g. waste treatment of mixed waste flows), or combinations thereof. The problem about such multifunctional processes is that in LCA we need to analyse a single system in order to determine the specific environmental impact which can be related to its life cycle", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5426, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 254, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The problem about such multifunctional processes is that in LCA we need to analyse a single system in order to determine the specific environmental impact which can be related to its life cycle. In the real world there is however hardly any system which exists in isolation. As soon as a co-product arises in a process that is part of the system being analyzed, it is used typically in a different system. This means that the process becomes part of another system as well165, and that its environmental impacts can no longer be fully ascribed to the system that we study. An apparently different but methodologically fully analogous situation of shared impacts is associated with the recycling of end-of-life of products and of waste occurring during production or use: a material may be recycled, energy be recovered, or part be reused from one system and used again in one or more other systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5427, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 254, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This means that the provision of secondary resources or parts is another function of the system that generates the waste or end-of-life product: The impacts associated with the secondary goods166 are to be shared among the systems that use them. 165 This is also referred to as \u201eshared processes\u201c. 166 The term \u201esecondary good\u201c is here used as umbrella term for recycled materials, recovered energy, reused or further used parts, etc., i.e. for any (secondary) function that is produced from a waste of end-of-life product.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5428, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 254, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Note that the following chapter provides guidance on solving multifunctionality in attributional modelling only, as the corresponding task in consequential modelling has been addressed already in the chapter 7.2.4 on identifying and describing processes. This was necessary as in consequential modelling this step directly affects the processes to be included in the model, i.e. is not a subsequent step as in attributional modelling. Solving multifunctionality Under the (historically developed) heading \u201cAllocation\u201d, ISO 14044:2006 presents a hierarchy of different approaches to this multifunctionality problem167. In chapter 6.5.3 the ISO hierarchy and the different LCI method approaches have been detailed and illustrated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5429, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 255, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In chapter 6.5.3 the ISO hierarchy and the different LCI method approaches have been detailed and illustrated. At the same time it was found that the approach for solving cases of multifunctionality has to be in line with the goal of the LCI/LCA study, especially the decision-context(s), as consistency with the goal is a guiding principle of ISO-LCA. This means that there is no free choice between allocation and substitution, but the goal of the LCI/LCA study defines which approach is theoretically appropriate: The way of how to handle multifunctional processes is closely related to the applied LCI modelling framework, being consequential or attributional (see chapter 6.5.2) and it had to be made in accordance with this choice. The present chapter relates to attributional modelling, i.e. for Situation C2 and for those cases where substitution is not possible or feasible; see the respective provisions for the other Situations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5430, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 255, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for Situation C2 and for those cases where substitution is not possible or feasible; see the respective provisions for the other Situations. This means that the first step is the subdivision of multifunctional black box unit processes to mono-functional single operation unit processes and thereby cutting free the actually required production processes, avoiding the need for allocation. If this is principally impossible or other reasons make it practically impossible, allocation (partitioning) is the next possible step (see chapter 6.5.3). 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision of virtual subdivision (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.2) Multifunctionality can occur on two levels: single operation unit processes that principally cannot be further sub-divided for data collection purposes (e.g. the electrolysis process of NaCl electrolysis, yielding NaOH solution, Cl2 and H2 as co-products) and black box unit processes that can be further sub-divided (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5431, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 255, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the electrolysis process of NaCl electrolysis, yielding NaOH solution, Cl2 and H2 as co-products) and black box unit processes that can be further sub-divided (e.g. a manufacturing line with several kinds of polymer packaging produced as co-products). In the first example, allocation is the appropriate approach under attributional modelling to solve the multifunctionality. In the second example, first choice is to subdivide the concerned \"packaging manufacturing\" process into its included specific processes for the different packagings, if it is possible in this way to separate the production of the analysed good or service from that of the co-function(s); see Figure 8. Chapter 7.4.2.2 provides the detailed guidance for subdivision. In the case subdivision is not feasible due to lack of access to data or resourcerestrictions, virtual subdivision can in many cases fully or partly single out those inventory items that exclusively relate to the required function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5432, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 255, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This renders the inventory more accurate, as only the possible remaining inventory items are to be allocated; it also improves the reviewability of the data. Chapter 7.4.2.2 provides some more details also on virtual subdivision. 167 As the hierarchy covers other approaches than only allocation, clearer and more appropriate would hence be the encompassing title \u201eSolving multifunctionality of processes\u201c.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5433, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 255, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision Applicable to Situation C2. Applicable to cases of Situation A, B, C1 only if subdivision, virtual subdivision and substitution/system expansion were not possible or feasible, as identified along the specific provisions for these Situations (see 6.5.4). Applicable only to attributional modelling, unless in consequential modelling substitution is not possible or feasible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5434, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 256, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) SHALL - Analyse whether allocation can theoretically be avoided by subdivision: Investigate whether the analysed unit process is a black box unit process (concept see Figure 7): does it contain other physically distinguishable sub-process steps and is it theoretically possible to collect data exclusively for those sub-processes? Next, check whether subdivision can solve the multifunctionality of this black box unit process: can a process or process-chain within the initial black box unit process be identified and modelled separately that provide only the one required functional output? II) SHALL - Aim at avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision: Based on the outcome, the following steps shall be followed: II.a) Subdivision: If it is possible to collect data exclusively for those included processes that have only the one, required functional output: inventory data should be collected only for those included unit processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5435, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 256, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II.b) Partial subdivision: If this is not possible (i.e. the analysed unit process contains multifunctional single operation unit processes that are attributed to the required functional output) or not feasible (e.g. for lack of access or cost reasons): inventory data should be collected separately for at least some of the included unit processes, especially for those that are main contributors to the inventory and that cannot otherwise (e.g. by virtual subdivision - see later provision) clearly be assigned to only one of the co-functions. [ISO+] II.c) Virtual subdivision: It should be checked whether it is possible by reasoning to virtually partly or fully sub-divide the multifunctional process based on process/technology understanding. This is the case wherever a quantitative relationship can be identified and specified that exactly relates the types and amounts of a flow with at least one of the co-functions / reference flow(s) (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5436, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 256, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the specific mechanical parts or auxiliary materials in a manufacturing plant that are only used for the analysed product can be clearly assigned to that product by subdividing the collected data). For those processes where this can be done, a virtual subdivision should be done, separating included processes as own unit processes. Chapter 7.4.2.2 provides additional details on the approach. [ISO+] II.d) Justify need for allocation and document potential distortion: If the preceding sub-steps are not possible and a real or virtual separation is not feasible, allocation is the approach that shall be applied (see next chapter). In addition and only if subdivision is theoretically possible but was not performed, it should be demonstrated/argued at least via quantitative approximation or reasoning that the decision for allocation does not lead to relevant differences in the resulting inventory, compared to a subdivision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5437, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 256, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If it leads to relevant differences, the respective cases shall be documented and shall later be explicitly considered when assessing the achieved accuracy of data sets and when interpreting the final results of LCA studies, respectively. [ISO!] Note that virtual subdivision can also improve the basis for allocation, with more accurate results.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5438, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 256, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4) 7.9.3.1 Overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.1) Allocation criteria are to be identified for those cases where allocation (and not substitution) is required to be applied to solve multifunctionality of not further subdividable unit processes168. The allocation criteria are identified in a two-step procedure, starting with and strongly building on the physical causality, as equally recommended in ISO 14044:2006. To summarise this two-step procedure that is detailed in the following subchapters: \uf0b7 As first criterion other \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each nonfunctional flow and the co-functions of the process are to be identified and applied169", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5439, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 257, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Part of this is to use the virtual subdivision approach to assign flows to the co-functions, as much as possible. \uf0b7 Flows that cannot be allocated in this way are to be allocated using a second, general allocation criterion, which is the market value of the co-functions in the specific condition and at the point they leave the process (or enter it as e.g. in case of waste and end-oflife treatment services). While some of the rules and examples for the first criterion are obvious, this is not always the case. Some effort is therefore made here to clearly specify and illustrate this procedure to ensure reproducibility in practice, starting with simple and obvious cases. A special issue is the waste and end-of-life product recycling that requires additional steps, why it is addressed in a separate annex 14", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5440, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 257, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A special issue is the waste and end-of-life product recycling that requires additional steps, why it is addressed in a separate annex 14. 7.9.3.2 First criterion \u201cDetermining physical causality\u201d (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.2) Determining physical causality The determining physical causality can relate to both goods and services. This expression is composed of three components: causality, physical, and determining: - \u201cCausality\u201d relates to the question whether the existence and quantity of a nonfunctional flow is caused by the respective co-function. - \u201cPhysical causality\u201d means that this cause is to be a physically determinable one including an extensive physical flow property (e.g. especially the energy content (enthalpy, lower and upper calorific value, exergy, entropy), mass, volume, length/distance, specific element/substance/material/part content, number of pieces (number of items, individuals, particles/moles))", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5441, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 257, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the case of services, the physical property is typically to be used in combination with time/duration of the service, as 168 Note however, that allocation may also need to be applied in cases where at first sight and from a limited, theoretical decision-consequence perspective system expansion / substitution would be the correct approach. 169 The need is seen to develop supplementing practice-manuals for main product groups, to further enhance practicability and reproducibility. This could follow the same general logic as applied when developing Product Category Rules (PCR) in support of Environmental Product Declaration (EPD).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5442, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 257, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results this is its mostly applicable reference unit. I.e. two or more properties together are causally determining. - \u201cDetermining\u201d, finally, relates to the fact that often several causal physical relationships exist of which only one or a combination of two is determining the existence and quantity of a non-functional flow. The determining physical causality is identified by answering the question \u201cIs there a specific function that the non-functional flow performs for one or more of the co-products and can I quantify the extent of this function via a physical criterion?\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5443, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 258, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "And: \u201cIf so, are there other non-functional flows that occur quantitatively or partly as direct or indirect consequence of the initially identified, physically caused non-functional flow?\u201d It is important to note that other than found often in practice, there is no need to apply the same physical causality criterion to all non-functional flows. In contrast is this rather seldomly correct: the physical causality is often specific for a flow, same as the underlying reality is specific. This applies to black box unit processes, where specific processes with specific inventory items relate to the analysed function. Note that this also applies to multifunctional single operation unit processes where specific input products (e.g. a chemical such as Chlorine), entirely end up only in one of the co-products (e.g. the chlorinated chemical as one of the co-products). That means that often a combined, multiple allocation of the different non-functional flows of the inventory is necessary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5444, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 258, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the chlorinated chemical as one of the co-products). That means that often a combined, multiple allocation of the different non-functional flows of the inventory is necessary. Principle of applying the virtual subdivision logic within the physical causality The logic of virtual subdivision is closely related to the one of determining physical causality: Both aim at identifying which amount of which inventory items are exactly related to which co-product, reflecting the physical relationships among them. E.g. all input products that are physically embodied in any of the co-produced goods170, can be directly assigned to them. This was illustrated in the chapters 7.9.2 and 7.4.2.2 on virtual subdivision with the example of different parts that enter a manufacturing line of trucks and each end up only in the specific trucks that use this specific part", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5445, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 258, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Embodied goods (product flows) An obvious example for the embodiment of goods are components that are assembled to more complex goods, e.g. the specific components that enter a multiple production line of tailor-made trucks and end up in a specific truck are assigned to the truck they are build into. In this example the process is partly virtually sub-divided along a qualitative understanding, assigning the individual input product flows to the receiving co-product. Note that this step is equivalent to the earlier addressed virtual subdivision of unit processes along a qualitative technical understanding of that process. This can even be applied in cases of physically not further sub-dividable single operation unit processes. A similar example is an injection-moulding machine that processes different polymers and where each specific polymer input flow is assigned to that specific moulded part that is made of it (see also chapter 7.4.2.2 on subdivision and virtual subdivision)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5446, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 258, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In other cases the same material that directly enter a process can be physically found in several co-produced goods. E.g. the round wood that is entering a sawmill, is equally found in the co-produced beams, planks, slabs, wood chips, and sawdust. The amount of round170 Physical embodiment can obviously not relate to services.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5447, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 258, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results wood product flow that is embodied in the respective co-product is assigned to its inventory171. Components of the determining physical causality The next step is the determining physical causality in a wider sense. Care must be taken to identify exclusively the causal and not other, non-causal physical relationships (and subsequently identify which is the determining one): In mining of e.g. granite as functional material, granite tiles are produced together with granite gravel as valuable co-product. The mining itself and transport of the raw blocks to the plant would need to be allocated by mass to both co-products, as physically required for their production. The cutting of the blocks into the tiles and remaining gravel as cuttings is equally physically required for both co-products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5448, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 259, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The cutting of the blocks into the tiles and remaining gravel as cuttings is equally physically required for both co-products. The cutting process is however determining only for the coproduct tiles, as it relates to its specific characteristics of smoothly cut surfaces, while not to the granite gravel. A similar example is a gold-ore extraction process where the applied mining chemicals are physically mixed with the whole ore, but are determining only for the extracted gold (and other metals that are extracted by that chemical) but not to the rocks that come out of the process, even though they may be valuable co-products with use in road construction. The preceding gold-ore mining and grinding processes again would be physically required for both co-products, same as in the above granite example172", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5449, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 259, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The preceding gold-ore mining and grinding processes again would be physically required for both co-products, same as in the above granite example172. Key for correctly identifying the determining physical causality is the understanding of the causalities that links each of the co-products with the respective other non-functional flow that needs to be allocated. The following paragraphs show how this determining physical causality is identified for different types of non-functional flows and for both co-produced goods and co-services. Illustrative examples serve to clarify and further guide their application: Allocation of good\u2019s inputs to co-services: For co-services, the use of any product, component, consumable material etc. input that is used exclusively to provide the respective co-service\u201fs function is obviously a determining physical relationship", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5450, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 259, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "input that is used exclusively to provide the respective co-service\u201fs function is obviously a determining physical relationship. Note that this step is identical to the earlier described process of a virtual subdivision of a unit process along a qualitative understanding of that process: in an example a retailing shop may selling among other goods frozen food. The production and operation of the freezer would then be allocated exclusively to the goods that are sold via display in the freezer. (Regarding the question how to allocate the freezer among the various goods sold from the freezer see more below). Allocation of good\u2019s inputs to co-produced goods: For co-products, in many cases the used input products, energy carriers, etc. can equally often largely be allocated based on the specific function they perform in relation to the individual co-products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5451, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 259, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "can equally often largely be allocated based on the specific function they perform in relation to the individual co-products. For example, electricity used in the chlor-alkali-electrolysis is used to split the water and results in production of the energy-rich hydrogen and chlorine gases as 171 Note that other than it may appear, this is NOT equivalent to allocation by mass, as loss of material to nonvalued outputs is not yet addressed and would need to be allocated in a subsequent step. 172 One could argue that the high effort for deep underground mining of gold-ore is not really necessary to obtain some low-value gravel as co-product. However, this consideration is a consequential one and looking as costs as a cause. Attributionally, it is necessary (physical causality) to get the ore from that depth to produce that specific gravel.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5452, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 259, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results co-products. The enthalpy of H2 and Cl2 is hence an appropriate allocation criteria for the used electricity, reflecting the determining physical relationship of bringing energy into the coproducts. In the similar example of the Haber-Bosch-Synthesis of ammonia, natural gas is the energy source to capture nitrogen from air to produce the ammonia. CO2 is the coproduct (if captured, e.g. for a subsequent step of urea production, and not vented). The energy of the natural gas is exclusively found in the ammonia (apart from energy-losses due to process inefficiency), while not at all in the CO2. Again enthalpy serves to allocate the inventory of the product natural gas flow to the ammonia co-product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5453, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Again enthalpy serves to allocate the inventory of the product natural gas flow to the ammonia co-product . Allocation of service inputs to co-produced goods - introduction: The input of many services can be allocated to the co-products by the relative duration they are used in combination with the determining physical causal relationship. Parallel and serial services can be differentiated: Allocation of service inputs to co-produced goods - parallel services: Parallel services serve at the same time in parallel several co-products and that relate to the co-products in a similar way. Examples are the services that storage facilities, transport equipment, manufacturing halls, and production equipment provide173. E.g. for transport the transport time is one factor (which is equivalent to the transport distance, of course, which is typically used in practice and factually equivalent for co-transport)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5454, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "E.g. for transport the transport time is one factor (which is equivalent to the transport distance, of course, which is typically used in practice and factually equivalent for co-transport). In addition it would need to be checked whether the weight of the co-transported goods or their volume is the limiting physical causality that determines how much of the transport service is used. Duration in combination with either mass or volume is to be used as allocation criterion. Whether mass of volume is determining would be figured out by evaluating whether the given transport case is limited by the mass of the goods (i.e. the truck is fully loaded by mass) or whether more mass could be added, but the truck is full by volume", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5455, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the truck is fully loaded by mass) or whether more mass could be added, but the truck is full by volume. Coming back to the example of the freezer used in retail, the time the good is on average stored in the freezer plus the determining physical factor (here we could conclude that this is the volume174 of the individual good) is used to allocate among the many goods sold via the freezer175. Another example is the service input flows of heating, lighting, and providing a hall structure for several laptop assembly lines: the duration of assembly of the different coproduced laptops would be the allocation criterion for the three named inputs. Among the possible physical criteria (mass, volume, pieces), the piece of laptop could be singled out as 173 It is argued to be clearer to understand such products from the perspective of the service they provide, e.g. the service of providing a hall structure, heating and lighting for an assembly line, rather than as an good", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5456, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the service of providing a hall structure, heating and lighting for an assembly line, rather than as an good. Other than a material or part that is physically ending up in the product, all these buildings etc. only provide a service for the co-production. For this reason they also typically need other allocation criteria (e.g. duration of use of a storage hall, lighting, etc.) compared to the element, mass or energy content as allocation criteria of goods that physically end up in the co-products. In fact are many such infrastructures also operated under leasing contracts (\u201eproductservice systems\u201c). 174 While the heat capacity of the good also plays a role, it might be found that the main energy consumption is for compensating the loss through the surface of the freezer including its opening on top or door by the customer. Let aside a few more complex considerations of the shape of the good/package, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5457, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Let aside a few more complex considerations of the shape of the good/package, i.e. how well it fills the freezer, and how cold it arrives at the freezer, the volume might still be the most appropriate criterion in most cases. 175 Note that the precision with which such storage times and volumes must be determined, depends on the relevance of the freezer storage for the whole product system analysed. In the iterative approach to LCA and after an initial, rough approximation of such numbers, it is identified how relevant this process is and only if relevant the storage time and volumes need to be identified in more detail.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5458, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 260, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results limiting, if we assume that the specific mass or volume do not determine the size of the hall, lighting etc. Another example on services: the inventory of operating a law firm, providing legal services for different customers would be allocated by the duration with which the customerassistances use the law firm. Regarding the physical criterion (imaginable: mass, volume, pieces) we would probably agree on the pieces (i.e. number) of customers and not their mass or volume. A final example on transport services: In the case of allocating passenger-transport by plane it gets more tricky, as both mass and number of passengers are in fact limiting (due to maximum take-off weight and the number of available passenger seats; any remaining weight would be available for additional freight transport)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5459, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 261, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, in the average situation neither seats nor the available total weight are used to capacity. Hence we need to allocate between the number of passengers and the weight of the freight in any case. How this? The plane's fuel consumption and related emissions (looking only at that part of the inventory) is determined - for a given route - by the plane's aerodynamics (which is determined largely by its outer size and shape) and additionally by the total starting weight. Any additional passenger will only affect the starting weight, same as any additional kg of freight. Hence, the determining physical causality is simply the mass. This example also shows the problem of applying economic allocation: in that case a low fare seat would have very little impact compared to a regularly fared seat in the same class, while both have the same contribution to the fuel-related inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5460, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 261, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If however the parallel service relates to the co-products of the investigated production system in a clearly different way, and the unit process cannot be sub-divided obtaining exclusively non-multifunctional processes, the general allocation criteria is to be applied. Allocation of service inputs to co-produced goods - serial services Serial services perform the same action to the co-products one after the other (e.g. a paint shop painting different metal parts one after the other). Strictly, these processes are all subdividable, with separate measurements. However, as discussed earlier this may not be easily feasible in practice: If the serial service performs its service in the same intensity over time, it can be allocated simply by the duration it is carried out one after the other for the different coproducts. In other cases, a physical characteristic of the serviced co-products can be used (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5461, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 261, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In other cases, a physical characteristic of the serviced co-products can be used (e.g. regarding the paint shop example this would be the surface of metal parts to be painted. In the case of cleaning services, equally the surface of the cleaned floor would be the determining criterion, given same/similar floor types). The intensity of the serial service may change in intensity over time or the serviced co-products have relevantly different characteristics (e.g. cleaning of both carpet and PVC floors). In that case it might be not possible to identify a suitable physical relationship that quantitatively characterises this intensity. In consequence, subdivision would be necessary unless the differences could be demonstrated to be less relevant and the application of the second, general allocation criterion would be possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5462, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 261, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In consequence, subdivision would be necessary unless the differences could be demonstrated to be less relevant and the application of the second, general allocation criterion would be possible. Allocation of goods and services inputs to co-produced goods - criteria list The following list gives provisions of which criteria should by default be used for allocation in different cases of co-servicing and co-production: Services: \uf0b7 Goods transport: time or distance AND mass or volume (or in specific cases: pieces) of the transported good", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5463, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 261, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Personal transport: time or distance AND weight176 of passengers \uf0b7 Staff business travel: added value of system \uf0b7 Staff commuting: added value of system \uf0b7 Retailing: time (duration) of shelf-life AND mass or volume of good \uf0b7 Storage and shelter, i.e. buildings and other three-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND volume of good OR area occupied by the good \uf0b7 Storage and other functions provided by places and other two-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND area occupied by the good177 \uf0b7 Transport and communication on roads, railways, pipes, cables, and other onedimensional infrastructure: time (duration) AND intensity (e.g. road wearing impact by vehicles of different weight) OR bandwidth of use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5464, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 262, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Heating/cooling of space (keeping a temperature): time (duration of heating/cooling) AND area or volume heated/cooled (depending whether the space is used by area such as in offices, or by volume such as in staple storage halls or retail freezers) \uf0b7 Heating/cooling of goods (reaching a target temperature): heat capacity of good \uf0b7 Private administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR market value of sales \uf0b7 Public administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR number of cases serviced \uf0b7 Cleaning services (of objects of similar cleaning technologies): surface area cleaned (or as fall-back option: time (duration) of cleaning) \uf0b7 Guarding services: share of product's value among guarded products AND/OR the production/provision facilities' value of the product among guarded site/object, depending what is the purpose of the guarding \uf0b7 Marketing services: share of product implicitly or explicitly addressed by marketing (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5465, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 262, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "corporate marketing: share of product's value in corporate turnover) \uf0b7 Teaching/training services: person time (duration) of training AND number of individuals taught/trained \uf0b7 R&D services (of objects of similar R&D): person time OR cost charged for R&D services 176 If an average passenger is aimed at, this can be expressed also per individual passenger by using an average weight. 177 Area and duration of actual coverage allocated by assigning to relative contribution if this can be directly determined (e.g. for different processing plants of an integrated chemical site, or for different crops and perannual trees in an agro-forestry system). If the area is jointly covered (e.g. in mixed cropping, or for co-products from same chemical reactor) this is not possible, and the general allocation criterion is to be applied. Not actually physically covered land that however forms integral part of the analysed process system (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5466, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 262, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Not actually physically covered land that however forms integral part of the analysed process system (e.g. field sides, or unused areas between plants of a chemical site) is equally allocated using the general criterion. Land area that is temporarily not used (e.g. in the time between subsequent crops or between closure and reconstruction of industrial facilities on the same area of land) is generally allocated to the first product system. This also applies to e.g. restoration activities (e.g. fallow-times, site-remediation, etc.); note that these are equivalent also to service inputs into the first product system.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5467, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 262, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Production processes: \uf0b7 Extraction processes: for process-related flows the market value, for product-related flows the specific physical properties of the co-products \uf0b7 Chemical conversion and waste processing (including incineration): quantitative change of the to-be-allocated flows in dependency of quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system. If unknown: the chemical or physical properties that determine the amount of the other flows \uf0b7 Manufacturing (including physical transformation processes) and mechanical waste processing: length, surface, volume, or mass OR number of items OR time of processing \uf0b7 Recycling, energy-recovery, reuse: see specific provisions in chapter 7.9.3 and details on allocation of waste inputs see annex 14.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5468, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 263, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 General processes by other capital goods' input directly to multifunctional processes (e.g. the processing machines themselves, but not buildings etc.): time (duration) of use OR mass, volume, length of produced good In the case alternatives are given above, the chosen alternative shall be concisely justified. Exceptions from the above alternatives shall be justified by explaining why none of the provisions is applicable and concisely justifying the one that has been chosen instead, along the guidance given in the text178. Equally, if criteria are applied for other then the above listed type of services, there selection shall be concisely justified in analogous logic. 7.9.3.3 Second (general) criterion \u201cEconomic value\u201d or QFD (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.2) Overview For flows that cannot be allocated with the first criterion, a second general criterion is to be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5469, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 263, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Allocation of co-functions and comparisons of multifunctional products For the special case of comparisons of multifunctional products with not sufficiently similar functional units (e.g. printer-fax-photocopier with printer-fax-photocopier-scanner) the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) approach should be considered to allocate parts of the inventory to the not common functions and render the compared products sufficient. QFD helps transforming customer needs (\"Voice of customer\") into engineering characteristics of a product or service, prioritizing each function (and characteristic that support the function) into development targets for the product or service. For details, see the specific literature. In the context of LCA, QFD can be interpreted as identifying the relevance the different co-functions of a multifunctional product are assumed to have for its average user", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5470, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 263, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the context of LCA, QFD can be interpreted as identifying the relevance the different co-functions of a multifunctional product are assumed to have for its average user. The QFD should be used in preference to allocation by market price, if physical causality cannot solve the multifunctionality. This applies especially to the production stage; for the use stage, the market price as service provision cost might serve (however excluding person / operating time costs, what will often be difficult to determine). Similarly, the market price of 178 In subsequent work on sector or product group specific guidance documents (e.g. similar as Product Category Rules (PCR) used in Environmental Product Declarations (EPD)) the above rules should be further interpreted and specific guidance provided.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5471, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 263, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results the individual devices might be a suitable criteria for the market price allocation for production and end-of-life stage. However, if the co-functions have clearly different environmental profiles (e.g. a very different use stage electricity consumption for the heater for the laser print compared to potentially much less for the FAX and scan functions), the QFD alone would lead to distorted results. To overcome such cases, the allocation among the co-functions would need to be more differentiated (or the distortion would need to be reported and reflected in the results interpretation). It might also be necessary to re-evaluate the possibility of virtual subdivision (see chapter 7.9.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5472, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 264, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It might also be necessary to re-evaluate the possibility of virtual subdivision (see chapter 7.9.2). The foreseen involvement of interested parties and product users would then need to achieve a best attainable consensus on the allocation key as part of the critical review process. Figure 24 illustrates the concept of QFD. Figure 24 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) of complex products as an approach for obtaining as allocations factors the relative relevance of functions for the product users. Allocation for multifunctional processes This second criterion is the economic value of the co-products at the point (i.e. at plant / service provider) and in the condition (e.g. not purified / technical quality) and amount (e.g. bulk) as they are provided by the multifunctional process. As economic value the specific market price shall be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5473, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 264, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "not purified / technical quality) and amount (e.g. bulk) as they are provided by the multifunctional process. As economic value the specific market price shall be used. If the co-products are not traded at that point of allocation and with their specific characteristics, the market price has to be derived combining production cost information and the market price of the further processed, packed, transported etc. coproduct. Any additional steps of transport, conditioning, packaging etc. are to be considered to make sure the economic value used for allocation actually reflects the value of each coproduct at the point and in the condition where it is delivered. E.g. in case of wheat grain production with straw as a co-product and obtained via a combined harvester, the relevant economic value of the grain and straw is at the field directly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5474, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 264, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results after the combined harvest. As the grain is transported, cleaned, stored, potentially dried and maybe also packed before sold, these additional sets and the related costs are to be subtracted from a large scale/bulk market price. Similarly costs for the baling and transport of the straw are to be excluded from the market price to obtain the relevant economic value at harvest point. Such additional steps can substantially influence the price and distort the allocation, especially for low value/mass goods. Frequent errors: Wrong type/reference of market value A frequent error in this type of allocation is to apply the wrong point of allocation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5475, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 265, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Frequent errors: Wrong type/reference of market value A frequent error in this type of allocation is to apply the wrong point of allocation. This is most often the case and most easily illustrated for the case of using market price as criterion: in the case of allocating electricity and heat from a combined power plant the most appropriate / correct point of allocation would be inside the plant, with e.g. 3 US-cents per 1 kWh electricity and 1 US-cent per kWh heat. An often found but wrong point of allocation is the reception of the electricity and steam at the final consumer with a price of e.g. 30 US-cents per 1 kWh electricity and 5 US-cents for each kWh heat delivered. As this includes the product-specific heat pipelines and related losses and electricity voltage conversion down to 110 V and loss during delivery to final consumer etc., it distorts the results, in the given example the allocation ratio electricity/heat changes from 3 to 1 to 6 to 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5476, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 265, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Examples to illustrate the difficulty to work with physical causality alone An example may be wheat cropping with wheat grains and wheat straw being the coproducts. The allocation of the used fertiliser and nitrate emissions among these co-products might be based on their specific protein content, reflecting how much of the nitrogen goes into producing either of them. For the tractor's fuel consumption and the occupied land, the allocation criterion is however less clear; the market price or the mass could be considered. Another example may be the co-transport of goods by truck where the weight of the individual good influences the fuel consumption and emissions of the transport process and where the allocation of the inventory results between the transported goods would be based on the ratio between their weights. Note however that in case the volume of the goods is the limiting factor (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5477, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 265, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note however that in case the volume of the goods is the limiting factor (e.g. where very light goods such as insulation materials are transported and the trucks capacity by weight is not reached), the situation gets more complex: the good's volume would be the criterion to allocate the inventory of driving the empty truck (i.e. the base inventory), while the goods\u201f mass would be the appropriate allocation criteria for the additional fuel consumption and emissions due to the additional weight of the carried goods. A municipal waste incinerator treating a mixture of materials in household waste is an example where allocation based on different causal physical relationships between input and output is a useful approach: The emission of cadmium in the flue gas could be allocated between the materials in the co-incinerated waste streams according to their contents of cadmium", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5478, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 265, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The product flow of the recovered heat could be allocated to the co-incinerated waste materials according to their upper calorific value. On the other hand, the causal relationship behind the formation of Nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the flue gas is more complex: A part of the NOx is process-related formed from oxidation of a small amount of the atmospheric Nitrogen (N2) in the incineration air. Another part of this emission stems from the oxidation of the N-content of the waste materials, which calls for the use of another allocation criterion or the combination of more than one. A similar difficulty occurs when allocating dioxin emissions from co-incineration to the different wastes, as both carbon and chlorine sources are needed but also the way the process is operated influences the final concentration, hence there are several potential allocation criteria to be evaluated for appropriateness.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5479, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 265, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Outlook: waste fee adjusted market value It is noted that using the direct market value for allocation is somewhat distorting, as also waste and end-of-life products with a negative market value can have a \"value\": this is if the value is higher (i.e. the waste fee is less negative) than the default option of e.g. discarding the waste or end-of-life product without benefit, e.g. in landfilling without energy-recovery. Such an adjusted allocation criterion for market price allocation considering the costdifference to the waste fee cost instead of the direct market value zero, still needs to be developed and practice tested. If so, it might be adopted in sector or product group specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs). If these would be developed in an ILCD compliant way (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5480, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 266, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If so, it might be adopted in sector or product group specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs). If these would be developed in an ILCD compliant way (e.g. review, stakeholder involvement) such a different market price allocation can be applied here instead. Reuse, recycling, and recovery For co-production of products from waste that initially has a market value below \"0\" (e.g. electricity from waste incineration) please see also 14.4.1.3, and for the specific provisions for end-of-life products for reuse/recycling/recovery that have a positive market value please see chapter 14.4.1.2. Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation These provisions are applicable only for Situation C2 and for those cases in Situation A, B and C, if subdivision, virtual subdivision and substitution/system expansion was not possible or feasible, along the given provisions (see 6.5.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5481, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 266, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) SHALL - Share inventory between co-functions by allocation: If allocation is to be done, the environmental burden of the concerned processes shall be shared between the co-function(s) of the process or system by allocation. (7.9.3.1) II) SHALL - Differentiate multifunctional processes and multifunctional products: These two cases shall be differentiated [ISO!]. (7.9.3.2) III) SHALL - Two-step procedure for multifunctional processes: The following two-step procedure179 shall be applied [ISO!]: (7.9.3.2) III.a) First step and criterion \"determining physical causality\": As first criterion, the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the process shall be identified and used as allocation criterion. This relationship is the one that determines the way in which quantitative changes of the products or functions delivered by the system change the other inputs and outputs. Within this step, process-related inventory flows (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5482, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 266, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Within this step, process-related inventory flows (e.g. spontaneous NOX in incineration, consumption of auxiliary materials) should be differentiated from function (product) related inventory flows (e.g. the NOx from the nitrogen in the incinerated fuel, materials or parts ending up at least partly in the co-products). Note that often a combined, multiple allocation of the different non-functional flows to the co-functions is necessary, applying different criteria for the different flows. Note also that the preceding step of virtual subdivision is applying the same logic as physical causality 179 The need is seen to develop supplementing practice-manuals in line with the ILCD and with explicit allocationcriteria/rules for main process and product groups, to further enhance practicability and reproducibility. This could follow the same general logic as applied when developing Product Category Rules (PCR) in support of Environmental Product Declarations (EPD).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5483, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 266, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation allocation. III.b) Checklist for \"determining physical causality\" criteria: If this is not possible or for any remaining inventory items, the following list gives guidance which criteria should be analysed by default whether they are the \"determining physical causal relationship\" to be used for allocation in different cases of co-servicing and coproduction processes: III.b.i) Services: \uf0b7 Goods transport: time or distance AND mass or volume (or in specific cases: pieces) of the transported good \uf0b7 Personal transport: time or distance AND weight of passengers \uf0b7 Staff business travel: added value of system \uf0b7 Staff commuting: added value of system \uf0b7 Retailing: time (duration) of shelf-life AND mass or volume of good \uf0b7 Storage and shelter, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5484, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 267, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "buildings and other three-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND volume of good OR area occupied by the good \uf0b7 Storage and other functions provided by places and other twodimensional infrastructure: time (duration) of use AND area occupied by the good \uf0b7 Transport and communication on roads, railways, pipes, cables, and other one-dimensional infrastructure: time (duration) AND intensity (e.g. road wearing impact by vehicles of different weight) OR bandwidth of use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5485, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 267, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Heating/cooling of space (keeping a temperature): time (duration of heating/cooling) AND area or volume heated/cooled (depending whether the space is used by area such as in offices, or by volume such as in staple storage halls or retail freezers) \uf0b7 Heating/cooling of goods (reaching a target temperature): heat capacity of good \uf0b7 Private administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR market value of sales \uf0b7 Public administration services: person time or cost charged for admin services OR number of cases serviced \uf0b7 Cleaning services (of objects of similar cleaning technologies): surface area cleaned (or as fall-back option: time (duration) of cleaning) \uf0b7 Guarding services: share of product's value among guarded products AND/OR the production/provision facilities' value of the product among guarded site/object, depending what is the purpose of the guarding \uf0b7 Marketing services: share of product implicitly or explicitly addressed by marketing (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5486, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 267, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "corporate marketing: share of product's value in corporate turnover) \uf0b7 Teaching/training services: person time (duration) of training AND number of individuals taught/trained \uf0b7 R&D services (of objects of similar R&D): person time OR cost charged", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5487, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 267, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation for R&D services III.b.ii) Production processes: \uf0b7 Extraction processes: for process-related flows the market value, for product-related flows the specific physical properties of the co-products \uf0b7 Chemical conversion and waste processing (including incineration): quantitative change of the to-be-allocated flows in dependency of quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5488, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 268, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If unknown: the chemical or physical properties that determine the amount of the other flows \uf0b7 Manufacturing (including physical transformation processes) and mechanical waste processing: length, surface, volume, or mass OR number of items OR time of processing \uf0b7 Recycling, energy-recovery, reuse: see specific provisions in chapter 7.9.3 and details on allocation of waste inputs see annex 14.4. \uf0b7 General processes by other capital goods' input directly to multifunctional processes (e.g. the processing machines themselves, but not buildings etc.): time (duration) of use OR mass, volume, length of produced good III.c) Justify selection from checklist: In the case alternatives are given in the above provisions, the chosen alternative shall be concisely justified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5489, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 268, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III.d) Justify other criteria: If another specific relationship is applied that is not listed above, that choice shall be concisely justified including explaining why none of the default provisions is applicable or the most suitable ones, along the guidance given in the text. III.e) Justify non-existence of determining physical causality: If a \"determining physical causal relationships\" does not exist (i.e. it is not in the above list and no other can be identified), this shall be concisely justified. Only in that case the second allocation step should be applied (see below); otherwise the resulting lack of accuracy and potential distortion is to be documented and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation (7.9.3.3). IV) SHOULD - Second step and criterion \"market price\": As second, general allocation criterion for multifunctional processes, the market price of the co-functions should be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5490, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 268, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV) SHOULD - Second step and criterion \"market price\": As second, general allocation criterion for multifunctional processes, the market price of the co-functions should be applied. If this is done, the price shall refer to the specific condition and at the point the co-functions leave or enter180 the multifunctional unit process or are provided. This means for processes that the known, calculated or approximated market price shall relate to e.g. the specific technical characteristics in quantity and quality such as purity, compressed or not, packaged or not, etc. as well as bulk or small amounts, etc. at the point it leaves the process. If this cannot be done, the resulting lack in accuracy and potential distortion of the results shall be documented and be considered in the results interpretation. V) SHOULD - Two-step procedure for multifunctional products (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5491, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 268, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V) SHOULD - Two-step procedure for multifunctional products (e.g. consumer products): The following two-step procedure179 shall be applied (7.9.3.2): [ISO!] V.a) First step and criterion \"determining physical causality\": As first criterion the 180 \"Enter\" in case of waste and end-of-life treatment services.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5492, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 268, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the product should be identified and applied. The above guidance for multifunctional flows can be applied analogously. V.b) Use virtual subdivision principle to perform explicit allocation: As an initial step, analogously as above for multifunctional processes, the logic of virtual subdivision should be applied to virtually subdivide the multifunctional product. V.c) Second step and criterion \"QFD\" or \"market price\": V.c.i) Preferred second criterion - Quality Function Deployment: If the above cannot be done, the Quality Function Deployment (QFD) should be used to identify the relevance of the co-function from the user's perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5493, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 269, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If a QFD does not exist and cannot be developed (e.g. due to cost or timing reasons), the second, general allocation criterion of \"market price\" of equivalent products for the single co-functions can and shall be applied (see below). V.c.ii) Alternative second criterion - market price: If the QFD is not feasible, allocation by market price should be done in analogy to the preceding case for multifunctional processes. For products, the representative price of products that provide an equivalent to each single function should be used to allocate among the co-functions of the multifunctional product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5494, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 269, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For products, the representative price of products that provide an equivalent to each single function should be used to allocate among the co-functions of the multifunctional product. (7.9.3.3) [ISO+] VI) SHALL - Attributional modelling of reuse, recycling, recovery: The following provisions shall be applied in attributional modelling of recycling and related (the corresponding detailed explanations are found in annex 14.4): [ISO!] VI.a) Follow general rules for multifunctionality, observing specific aspects: Allocation of products from end-of-life product and waste treatment shall apply the same general rules as other cases of multifunctionality, with two specific aspects: VI.a.i) Dealing with waste and end-of-life products of negative market value that generate secondary goods: Specific is firstly that in case the market value of the end-of-life product or waste is below zero (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5495, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 269, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "soiled postconsumer packaging waste), the appropriate process step at the system boundary to the next life cycle is to be identified, i.e. where the allocation is to be applied. This process step is that one where the valuable co-function is created after one or more initial treatment processes have taken place (e.g. sorted plastic fraction of the above waste). VI.a.ii) True joint process to be identified: Specific is secondly that for end-oflife products and waste the true joint process is to be identified, which is separated by various e.g. manufacturing steps from the step where the end-of-life product occurs (for the concept see Figure 29): VI.a.ii.1) For waste or end-of-life products with a market price equal or above zero, the true joint process is that process earlier in the life cycle of the system, where the good (e.g. a aluminium bar) is technically approximately equivalent to the secondary good of the waste or end-of-life product (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5496, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 269, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a aluminium bar) is technically approximately equivalent to the secondary good of the waste or end-of-life product (e.g. aluminium scrap from construction demolishing). Note that for \"open loop - different", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5497, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 269, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation primary route\" recycling this step might necessarily involve abstraction to the basic properties of the two products. These two products that have been identified as described above are then considered co-products of the true joint process. VI.a.ii.2) For waste and end-of-life products with a market value below zero, the true joint process is that one, which produces that product that is about equivalent to the first valuable product that is produced from the initial waste treatment processes, as described in the preceding provision. These two products that have been identified as described above are then considered coproducts of the true joint process. VI.a.ii.3) In the case of multiple functions from the waste or end-of-life product (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5498, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 270, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VI.a.ii.3) In the case of multiple functions from the waste or end-of-life product (e.g. a complex consumer product is discarded for recycling of its many materials and for energy recovery), there is each one true joint process for each of them that shall be identified. VI.b) Provisions: The following provisions can be derived that shall be applied, differentiating between wastes / end-of-life products with negative and positive market value: VI.b.i) Negative market value: If the market price of the waste / end-of-life product is below zero (see also Figure 33 and explanations in annex 0): VI.b.i.1) The waste / end-of-life management / treatment processes until excluding the process where the pre-treated waste crosses the \u201czero market value\u201d border (i.e. when a process is generating a function with positive market value) shall be allocated exclusively to the first system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5499, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 270, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "when a process is generating a function with positive market value) shall be allocated exclusively to the first system. In the case the exact process step or the waste and/or secondary good properties cannot be clearly identified, the resulting lack of accuracy shall be reported and later be considered in the results interpretation. VI.b.i.2) Subsequently, the two-step allocation procedure shall be applied between the valuable secondary good and its co-product from the true joint process (i.e. see the next provision). This involves a second, additional allocation exclusively of the inventory of that process step that has produced the first valuable product after the initial waste treatment steps, as follows: VI.b.i.3) The inventory exclusively of the process step that produces a valuable product (secondary good) should be allocated with the market value criterion between the secondary good(s) and the (potentially pre-treated) waste / end-of-life product that enters this process step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5500, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 270, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The burdens that are allocated to the pre-treated waste / End-of-life product belong to the first system, the ones assigned to the secondary good(s) to the second system(s). Note that the market value of the pre-treated waste / End-of-life product is below zero and that hence the absolute value of its", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5501, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 270, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation (negative) market price181 should be used when calculating the allocation key; the rest of the allocation calculation is the same. VI.b.i.4) After that, the two-step allocation is applied between the valuable secondary good and the true joint process, as follows in the next provision, i.e. analogous to the case when the waste or end-oflife product have a positive market price. VI.b.ii) Market value equal or above zero: If the market price of the waste / endof-life product is equal or above zero, the two-step allocation procedure shall directly be applied between the process step that generates the waste or end-of-life product and the true joint process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5502, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 271, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following procedure shall be applied (details see annex 14.4.1.2): VI.b.ii.1) As first criterion, the \u201cdetermining physical causal relationships\u201d between each non-functional flow and the co-functions of the process shall be identified and applied. This is worked out as follows: VI.b.ii.2) Two sub-cases are to be differentiated: the first one is where the secondary good is undergoing none or limited changes in the inherent properties (e.g. metal recycling, fibre recycling) and the second one is where it undergoes relevant changes in the inherent properties (e.g. energy recovery from mixed polymer waste). The first sub-case applies to all \"closed loop\" and \"open loop - same primary route\" situations. The second sub-case applies to all \"Open loop - different primary route\" situations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5503, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 271, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The first sub-case applies to all \"closed loop\" and \"open loop - same primary route\" situations. The second sub-case applies to all \"Open loop - different primary route\" situations. VI.b.ii.3) For the first sub-case, the total number of cycles and the therefrom derived the total amount of uses (considering the loss at each cycle; concept see text) is determined and used for allocation across the many uses including the initial production up to the true joint process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5504, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 271, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In result the following formula can be developed for an infinite number of loops (considering the losses at each loop) (detailed steps see annex 14.4.1): VI.b.ii.4) r R r W P e * ) 1( * \uf0b7 with \uf0b7 e : average LCI per unit of material, part, or energy carrier \uf0b7 r : average recycling rate [0...1), incorporating both collection efficiencies and processing efficiencies \uf0b7 P : LCI of primary production per unit of material, part, or energy carrier \uf0b7 W : LCI of final waste management per unit of discarded material, part, or energy carrier \uf0b7 R : LCI of effort for reuse/recycling/recovery per unit of material, part, or 181 E.g. if the market value / gate fee is \u201e-1 US$\u201c this would be \u201e1 US$\u201c.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5505, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 271, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation energy carrier VI.b.ii.5) The allocation formula is to consider in addition the change in the inherent properties of the secondary good. VI.b.ii.6) If the above cannot be done because information that is required for applying the formula cannot be obtained or at least approximated, the second step of \"market value\" allocation needs to be applied. In that case, it must be detailed and justified why the above cannot be applied. It shall be also demonstrated that the market value allocation is not disfavouring any competitor product, if the results are intended to be used for comparisons. VI.b.ii.7) For the second sub-case, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5506, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 272, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VI.b.ii.7) For the second sub-case, i.e. where the recycled/recovered/reused good undergoes relevant changes in the inherent properties, the true joint process is the one along the production chain that produces the minimum required quality182 of the good to generate the secondary good. (E.g. in case of soiled low value LDPE post-consumer plastic waste that is incinerated to recover the energy: As the LDPE is incinerated and basically only the lower calorific value is of interest, the minimum required good is even before the production of the LDPE - the crude oil (incl. transport to the country of LDPE production) is meeting the minimum requirements in this case.) Based on this, the general two-step allocation procedure shall be applied between the secondary good and the function(s) or the true joint process (provisions see more above). VI.b.ii.8) If several functions are generated from the waste / end-of-life product (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5507, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 272, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VI.b.ii.8) If several functions are generated from the waste / end-of-life product (e.g. different metals recovered), this shall be done individually with each of the true joint processes. VII) SHALL - System-wide consistent application of allocation: Consistency shall be ensured as far as possible, using the same allocation criteria for the different co-functions of any specific process and across all similar processes within the system boundary. Otherwise, the lack of consistency and its effect on accuracy, precision and completeness shall be considered when stating the quality of a data set or when interpreting the results of an LCA study, respectively. VIII) SHALL - 100 % rule: The sum of the inventories allocated to all co-products shall be equal to the inventory of the system before allocation was done. 182 Note that this provision ensures that the ISO 14044 provision on considering the change in inherent properties of the secondary good.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5508, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 272, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results 7.10 Calculating LCI results (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.3) Overview Depending on the level of aggregation that is required for the intended applications, the inventories of all included unit processes are scaled in relation to their share in the overall product system and are aggregated over e.g. sub-assemblies, over life cycle stages, or over the whole product system183. When the inventory calculations are performed, it is important to be consistent in applying the same calculation procedures throughout the LCI/LCA study. All quantitatively relevant interim products and wastes generated inside the system are to be completely modelled, if being co-products substituted or allocated, depending on the applied LCI method approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5509, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 273, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The final LCI results hence shall represent exclusively the product prescribed by the functional unit. If the system has been modelled completely, the resulting aggregated inventory exclusively contains elementary flows (e.g. resources as inputs and emissions as outputs) that cross the system boundary in addition to the product or products, which are defined by the functional unit. One exception is radioactive waste, which can stay in the inventory as no agreed LCI modelling framework of its long-term management is available yet. Often also other co-products and wastes in however insignificant amounts can remain in the inventory, in line with the cut-off criteria. For reporting, these can be removed from the inventory (upon approval by the reviewer regarding their quantitative irrelevance). Depending on the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study, scenario analysis and uncertainty calculations should also be performed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5510, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 273, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Depending on the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study, scenario analysis and uncertainty calculations should also be performed. This especially applies to product comparisons and more so for future strategy comparisons. Averaging data See chapter 7.7. Provisions: 7.10 Calculating LCI results Applies to all types of deliverables of the study, while for unit process and partly terminated system data sets as deliverables only to quantify the achieved completeness and precision, as they need to be evaluated from the system's perspective. I) SHALL - Apply calculation procedures consistently: The same calculation procedures shall be applied consistently throughout the analysed system(s) when aggregating the processes within the system boundary for obtaining the LCI results. II) SHALL - Calculate and aggregate the inventory data of the system(s): (See also 7.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5511, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 273, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Calculate and aggregate the inventory data of the system(s): (See also 7.8. If the model is correctly prepared, the first two following sub-bullets can be skipped): II.a) Determine for each process within the system boundary how much of its reference flow is required for the system to deliver its functional unit(s) and/or reference 183 Note that the calculation of LCI results is also required when developing unit process data sets as deliverables of the LCA work, as it serves, together with subsequent characterisation to quantify the overall completeness and approximate the overall uncertainty of the data set per impact category. If normalisation and weighting are included in the definition of the cut-off rules, also these are to be applied.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5512, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 273, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 7 Life Cycle Inventory analysis - collecting data, modelling the system, calculating results flows(s) (i.e. the extent to which the process is involved in the system). II.b) Scale the inventory of each process accordingly. This way it relates to the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) of the system. Note that if parameterised process data sets are used in the system model, the parameter values are to be set before scaling and aggregation. II.c) The correctly scaled inventories of all processes within the system boundary shall be aggregated (summed up) for that system. II.d) If the intended application of the results requires a location non-generic impact assessment (as identified in 6.7.5), aggregation of the elementary flows above the required location type or level (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5513, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 274, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the level of a single site/plant, a region, a country, an environmental sub-compartment, etc.) should be avoided in the LCI results calculation. The same applies for other differentiations (e.g. of environmental sub-compartments or archetypes of emission situations) if those are required for the intended application and impact assessment methods to be used. [ISO+] II.e) If the disaggregated data cannot be publicly disclosed (e.g. for confidentiality reasons), it is recommended to foresee performing the impact assessment on the disaggregated level and providing the LCIA results together with the aggregated LCI results. [ISO+] Note that also in this case (as in all cases) the reviewers shall have (at least confidential) access to all underlying data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5514, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 274, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] Note that also in this case (as in all cases) the reviewers shall have (at least confidential) access to all underlying data. III) SHOULD - Ensure that reference flow(s) is/are only product and waste flow(s): Note that after aggregation, the reference flow(s) is/are the only product and/or waste flow(s) that should remain in the LCI results inventory, with two exceptions: III.a) For partly terminated systems: The inventories of selected products and/or waste flows were left out of the system boundary - typically intentionally - and the flows are kept in the inventory. Note however that for the purpose of quantifying the achieved completeness via the cut-off rules of environmental impact, also these selected product and waste flows are to be considered via integrating the inventories of the respective production and waste treatment processes. III.b) For radioactive waste and waste in underground waste deposits (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5515, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 274, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "III.b) For radioactive waste and waste in underground waste deposits (e.g. mine filling): These waste flows can be kept in the inventory for direct use in interpretation (see chapter 7.4.4.2). IV) SHALL - Highlight and explicitly consider remaining non-functional product or waste flows: Any product and waste flows that remain in the inventory and that are nonfunctional flows shall be highlighted in the report and/or data set: Either they require to be modelled when later using the data set (e.g. by complementing the data set with a yet missing background LCI data set for e.g. a specific chemical consumed, or modelling the management/treatment of a specific waste). Or this gap / missing data needs to be explicitly considered in subsequent interpretation and conclusions drawn.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5516, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 274, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.4) 8.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.4.1, 4.4.2, and 4.4.3) General Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is the phase in an LCA where the inputs and outputs of elementary flows that have been collected and reported in the inventory are translated into impact indicator results related to human health, natural environment, and resource depletion. It is important to note that LCA and the impact assessment is analysing the potential environmental impacts that are caused by interventions that cross the border between technosphere and ecosphere and act on the natural environment and humans, often only after fate and exposure steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5517, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 275, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The results of LCIA should be seen as environmentally relevant impact potential indicators, rather than predictions of actual environmental effects. LCA and LCIA are equally distinct from risk based, substance specific instruments. See also the related notes in the guidance document \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5518, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 275, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "See also the related notes in the guidance document \u201cFramework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\u201d. Overview LCIA is composed of mandatory and optional steps, as reflected also by the subchapters: \uf0b7 Based on classification and characterisation of the individual elementary flows, which is usually done by LCIA experts that provide complete sets of LCIA methods for use by LCA practitioners184 (see separate guidance document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\"), the LCIA results are calculated by multiplying the individual inventory data of the LCI results with the characterisation factors (8.2) \uf0b7 In a subsequent185, optional step, the LCIA results can be multiplied with normalisation factors that represent the overall inventory of a reference (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5519, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 275, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a whole country or an average citizen), obtaining dimensionless, normalised LCIA results (8.3) \uf0b7 In a second optional step these normalised LCIA results can be multiplied by a set of weighting factors, that indicate the different relevance that the different impact categories (midpoint level related weighting) or areas-of-protection (endpoint level related weighting) may have, obtaining normalised and weighted LCIA results that can be summed up to a single-value overall impact indicator (8.4). Note that a weighting set always involves value choices. 184 Note that the development or variation/adjustment of LCIA methods is never done by the vast majority of normal LCA practitioners, but by special LCIA experts, whose LCIA methods and factors the LCA practitioners use and rely on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5520, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 275, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For this reason and also to avoid that LCIA methods are selected after the LCI results have been calculated and based on interests, the aspects of selecting or adjusting LCIA methods are entirely addressed in the scope chapter 6.7. This current chapter refers hence exclusively to the calculation of the LCIA results. 185 ISO 14044 also foresees an optional \"Grouping\" step. No specific recommendations are given here. If it is decided to apply a grouping step, the ISO 1444 provision can be applied.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5521, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 275, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results The LCIA phase prepares additional input for the interpretation phase of the LCI/LCA study. Impact assessment, normalisation and weighting for applying cut-off criteria Note, that even if the application of the LCI/LCA study does not require to report any impact assessment results (e.g. when developing a cradle-to-gate LCI results data set for a specific product for customer information), it is still relevant to perform an impact assessment of the data set as part of the LCI/LCA study: This is because of the iterative approach to LCA where the achieved level of completeness and precision (cut-off criteria) of the LCI data set is to be judged on its LCIA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5522, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 276, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The LCIA results are hence also the basis for a sensitivity analysis to support identification of the main contributing elementary flows and of the processes causing them, as part of the stepwise improvement of the inventory data. This may include the use of normalisation and weighting, if it has been decided to implement the cut-off criteria in relationship to the normalised and weighted LCIA results. LCIA in comparative studies In comparative LCA studies, an impact assessment must be performed in addition, calculating the final LCIA results that are an important component of the basis for the interpretation phase, and the conclusions and recommendations must be based on the outcome of the LCIA results. Expressing LCIA results LCIA results of the individual impact categories are typically expressed as equivalent values if this is a midpoint level indicator (e.g. kg CO2-equivalents for the Global Warming Potential GWP) or damage values for endpoint level indicators (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5523, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 276, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "kg CO2-equivalents for the Global Warming Potential GWP) or damage values for endpoint level indicators (e.g. DALYs for Human health, PDF*m2*a for Natural environment / Species diversity impacts)186. Note that the formal measurement units of the above three examples are kg, a, and m2*a, respectively, while for better communication the initially named expressions are most widely used. 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.4.2 and 4.4.3) Calculating LCIA results Using the LCIA methods as identified in the scope phase187 of the LCI/LCA study (chapter 6.7.2), now the LCIA results are to be calculated. While ISO is not addressing the development of LCIA methods in any detail, it formalises the link between the inventory elementary flows and the impact assessment factors, as follows: The impact assessment at midpoint and/or endpoint level is performed by first assigning the elementary flows to the one or more relevant categories of impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5524, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 276, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This step is called \u201cClassification\u201d (see also Figure 15). Then the inventory results for the individual elementary flows are usually linearly188 multiplied with the relevant impact factors from the applied LCIA methods; this step is called \u201cCharacterisation\u201d. Details are provided in the separate guidance 186 For definitions and details see the separate document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\". 187 See that chapter for the explanation why this shall be done in the scope phase and not only after LCI data collection and modelling. 188 Certain LCIA methods use non-linear relationships for the characterisation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5525, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 276, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\" on the development and selection of Life Cycle Impact Assessment models and factors. In LCA practice, these steps are not regularly done by LCA practitioners, but this is part of the work towards developing LCIA methods. The practitioner is however responsible to ensure that the inventory elementary flows are correctly linked with the LCIA factors (see more below) and - together with LCIA experts - to derive or develop missing impact factors if potentially relevant for the study (details see chapter 6.7.4). The resulting characterized indicator results can be summed up within each impact category. The resulting collection of aggregated indicator results is the characterized impact profile of the product, i.e. its LCIA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5526, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 277, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The resulting collection of aggregated indicator results is the characterized impact profile of the product, i.e. its LCIA results. No comparison across impact categories As the LCIA results per impact category have different units, they cannot directly be compared to identify which are most relevant. Equally it cannot be summed up. Ensure a correct link between inventory and impact factors Databases within LCA software typically provide elementary flows that have been classified and characterised and thereby \u201clinked\u201d with the LCIA methods. The practitioner is however responsible to ensure that the inventory elementary flows are correctly linked with the LCIA factors. This in any case applies for elementary flows that were added by the practitioner during data collection and for newly applied LCIA methods. The work of correctly linking inventory and impact factors is supported by using the same nomenclature and flow data sets, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5527, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 277, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The work of correctly linking inventory and impact factors is supported by using the same nomenclature and flow data sets, e.g. the ILCD nomenclature and related reference elementary flows. Frequent errors: Incomplete LCIA factor assignment to elementary flows In LCA databases of diverse origins of the data (e.g. combined by the software/database provider or growing over the years at the practitioner) typically have a number of elementary flows that should carry a characterisation factor in the covered LCIA methods, but don\u201ft have it assigned. That means the impact assessment is incomplete and \u2013 depending on the relevancy of the gaps \u2013 leads to wrong results and conclusions. Some of the main \u201ccandidates\u201d for such omissions and possible solutions189 are as follows. The related provisions are found in the referenced chapters (here below the provision status is given only for orientation): - Combined ores (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5528, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 277, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The related provisions are found in the referenced chapters (here below the provision status is given only for orientation): - Combined ores (e.g. \u201cLead-zinc ore; 2.5 % Pb, 1.8 % Zn\" as \"Resources from ground\u201d that were created by the practitioner or imported from the database developers). Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (not permissible190:) Calculate the resource depletion factors of the single elements, scale them to the respective element contents of the flow, sum them up and assign the resulting factor to that flow. \u00b0 b) (shall:) Avoid specific ore resource flows by splitting the ore flow up into the 189 These cases and possible solutions have been considered and are in line with the ILCD \u201eNomenclature and other conventions\u201c guidance, the chapter on overarching methodological issues (annex 7.4.3) and are implemented in the related ILCD reference elementary flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5529, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 277, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "190 \"not permissible\" refers here to reporting for external use, as the respective flows would not meet the provisions of the \"Nomenclature and other provisions\" (see separate document) and/or the \"Overarching method provisions for specific elementary flow types\" (see chapter 7.4.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5530, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 277, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results flows of the contained chemical elements and use the respective elementary flows that already have impact factors assigned (i.e. for the above example to \u201cLead\" as \"Resources from ground\u201d and \u201cZinc\" as \"Resources from ground\u201d and a complementary \"Inert rock\" as \"Resources from ground\u201d for the mass balance.) Note that for some ores the compound may need to be inventoried (e.g. Rock salt (NaCl); details see chapter 7.4.3.6.2. - Composed emissions such as e.g. salts (e.g. Ammonium nitrate, while characterisation factors exist for the contained ions Ammonium and Nitrate). Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (not permissible:) Calculate the correct factor stoichiometrically (or other method, as appropriate) and assign to the flow. \u00b0 b) (shall:) Inventory the components as separate elementary flows (e.g. \"Ammonium\" and \"Nitrate\" for the above example)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5531, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 278, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u00b0 b) (shall:) Inventory the components as separate elementary flows (e.g. \"Ammonium\" and \"Nitrate\" for the above example). See also chapter 7.4.3.3 on when to split elementary flows of salts depending on their water solubility. - Process-type specific (composed) emissions such as \u201cDiesel engine off-gas\u201d etc., which cannot be usefully addressed in impact assessment and which typically have no impact factor at all and that shall not remain in the inventory. Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (should:) Inventory the specific substances emitted if data is available or \u00b0 b) (may) Estimate the composition by using technology-specific information on emission-composition or default break-down tables (documenting assumptions made) and inventory the individual substances emitted. - Newly user-created flows of e.g. emissions that even may have a factor in the used LCIA method but that were not provided with the LCA database package or software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5532, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 278, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- Newly user-created flows of e.g. emissions that even may have a factor in the used LCIA method but that were not provided with the LCA database package or software. Possible solution: \u00b0 First check whether the package is complete; obtain the missing factors. For flows that were newly created by the user, it should be verified that it is not actually an existing flow but named with an e.g. trivial name or an alternative chemical name. CAS numbers help in verifying this. - Emissions to sub-compartments or at specific locations for which no specific impact factor is available. Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (recommended) Avoid use of such flows unless specific factors are available in the applied LCIA method for all quantitatively relevant elementary flows, or \u00b0 b) (shall) Assign the impact factor of the same elementary flow of the parent compartment (e.g. the impact factor for \"Nitrate\" as \"Emissions to freshwater\" is also assigned to \"Nitrate\" as \"Emissions to lakes\")", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5533, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 278, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the impact factor for \"Nitrate\" as \"Emissions to freshwater\" is also assigned to \"Nitrate\" as \"Emissions to lakes\"). See the separate document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\" for applicable default compartments. - Sum-indicators such as \u201cMetals\u201d and measured indicators, which cannot be usefully addressed in impact assessment and which typically have no impact factor at all and that shall not remain in the inventory. Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (should) Inventory the individual substances (e.g. for the sum-indicator \"Metals\" the individual \"Lead\", \"Iron\", etc. metals), if composition information is available, or \u00b0 b) (may) Estimate the composition by using technology-specific information on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5534, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 278, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results emission-composition or default break-down tables (documenting assumptions made) and inventory the individual substances emitted. See chapter 7.4.3.2 for permissible sum-indicators. - Unspecified \u201cBiomass\u201d, \u201cRenewable energy\u201d, \u201cUnspecified emissions\u201d, etc. elementary flows. Possible solution: \u00b0 a) (should) Inventory the individual components if data is available, or \u00b0 b) (may) Estimate the composition by using technology-specific information on composition or default break-down tables or a typical generic case (documenting assumptions made) and inventory the individual substances emitted. Note: Check also whether the respective flow is potentially relevant (along process-specific worst-case assumptions) and remove it from the inventory if clearly not relevant in line with the applied cut-off rules", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5535, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 279, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Additional, modified, or non-generic / differentiated LCIA methods As already mentioned in chapter 6.7, in case the inventory work reveals the need to address additional impacts that where not originally considered, the respective scope step has to be revised. In summary: If a characterisation factor is missing for an elementary flow in the inventory, which is known to contribute to an impact category, its potential importance should be checked. If the contribution from the elementary flow is found to be potentially significant, an attempt should be made to estimate the missing characterisation factor, and if this is not possible, the fact of a potentially relevant missing characterisation factor must be reported, and the potential influence of the missing factor must be considered in the interpretation of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5536, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 279, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Normalisation and weighting necessary? The decision of inclusion/exclusion of normalisation and weighting shall have been made and documented in the initial scope definition (see chapter 6.7.7). Note that normalisation and weighting may be required as interim step for defining the quantitative cut-off rules (see chapter 6.6.3) and for checking the achieved completeness of the inventory (see chapter 9.3.2); this depends on the chosen approach for implementing the cut-off rules. If used exclusively for this purpose, the respective normalised and weighted figures are not staying in the data set or report. In comparisons without normalisation and weighting, LCIA results of the different impact categories or damages/areas-of-protection may point to different directions, i.e. for different impact categories not always the alternative product performs best", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5537, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 279, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for different impact categories not always the alternative product performs best. However, if the study is intended to support a comparative assertion to be disclosed to the public, no form of numerical, value-based weighting of the indicator results is permitted to be published in accordance with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. For in-house purposes, the use of normalisation and weighting \u2013 preferably using several different approaches and value perspectives - can help to demonstrate the robustness of the analysis. If in contrast all impact indicators point into the same direction, the LCIA results can already be the basis for interpretation phase of the LCA, including for comparative studies, clearly identifying a superior alternative (or, in case of limited significance of the differences, identifying equality of the compared alternatives).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5538, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 279, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results Provisions: 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results Note that this provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, while for unit process, partly terminated system and LCI results data sets as deliverables only to quantify the achieved completeness and precision, as they needs to be evaluated from the system's perspective. Note: If third-party LCIA methods are used that correctly provide characterisation factors for all used elementary flows, the first two following provisions mean to exclusively control that this has been done correctly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5539, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 280, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For any newly created elementary flow however, the characterisation factor has to be assigned and/or developed (see also chapter 6.7.4): I) SHALL - Classification of elementary flows: All elementary flows of the inventory shall be assigned to those one or more impact categories to which they contribute (\u201cclassification\u201d) and that were selected for the impact assessment in the scope definition of the study. II) SHALL - Characterisation of elementary flows: To all classified elementary flows each one quantitative characterisation factor shall be assigned for each category to which the flow relevantly contributes (\"characterisation\"). That factor expresses how much that flow contributes to the impact category indicator (at midpoint level) or category endpoint indicator (at endpoint level). For midpoint level indicators this relative factor typically relates to a reference flow (e.g. it may be expressed in \"kg CO2equivalents\" per kg elementary flow in case of Global Warming Potential)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5540, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 280, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For midpoint level indicators this relative factor typically relates to a reference flow (e.g. it may be expressed in \"kg CO2equivalents\" per kg elementary flow in case of Global Warming Potential). For endpoint level indicators it typically relates to a specific damage that relates to the broader area of protection. Examples are e.g. species loss measured e.g. as potentially displaced fraction of species for an affected area and duration (pdf*m2*a), or damage to Human health measured e.g. in Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). (For terms and details refer to the separate document \"Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators\"). III) SHALL - Calculate LCIA results per impact category: For each impact category separately, calculate the LCIA indicator results by multiplying191 the amount of each contributing (i.e. classified) elementary flow of the inventory with its characterisation factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5541, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 280, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "classified) elementary flow of the inventory with its characterisation factor. The results may be summed up per impact category, but summing up shall not be done across impact categories. Note that this is done with either the midpoint level (impact potential) or the endpoint level (damage) factors, as had to be decided in scope chapter 6.7.7. IV) SHALL - Separately calculate LCIA results of long-term emissions: LCIA results of long-term emissions (i.e. beyond 100 years from the time of the study) shall be calculated separately from the LCIA results that relate to interventions that occur within 100 years from the time of study. [ISO!] Note: Given the different extent of uncertainty, these two sets of results will later be presented separately while discussed jointly. V) SHALL - Separately calculate non-generic LCIA results, if included: In the case additional or modified, non-generic (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5542, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 280, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "V) SHALL - Separately calculate non-generic LCIA results, if included: In the case additional or modified, non-generic (e.g. geographically or otherwise differentiated) characterisation factors or LCIA methods are used, the results applying the original, generic LCIA methods shall be calculated (and later be presented and discussed) 191 Certain LCIA methods use non-linear relationships for the characterisation; if such are used the calculation is non-linear.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5543, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 280, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results separately as well. [ISO!] VI) SHOULD - Keep results of non-LCA impacts separate: For LCIA results of impacts that are outside the LCA frame93 but that were considered relevant for the analysed or compared system(s) and have been included quantitatively, the inventory, impact assessment, etc. shall be kept separately for clear interpretation. [ISO+] Note that classification and characterisation of all elementary flows is typically already done in combined LCI / LCIA database packages or LCA software. In any case this is to be checked responsibly by the LCA practitioner. The step of manual classification and assigning characterisation factors applies hence especially to newly created or imported elementary flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5544, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 281, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The step of manual classification and assigning characterisation factors applies hence especially to newly created or imported elementary flows. It is one of the most widely found errors to not classify and characterise newly introduced flows despite of their environmental relevance. The \"frequent errors\" box in the main text of this chapter provides some guidance for identifying and solving such cases. 8.3 Normalisation192 (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.4.3.2) Introduction and overview Normalisation is an optional step under ISO 14044:2006. It supports the interpretation of the impact profile and is the first step193 towards a fully aggregated result that additionally requires a weighting across indicators (see next chapter). Normalised LCIA results give for each impact topic on midpoint level (e.g. Climate change, Eutrophication, etc.) or area of protection on endpoint level (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5545, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 281, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Normalised LCIA results give for each impact topic on midpoint level (e.g. Climate change, Eutrophication, etc.) or area of protection on endpoint level (e.g. Human health, Natural environment, Natural resources) the relative share of the impact of the analysed system in the total impact of this category per average citizen or globally, per country, etc. When displaying the normalised LCIA results of the different impact topics next to each other, it can hence be seen to which impact topics the analysed system contributes relatively more and to which less. Also to implement the cut-off criteria, weighted and normalised LCIA results can be used (see chapter 6.6.3). If this approach has been chosen, normalisation is a required step for all kinds of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5546, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 281, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If this approach has been chosen, normalisation is a required step for all kinds of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study. The decision about inclusion of normalisation and the used normalisation basis has been made and documented in the first scope definition; it is binding and shall not be changed later during the study (see chapter 6.7.6). Calculating normalised LCIA results Normalised LCIA results are obtained by dividing the LCIA results by the normalisation basis, separately for each impact category (for midpoint level related approaches) or area of protection (for endpoint level related approaches). No comparison across impact topics The different impact topics on midpoint level are typically understood to be of different absolute relevance (e.g. the issue Climate change may be judged to be more important than 192 \"Grouping\" is not addressed in this guidance document as not seen as adding practical value in context of decision support", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5547, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 281, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the issue Climate change may be judged to be more important than 192 \"Grouping\" is not addressed in this guidance document as not seen as adding practical value in context of decision support. If it is planned to include a grouping step in an LCA study, please refer to the ISO 14044 provisions. 193 Note that there are also weighting approaches that do not include an initial normalisation step. Note furthermore that also for endpoint / damage modelling a weighting is required (across the areas-of-protection) if a single indicator is aimed at.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5548, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 281, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results Acidification). They reflect only the contribution of the analysed product to the total impact potential but not the severity/relevance of the respective total impact. Therefore, also the normalised LCIA results should not directly be summed: summing them up directly is equivalent to choose an equal weight for all impact categories. Hence, a weighting is always at least implicitly involved when summing up normalised LCIA results. If summing or comparison across the normalised LCIA results is intended, this shall include a explicit weighting step with equal weights. The same holds true for normalised LCIA results on endpoint level, as the damage to e.g. the Natural environment may be judged as a more relevant issue than e.g. the depletion of Natural resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5549, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 282, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The same holds true for normalised LCIA results on endpoint level, as the damage to e.g. the Natural environment may be judged as a more relevant issue than e.g. the depletion of Natural resources. To directly compare or sum up results across categories or areas of protection, an additional weighting step is to be done, which is equally an optional step under ISO 14044:2006. Provisions: 8.3 Normalisation Note that this provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, while for unit process, partly terminated system, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only if the use of normalised and weighted LCIA results has been selected to quantify the achieved completeness and precision (these need to be evaluated from the system's perspective). I) Normalisation is mainly applied for two purposes: I.a) MAY - Normalisation to support interpretation: In support of the interpretation of the results of the study, normalisation is an optional step under ISO", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5550, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 282, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The decision whether to include normalisation in the interpretation has been made in scope chapter 6.7.7. I.b) MAY - Normalisation use in cut-off quantification: For quantification of the achieved completeness / cut-off, in a first step the indicator results for the different impact categories may be normalised by expressing them relative to a common reference, the normalisation basis (\u201cnormalisation\u201d). [ISO+] The decision whether to include normalisation in the cut-off has been made in scope chapter 6.7.7. The specific normalisation basis has been identified in the scope chapter 6.7.6. II) SHALL - Calculate normalised LCIA results per impact category: If normalisation is applied, the \"normalised LCIA results\" shall be calculated by dividing the LCIA results by the normalisation basis. This shall be done separately for each impact category (for midpoint level approaches) or area of protection (for endpoint level approaches)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5551, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 282, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This shall be done separately for each impact category (for midpoint level approaches) or area of protection (for endpoint level approaches). Note that normalised results shall not directly be summed up across different impact categories as this would imply an even weighting of all impact categories. This is unless this even weighting is intended and identified explicitly as weighting when communicating the results. 8.4 Weighting (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.4.3.4) Introduction Weighting is an optional step under ISO. Weighting involves assigning distinct quantitative weights to all impact categories expressing their relative importance. If needed for the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5552, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 282, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results interpretation, and if in accordance with the goal of the LCI/LCA study, a weighting of the normalised indicator results may be performed. Also to implement the cut-off criteria, the use of weighted and normalised LCIA results is used. Hence for this purpose, weighting is a required step under the ILCD for all kinds of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study. The decision about inclusion of weighting and the used weighting has been made and documented in the first scope definition; it is binding and shall not be changed later during the study (see chapter 6.7.7). Calculating weighted and normalised LCIA results In weighting, the (typically194 initially normalised) LCIA results for the different impact categories are each multiplied with a relative weighting factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5553, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 283, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Comparison across impact topics The normalised and weighted LCIA results can subsequently also be summed up across all impact categories or areas-of-protection. Note that under ISO 14044:2006 weighting shall not be used in studies leading to comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. Provisions: 8.4 Weighting Note that this provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, while for unit process, partly terminated system, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only if the use of normalised and weighted LCIA results has been selected to quantify the achieved completeness and precision (these need to be evaluated from the system's perspective)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5554, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 283, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) Weighting is mainly applied for two purposes: I.a) MAY - Weighting to support interpretation: In support of the interpretation of the results of the study, as an additional, optional element one may perform a \u201cweighting\u201d or other valuation of the - method-wise normalised or not normalised - indicator results. The decision whether to include weighting in the interpretation has been made in scope chapter 6.7.7. I.b) MAY - Weighting use in cut-off quantification: For quantification of the achieved completeness / cut-off, as second195 step the normalised indicator results for the different impact categories may be weighted across the indicators (\u201cweighting\u201d). [ISO+] The decision whether to include weighting in the cut-off has been made in scope chapter 6.7.7. The specific weighting set has been identified in the scope chapter 6.7.6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5555, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 283, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] The decision whether to include weighting in the cut-off has been made in scope chapter 6.7.7. The specific weighting set has been identified in the scope chapter 6.7.6. II) SHALL - Calculate weighted LCIA results per impact category: If weighting is applied, to obtain \"weighted LCIA results\", the (typically normalised) LCIA results shall be multiplied by the weighting set, separately for each impact category (for midpoint 194 Note that this is no free choice, but the chosen specific weighting method either requires a preceding normalisation or a preceding normalisation shall not be done. 195 Note that some weighting methods work without a separate, preceding normalisation, as the normalisation is part of the weighting step.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5556, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 283, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 8 Life Cycle Impact Assessment - calculating LCIA results level approaches and in case of having calculated category-wise endpoint results) or Area of protection (for endpoint results that cover each a whole area of protection). The resulting weighted LCIA results can be summed up across the impact categories or areas of protection, respectively. III) SHALL - No weighting in published comparative assertions: Weighting shall not be used in studies leading to comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. Note that the setting or selection of weighting factors necessarily involves value choices.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5557, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 284, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation 9 Life cycle interpretation (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5) 9.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.1) The Interpretation phase of an LCA has two main purposes that fundamentally differ: \uf0b7 During the iterative steps of the LCA and for all kinds of deliverables, the interpretation phase serves to steer the work towards improving the Life Cycle Inventory model to meet the needs derived from the study goal. \uf0b7 If the iterative steps of the LCA have resulted in the final LCI model and results, and especially for comparative LCA studies (while partly also applicable to other types of studies), the interpretation phase serves to derive robust conclusions and - often - recommendations. In life cycle interpretation, the results of the life cycle assessment are appraised in order to answer questions posed in the goal definition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5558, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 285, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In life cycle interpretation, the results of the life cycle assessment are appraised in order to answer questions posed in the goal definition. The interpretation relates to the intended applications of the LCI/LCA study and is used to develop recommendations. The life cycle interpretation is the phase of the LCA where the results of the other phases are hence considered collectively and analysed in the light of the achieved accuracy, completeness and precision of the applied data, and the assumptions, which have been made throughout the LCI/LCA study. As said, in parallel to performing the LCI work this serves to improve the LCI model. If aimed at (e.g. in case of a comparative study or a weak-point analysis), the final outcome of the interpretation should be conclusions or recommendations, which are to respect the intentions and restrictions of the goal and scope definition of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5559, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 285, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This especially relates to the appropriateness of the functional unit and the system boundaries, as well as the achieved overall data quality, in relation to the goal. The interpretation should present the results of the LCA in an understandable way and help the user of the LCI/LCA study appraise the robustness of the conclusions and understand any potential limitations of the LCI/LCA study. Some of the elements of the interpretation (namely completeness and sensitivity analysis, as well as potentially uncertainty analysis for the determination of precision) are hence also applied throughout the LCI/LCA study. This is done together with quality checks on the level of unit process data, LCI results and applying impact assessment as part of the iterative loops which are used in the drawing of the system boundaries and collection of inventory data (see chapter 4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5560, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 285, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The last step of conclusions and recommendations is only done in the end of the study, if conclusions and recommendations are aimed at. The interpretation proceeds through three activities as schematically illustrated in Figure 25 and detailed in the subchapters of this chapter: \uf0b7 First, the significant issues (i.e. the key processes, parameters, assumptions and elementary flows) are identified (as discussed in chapter 9.2). \uf0b7 Then these issues are evaluated with regard to their sensitivity or influence on the overall results of the LCA. This includes and evaluation of the completeness and consistency with which the significant issues have been handled in the LCI/LCA study (chapter 9.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5561, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 285, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation Finally, the results of the evaluation are used in the formulation of conclusions and recommendations from the LCA study (chapter 9.4). \uf0b7 In the cases where the study involves comparisons of two or more systems, additional considerations are to be included in the interpretation (also chapter 9.4). Figure 25 The elements of the interpretation phase and their relations to other phases of the LCA and within the interpretation phase (from ISO 14044:2006, modified) 9.2 Identification of significant issues (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.2 and to aspects of 4.4.4) Overview The purpose of this first element of interpretation is to analyse and structure the results of earlier phases of the LCI/LCA study in order to identify the significant issues. There are two interrelated aspects of significant issues: Firstly, there are the main contributors to the LCIA results, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5562, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 286, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There are two interrelated aspects of significant issues: Firstly, there are the main contributors to the LCIA results, i.e. the most relevant life cycle stages, processes and elementary flows, and the most relevant impact categories. They are important for the overall interpretation of the LCI/LCA study and for eventual recommendations. They are to be identified through a contribution analysis (also called gravity analysis), i.e. by quantifying, which contributor contributes how much to the total, resulting e.g. in stacked columns or the well-known pie charts. In the case of future scenario LCA, the contribution analysis is to be combined/build upon a scenario modelling and analysis. Secondly, there are the main choices that have the potential to influence the precision of the final results of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5563, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 286, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Secondly, there are the main choices that have the potential to influence the precision of the final results of the LCA. These can be methodological choices (including the LCI Direct applications: \u2022 Product development and improvement \u2022 Strategic planning \u2022 Public policy making \u2022 Marketing \u2022 Other Life Cycle Assessment framework Goal definition Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Goal definition Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations Identification of significant issues Evaluation by: \u2022 Completeness check \u2022 Sensitivity check \u2022 Consistency check \u2022 Other checks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5564, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 286, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation modelling principles, and LCI method approaches applied, cut-off decisions and other system boundary settings), assumptions, foreground and background data used for deriving the process inventories, LCIA methods used for the impact assessment, as well as the optionally used normalisation and weighting factors. Significant choices are to be identified in a different way than the main contributors: by running the different possible choices as scenarios and comparing the scenario results. Contribution analysis (weak point analysis, gravity analysis) Several interests and applications can require to apply the contribution analysis: \uf0b7 Identify the need for further data collection or data quality improvement by quantifying the completeness of the inventory. \uf0b7 Focus further data collection efforts on the most contributing processes and individual elementary flow interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5565, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 287, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Focus further data collection efforts on the most contributing processes and individual elementary flow interventions. \uf0b7 Focus efforts in ecodesign and product improvement / development on the most contributing processes and individual elementary flow interventions. \uf0b7 Communicate the share of internal vs. external contribution to the overall environmental impact in context of customer or stakeholder communication. \uf0b7 Contribute to internal quality control during the LCA work by investigating the qualitative and quantitative plausibility of the detailed outcome of the contribution analysis; this is part of the interim and final evaluation of the LCI/LCA study results. Depending on the drivers, inventory data-related significant issues are to be identified among whole life cycle stages, producer internal / external processes, groups of activities (e.g. transportation, energy production, services), key processes, and/or key elementary flows / interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5566, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 287, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "transportation, energy production, services), key processes, and/or key elementary flows / interventions. If key processes of the system are parameterised, these parameters can equally be significant issues. The analysis is typically done on multiple levels, e.g. for LCIA results: firstly in relation to the individual elementary flows, secondly in relation to the individual impact categories on midpoint and/or category endpoints on endpoint level, and thirdly in relation to the overall (normalised and weighted) environmental impact. The third step is in general also called dominance analysis. In practice the contribution analysis is supported by professional LCA tools, or can be done by analysis of the inventory and LCIA result tables in spreadsheet software. Significant issues for unit processes and partly terminated systems On the level of a unit process, the most significant issues can only be identified for the elementary flows that are directly related to that process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5567, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 287, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is because the inventories of any input products and subsequent waste management processes are not included in the unit process\u201f inventory. To nevertheless be able to quantify which flows are the most significant ones for the analysed unit process, it is necessary to include the life cycle inventories of the named products and waste management processes before the contribution analysis is done. The above applies analogously for partly terminated systems data sets. Provisions: 9.2 Identification of significant issues This provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process, partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only to improve the data quality during the iterative loops of developing the LCI data or the system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI study report.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5568, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 287, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation I) SHALL - Identify significant issues: These can be among the following: I.a) Inventory items: Main contributing \u201ckey\u201d life cycle stages, processes, product, waste and elementary flows, parameters. This part is also known as weak point analysis or gravity analysis. Use contribution analysis techniques. I.b) Impact categories: Main contributing \u201ckey\u201d impact categories (only identifiable if weighting was applied). Use contribution analysis techniques. I.c) Modelling choices and method assumptions: Relevant modelling choices, such as applied allocation criteria / substitution approaches in the inventory analysis, assumptions made when collecting and modelling inventory data for key processes and flows, selecting secondary data, systematic choices on technological, geographical, and time-related representativeness, methodological consistency, extrapolations, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5569, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 288, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use scenario analysis techniques. I.d) Commissioner and interested parties: The influence of the commissioner and interested parties on decisions in goal and scope definition, modelling choices, weighting sets and the like. Discuss influences on final results and recommendations. [ISO!] Note: For analysing the significant issues of unit processes and partly terminated systems, complete the system model as appropriate (e.g. cradle-to-gate) with a background system before the contribution analysis is done (see chapters 7.8). Focus the contribution analysis to the unit process / partly terminated system itself (i.e. the significant flows, assumptions, parameters, processes etc. within the original system boundary). Note: the \"informative\" annex B of ISO 14044:2006 provides a range of examples of life cycle interpretation, including but not only on the identification of significant issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5570, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 288, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note: the \"informative\" annex B of ISO 14044:2006 provides a range of examples of life cycle interpretation, including but not only on the identification of significant issues. 9.3 Evaluation (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.3) 9.3.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.3.1) Evaluation of final results The evaluation element is performed to establish the foundation for subsequently drawing the conclusions and provide recommendations during the interpretation of the LCI/LCA study results (see chapter 9.4). The evaluation is performed in close interaction with the identification of significant issues (see preceding chapter 9.2) in order to determine the reliability and robustness of the results. The evaluation builds upon the results of the earlier phases of the LCA and analyses the LCI/LCA study in an integrated perspective, i.e. based on the outcome of the inventory data collection, inventory modelling, and impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5571, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 288, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "based on the outcome of the inventory data collection, inventory modelling, and impact assessment. It is done in accordance with the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study, and its focus is on the significant issues identified among methodological choices and data. The evaluation involves: \uf0b7 completeness check (9.3.2), \uf0b7 sensitivity check in combination with scenario analysis and potentially uncertainty analysis (9.3.3), and \uf0b7 consistency check (9.3.4).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5572, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 288, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation The outcome of the evaluation is crucial to give strength to the conclusions and recommendations from the study, and it must therefore be presented in way which gives the commissioner and intended audience of the study a clear understanding of the outcome. Note that depending on the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study, different steps of the evaluation may need to be applied. For example, it is only for comparisons between systems that comparative conclusions will be drawn. This is thus not the case when e.g. LCI results data sets are the deliverables of the LCI/LCA study and Environmental Product Declarations (EPD) are the intended applications. However, most steps of the evaluation are nevertheless always required, as non-comparative results such as e.g. LCI data sets may be foreseen to be used as background data for comparative questions on other systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5573, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 289, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "LCI data sets may be foreseen to be used as background data for comparative questions on other systems. To correctly inform subsequent data set users, the completeness and consistency of the data set\u201fs inventory is to be evaluated. Equally is the applicability of specific LCIA methods to be checked, by evaluating the assignment of the elementary flows to the applicable/supported impact models. Evaluation as part of the iterative steps of LCI/LCA study Using the same methods and approaches as for the final evaluation of the LCI/LCA study, the evaluation is also used during the development of the LCA to analyse the achieved completeness, accuracy, precision and consistency. It serves to identify needs for additional or better data as well as revision of assumptions made and other methodological choices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5574, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 289, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It serves to identify needs for additional or better data as well as revision of assumptions made and other methodological choices. 9.3.2 Completeness check (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.3.2) Overview Completeness checks on the inventory are performed in order to determine the degree to which it is complete and whether the cut-off criteria have been met. If the cut-off criteria are not (yet) met, additional or better data is to be used in order to satisfy the goal and scope of the LCA. When performing the completeness check, missing, but relevant LCIA factors and elementary flows are to be semi-quantitatively considered. Alternatively and if the cut-off criteria cannot be met, the goal and scope definition may have to be adjusted to accommodate the lack of completeness. This may however mean that the original questions of the goal cannot be answered any more or that developed data does not meet the aimed at quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5575, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 289, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This may however mean that the original questions of the goal cannot be answered any more or that developed data does not meet the aimed at quality. The challenge of the completeness check, that was already mentioned earlier, is to overcome the seemingly paradox to judge the degree of completeness of the inventory while the absolute numbers of the complete inventory cannot be known. This problem is solved as described below. As a general rule, it is recommended to include as many elementary flows as possible in the inventory to allow the (internal or external) user to perform a detailed impact assessment and analysis. This is also advisable to be able to answer potential questions on possible missing flows that may come from reviewers or third parties (if the data is foreseen to be published/distributed)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5576, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 289, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is also advisable to be able to answer potential questions on possible missing flows that may come from reviewers or third parties (if the data is foreseen to be published/distributed). As a minimum, all elementary flows of quantitative relevance to the overall environmental impact of the process or system, which are addressed in the impact assessment, should be included. It is important to understand that the % completeness achieved must not be misinterpreted that it would indicate the exact 100 % completeness. However does the achieved completeness indicate the approximate true value (Note that this value has a higher uncertainty, the lower the % of approximated completeness is.) Any difference in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5577, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 289, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation achieved completeness across compared alternatives must accordingly be considered when interpreting the results, drawing conclusions and giving recommendations: i.e. if one option has e.g. 95 % completeness and the other 90 %, that difference must be considered. Operationalising cut-off criteria during unit process development The overall cut-off criteria (e.g. \"90 % completeness\") were defined in the scope definition phase of the LCI/LCA study. Their translation into operational cut-off criteria during data collection of the individual unit process can be done using the following combined criteria: \uf0b7 For product flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements) AND \u201cenergy content196\u201d AND \u201cmarket value\u201d (or \u201cproduction/provision cost\u201d). The market value is especially relevant for services, which often have no mass and no relevant energy content", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5578, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 290, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The market value is especially relevant for services, which often have no mass and no relevant energy content. \uf0b7 For waste flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements) AND \u201cenergy content\u201d AND \u201ctreatment cost\u201d \uf0b7 For elementary flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements and only for the environmentally relevant flows, i.e. excluding not or less relevant flows such as e.g. incineration air consumed and waste steam leaving the process as emission to air) AND \u201cenergy content\u201d \uf0b7 In addition, those emissions and wastes should be included that have a low mass or energy content and do not cause direct costs but are of known relevance for the respective type of process or industry. This is given, if the respective emission is regulated or to be reported for the respective process or a technically similar process or industry (also in other countries with comparably strict regulations, e.g. the U.S. or Japan or the EU)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5579, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 290, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the U.S. or Japan or the EU). Balances between input and output of these criteria and performed jointly across all flow types will help identifying relevant gaps or errors in by far most cases. While the finally achieved degree of completeness shall primarily be judged along the overall environmental impact or impact category by impact category, as detailed in chapter 6.6.3, the above steps help during the life cycle inventory work to efficiently complete the data with high quality data, given the practical restrictions. Note that for comparative assertions, the cut-off shall always be met also by mass and energy (as also required in ISO 14044). Before illustrating how this looks in practice, the 100 % reference needs to be identified: Approximating the 100 % value As a necessary, preceding step before the achieved completeness can be approximated, the 100 % value of the \"complete\" inventory and impact is to be approximated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5580, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 290, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is seemingly a paradox to already initially know the final outcome, i.e. what is the 100 % of the flows in terms of chemical elements, energy content and costs, and of the inventory's overall environmental impact. In practice this issue can be reasonably addressed as follows: After modelling the system with all available data, for all missing information a \"best approximation\" value/flow is to be identified by expert judgment. This relates to all kinds of relevant missing information and data, especially: \uf0b7 kind and quantity of initially missing flow data, 196 This can be the lower or upper calorific value or - preferably from method perspective, but less practical - the exergy.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5581, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 290, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation element composition and energy content of all flows that relevantly contribute to the total mass of the flows, \uf0b7 cost of all goods and services that relevantly contribute to the total production cost and production value \uf0b7 environmental impact of yet missing background data for consumed goods and services. Suitable approaches for identifying / quantifying the above are knowledge from sufficiently similar processes, expert judgement, and legal provisions (e.g. emission limits for related processes or industries, while these may be rather reasonable worst case estimates and need additional expert adjustment). Most problematic are qualitative gaps, i.e. lack of awareness of the occurrence of a flow. For emissions, legal provisions of any kind that aim at reporting, measuring, or reducing such emissions are a suitable means to detect their existence and potential relevance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5582, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 291, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For emissions, legal provisions of any kind that aim at reporting, measuring, or reducing such emissions are a suitable means to detect their existence and potential relevance. Also the existence of abatement technologies for certain emissions is a clear indication. Expert judgement based on process understanding is another means, also for qualitative gaps on consumables and services, which might also be detected by their cost but might not be easily attributable to the analysed process as handled e.g. on site level. Especially for missing environmental impact data, LCI data sets of similar goods or services can be used or average LCI data sets of the group of goods or services to which the respective product or waste flow belongs. If e.g. an unknown \"Metal sheet\" is used in a furniture manufacturing process of wooden writing desks, a mix of differently coated (e.g. powder, zinc) sheets of the typically used metals for the respective type of product or in that industry (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5583, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 291, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "powder, zinc) sheets of the typically used metals for the respective type of product or in that industry (e.g. 70 % steel, 30 % aluminium for writing desks) could be used. If also the amount of that sheet is unknown, the value (of its mass or area and thickness) could be approximated from knowing its function in the product and the products total mass, applying expert judgement (e.g. \"connecting elements of wooden writing desks of each 40 kg total mass\" could result in the estimate of 1 kg at 2 mm sheet thickness). Similarly a missing inventory for a \"production plant for chemical X\" would be approximated from similar production processes, scaling the inventory by the relative annual amount of production of the respective chemicals. If such information would be generally missing, an expert judgement of the mass of the main components of the chemical plant (e.g. stainless steel, construction steel, polymers, concrete) and their respective processing depths (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5584, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 291, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "stainless steel, construction steel, polymers, concrete) and their respective processing depths (e.g. tubes, profiles, precast, foil) could be obtained. Available LCI data sets can then be used to approximate the life cycle inventory of that plant and scale/relate it to its life time output of the analysed chemical. Note that in contrast to the subsequent step of identifying which flows should be priority for obtaining better quality data, here the most likely value (\"best approximation\") is to be used. Note also that in contrast to the data that should stay in the final inventory, for approximating the 100 % value also data of lower quality should be included, as long as their quality is not so low that they very substantially worsen the overall data quality. Note that when later reporting the inventory, the data of lower quality than \"data estimate\" is to be left out of the inventory, as it would otherwise lower the overall quality of the data set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5585, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 291, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that when later reporting the inventory, the data of lower quality than \"data estimate\" is to be left out of the inventory, as it would otherwise lower the overall quality of the data set. Depending on what has been decided in chapter 6.6.3 on whether the overall environmental impact is judged separately and for all of the included impact categories or jointly for all of them by including a normalisation and weighting step, the LCIA results or", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5586, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 291, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation weighted LCIA results are calculated. This is the approximated 100 % value of overall environmental impact. It is argued that along these steps a reasonable approximation of the unknown 100 % value can be achieved, as it is good practice in industry197. If in the end, the true but unknown overall environmental impact value can be expected to be a few % higher or sometimes lower198 than the approximated 100 %. This should however very seldomly affect the validity of the work. This is due to the fact that even for very good and complete studies there are always a few remaining % of data uncertainty and a similar % lack of accuracy. Hence to actually achieve 100.0 % completeness compared to e.g. 97 % would not improve the overall quality of the results or the robustness of decision-support", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5587, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Hence to actually achieve 100.0 % completeness compared to e.g. 97 % would not improve the overall quality of the results or the robustness of decision-support. To get an idea of how precise is the 100 % approximation, the share of data of different overall quality should be analysed, i.e. which share is of \"high quality\", \"basic quality\", and \"data estimate\": The higher the share of higher quality data is, the more precise is also the 100 % approximation and the more precise is the value that can be given for the achieved overall completeness. Judging the achieved degree of completeness along the operational criteria How does that look like in practice: In an example, the final cut-off criteria may be e.g. \"90 % of the overall environmental impact\". It would then be checked on level of the unit process whether the included flows of at least \"data estimate\" jointly make up at least 90 % of the unit process\u201f environmentally relevant chemical elements\u201f masses (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5588, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "of each \u201cCarbon\u201d, \u201cSulphur\u201d, and \u201cNitrogen\u201d for a \"Fuel oil heating XY\" process), 90 % of the unit process\u201f energy (as lower or upper calorific values of all energy-containing flows), 90 % of the unit process\u201f cost (e.g. production cost including waste treatment cost and production value/market price of all co-products of e.g. a manufacturing process). Note, that for the chemical elements\u201f mass and energy this refers separately to input and output flows. For costs it relates to the total production cost on the one hand and total production value or market price on the other hand. The inclusion of specific emissions that might escape the previous steps but that are nevertheless relevant (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5589, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The inclusion of specific emissions that might escape the previous steps but that are nevertheless relevant (e.g. among others particle emissions in the above fuel oil heating process, or dioxin emissions for certain scrap melting and waste incineration processes) can mostly be identified by including all legally regulated emissions for that or similar process types or are identified by expert judgement, drawing on know-how for these or similar processes. For these emissions no other, quantitative operational cut-off can be given, i.e. 197 Sometimes it is proposed to use economy wide or industry sector wide inventory data and break these down to single products' inventory data sets. This is meant to overcome the not 100% completeness of the process-based inventories. However, also these sector and economy wide data are not 100% complete. They are based on incomplete data from only a part of the (moreover only bigger) companies plus integrating other information sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5590, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "They are based on incomplete data from only a part of the (moreover only bigger) companies plus integrating other information sources. This data is extrapolated for the rest of the entire sector, using various assumptions and expert judgement. Also, the related life cycle model is based mostly on economic relationships among sectors instead of a specific process or supply-chain. This, and the allocation of the impacts across all products from the same sector, results in additional distortions. The resulting inventory data sets from economy or sector wide models can hence not be assumed to be more complete than process-based inventory data sets. In fact, given its methodinherent lack of accuracy and its uncertainty, this data can be expected to strongly overestimate or underestimate the true 100% value, depending on the specific case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5591, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In fact, given its methodinherent lack of accuracy and its uncertainty, this data can be expected to strongly overestimate or underestimate the true 100% value, depending on the specific case. It can be concluded that the 100% completeness of the inventory of a single process step can best be approximated by analysing this process step along an approach as described in the main text above. The completeness of the single process steps is then the most accurate basis for the completeness of the product's life cycle model. 198 It can be lower, if the lack of quality of the data that is used to approximate it, overestimates the 100% value.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5592, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 292, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation their inclusion can be judged only when judging the achieved overall environmental impact, in the next step: Completeness of environmental impact To obtain the interim or finally achieved values of completeness (\"cut-off\"), the % coverage with data of at least \"data estimate\" quality is calculated. This uses the approximated 100 % value of the whole system model including data of lower quality as reference (using the \"best approximation\" information and data for still missing information and data); see above. Option to leave out negligible flows In addition, all processes and flows that can be judged to be quantitatively negligible from former experience or from using \"reasonably worst case\" approximation, can be entirely left out of the inventory. \"Negligible\" means here that such processes/flows make up together less than 10 % of the part of the share that is cut off", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5593, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 293, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\"Negligible\" means here that such processes/flows make up together less than 10 % of the part of the share that is cut off. Example: The cut-off for one example system might be 95 %. E.g. 80 % of the overall results might be of \"high quality\" and \"basic quality\" and 15 % might be lower quality \"data estimates\", using the \"best approximation\" data. In that example, everything else can be entirely excluded as \"negligible\" if it together can be approximated / estimated to account for less than 10 % of 5 % (i.e. 0.5 %) of the total impact. This last provision allows to remove all negligible flows from the inventory. This is estimated to result in inventories of LCI results that are reduced by roughly 50 to 80 % of the inventory flows, easing quality control and interpretation. For transparency and communication reasons it is however recommended to leave them in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5594, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 293, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For transparency and communication reasons it is however recommended to leave them in. Provisions: 9.3.2 Completeness check This provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process, partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only to improve the data quality during the iterative loops of developing the LCI data or the system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI study report.) I) SHALL - Evaluate LCI model completeness (cut-off): The cut-off rules as defined in the scope phase (see chapter 6.6.3) shall be systematically applied to ensure that the final data set inventory/ies meets the pre-defined or goal-derived data quality requirements (see chapter 6.9.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5595, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 293, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Evaluate the completeness of the inventory data in relation to the initially defined cut-off criteria in terms of: I.a) Process coverage: Coverage of all relevant processes in the system I.b) Elementary flow coverage: Coverage of all relevant elementary flows in the inventories for the processes of the system (and in particular the key processes identified under Significant issues \u2013 see chapter 9.2), that have characterisation factors for the relevant impact categories (according to the goal of the LCI/LCA study) I.c) Operationalise cut-off approximation: The cut-off criteria / approach and percentage as defined in the scope phase shall be used (see 6.6.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5596, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 293, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This may be operationalised using stepwise the following cut-off rules for flow properties, prechecking property by property the achieved completeness across all flow types and balancing the aggregated numbers in the inputs against those of the outputs: [ISO+] I.c.i) For product flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements), \u201cenergy content\u201d, \u201cmarket value\u201d (or \u201cproduction/provision cost\u201d,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5597, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 293, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation especially for purchased services). I.c.ii) For waste flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements), \u201cenergy content\u201d, \u201ctreatment cost\u201d. I.c.iii) For elementary flows: \u201cmass\u201d (of individual key chemical elements and only for the environmentally relevant flows, i.e. excluding not or less relevant flows such as e.g. incineration air consumed and waste steam leaving the process as emission to air), \u201cenergy content\u201d. I.d) Cut-off for comparative assertions: The cut-off shall always be met also by mass and energy, in addition to environmental impact. I.e) Additional relevance criteria for elementary and waste flows: Also those emissions and wastes should be include in the data collection that have a low mass and energy content but a known relevance for the respective type of processes or industry (using e.g. legal limits and expert judgement)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5598, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 294, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "legal limits and expert judgement). [ISO+] I.f) Approximating the 100 % value: The 100 % reference of completeness may be approximated by using \"best approximation\" values for all initially missing information and data, using among others information from similar processes and expert judgement. This missing information and data can be especially: [ISO+] I.f.i) kind and quantity of initially missing flows, I.f.ii) element composition and energy content of all flows that relevantly contribute to the total mass of the flows, I.f.iii) cost of all goods and services that relevantly contribute to the total production cost and production value I.f.iv) environmental impact of yet missing background data sets for consumed goods and services", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5599, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 294, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.g) Estimating precision of 100 % value approximation: The precision of the 100 % approximation may be judged from analysing the share of the different quality levels of the data that make up the inventory: a higher share of low quality data also makes the 100 % approximation less precise. [ISO+] I.h) Completeness of impact: As last step, and using the quantitative cut-off value decided upon in chapter 6.6.3, approximate the achieved degree of completeness / cut-off. [ISO+] I.i) Leaving out negligible flows: It is an option to leave out negligible flows that jointly make up less than 10 % of the share of impact that is cut off (e.g. if the completeness is 95 %, 5 % are cut-off. 10 % of these 5 % are 0.5 % that are considered negligible.) It is recommended however to not leave them out. [ISO+] Note that the LCIA methods and (potentially) normalisation and weighting for use in defining the cut-off was decided in the scope phase, see chapter 6.7.7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5600, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 294, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] Note that the LCIA methods and (potentially) normalisation and weighting for use in defining the cut-off was decided in the scope phase, see chapter 6.7.7. Note that for unit processes and partly terminated systems the completeness is to be judged in relation to the unit process and partly terminated system itself. I.e. any lack of completeness of other processes that were added exclusively to complete the system model for the completeness check shall be disregarded when quantifying the achieved completeness. II) SHOULD - Improve completeness, if needed: In the case of insufficient completeness, the inventory analysis (and sometimes the impact assessment) phases should be revisited to increase the degree of completeness. It is recommended to focus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5601, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 294, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation on the key life cycle stages, processes and flows identified as significant issues. This improvement of the LCI data is however to be started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration (see chapters 2.2.4 and 4, and related Figure 4 and Figure 5). III) SHALL - Report final completeness; potentially revise scope or goal: If the aimed at completeness has been achieved, or if it cannot be increased further, the finally achieved degree of completeness shall to be reported (as % degree of completeness / cut-off). For LCA studies, it shall be considered when later formulating the limitations in the conclusions and recommendations. If the aimed at or necessary completeness cannot be achieved, it shall be decided whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or re-defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5602, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 295, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If the aimed at or necessary completeness cannot be achieved, it shall be decided whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or re-defined. 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of achieved accuracy and precision) (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.3.3 and aspects of 4.4.4) The sensitivity check has the purpose to assess the reliability of the final results and \u2013 if included \u2013 of the conclusions and recommendations of the LCA study199. Expert judgement and previous experiences contribute to the sensitivity analysis. Scenario analysis and uncertainty calculations are the quantitative methods to support it (see annex 16). In the interpretation step the sensitivity analysis is used together with information about the uncertainties of significant issues among inventory data, impact assessment data and methodological assumptions and choices to assess the reliability of the final results and the conclusions and recommendations which are based on them (chapter 9.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5603, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 295, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As required under ISO 14044:2006, the evaluation element shall include interpretative statements based on detailed sensitivity analyses when an LCA is intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. It is useful to structure the sensitivity check along the LCA phases \u201cgoal and scope\u201d, \u201clife cycle inventory\u201d, and \u201clife cycle impact assessment\u201d: Goal and scope phase: \uf0b7 The sensitivity analysis is to check for limitations in the appropriateness of the scope choices, in relation to the goal of the study and for drawing conclusions and recommendations, especially the appropriate..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5604, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 295, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- identification of the system(s) to be studied; - identification of the function(s) and functional unit of the system or, in the case of comparative studies, the systems; - identification of the appropriate LCI modelling frameworks and method approaches to be applied - identification of the system boundary and quantification of the cut-off criteria; - selection of the included impact categories and applied LCIA methods; - identification of the interpretation approach to be used; 199 Note that ISO 14044 puts the process of verifying whether \u201c... assumptions, methods and data ... are in accordance with the goal and scope definition ...\u201c into the definition of \u201eConsistency check\u201c, while they are (more plausible) applied in the chapter \u201eSensitivity check\u201c, what is done here as well.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5605, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 295, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation - identification of LCI data and data quality requirements, including the applicability of the inventory data with the selected LCIA methods; - selection of normalisation and weighting sets200, if included as optional elements; - kind of assumptions and value choices made and their relevance - identification of applicable limitations to the use and/or interpretation of the results; Regarding goal and scope issues, the sensitivity check can be done by calculating and comparing scenarios especially for different specific LCI method approaches to solve multifunctionality of processes201. For the other items it can be done by qualitative analysis and argumentation based on expert judgement and building on previous experiences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5606, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 296, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the other items it can be done by qualitative analysis and argumentation based on expert judgement and building on previous experiences. Life cycle inventory phase: \uf0b7 The sensitivity analysis is to check for limitations in the appropriateness of the life cycle inventory work, in relation to the goal and scope of the study and for drawing conclusions and recommendations. This relates especially to the appropriate collection or selection of inventory data regarding ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5607, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 296, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This relates especially to the appropriate collection or selection of inventory data regarding ... - their technological, geographical and time-related representativeness for the analysed system (especially for \u201ckey\u201d processes\u201d); - their completeness of the inventory in relation to the included and quantitatively relevant impact categories (especially for \u201ckey\u201d processes\u201d); - the precision of their inventory values and parameters, due to the stochastic uncertainty of the used raw data Regarding life cycle inventory issues this check is at least to be done on the sensitive issues that were identified in the preceding step (see chapter 9.2). The check can be done by joint scenario analysis and/or be accompanied by an uncertainty calculation (e.g. Monte-Carlo Simulation). Note again that uncertainty calculation can support an expert judgement while not substitute it, given the limitations of uncertainty calculations to reflect the true uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5608, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 296, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note again that uncertainty calculation can support an expert judgement while not substitute it, given the limitations of uncertainty calculations to reflect the true uncertainty. The influence of data uncertainty for key issues can also be checked by allowing the data and parameters to vary within the limits given by the uncertainty estimates while modelling the system and comparing the results. 200 This includes the following: A) If normalisation is included as optional element: Limitations in especially the completeness and consistency across impact indicators but also the geographical and time-related representativeness of the normalisation data. Limitations in the compatibility with the chosen LCIA method and impact categories. Limitations regarding the appropriateness of the selected geographical or other reference of the normalisation data in relationship to the target audience and decision-context of the LCA work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5609, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 296, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Limitations regarding the appropriateness of the selected geographical or other reference of the normalisation data in relationship to the target audience and decision-context of the LCA work. B) If weighting is included as optional element: limitations regarding the chosen weighting level (i.e. midpoint or endpoint level), due to the different degree of precision of the LCIA results and different robustness of the weighting factors. Limitations regarding the appropriateness of the weighting approach (e.g. scientific panel, distance-to-target, policy panel, stakeholder-panel, etc.) in view of the decision-context and target audience of the LCA work results. 201 This means within the range of the methodological provisions of this document, e.g. in cases where different physical causalities may be applicable as allocation criteria or where different permissible options exist for system expansion / substitution.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5610, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 296, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation Life cycle impact assessment phase202: \uf0b7 The sensitivity analysis is to check for limitations in the appropriateness of the LCIA work, in relation to the goal and scope of the study and for drawing conclusions and recommendations. This relates especially to the - appropriate selection (or if applicable: development, variation/extension) of the LCIA methods and their correct and complete application to the inventory - appropriate selection and correct application of normalisation and weighting factors (if included) - achieved precision of the LCIA results, if such are the deliverable of the LCA study or basis for a subsequent interpretation and conclusions drawn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5611, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 297, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In relation to the latter, due attention shall be paid in the interpretation to the fact that the uncertainty of the characterisation factors varies between the impact categories reflecting the state of the art in terms of modelling of the underlying impact pathway, and also the availability and quality of substance data applied in calculation of the characterisation factors for individual substances. The chemical-related midpoint level impact categories addressing human toxicity and ecotoxicity are thus accompanied by considerably larger uncertainties than the often energy-conversion related midpoint level categories addressing e.g. acidification, photochemical ozone formation or global warming impacts. Regarding LCIA, the sensitivity check can be done by a scenario analysis, applying different permissible LCIA methods. This can be accompanied by an uncertainty calculation on LCIA results level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5612, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 297, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Regarding LCIA, the sensitivity check can be done by a scenario analysis, applying different permissible LCIA methods. This can be accompanied by an uncertainty calculation on LCIA results level. Note that such can only support an expert judgement while not substitute it, given the limitations of uncertainty calculations to reflect the true uncertainty. Regarding normalisation and weighting as optional elements of the LCIA phase, the sensitivity check can combine scenarios applying different permissible weighting sets (potentially including with uncertainty calculations) on the level of the normalised LCIA results. Use of sensitivity analysis during iterative LCI/LCA study The combination of sensitivity analysis helps in identifying focus points for improved inventory data collection or impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5613, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 297, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Use of sensitivity analysis during iterative LCI/LCA study The combination of sensitivity analysis helps in identifying focus points for improved inventory data collection or impact assessment. Data, which has a strong influence on the final results of the LCI/LCA study may nevertheless not require further data collection effort if the representativeness and completeness of the data is high and its uncertainty low. Also data with a high uncertainty need not be a focus point for improvement if the sensitivity/relevance of this data is very low. The focus point for improvement of data quality should be data with both a strong influence on the overall results and a high uncertainty (see Figure 26). If such data cannot be improved, the result is a low overall quality of the results which is to be documented. If the precision is insufficient to meet the requirements from the intended application of the results, it may be necessary to revise the goal of the LCI/LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5614, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 297, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If the precision is insufficient to meet the requirements from the intended application of the results, it may be necessary to revise the goal of the LCI/LCA study. 202 A number of the LCIA-related issues are to be addressed by the developers of the LCIA methods, and documented concisely with the methods as input to the LCA practitioner: A) Limitations in the methodological appropriateness and consistency of the LCIA method in relation to the represented midpoint level impact potential or endpoint damage. B) Limitations in the geographical, time-related and area-of-protection related representativeness of the LCIA method. C) Limitations in the precision of the impact factors, due to the stochastic uncertainty of the used raw data, related to among others substance properties, transport and transfer coefficients, exposure pathway factors, effect factors etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5615, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 297, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation The second priority for improvement of data quality is the data that stands in between, i.e. showing both high sensitivity or significance and medium uncertainty or showing both high uncertainty and medium sensitivity. Figure 26 Focussing efforts on key data. In the iterative loops, main focus is on the key data with lack of quality (i.e. limited representativeness and consistency, high uncertainty, low completeness) paired with high sensitivity or significance. Due to the need for an iterative approach in LCA, sensitivity analysis hence used as an integrated element (with a steering function) in the iteration loops incorporating inventory data collection, impact assessment and system boundary setting for the system. The findings from these earlier sensitivity analyses are used as starting point for the sensitivity check of the interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5616, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 298, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The findings from these earlier sensitivity analyses are used as starting point for the sensitivity check of the interpretation. Provisions: 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of accuracy and precision) This provision applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process, partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets as deliverables only to improve the data quality during the iterative loops of developing the LCI data or the system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI study report.) I) SHALL - Check sensitivity of results: Check to what extent the accuracy and precision of the overall results meets the requirements posed by the intended applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5617, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 298, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Aim at improving it to the required level, as follows: I.a) Sensitivity of significant issues: Identify the most sensitive among the significant issues identified earlier (chapter 9.2) and analyse the sensitivity of these for the overall results, along with their stochastic and systematic uncertainty estimates. The outcome is determining for the accuracy and precision of the overall results and the strength of the conclusions, which can be drawn from the LCI/LCA study and must be reported together with these. Be aware that calculated uncertainty figures may not include the often determining systematic uncertainties caused by model assumptions, data gaps, and lack of accuracy. Lack of quality Sensitivity / significance Low priority High priority (key data) No priority Low priority (key data)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5618, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 298, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation I.a.i) Sensitivity of LCI items: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) to key flows, process parameter settings, flow properties, and other data items such as recyclability, lifetime of goods, duration of services steps, and the like. Assess how sensitive inventory items influence the data representativeness, and precision. [ISO!] I.a.ii) Sensitivity of LCIA factors: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) considering the often widely differing uncertainty of the results due to uncertainties in the impact assessment (e.g. Human toxicity, Ecotoxicity etc. with high uncertainties and Global warming, Acidification, etc. with lower uncertainty)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5619, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 299, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Human toxicity, Ecotoxicity etc. with high uncertainties and Global warming, Acidification, etc. with lower uncertainty). [ISO!] I.a.iii) Sensitivity of modelling choices and assumptions: Evaluate the sensitivity of the LCIA results (or weighted LCIA results, if applied) to different modelling choices and method assumptions (\"method issues\"), e.g. quantitative and qualitative aspects of the functional unit, superseded processes, allocation criteria, etc. [ISO!] I.b) Improve robustness of sensitive issues data, parameters, impact factors, assumptions, etc. as possible: In the case of lack of quality for some of the significant issues, revisit the inventory analysis and/or the impact assessment phases to improve the concerned data (for data issues), impact factors (for LCIA issues), or try to qualify and discuss the sensitive assumption or choice (for method issues)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5620, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 299, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As for data completeness, also the improvement of the LCI data precision is however to be started by potentially fine-tuning or revising goal and scope, i.e. with a complete iteration (see chapters 2.2.4 and 4). I.c) Report final achievements; potentially revise scope or goal: If the certainty of key issues meets the needs, or if it cannot be reduced to obtain the accuracy and precision that is required by the application of the LCI/LCA study, it shall be decided whether the scope or even the goal needs to be revised or re-defined. This shall be reported and for LCA studies later be considered when formulating the limitations in the conclusions and recommendations from the LCA (chapter 9.4). 9.3.4 Consistency check (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.3.4) The consistency check is performed to investigate whether the assumptions, methods, and data have been applied consistently throughout the LCI/LCA study203", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5621, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 299, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The consistency check applies both to the life cycle of an analysed system and between compared systems. Methodological issues of relevance are especially the LCI modelling frameworks (i.e. attributional or consequential) and approaches (i.e. allocation criteria and selection of substituted systems), but also setting of system boundaries, extrapolations of data, the consistent application of the impact assessment, and other assumptions. 203 Note that ISO 14044 puts the process of verifying whether \u201c... assumptions, methods and data ... are in accordance with the goal and scope definition ...\u201c into the definition of \u201eConsistency check\u201c, while they are (more plausible) applied in the chapter \u201eSensitivity check\u201c, what is done here as well.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5622, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 299, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation Inventory data issues of relevance concern the consistency of the time-related, geographical, and technological representativeness of the data, the appropriateness of the chosen unit process or LCI results to represent processes in the foreground and background system, and the completeness and precision of the data. Impact assessment issues of relevance are the consistent application of the LCIA elements, including \u2013 if applied \u2013 normalisation and weighting factors. Regarding the interrelationship of LCI data and LCIA methods this relates to the consistency of spatially and time-related differentiation of inventory data and corresponding impact factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5623, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 300, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Regarding the interrelationship of LCI data and LCIA methods this relates to the consistency of spatially and time-related differentiation of inventory data and corresponding impact factors. Provisions: 9.3.4 Consistency check These provisions applies to all types of deliverables of the study, but for unit process data sets as deliverable only to improve the data quality during the iterative loops of developing the LCI data or the system model. (Findings may also be included in an LCI study report.) For partly terminated systems, LCI results and LCIA results data sets they serve in addition to ensure method consistency across the processes of the model. For LCA studies, they serve in addition to ensure method consistency across the models of the compared systems. I) SHALL - Data quality sufficiently consistent?: Check whether any differences in data quality per se (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5624, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 300, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) SHALL - Data quality sufficiently consistent?: Check whether any differences in data quality per se (i.e. accuracy, completeness, and precision) and in the selected data sources for the different processes in the system(s) are consistent with the goal and scope of the study. This is especially relevant for comparative studies. II) SHALL - Method choices consistent?: Check whether all methodological choices (e.g. LCI modelling principles, allocation criteria or system expansion / substitution approach, system boundary, etc.) are consistent with the goal and scope of the study including the intended applications and target audience. This shall be judged by checking whether the method provisions have been met that are given in relation to the applicable Situation A, B, or C1 / C2. [ISO!] Note that method consistency applies on both unit process level (i.e. consistent approach to develop unit process from raw data) and system level (i.e. consistently modelling the system)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5625, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 300, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO!] Note that method consistency applies on both unit process level (i.e. consistent approach to develop unit process from raw data) and system level (i.e. consistently modelling the system). This aspect is especially relevant when combining data from different sources. III) SHALL - Consistent impact assessment?: Check whether the steps of impact assessment (including normalisation and weighting, if included) have been consistently applied and in line with goal and scope. IV) SHALL - Evaluate relevance of inconsistencies: Evaluate the relevance / significance of any identified inconsistencies (as above) for the results and document them, including when reporting the achieved method consistency and appropriateness. For LCA studies additionally consider these findings when drawing conclusions or recommendations from the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5626, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 300, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For LCA studies additionally consider these findings when drawing conclusions or recommendations from the results. 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.5.4) Overview Integrating the outcome of the other elements of the interpretation phase, and drawing on the main findings from the earlier phases of the LCA, the final element of the interpretation is to draw conclusions and identify limitations of the LCA, and to develop recommendations for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5627, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 300, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation the intended audience in accordance with the goal definition and the intended applications of the results. Drawing conclusions The conclusions should be drawn in an iterative way: Based on the identification of significant issues (chapter 9.2) and the evaluation of these for completeness, sensitivity and consistency (chapter 9.3), preliminary conclusions can be drawn. Conclusions say whether the questions that were posed in the formulation of the goal definition can be answered by the LCA, i.e. whether significant differences exist between alternatives, which role the various sensitive issues play for such differences, and the like. An example e.g. for the illustrative goal question: \u201cwhich of the two selected cleaning solutions for X has the lower environmental impacts\u201d as the starting point of a comparative study of cleaning X by machine vs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5628, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 301, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for the illustrative goal question: \u201cwhich of the two selected cleaning solutions for X has the lower environmental impacts\u201d as the starting point of a comparative study of cleaning X by machine vs. cleaning X by hand it might be concluded: significant differences exist, but only for some of the relevant scenarios of user behaviour for manual cleaning and the energy-efficiency of the cleaning machine. The main factors of manual cleaning are the used water temperature and amount (depending on how often water is exchanged and whether final rinsing is done with running water). It is then checked whether the preliminary conclusions are in accordance with the requirements and limitations of the goal and scope phase, the limitations of the life cycle inventory phase and the limitations of the life cycle impact assessment phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5629, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 301, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The most frequently outstanding limitations of being able to draw significant conclusions (where such would in theory be possible, as real differences exist) are: \uf0b7 the system boundary / cut-off settings (and that they have been actually met by the LCI data and model), \uf0b7 the achieved LCI data quality and consistency, as required by the goal, \uf0b7 the uncertainty of the LCIA methods, \uf0b7 specific predefined assumptions of the goal phase, \uf0b7 and for the given case relevant other, specific methodological and study limitations. If the conclusions are consistent with the requirements, they can be reported as final conclusions, otherwise they must be re-formulated and checked again. Dealing with limitations Any limitations of the study within the given goal and scope of the LCA study must be listed. Such can be e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5630, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 301, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Dealing with limitations Any limitations of the study within the given goal and scope of the LCA study must be listed. Such can be e.g. a limited completeness of elementary flows with relevance to relevant impact categories, or a limited time-representativeness, or pre-selection of climate change impacts only for carbon footprint studies, or methodological inconsistencies such as e.g. between some of the background data with the rest of the system, etc. It is then to be evaluated for each of them the type and magnitude of consequences these have for the conclusions and intended applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5631, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 301, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is then to be evaluated for each of them the type and magnitude of consequences these have for the conclusions and intended applications. Interpretation for comparative studies In studies that involve a comparison of systems (whether disclosed to the public or not), the interpretation has to consider a few additional points to ensure fair and relevant conclusions from the study: \uf0b7 Significant issues must be determined for each of the systems, and special attention is to be given to issues that differ between the systems and that have the potential to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5632, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 301, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation change the conclusions of the comparison. Such differences need to be eliminated if possible or otherwise fully considered in the formulation of conclusions. \uf0b7 If an uncertainty analysis is performed to investigate whether the difference between two systems is statistically significant, the analysis should be performed on the difference between the systems (i.e. one system minus the other), taking into account potential co-variance between processes of the two systems (e.g. processes which are the same) as far as possible given confidentiality restrictions regarding the access to included processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5633, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 302, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "processes which are the same) as far as possible given confidentiality restrictions regarding the access to included processes. \uf0b7 The important consistency check addresses consistent treatment of the key issues in the different systems and is fundamental to ensure a fair comparison: - Are the compared systems sufficiently equivalent? - Are differences in the quality of inventory data between different systems acceptably small, considering the relative importance of the processes in the system, and are the differences consistent with the goal and scope of the study? (If e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5634, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 302, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "one study is based on specific and recent data with a high degree of representativeness for all the key processes while the other uses extrapolation from literature data, there is a bias in the inventory data which can make a comparison invalid.) - Have the LCI modelling frameworks, allocation rules and system boundary setting been consistently applied to all compared systems (including in the background data)? - Has the impact assessment been performed consistently for the systems, have the relevant impact categories been included for all systems, and have the impacts been calculated in the same way and with the same degree of completeness of elementary flows for all the systems? These are very important issues, and if they differ substantially between the systems, it can strongly bias the comparison and easily make it invalid", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5635, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 302, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "When an LCA is intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public, the ISO 14044:2006 standard requires in addition that the evaluation element includes interpretative statements based on careful sensitivity analyses. It is emphasized in the standard, that the inability of a sensitivity check to find significant differences between different studied alternatives does not automatically lead to the conclusion that such differences do not exist, but rather that the study is not able to show them in a significant way. At the same time, insignificant differences should be taken as what they are: insignificant; there is not always a clear preference for one or the other system, and this is also a valid outcome of an LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5636, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 302, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Deriving recommendations Recommendations based on the final conclusions of the LCA study must be logical and be reasonable and plausible founded in the conclusions and strictly relate to the intended applications as defined in the goal of the study. Recommendations can be (always relating to the goal of the study) e.g.:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5637, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 302, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation - to focus product improvement on one or more specific process(es) or specific emission(s) that contribute main shares to the overall impact and have a relevant potential for improvement204, - on the superiority of one product over others that quantitatively and qualitatively fulfil sufficiently equivalent function(s), or - the lack of significant differences among a group of products that fulfil the same functions, - to change a supplier towards a supplier with less impacting own production or supply-chain205, - to improve the user manual by advising product users of how to easily lower the overall environmental impacts of the analysed product, - to stimulate the development of certain technology families (or raw material bases, etc.) by political or tax measures or R&D investment, - etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5638, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 303, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that other applications beyond the ones covered in this guidance document (e.g. identifying ecolabel criteria or ecodesign indicators) may require additional steps, drawing on the deliverables of the LCA potentially including any conclusions and recommendations. Frequent errors: Inappropriate results interpretation in case of insignificant differences There are two, opposite risks when finding that compared alternative products do not differ significantly: \uf0b7 Firstly, a over-interpretation of the result: - exaggerating small or insignificant differences - drawing general conclusions and recommendations from specific case studies - putting to high confidence on differences between compared systems based on results of uncertainty analysis alone, that are only partially cover the full uncertainty of the results and do not include their accuracy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5639, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 303, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Secondly, the risk of inappropriately claiming equality of compared alternatives, based on unbalanced or poor quality data that result in insignificance of differences. To avoid this, the reason for insignificance of differences between compared systems is to be stated together with the outcome of the study. An imbalance in the available data, methods applied etc. cannot be used to conclude that no difference exist between the two compared systems. The same applies analogously if the data situation is balanced by for both systems but at a low data quality level. 204 Note that such \u201eproduct internal comparisons\u201c are formally also product comparisons and \u2013 especially in case of publication \u2013 the additional requirements for comparative assertions disclosed to the public are to be met also here. 205 Note that this touches on the issue of attributional and consequential modelling.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5640, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 303, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation Comparative studies on not objectively comparable alternatives As explained in chapter 6.10.3, comparative studies may be performed on systems where the comparability cannot be done objectively (other than e.g. for bulk chemicals) but is to be judged by the individual consumer (e.g. for many personal services). The results and recommendations of such comparative studies shall hence be presented with the explicit statement that comparability is not assumed per se, but lies with the individual preference and judgement. Avoiding misinterpretation To avoid misinterpretations by the target audience any relevant limitations are to be given jointly with the recommendations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5641, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 304, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Avoiding misinterpretation To avoid misinterpretations by the target audience any relevant limitations are to be given jointly with the recommendations. It must be avoided as far as possible that the recommendations can be misinterpreted by the addressees of the LCA study beyond the scope of the specific LCA study and beyond what is supported by the outcome of the LCA including accounting for any limitations. This includes that an eventual limited technical or methodological understanding of the addressees must be accounted for. A compilation of aspects to avoid misleading interpretation is given in annex 15.3. Provisions: 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations Note the limitations for Situation C1 and C2 studies in their use for direct decision support. These provisions apply only to comparative and non-comparative LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5642, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 304, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These provisions apply only to comparative and non-comparative LCA studies. I) SHALL - Analyse the results from a system's perspective: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results obtained in the main system(s) model(s) and - if performed - with the corresponding reasonably worst and best case assumption scenarios and possibly further assumption scenarios. Integrate the results of any potentially performed uncertainty calculations into the analysis. [ISO!] I.a) Items that require special or separate analysis: I.a.i) Non-generic LCIA: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results obtained with the default LCIA methods and those obtained including any potential additional or modified / non-generic (e.g. spatially or otherwise differentiated) LCIA methods. I.a.ii) Long-term emissions: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results for interventions within the first 100 years from the time of the study and those beyond that time limit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5643, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 304, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.a.ii) Long-term emissions: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results for interventions within the first 100 years from the time of the study and those beyond that time limit. I.a.iii) Carbon storage and delayed emissions: Only if such is included in line with an explicit goal requirement: Separately analyse and jointly discuss the results including and excluding carbon storage and delayed emissions / reuse/recycling/reuse credits. I.b) Draw conclusions, if foreseen: Take into account the findings of the earlier elements of the interpretation phase. Draw conclusions in accordance with the goal defined for the LCA study and with the definitions of the scope, in particular those related to data quality requirements, and with the predefined assumptions and known limitations in the methodology and its application in the LCA. Consider all assumptions and related limitations that were noted down in the course of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5644, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 304, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Consider all assumptions and related limitations that were noted down in the course of the study. I.c) Address impacts outside the LCA scope, if any: Name any potential or actual", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5645, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 304, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation effects on the three areas of protection that are based on other mechanisms than those covered by LCA (e.g. accidents, direct application of products to humans, etc.) and that are considered relevant by the interested parties. Clarify that these are outside the scope of LCA. Note that within the ILCD Handbook, not quantified effects outside the scope of LCA cannot be explicitly or implicitly assessed regarding their relevance in comparison to the LCA results206. I.d) Conclusions for comparisons: Differences in data quality and methodological choices between compared systems shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the study, especially (see also chapter 6.10): I.d.i) The functional unit of the compared alternatives shall be sufficiently similar to allow for comparisons, especially in view of stakeholders and potential users", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5646, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 305, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.d.ii) The setting of system boundaries shall be consistently applied to all systems. I.d.iii) The inventory data should be of comparable quality (i.e. accuracy, completeness, precision, methodological consistency) for all compared alternatives. I.d.iv) The steps of impact assessment shall be consistently applied for all systems. I.d.v) The significance of any above identified inconsistencies to the results of the comparison shall be evaluated and considered when drawing conclusions and giving recommendations from the results. II) SHALL - Recommend strictly based on conclusions and limitations: II.a) Base any recommendations made in the LCA study exclusively on these conclusions and respecting the limitations. Derive recommendations unambiguously and in a stepwise logical and reasonable consequence of the conclusions. Do so in accordance with the defined goal of the LCA study and specially the intended applications and target audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5647, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 305, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Do so in accordance with the defined goal of the LCA study and specially the intended applications and target audience. II.b) Recommendations shall be made in a conservative way, only based on significant findings. Any relevant limitations found during the study are to be stated explicitly and clearly in the key message of the LCA study including in the executive summary. [ISO!] II.c) Special care must be taken to avoid misinterpretations also by a non-technical audience, to avoid interpretation beyond the scope of the LCA study and beyond what is supported by its outcome. II.d) Equality of compared alternatives shall not be stated, unless it has been shown to be significant: the lack of significant differences alone shall not be misinterpreted as equality of the analysed options. It shall only be stated that with the given data restrictions and/or uncertainties or other causes no significant differences could be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5648, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 305, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It shall only be stated that with the given data restrictions and/or uncertainties or other causes no significant differences could be identified. [ISO!] 206 Effects outside the scope of LCA may be - if available and quantified in a comparable manner (e.g. quantitatively related to the functional unit, considering the whole life cycle etc.) - integrated with LCA results in an additional evaluation and report beyond the scope of LCA and outside the scope of the ILCD. This should consider the relative accuracy and precision of the different approaches and effects.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5649, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 305, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 9 Life cycle interpretation III) SHALL - Comparisons of systems with dominant subjective preference: The results and recommendations of comparative studies on not objectively comparable alternatives (e.g. personal services, fashion items, jewellery) shall be presented with the explicit statement that comparability is not assumed per se, but lies with the individual preference and judgement. [ISO!] IV) SHALL - Conclusions on basket-of-product type of studies: For studies that analyse several processes or systems in a non-competitive manner, i.e. processes / systems that perform clearly different functions (e.g. basket-of-products, identifying priority products) it shall be clearly reported that no comparability exists in terms of preferability among the processes / systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5650, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 306, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "basket-of-products, identifying priority products) it shall be clearly reported that no comparability exists in terms of preferability among the processes / systems. Note: Annex 15.3 gives an illustrative example on avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation for comparative studies.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5651, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 306, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting 10 Reporting (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 5) 10.1 Introduction and overview The results and conclusions of the LCI/LCA study shall be completely and accurately reported without bias to the intended audience. The results, data, methods, assumptions and limitations shall be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the LCA. The report shall also allow the results and interpretation to be used in a manner consistent with the goals of the study. The needs of different audiences should be recognized and addressed when presenting or disseminating the study. Target audiences can be internal, (defined) external, or public, and technical or non-technical", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5652, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 307, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Target audiences can be internal, (defined) external, or public, and technical or non-technical. These audiences can include companies, trade associations, government agencies, environmental groups, scientific/technical communities, and other non-government organizations, as well as the general public / consumers. Communication in the public domain is especially critical because the risks of misinterpretation are heightened when LCA-derived information is provided to audiences not familiar with the complexity of the methodology and related limitations that may apply. Good reporting of LCI and LCA studies provides the relevant project details, the process followed, approaches and methods applied, and results produced. This is essential to ensure reproducibility of the results and to provide the required information to reviewers to judge the quality of the results and appropriateness of conclusions and recommendations (if included)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5653, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 307, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The complete reporting should also contain the data used and should ensure transparency and consistency of all the methodologies and data employed. It should constitute the primary input to the scientific/technical audience and be a base from which summary reports to other target audiences could be prepared. These latter summaries need to be tailored to the recipient requirements, labelled as summaries only, and include appropriate reference to the primary report and related review reports in order to ensure that they are not taken out of context. Confidentiality interests around sensitive or proprietary information and data are to be met, while confidential access to at least the reviewers is to be granted to support the review of the data set and/or report. Separate, complementary confidential reports can serve this purpose", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5654, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 307, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Separate, complementary confidential reports can serve this purpose. 10.2 Reporting principles (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 5.1.1) Reports and data sets The form and levels of reporting depends primarily on three factors: \uf0b7 the type of deliverable(s) of the study, \uf0b7 the purpose and intended applications of the study and report, and \uf0b7 the intended target audience (especially technical or non-technical and internal or thirdparty/public).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5655, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 307, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Reporting LCIA results Wherever LCIA results are published in a report or data set, for transparency reasons this is to be accompanied by the LCI results. In the case of normalised or weighted LCIA results, the results of previous steps (classification and characterisation) are equally to be reported. For the same reason, characterisation results at endpoint (damage) level are to be supplemented by midpoint level impact category results, as well as the LCI results. Confidentiality In the case data or information (e.g. on technologies, catalysts, ingredients) cannot be reported for confidentiality or proprietary reasons, this information can be documented in a separate confidential report that does not need to be made available externally, except for foreseen critical reviewers under confidentiality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5656, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 308, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The kind of information documented in this confidential report shall be named in the detailed report, if any. Reporting of revised goal and /or scope items In some cases, the goal and the scope of the LCI/LCA study may need to be revised due to unforeseen limitations, constraints or as a result of additional information. The final documentation of the LCI/LCA study has to reflect this, including the consequence for completeness, precision, application fields, etc. Provisions: 10.2 Reporting principles Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - Report complete and unbiased: Results and conclusions of the LCI or LCA study shall be completely and accurately reported without bias to the intended audience. II) SHALL - Use SI units: Per default the Syst\u00e8me international d'unit\u00e9s (SI) units shall be used for reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5657, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 308, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "II) SHALL - Use SI units: Per default the Syst\u00e8me international d'unit\u00e9s (SI) units shall be used for reporting. III) SHALL - Reproducibility and target audience to guide reporting: Results, data, methods, assumptions and limitations shall be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the study and LCA in general. Reporting of technical details shall be guided along the aim to ensure an as good as possible reproducibility of the results and of any conclusions and recommendations (if included). (On reporting of confidential or proprietary information see more below). Consider the technical and LCA methodology understanding of the target audience. IV) SHALL - Reporting LCIA results: Depending on the intended applications, the LCIA results may also be reported in the study report or data set", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5658, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 308, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV) SHALL - Reporting LCIA results: Depending on the intended applications, the LCIA results may also be reported in the study report or data set. If done, this shall meet the following requirements: [ISO!] IV.a) The intended way of reporting LCIA results was identified in the scope definition in accordance with the intended application of the LCI/LCA study and any prescription given in the goal definition. IV.b) For transparency reasons, the LCIA results shall be published jointly with the LCI results. In the case of normalised or weighted LCIA results the previous steps (classification and characterisation) shall equally be reported. IV.c) Impact assessment results at endpoint (damage) level shall be supplemented by", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5659, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 308, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting midpoint level impact category results (unless the endpoint LCIA method does not have a midpoint interim step) and also by the LCI results. Note that if the study is intended to support a comparative assertion to be disclosed to the public, no form of numerical, value-based weighting of the indicator results is permitted. 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 5.1.2, 5.2, and 5.3) In accordance with the ISO 14044:2006 standard, this handbook operates with three levels of the classical reporting with different (increasing) requirements. These relate to both project reports and data set files", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5660, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 309, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These relate to both project reports and data set files. 10.3.1 Report for internal use (No corresponding ISO 14044:2006 chapter) The report is for internal use only and not intended for disclosure to any external party outside the company or institution that has commissioned or (co)financed the study or performed the LCA work. Examples could be studies for identification of internal improvement potentials and focus points in product development. No formal provisions are made for internal reports, of course. In order to provide appropriate and robust decision support, it is recommended to closely orient to the reporting requirements for third-party reports. 10.3.2 Third party report (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapters 5.1.2 and 5.2) The report is intended to document and/or communicate the results of the LCA to a third party (i.e. an interested party other than the commissioner or the LCA practitioner performing the study)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5661, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 309, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "an interested party other than the commissioner or the LCA practitioner performing the study). Regardless of the form of communication, a third-party report must be prepared as a reference document and documentation of the study. It is not required to include confidential information that however needs to be available for reviewers under confidentiality agreement, and would be documented separately or as part of the report for internal use. The detailed aspects that shall be covered in the third-party report (and/or the confidential report as described more above and if such is prepared) are provided in the \"Provisions\" of this chapter and are not repeated here. Third-party reports should have an Executive summary for non-technical audience. For LCI data sets, a well documented, ILCD formatted data set can be the third-party report, if completed with the relevant background documents (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5662, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 309, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For LCI data sets, a well documented, ILCD formatted data set can be the third-party report, if completed with the relevant background documents (e.g. more extensive method reports such as the ILCD Handbook, reports on data collection procedures, data sources used, review report(s), applied LCIA methods and to normalisation and weighting sets, and others, as needed to meet the requirements listed above). The annex serves to document elements that would inappropriately interrupt the reading flow of the main part of the report, and are also of a more detailed or tabular technical nature and for reference. It should include: \uf0b7 Questionnaire/ data collection template and raw data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5663, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 309, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting List of all assumptions207 (It is recommended that these include those assumptions that have been shown to be irrelevant). \uf0b7 Full LCI results 10.3.3 Report on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 5.3) The study involves a comparison of products and the results are intended to be disclosed to the public. This may or may not involve concluding the superiority of one product (or equality of the analysed products), i.e. it can be a \u201ccomparative assertion disclosed to the public\u201d or a non-assertive comparative study that shall be treated the same as a comparative assertion.). In addition to the third party report, additional requirements apply. Note that it shall include an Executive summary for non-technical audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5664, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 310, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition to the third party report, additional requirements apply. Note that it shall include an Executive summary for non-technical audience. The detailed aspects that shall be covered in the reports on comparative, published studies (and/or the confidential report as described more above and if such is prepared) are provided in the \"Provisions\" of this chapter and are not repeated here. 10.3.4 Reporting elements Overview As initial orientation (next to the exact list of reporting items and the separate LCA study report template) this chapter describes the content of the main reporting elements in an overview. After the practitioner has done the LCA study along the provisions and action points of the ILCD guidance document, he/she also needs to appropriately document this work. Such a detailed LCA report consist of at least four parts: the Main part, which is additionally condensed into a Technical Summary and an Executive Summary, and an Annex that documents e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5665, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 310, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Such a detailed LCA report consist of at least four parts: the Main part, which is additionally condensed into a Technical Summary and an Executive Summary, and an Annex that documents e.g. assumptions and used data (which can also be referenced). Confidential and proprietary information can be documented in a fifth element, a complementary Confidential report. Review reports are either annexed as well or referenced. The following text describes the general scope and purpose of the different report parts, details are given in the \"Provisions\" and the reporting template. This guidance document comes along with electronic templates for LCA reports (i.e. provide a chapter-structure and direct references to the reporting items), which should be used. For process data sets (i.e. parameterised and not parameterised unit processes, LCI results, partly terminated systems; and optionally including LCIA results), the ILCD reference format is provided as electronic LCI data set format", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5666, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 310, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It should be used for LCI data sets provided together with LCA reports to ensure appropriate and complete documentation and IT compatibility for error-free electronic data exchange. 207 Note that the important ones are to be repeated and considered quantitatively in the sensitivity analysis and quantitatively and qualitatively in the interpretation. The relevant assumptions are also to be documented in the context where they belong, e.g. for processes together with the processes they concern at the relevant place (LCI chapter or scope definition)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5667, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 310, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting First element: Executive Summary For non-technical audience. The summary shall be able to stand alone without compromising the results and conclusions / recommendations (if included) of the LCA. The target audience of the executive summary typically will be decision-makers, who may not have time or technical background for reading the detailed report. The executive summary shall as a minimum include key elements of goal and scope of the system studied. The main results from the inventory and impact assessment components shall be presented in a manner to ensure the proper use of the information, and relevant statements about data quality, assumptions and value judgments should be included. Finally, the executive summary report should state any recommendations made and conclusions drawn and shall give any limitations that may apply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5668, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 311, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Finally, the executive summary report should state any recommendations made and conclusions drawn and shall give any limitations that may apply. Second element: Technical Summary For technical audience / LCA practitioners. This summary should be able to stand alone without compromising the results of the LCA. The target audience of the report typically will be technical audiences, who may not have time for reading the full report or use it for getting an overview first. The technical summary should therefore also fulfil the same criteria about transparency, consistency, etc. as the detailed report. The technical summary shall as a minimum include the goal, the scope, with relevant limitations and assumptions, and an overall flow diagram of the system studied, and shall clearly indicate what has been achieved by the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5669, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 311, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The main results from the inventory and impact assessment components shall be presented in a manner to ensure the proper use of the information, and statements about data quality and value judgments shall be included. Finally, the technical summary shall name any recommendations made and conclusions drawn by the practitioner of the LCA. Third element: Main part For LCA practitioners. \uf0b7 Goal of the study: The reporting of any LCA shall include a clear and concise statement of the following 6 aspects: - Intended application(s) - Method or impact limitations (e.g. Carbon footprinting) - Reasons for carrying out the LCI/LCA study and decision-context - Target audience - Comparative assertions to be disclosed to the public - Commissioner of the LCI/LCA study \uf0b7 Scope of the study The Scope chapter shall identify the analysed system in detail and address the overall approach used to establish the system boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5670, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 311, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The system boundary determines which life cycle stages and process steps are included in the LCA and which have been left out. The scope chapter should also address data quality requirements/ambitions. Finally the scope chapter includes a description of the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5671, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 311, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting method applied for assessing potential environmental impacts and which impact categories, LCIA methods, normalisation and weighting sets are included. Below is the list of information that shall be report in scope chapter: - Types of final LCA deliverables and intended applications - Function, functional unit, and reference flow - System boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) plus system boundaries diagram Full analysis of all operations in a system may be extremely difficult and complex. Therefore, the system boundaries should be made clear to any reader. The reason and potential significance for any exclusion should be provided. - Methodology (LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes) A full description of the methodology used for a particular LCA needs to be presented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5672, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 312, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- Methodology (LCI modelling framework and handling of multifunctional processes) A full description of the methodology used for a particular LCA needs to be presented. It is recognized that the methodologies contain assumptions, all of which may influence the overall results. The report shall explicitly identify all assumptions and value judgments and provide a basis for these assumptions. - Data representativeness and appropriateness of LCI data & Types and sources of required data and information The data used in LCAs come from a wide range of sources, which can be of differing quality, variability, and uncertainty. All such issues should be addressed in the report. Data can be gathered from public and private sources. Any such data used in a public study but not disclosed shall be clearly noted. The sources of all public data (for example, specifically referenced textbooks, government reports, or previous LCAs) shall be clearly identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5673, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 312, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The sources of all public data (for example, specifically referenced textbooks, government reports, or previous LCAs) shall be clearly identified. When used, public data should be included in the report. To prevent losing information by the way data are presented, the same level of detail used in collection should be maintained in reporting. - Impact assessment methods and factors, normalisation basis and weighting set - Comparisons between (product) systems \uf0b7 Collecting inventory (LCI) data, modelling the system, calculating LCI results The 'Inventory' phase involves data collection and modelling of the system, as well as description and verification of data. This encompasses all data related to environmental (e.g. CO2 emissions) and technical (e.g. consumed intermediate chemicals) quantities for all relevant unit processes within the system boundaries that compose the analysed system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5674, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 312, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "CO2 emissions) and technical (e.g. consumed intermediate chemicals) quantities for all relevant unit processes within the system boundaries that compose the analysed system. Examples of inputs and outputs quantities include inputs of materials, energy, chemicals and 'other' - and outputs of air emissions, water emissions or solid waste. Other types of exchanges or interventions such as radiation or land use should also be included. The data must be related to the reference flow(s) and/or functional unit(s) defined in the scope chapter. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flows to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the study. Below is list of information which shall be report in this part: - Flow Diagram", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5675, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 312, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting The flow diagram(s) should clearly describe the foreground system and links to the background system, and all major inputs and outputs. Several flow diagrams in different levels of detail may be required to adequately describe the system. The link between the flow diagram(s) and the data should be clearly evident to the reader. - Describing/documenting unit process data collected for the foreground system - Calculated LCI results \uf0b7 Calculating Life Cycle Impact Assessment results (LCIA results) The practitioner needs to document the LCIA results, applying the selected LCIA method and factors, as well - if included for reporting purposes - of the normalised and of the normalised and weighted LCIA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5676, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 313, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 Interpretation - Significant issues - Completeness check - Sensitivity check (of achieved accuracy and precision) - Consistency check - Conclusions Any conclusions drawn from the study shall be explicit. They shall be limited to the materials or processes actually examined, appropriate to the variability of the data used in the analyses, and wholly based on the results and methodologies presented in the report. The conclusions should be honest and unbiased, and cover the whole study. - Recommendations Recommendations derived from the conclusions involve interpretations and are thus subjective. Ideally, they should be based solely on the conclusions of the study and incorporate an explicit explanation of the subjective process which form the bases upon which they are founded. The inclusion, and extent, of any recommendations will be determined by the target audience of the LCA. Fourth element: Annex For LCA practitioners", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5677, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 313, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The inclusion, and extent, of any recommendations will be determined by the target audience of the LCA. Fourth element: Annex For LCA practitioners. The annex serves to document elements that would inappropriately interrupt the reading flow of the main part of the report and are also of a more technical nature for reference. It should include: \uf0b7 Questionnaire/ data collection template and raw data \uf0b7 List of all assumptions This should include those assumptions that have been shown to be irrelevant). The important ones are to be considered quantitatively in the sensitivity analysis and quantitatively and qualitatively in the interpretation. The relevant assumptions are also to be documented in the context where they belong, e.g. for processes together with the processes they concern at the relevant place (LCI chapter or scope definition) \uf0b7 Full LCI results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5678, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 313, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Fifth element: Confidential report The confidential report shall contain all those data and information that is confidential or proprietary and cannot be made externally available. It shall be made available to the critical reviewers under confidentiality. Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - The following form and level of reporting shall be done: I.a) The required level of reporting was identified in chapter 6.12. [ISO+] I.b) Use ILCD report template and data set format: The ILCD report template and the ILCD data set format should be used for reporting LCI/LCA studies and data sets, respectively. [ISO+] I.c) Enclose / reference report to data sets: It is recommended to accompany data sets with a LCI/LCA study report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5679, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 314, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] I.c) Enclose / reference report to data sets: It is recommended to accompany data sets with a LCI/LCA study report. I.d) Enclose / reference LCI data sets in report: It is recommended to enclose the modelled LCI data sets to the LCA study report (e.g. as printout and/or via hyperlinks) as far as confidentiality concerns and ownership rights permit this. The full LCI results shall be included in this report. I.e) Use / combine correct level(s) of reporting: These specific levels go back to the three main levels of reporting that have a different set of requirements under ISO 14044:2006 that shall be used: \u201cReports for internal use\u201d, \u201cThird-party report\u201d, \u201cReport on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public\u201d. In detail: I.f) MAY - Reports for internal use (recommendation only) (10.3.1): [ISO+] I.f.i) Document results and conclusions of the LCA in a complete, accurate and unbiased way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5680, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 314, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In detail: I.f) MAY - Reports for internal use (recommendation only) (10.3.1): [ISO+] I.f.i) Document results and conclusions of the LCA in a complete, accurate and unbiased way. I.f.ii) Especially regarding inventory data, it is recommended to document the data on the level that it enters the calculations before its unit or property conversion, scaling, etc. (i.e. as \u201craw data\u201d) to provide appropriate information for reviewers and users. This information may be provided together with calculations such as conversions, scaling factors applied, averaging, extrapolations, etc. I.f.iii) Consider to address some of the requirements to third-party reports or public reports also in internal reports as this will strengthen the robustness and hence reliability of the results. I.g) SHALL - Third-party reports (10.3.2): The third-party report is a reference document for any third party to whom the communication is made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5681, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 314, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.g) SHALL - Third-party reports (10.3.2): The third-party report is a reference document for any third party to whom the communication is made. The report can be based on confidential information, while this information itself does not need to be included in the third-party report. It is recommended to meet confidentiality interests by making sensitive and proprietary data and information available only to the critical reviewers under confidentiality as a separate confidential report. [ISO+] I.h) In addition to the requirements on reports for internal use, the following", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5682, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 314, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements components and aspects shall be included in the third-party report208: [ISO!] II) SHALL - Executive summary (for non-technical audience) [ISO+] III) SHALL - Technical summary (for technical audience / LCA experts) [ISO+] IV) SHALL - Main report, with the following aspects: Note that the following items and the [ISO+] and [ISO!] marks do relate to the general structuring and items to be included only; the exact items to be reported are identified in the other Provisions of this document. IV.a) General aspects: IV.a.i) date of report; IV.a.ii) statement that the study has been conducted according to the requirements of ISO 14044:2006 and the ILCD Handbook", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5683, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 315, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV.a) General aspects: IV.a.i) date of report; IV.a.ii) statement that the study has been conducted according to the requirements of ISO 14044:2006 and the ILCD Handbook. [ISO!] IV.b) Goal of the study: IV.b.i) intended application(s); IV.b.ii) method, assumptions or impact coverage related limitations; [ISO!] IV.b.iii) reasons for carrying out the study and decision-context; IV.b.iv) the target audiences; IV.b.v) statement as to whether the study intends to support comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public IV.b.vi) commissioner of the study and other influential actors, including LCA practitioner (internal or external)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5684, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 315, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "[ISO+] IV.c) Scope of the study: IV.c.i) function, including IV.c.i.1) statement of performance characteristics, and IV.c.i.2) any omission of additional functions in comparisons; IV.c.ii) functional unit(s), including IV.c.ii.1) consistency with goal and scope, IV.c.ii.2) definition, IV.c.ii.3) result of performance measurement; IV.c.iii) reference flow(s) IV.c.iv) LCI modelling framework applied, i.e. according to Situation A, B, or C, including [ISO!] IV.c.iv.1) uniform application of the procedures IV.c.v) system boundary, including IV.c.v.1) types of inputs and outputs of the system as elementary flows 208 The parts in italics are directly taken from ISO 14044, chapter 5.2, but removing ISO-internal chapterreferences. A few aspects have been moved to other places, but all are covered.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5685, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 315, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements should be provided, IV.c.v.2) decision criteria on system boundary definition, and on individual or systematic inclusions and exclusions [ISO!] IV.c.v.3) omissions of life cycle stages, activity types, processes, or flows, IV.c.v.4) quantification of energy and material inputs and outputs, and IV.c.v.5) assumptions about electricity production; IV.c.vi) cut-off criteria for initial inclusion of inputs and output, including IV.c.vi.1) description of cut-off criteria and assumptions, IV.c.vi.2) effect of selection on results, IV.c.vi.3) inclusion of mass, energy and environmental cut-off criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5686, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 316, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV.c.vii) data quality requirements should be included (in addition to the finally achieved quality) IV.c.viii) LCIA scope settings, including IV.c.viii.1) impact categories and category indicators considered, including a rationale for their selection and a reference to their source; IV.c.viii.2) descriptions of or reference to all characterization models, characterization factors and methods used, including all assumptions and limitations; IV.c.viii.3) any differentiations, additions or modifications of original, default LCIA method with justifications [ISO!] IV.c.viii.4) descriptions of or reference to all value-choices used in relation to impact categories, characterization models, characterization factors, normalization, grouping, weighting and, elsewhere in the LCIA, a justification for their use and their influence on the results, conclusions and recommendations; IV.c.viii.5) a statement that the LCIA results are relative expressions and do not predict impacts on category", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5687, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 316, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for their use and their influence on the results, conclusions and recommendations; IV.c.viii.5) a statement that the LCIA results are relative expressions and do not predict impacts on category endpoints, the exceeding of thresholds, safety margins or risks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5688, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 316, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and, when included as a part of the LCA, also IV.c.viii.6) a description and justification of the definition and description of any new impact categories, category indicators or characterization models used for the LCIA, IV.c.viii.7) a statement and justification of any grouping of the impact categories, IV.c.viii.8) any further procedures that transform the indicator results and a justification of the selected references, weighting factors, etc., IV.c.ix) included comparison between (product) systems IV.c.x) modifications of the initial scope together with their justification should be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5689, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 316, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements provided IV.d) Life cycle inventory analysis: IV.d.i) data collection procedures; IV.d.ii) qualitative and quantitative description of unit processes, at least of the foreground system; [ISO!] IV.d.iii) references of all publicly accessible data sources (sources for all data used and individual identification for the key processes / systems); [ISO!] IV.d.iv) calculation procedures (preferably including the steps from raw data to foreground system unit process(es)); [ISO!] IV.d.v) validation of data, including IV.d.v.1) data quality assessment, and IV.d.v.2) treatment of missing data; IV.d.vi) sensitivity analysis for refining the system boundary; IV.d.vii) specific substitution or allocation procedures for key multifunctional processes (and products in case the study directly compares multifunctional products), including [ISO!]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5690, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 317, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "boundary; IV.d.vii) specific substitution or allocation procedures for key multifunctional processes (and products in case the study directly compares multifunctional products), including [ISO!] IV.d.vii.1) justification of the specific procedures IV.e) Life cycle impact assessment results calculation, where applicable: IV.e.i) the LCIA procedures, calculations and results of the study; IV.e.ii) limitations of the LCIA results relative to the defined goal and scope of the LCA; IV.e.iii) the relationship of LCIA results to the defined goal and scope; IV.e.iv) the relationship of the LCIA results to the LCI results; IV.e.v) any analysis of the indicator results, for example sensitivity and uncertainty analysis or the use of environmental data, including any implication for the results, and IV.e.vi) data and indicator results reached prior to any normalization, grouping or weighting shall be made available together with the normalized, grouped or weighted results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5691, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 317, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "IV.f) Life cycle interpretation: IV.f.i) the results; IV.f.ii) assumptions and limitations associated with the interpretation of results, both methodology and data related; IV.f.iii) data quality assessment; IV.f.iv) full transparency in terms of value-choices, rationales and expert judgements. IV.g) Critical review, where applicable:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5692, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 317, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements IV.g.i) name and affiliation of reviewers; IV.g.ii) critical review reports; IV.g.iii) responses to recommendations. V) SHALL - Annex: The annex serves to document elements that would inappropriately interrupt the reading flow of the main part of the report, and are also of a more detailed or tabular technical nature and for reference. It should include: [ISO!] V.a) Questionnaire/ data collection template and raw data, V.b) list of all assumptions (It should include those assumptions that have been shown to be irrelevant), V.c) full LCI results. VI) MAY - Confidential report: If prepared, the confidential report shall contain all those data and information that is confidential or proprietary and cannot be made externally available. It shall however be made available to the critical reviewers under confidentiality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5693, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 318, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VII) SHALL - Report for comparative studies: Reporting on assertive and non-assertive comparative studies intended to be disclosed to the public, the following additional reporting209 shall by done in addition to the requirements to reports for internal use and third party reports (10.3.3): VII.a) analysis of material and energy flows to justify their inclusion or exclusion; VII.b) assessment of the precision, completeness and representativeness of data used; VII.c) description of the equivalence of the systems being compared in accordance with ISO-chapter 4.2.3.7 and related provisions in this document; [ISO!] VII.d) description of the critical review process; VII.e) an evaluation of the completeness of the LCIA; VII.f) a statement as to whether international acceptance exists for the selected category indicators and a justification for their use; VII.g) an explanation for the scientific and technical validity and environmental relevance of the category indicators used in the study;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5694, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 318, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "category indicators and a justification for their use; VII.g) an explanation for the scientific and technical validity and environmental relevance of the category indicators used in the study; VII.h) the results of the uncertainty and sensitivity analyses; VII.i) evaluation of the significance of the differences found", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5695, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 318, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "VIII) Grouping: If grouping is included in the LCA, add the following: VIII.a) the procedures and results used for grouping; VIII.b) a statement that conclusions and recommendations derived from grouping are 209 The parts in italics are directly taken from ISO 14044, chapter 5.3.1, but excluding requirements related to \u201cGrouping\u201d, as grouping of impact indicators is not recommended in the ILCD System. A few aspects have been moved to other places, but all are covered.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5696, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 318, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements based on value-choices; VIII.c) a justification of the criteria used for normalization and grouping (these can be personal, organizational or national value-choices); VIII.d) the statement that \u201cISO 14044 does not specify any specific methodology or support the underlying value choices used to group the impact categories\u201d; VIII.e) the statement that \u201cThe value-choices and judgements within the grouping procedures are the sole responsibilities of the commissioner of the study (e.g. government, community, organization, etc.)\".\n\nILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 10 Reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5697, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 319, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 11 Critical review 11 Critical review (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 6) The scope and type of critical review desired should have been defined in the scope phase of an LCA, and the decision on the type of critical review should have been recorded (see chapter 6.11). The critical review is one of key feature in the LCA. Its process shall assure among others whether \uf0b7 the methods used to carry out the LCA are consistent with this guidance document and thereby also with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, \uf0b7 the methods used to carry out the LCA study are scientifically and technically valid, \uf0b7 the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study, \uf0b7 the interpretations reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study, and \uf0b7 the study report is transparent and consistent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5698, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 321, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The detailed review requirements regarding what to review and how, and how to report the outcome of the review are given in the separate document \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\". More details on the minimum required level/type of review for each specific type of deliverables of the LCI/LCA study can be found in the separate document \u201cReview schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u201d. Eligibility of reviewers is addressed in the separate document \"Reviewer qualification\". For LCA studies directed towards public audiences, an interactive review process at various stages of the LCA can improve the study's credibility. Provisions: 11 Critical review Applicable to Situation A, B, and C, implicitly differentiated. Fully applicable to all types of deliverables, implicitly differentiated. I) SHALL - See chapter 6.11 for key decisions made on the critical review: The scope and type of critical review desired should have been defined in the scope phase of an LCA (see chapter 6.11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5699, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 321, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I) SHALL - See chapter 6.11 for key decisions made on the critical review: The scope and type of critical review desired should have been defined in the scope phase of an LCA (see chapter 6.11). The following provisions repeat these key provisions that otherwise have to be applied at this point: [ISO!] I.a) Identify minimum critical review type: Identify along the separate document \u201cReview schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)\u201d whether a critical review shall be performed and which review type shall be applied as a minimum. This depends on the kind of deliverable of the study, its foreseen decision-context, the kind of intended audience (internal / external / public and technical / nontechnical), and whether a comparison is part of the study. I.b) Select eligible reviewers: If a critical review is to be done, eligible reviewer(s) shall be selected. Eligibility of reviewers is addressed in the separate document \"Reviewer qualification\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5700, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 321, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.b) Select eligible reviewers: If a critical review is to be done, eligible reviewer(s) shall be selected. Eligibility of reviewers is addressed in the separate document \"Reviewer qualification\". II) SHALL - Review scope, methods, and documentation: The selected reviewer(s) shall perform the review and report its outcome along the provisions of the separate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5701, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 321, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 11 Critical review document \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\"210. [ISO!] 210 This document was under preparation when the present document has been finalised. Until it has been published under the ILCD Handbook the relevant ISO 14040 and 14044 requirements shall be met as a minimum.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5702, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 342, "book_page": 322, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6) 12.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6) The following components and aspects of data quality are used or referenced in various chapters of this document. ISO 14044:2006 lists under \u201cData quality\u201d a number of aspects such as representativeness, uncertainty / precision, and other directly data quality related aspects, but also aspects such as methodological consistency, data sources used, and reproducibility. In the ILCD Handbook, and to better structure quality indicators and assessment as well as the review of LCI/LCA studies, the concept of data quality is addressed by two complementary approaches: Firstly on data quality in the stricter sense, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5703, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 323, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "aspects that determine the quality of the inventory data and the related LCIA results. Secondly to aspects that relate to data quality documentation and review and to efforts of basic consistency such as nomenclature and terminology. The first approach is named \u201cILCD data quality indicators\u201d and allows classifying the achieved data quality of LCI data: \uf0b7 Overall data quality - Technological representativeness - Geographical representativeness - Time-related representativeness - Completeness - Precision / uncertainty - Methodological appropriateness and consistency211 In the context of LCA studies, especially including comparisons, this information can then be used to judge in how far the data quality supports conclusions and recommendations from the study. Chapter 12.2 briefly introduces the concepts of these quality aspects as well as of \"accuracy\" and the difference between \"variance\" and \"variability\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5704, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 323, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 12.2 briefly introduces the concepts of these quality aspects as well as of \"accuracy\" and the difference between \"variance\" and \"variability\". The second approach covers aspects that do not reflect the actual data quality itself but are complementary: \uf0b7 Documentation (i.e. providing information of data quality and other aspects as basis for reproducibility) \uf0b7 Review (i.e. assurance of quality) \uf0b7 Nomenclature (i.e. to support data consistency in practice by using e.g. the same elementary flows, units of measurement, etc.) In order to support a quality classification of data sets, the overall data quality (i.e. the integrated \u201cOverall data quality\u201d of the different data quality indicators) and the complementary items are combined to a set of \u201cOverall data set quality\u201d. Given the interest to 211 \u201eMethod\u201c is included as data quality item, as e.g. technological representativeness and the LCI modelling frameworks applied (attributional and consequential) strongly interrelate.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5705, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 323, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach single out method principles and approaches applied \u201cMethod\u201d is additionally used also as criterion for the Overall data set quality. The resulting five criteria can be used to classify data sets212 as being in line with e.g. the different ILCD Handbook requirements, as follows: \uf0b7 (Overall) data quality \uf0b7 Method \uf0b7 Nomenclature \uf0b7 Review \uf0b7 Documentation This includes the possibility to set fixed requirements for data quality e.g. minimum requirements, or classes of quality such as \u201chigh quality\u201d. The latter is used related to completeness or data when quantifying cut-offs etc. Chapter 12.3 provides some more details", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5706, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 324, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "minimum requirements, or classes of quality such as \u201chigh quality\u201d. The latter is used related to completeness or data when quantifying cut-offs etc. Chapter 12.3 provides some more details. On the level of product comparisons, these data set quality aspects can be used to evaluate and document in how far the achieved data quality supports the conclusions and recommendations from studies and in how far the data basis of the study meets requirements regarding reporting, transparency, review, reproducibility, etc. While this chapter mainly focuses on LCI data quality, it is to be highlighted, that on the level of LCIA results and LCA studies, of course also the quality of LCIA methods (and if applied: normalisation basis and weighting set) contribute to the overall quality on that level. Of these the uncertainty of LCIA methods can generally be assumed to have the highest uncertainty", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5707, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 324, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Of these the uncertainty of LCIA methods can generally be assumed to have the highest uncertainty. Before detailing the two approaches of the Overall data quality indicators and the Overall data set quality indicators, the concepts of the main data quality aspects are described in the next subchapter. 12.2 Data quality aspects (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.2.3.6) Representativeness and appropriateness Representativeness is a key concept in LCA with its three components of technological, geographical and time-related representativeness. Figure 27 illustrates the concepts of the quality aspects completeness and representativeness. Note that these graphics are not meant to be guidance on how to visualise achieved representativeness but only to illustrate the concept behind this. 212 This is helpful when externally communicating in a harmonised and comparable way the achieved quality of data sets and when searching for data of specific quality characteristics e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5708, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 324, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "212 This is helpful when externally communicating in a harmonised and comparable way the achieved quality of data sets and when searching for data of specific quality characteristics e.g. in the ILCD Data Network.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5709, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 324, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Figure 27 The four quality aspects completeness and technological, geographical and timerelated representativeness; illustrative (for precision/uncertainty see Figure 28). The segments\u2019 share of each bar indicates the contribution to the total impacts. The respective left bar depicts the (only theoretically knowable) \u201ctrue\u201d situation whereas the right bar shows the data used: For this virtual, illustrative example product system, e.g. the \u201cGeographical representativeness\u201d bars show that the major share of the impact is actually caused by processes located in Brazil, Argentina, Japan, Chile, China, the U.S. and so on, whereas the data that was used represents mainly the Brazilian, Japanese and the global average situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5710, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 1999, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and so on, whereas the data that was used represents mainly the Brazilian, Japanese and the global average situation. When modelling a system, the representativeness of the inventory of a data set is complemented by the appropriateness of the data set in the context of the specific system, where it is used: The representativeness of the inventory characterises in how far the inventory as a whole is depicting the functional unit(s) and/or reference flow(s) of the process or system. The appropriateness now characterises, in how far a data set in a system model represents the truly required process or product. E.g. a \"Low carbon steel, XZY\" production mix data set for 1995, with the geographical scope UK data set might be highly representative, but when I use this data set in my system model where I would instead need a \"High carbon steel, ABC\" for the year 2005 with Global average consumption mix, the data set is probably not very representative, i.e. it has limited appropriateness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5711, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 1999, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "it has limited appropriateness. Note that the lack of appropriateness is to be judged for the given case and usually any limited appropriateness adds to limited representativeness213. The overall achieved representativeness on system level can be assessed with expert judgement that also takes into account in how far - especially on a system level - the single contributing data sets actually lack full representativeness e.g. for the country mix they state to represent. 213 It can however happen that a process with limited representativeness is actually very appropriate: This would be if in an example only one of five relevant technology routes has been used to model a country-mix data set for a material, but in my product system I need a data set exactly for that used technology route. This is to be verified along the data set documentation. Representativeness Geographical BR AR CL JP CN US ...... ...... ...... True mix BR JP GLO ...... ...... .....", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5712, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 1999, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to be verified along the data set documentation. Representativeness Geographical BR AR CL JP CN US ...... ...... ...... True mix BR JP GLO ...... ...... ...... Data used Geographical BR AR CL JP CN US ...... ...... ...... True mix BR JP GLO ...... ...... ...... Data used BR AR CL JP CN US ...... ...... ...... True mix BR JP GLO ...... ...... ...... Data used Time-related True mix Data used ...... ...... ...... Time-related True mix Data used ...... ...... ...... Technological C True mix A B D E F Data used A C B ... B Technological C True mix A B D E F Data used A C B ... B Completeness 100 % impact CO2 emissions to air N2O emissions to air True LCI Data used SO2 emissions to air CO2 emissions to air NO3 - emissions to water N2O emissions to air SO2 emissions to air NO3 - emissions to water ... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ... CO2 emissions to air N2O emissions to air ... ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5713, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 1999, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "CO2 emissions to air N2O emissions to air ... ... Completeness 100 % impact CO2 emissions to air N2O emissions to air True LCI Data used SO2 emissions to air CO2 emissions to air NO3 - emissions to water N2O emissions to air SO2 emissions to air NO3 - emissions to water ... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ............... ...... ... CO2 emissions to air N2O emissions to air ... ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5714, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 1999, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Methodological appropriateness and consistency The choice of the method, especially when modelling whole systems' life cycles, typically strongly influences the results (e.g. attributional vs. consequential modelling, as one example). The choice of the most appropriate modelling principles and method approaches and their consistent use is hence important for the appropriateness and reproducibility of the results. Methods are hence necessarily a data quality aspect. Here it relates to the use of the most appropriate methods as identified for the three archetypal goal Situations A, B, and C plus possible adjustments of the \"should\" requirements within the permissible deviations, as detailed in chapter 6.5.4. Accuracy The term \"accuracy\" in general refers to the degree of closeness of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5715, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 326, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Accuracy The term \"accuracy\" in general refers to the degree of closeness of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. This term includes the influence of methods and method assumptions. Accuracy in LCA hence can be used complementary to precision/uncertainty, capturing the technological, geographical and time-related representativeness as well as appropriateness and consistency of methods and their use. In a more condensed way, the 6 named data quality aspects can therefore also be shortened to accuracy, precision/uncertainty and completeness. Precision / uncertainty ISO 14044:2006 defines precision as the \u201cmeasure of the variability of the data values for each data expressed (e.g. variance)\u201d. ISO 14044:2006 does not define uncertainty, but uses the term in the sense of expressing the quantitative degree of the lack of precision, i.e. its (negative) measure, i.e. for the error", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5716, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 326, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "variance)\u201d. ISO 14044:2006 does not define uncertainty, but uses the term in the sense of expressing the quantitative degree of the lack of precision, i.e. its (negative) measure, i.e. for the error. In science and practice of engineering and statistics, precision is also used synonymous with reproducibility, i.e. the degree to which further measurements or calculations done by different experts show the same results. The ISO definition relates to the statistical meaning of stochastic uncertainty (i.e. variance). The errors can be measurement errors but also choice-errors. Accuracy is here hence used complementary to the ISO usage of precision, i.e. accuracy is the combination of representativeness and methodological consistency. Note that lack of representativeness of data is a complementary issue, as not a stochastic uncertainty, but a bias. Figure 28 illustrates the concepts. Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5717, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 326, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Figure 28 illustrates the concepts. Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e. representativeness plus methodological consistency) High precision, low accuracy. The results are biased. High accuracy, low precision. The results are uncertain. Figure 28 Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e. representativeness and methodological consistency)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5718, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 326, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Note that the results of LCA calculations can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither of it, or both of it. Note also that very good raw data can lead to inaccurate results if the LCI methods combine these data in an inappropriate way. Both aspects need to be addressed therefore. Variance vs. variability It is suggested to differentiate between \"variance\" as stochastic measure of uncertainty and \"variability\" to capture processes and systems that have different LCI data under different e.g. operation conditions: E.g. the LCI data of 100 km average goods transport on a country-wise averaged motorway-overland- inner-city mix with a fleet mix of currently operated EURO 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 motors system of all trucks of equal or more than 7.5 t total weight truck at the average e.g. 80 % load factor may have a certain variance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5719, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 327, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "80 % load factor may have a certain variance. The single data e.g. load factor, transport distance, specific emission profile of the truck on a motorway etc. has stochastic uncertainties (measurement errors) that aggregated give the data variance. If the data set is based on many measurements it can be very precise, i.e. have a low variance. The variability would refer to the situation where one uses this data set for different, specific kinds of transport situations with different load factors and specific shares of inner-city transport etc. Transport process data sets are hence very variable and the use of an average transport data set - even though it may have a low variance - cannot be used for a specific transport situation, simply as it is not appropriate due to limited technological representativeness - it lacks accuracy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5720, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 327, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "That means that using this average transport data set for specific transport situations, the given variance does not capture the true error, which is due to lack of accuracy. Note that this differentiation of variance and variability of LCI data sets is not contradicting the ISO 14044:2006 definition of precision (see above), as in ISO variability is explicitly related to the (single) data values that jointly result in the variance. Completeness In addition to accuracy and precision, \"completeness\" of coverage of all relevant impact categories via the completeness of the inventoried flows can be understood as the third component of data quality214. Integrated view on data quality LCA results can be called valid (\u201cof high overall data quality\u201d) if they are both accurate, precise, AND complete. The weakest of the criteria generally weakens the overall quality of the specific case. This is reflected by the ILCD data quality indicators (see below in chapter 12.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5721, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 327, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The weakest of the criteria generally weakens the overall quality of the specific case. This is reflected by the ILCD data quality indicators (see below in chapter 12.3). In LCA one can hence use the term \u201cvalidity\u201d to refer to the overall quality of the data (and the results of LCA studies). Procedurally, one can effectively work towards high quality data, but first precisely identifying the technological, geographical and time-related appropriateness, i.e. what the data set should represent. Next, completeness of the related inventory in coverage all to-beincluded and relevant impact categories is aimed at. In quantifying the flows, paying attention to low variance of the values completes the approach. On a system level, the methodological appropriateness and consistency comes into play. 214 A potential overlap of completeness with precision and accuracy can be argued - data quality aspects could also be differentiated in another way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5722, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 327, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "214 A potential overlap of completeness with precision and accuracy can be argued - data quality aspects could also be differentiated in another way. The given differentiation however relates to widely used terms and concepts (including those of ISO 14044, differentiating precision and completeness) and helps to better understand and address the different kinds of aspects, why they are seen to serve their purpose.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5723, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 347, "book_page": 327, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Regarding the final LCA results, this is combined with LCIA characterisation factors (and potentially normalisation and weighting sets) that contribute to the overall quality on system level. The required overall quality of the results of LCI/LCA study is determined by the intended applications and hence to be derived from the goal definition. The finally achieved quality determines in comparative studies whether differences between systems can be considered significant and robust. For data sets, the overall LCI data quality determines for which cases the data can be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5724, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 328, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For data sets, the overall LCI data quality determines for which cases the data can be used. The overall data quality is hence important information for the evaluation and the interpretation of the results of an LCA: The degree to which the data set\u201fs overall representativeness, completeness, precision as well as methodological appropriateness and consistency reflects the reality the data set is representing. The quantitative precision of the inventory data is an obvious component, but structural and modelling aspects of both the LCI and \u2013 if included - the LCIA play an important and often dominating role. Data and structural gaps and modelling assumptions can lead to biases and hence all strongly affect the accuracy of the results, while they cannot be addressed directly or quantitatively in uncertainty calculation. Uncertainty estimates can therefore always only be approximate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5725, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 328, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Uncertainty estimates can therefore always only be approximate. They tend to understate not only the true uncertainty but especially do not fully capture the achieved accuracy of the results. Frequent errors: Overly reliance on stochastic data uncertainty calculations It is an increasingly found error to only consider the (known or estimated) quantitative stochastic inventory data uncertainty only and directly use this to demonstrate significance of differences in compared systems. The overall precision and accuracy however needs to also judge the other, structural components, assumptions, method appropriateness and consistency, limited representativeness of data, and the like. If only a partial analysis is done, it shall be clearly stated that the other part is lacking. In addition, it shall be clearly stated how accuracy and precision have been determined if one or both have been quantified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5726, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 328, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition, it shall be clearly stated how accuracy and precision have been determined if one or both have been quantified. It is argued that in practice lack of accuracy is the more relevant problem than stochastic data uncertainty, why especially a lack of addressing the former while reporting the later can be understood as an attempt of misleading the target audience. This is even more so as lack of accuracy typically introduces a bias into the results (see Figure 28). The judgement of the overall data quality can ultimately only be done by expert judgement. Uncertainty calculations and qualitative or quantified accuracy assessment can substantially help but provide supporting, quantitative information only. Working with fixed quality requirements Sometimes the completeness and precision requirements are stated explicitly for the intended application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5727, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 328, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Working with fixed quality requirements Sometimes the completeness and precision requirements are stated explicitly for the intended application. For an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), there may thus be precisely defined quantitative requirements to the completeness and precision given by the applied EPD scheme (e.g. \u201cAt least 95 % completeness of overall environmental impact and maximum variance on inventory data lower than 10 % for Climate change and Primary energy, 25 % for Acidification, Eutrophication and Summer Smog impact potentials.\u201d). At the same time the qualitative aspects of representativeness are to be addressed. A similar example is the three levels of completeness and precision used for classifying LCI data sets in the ILCD Data Network.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5728, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 348, "book_page": 328, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach 12.3 Data quality indicators (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6 and 4.3.2.1) The ILCD data quality indicators relate directly to those key characteristics of LCI data sets that describe their quality215. These are: \uf0b7 technological, geographical and time-related representativeness, \uf0b7 completeness of environmental impacts covered by the inventory, \uf0b7 achieved precision of the data, and \uf0b7 appropriate and consistent application of LCI methodologies (the latter especially on the system level) Table 5 describes the concept of the ILCD data quality indicators / components in more detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5729, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 329, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Table 5 Overall inventory data quality (validity) and its main 6 aspects Indicator / component Definition / Comment Chapters Technological representativeness (TeR) \"Degree to which the data set reflects the true population of interest regarding technology, including for included background data sets, if any.\" Comment: i.e. of the technological characteristics including operating conditions. 6.8.2 Geographical representativeness (GR) \"Degree to which the data set reflects the true population of interest regarding geography, including for included background data sets, if any.\" Comment: i.e. of the given location / site, region, country, market, continent, etc. 6.8.3 Time-related representativeness (TiR) \"Degree to which the data set reflects the true population of interest regarding time / age of the data, including for included background data sets, if any.\" Comment: i.e. of the given year (and - if applicable \u2013 of intra-annual or intra-daily differences)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5730, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 329, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "of the given year (and - if applicable \u2013 of intra-annual or intra-daily differences). 6.8.4 Completeness (C) \"Share of (elementary) flows that are quantitatively included in the inventory. Note that for product and waste flows this needs to be judged on a system's level.\" Comment: i.e. degree of coverage of overall environmental impact, i.e. used cut-off criteria. 6.6.3 Precision / uncertainty (P) \"Measure of the variability of the data values for each data expressed (e.g. low variance = high precision). Note that for product and waste flows this needs to be judged on a 6.9.2 215 This is a different approach compared to generic quality indicators that attempt at capturing data quality by proxy-indicators such as type of used data sources that are used to estimate the quality by overlaying an uncertainty factor to each proxy-indicator (e.g. age of data). The approach chosen here better reflects the casespecific relevance of the aspects: E.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5731, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 329, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "age of data). The approach chosen here better reflects the casespecific relevance of the aspects: E.g. is four years old data fully representative for technologies that change slowly with time (e.g. basic materials industry), while it would be quite outdated for most IT products.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5732, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 329, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach system's level.\" Comment: i.e. variance of single data values and unit process inventories. Methodological appropriateness and consistency (M) \"The applied LCI methods and methodological choices (e.g. allocation, substitution, etc.) are in line with the goal and scope of the data set, especially its intended applications and decision support context. The methods also have been consistently applied across all data including for included processes, if any.\" Comment: i.e. correct and consistent application of the recommended LCI modelling framework and LCI method approaches for the given Situation A, B, or C. 6.5.4 Please note that the components \u201cCompleteness\u201d and \u201cPrecision\u201d can be quantified (e.g. \u201c90 % completeness/cut-off criterion for overall environmental impact\u201d and \u201c+-10 % LCIA results for Climate change216, +-20 % for Acidification, etc.\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5733, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\u201c90 % completeness/cut-off criterion for overall environmental impact\u201d and \u201c+-10 % LCIA results for Climate change216, +-20 % for Acidification, etc.\u201d). The other components are of a qualitative nature and the achieved quality is to be judged semi-quantitatively by experts e.g. during a critical review. The following quality levels of Table 6 and definitions of Table 7 should be used for documenting what has been achieved for the final data and for each of the data quality indicators: Table 6 Quality levels and quality rating for the data quality indicators, and the corresponding definition (for the three representativeness and the methodological appropriateness and consistency criteria) and quantitative completeness and precision / uncertainty ranges in %. Quality level Quality rating Definition Completeness overall environmental impact Precision / uncertainty overall env", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5734, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Quality level Quality rating Definition Completeness overall environmental impact Precision / uncertainty overall env. impact (relative standard deviation in %)217 Very good \"Meets the criterion to a very high degree, having or no relevant need for improvement. This is to be judged in view of the criterion's contribution to the data set's potential overall environmental impact and in comparison to a hypothetical ideal data quality.\" \uf0b3 95 % \uf0a3 7 % 216 This percentage refers to the stochastic uncertainty of the inventory values only excluding the uncertainty of the LCIA characterisation factors. 217 This does exclude the uncertainty of the LCIA method, the normalisation basis, and the weighting set but only of the LCI results, however in view of the overall environmental impact. For log-normally distributed results, the confidence intervals shall be used that are obtained with the percentages given in the table and under normal distribution.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5735, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 350, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Good \"Meets the criterion to a high degree, having little yet significant need for improvement. This is to be judged in view of the criterion's contribution to the data set's potential overall environmental impact and in comparison to a hypothetical ideal data quality.\" [85 % to 95 %) (7 % to 10 %] Fair \"Meets the criterion to a still sufficient degree, while having the need for improvement. This is to be judged in view of the criterion's contribution to the data set's potential overall environmental impact and in comparison to a hypothetical ideal data quality. \" [75 % to 85 %) (10 % to 15 %] Poor \"Does not meet the criterion to a sufficient degree, having the need for relevant improvement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5736, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 351, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\" [75 % to 85 %) (10 % to 15 %] Poor \"Does not meet the criterion to a sufficient degree, having the need for relevant improvement. This is to be judged in view of the criterion's contribution to the data set's potential overall environmental impact and in comparison to a hypothetical ideal data quality.\" [50 % to 75 %) (15 % to 25 %] Very poor \"Does not at all meet the criterion, having the need for very substantial improvement. This is to be judged in view of the criterion's contribution to the data set's potential overall environmental impact and in comparison to a hypothetical ideal data quality.\" \uf03c 50 % \uf03e 25 % Additional options, not being quality levels: Not evaluated / unknown \"This criterion was not judged / reviewed or its quality could not be verified / is unknown.\" na na Not applicable \"This criterion is not applicable to this data set, e.g. its geographical representativeness cannot be evaluated as it is a location-unspecific technology unit process.\" na na", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5737, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 351, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach By this way of classifying the achieved overall quality and its components of the developed e.g. unit process or LCI result data set, a structured communication and identification (e.g. sorting/filtering of suitable data e.g. in the ILCD Data Network) is supported. Overall data quality and three data quality levels for LCI data sets In addition to the more differentiated quality levels, for orientation it is useful to label data sets with different levels of overall LCI data quality. The overall quality of the data set can be derived form the quality rating of the various quality indicators / components. As said earlier, the weakest of the quality indicators generally weakens the overall quality of the data set. The overall data quality shall be calculated by summing up the achieved quality rating for each of the quality components", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5738, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The overall data quality shall be calculated by summing up the achieved quality rating for each of the quality components. The rating of the weakest quality level is counted 5-fold. The sum is divided by the number of applicable quality components plus 4. The Data Quality Rating result is used to identify the corresponding quality level in Table 7. Formula 3 provides the calculation provision: Formula 3 * i X M P C TiR GR TeR DQR w \uf0b7 DQR : Data Quality Rating of the LCI data set; see Table 7 \uf0b7 TeR, GR, TiR, C, P, M : see Table 5 \uf0b7 Xw : weakest quality level obtained (i.e. highest numeric value) among the data quality indicators \uf0b7 i : number of applicable (i.e. not equal \"0\") data quality indicators Table 7 Overall quality level of a data set according to the achieved overall data quality rating Overall data quality rating (DQR) Overall data quality level \uf0a3 1.6218 \"High quality\" >1.6 to \uf0a33 \"Basic quality\" >3 to \uf0a34 \"Data estimate\" See Table 8 and the text below for an example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5739, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Table 8 Illustrative example for determining the data quality rating. Illustrated with a location unspecific technology data set (e.g. a diesel electricity generator for a construction site and of a given emission standard) Component Achieved quality level Corresponding quality rating Technological representativeness (TeR) Very good 218 This means that not all quality indicator need to be \"very good\", but two can be only \"good\". If more than two are only good, the data set is downgraded to the next quality class.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5740, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Geographical representativeness (GR) Not applicable219 Time-related representativeness (TiR) Fair Completeness (C) Good Precision / uncertainty (P) Fair Methodological appropriateness and consistency (M) Good For the example given in Table 8, the overall data quality rating is calculated as: DQR = (TeR+GR+TiR+C+P220+M+3*4) / (5221+4) = (1+0+3+2+3+2+3*4) / 9 = 2.56. Table 7 helps to identify the corresponding overall data quality level \"Basic quality\" for the overall data quality rating of that virtual example data set. Accuracy, precision and completeness of LCI data, LCIA results and LCA studies including normalisation and weighting Accuracy, precision and completeness of LCI data should be assessed on the system level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5741, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This in addition needs to be done in view of the respective LCIA results, per impact category, but disregarding the (additional) uncertainties and limited accuracy of the characterisation factors (and any eventually applied normalisation and weighting factors) as the focus here is on the requirements to the inventory data. Accuracy, precision and completeness of LCIA results would than include also the uncertainty and limited accuracy of the LCIA factors. For LCA studies including normalisation, the respective uncertainty and limited accuracy would be additionally included. In contrast, for the weighting step (same as for methodological choices and other assumptions), an uncertainty calculation is potentially less suitable. Scenario analysis should better suit to capture the additional lack of robustness any specific weighting method introduces", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5742, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Scenario analysis should better suit to capture the additional lack of robustness any specific weighting method introduces. 12.4 ILCD Handbook compliance criteria (Refers to aspects of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.2.3.6 and 4.3.2.1) Overview For structuring the approach of developing ILCD Handbook compliant data and studies as well as product-specific guidance documents or Product Category Rules (PCRs), the ILCD 219 Not applicable as location unspecific technology data set. 220 The second occurrence of the lowest level \"fair\". In the calculation the lowest level rating is multiplied only once with \"5\", here for TiR. 221 As \"Geographical representativeness\" is not applicable here, only five of the otherwise up to six indicators / components are counted.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5743, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach compliance is composed of five groups of aspects: Data quality, Method, Nomenclature, Review, and Documentation222. These aspects shall also be used when referring only to selected of the ILCD compliance criteria and reporting this partial compliance in a structured way, e.g. when documenting LCI data sets, using the ILCD reference data set format. The requirements for claiming ILCD compliance for data sets and studies are found in chapter 2.3. Note that exclusively the \"Data quality\" compliance is further differentiated by different levels of achieved data quality. The other compliance criteria can only either have been achieved or not; there is not further differentiation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5744, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 334, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The other compliance criteria can only either have been achieved or not; there is not further differentiation. Logic of compliance criteria structure The structure of the ILCD compliance criteria applies the following logic: \uf0b7 Items that directly relate to the inventory data and impact assessment results data are grouped under \u201cData quality\u201d. These were addressed in the preceding chapter 12.3. \uf0b7 \u201cMethod\u201d groups all issues around the appropriateness of applied methods and the consistency of their use. This can be assessed without having relevant interrelationships to the underlying data. Note however, that method consistency is necessarily also part of the \u201cData quality\u201d, e.g. technological representativeness means something different under attributional and consequential modelling and consistent use of the methods hence affects the overall achieved representativeness especially of LCI results data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5745, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 334, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 \u201cNomenclature\u201d is an issue that predominantly relates to the used naming and structuring of elementary flows and other named elements. This ensure that different practitioners can at all consistently work with the data (e.g. that the elementary flow Carbon dioxide is clearly identified by name, CAS number, measured always in the same unit etc.) and that the LCI data can be correctly linked with the LCIA factors. Correct and consistent use of LCA terminology is a second component under \u201cNomenclature\u201d. \uf0b7 \u201cReview\u201d captures all review aspects. \uf0b7 \u201cDocumentation\u201d finally captures several issues: the extent and detail of the documentation as key requirement to support transparency and to ensure that the results can be reproduced. At the same time the documentation is important for the LCA practitioner to know what the data set inventory actually represents and whether it is the appropriate data for his/her systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5746, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 334, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "At the same time the documentation is important for the LCA practitioner to know what the data set inventory actually represents and whether it is the appropriate data for his/her systems. The form (report, data set) and format (ILCD reference format, ILCD report template etc) completes the documentation information, making sure that the documented information can be electronically exchanged without loss of information etc. Note that the exact coverage of items under each aspect and component depends on the type of LCI/LCA study. E.g. will an unit process LCI data set not include certain aspects that relate exclusively to (product) system modelling, etc. Table 9 gives more details on the compliance criteria. 222 Following the same logic of this set of 5 compliance aspects, also the overall quality of LCIA methods can be described and assessed. More detailed provisions for this are still to be developed.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5747, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 334, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach Table 9 ILCD compliance of LCI and LCA studies and data sets, direct applications, and derived more specific guidance documents / Product Category Rules (PCR). Compliance aspects, components, brief description and main corresponding chapters (indicative). Aspect Components Description / Comment Main chapters Quality Completeness Details see Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7. Chapter 12.3 Technological representativeness Geographical representativeness Time-related representativeness Precision / uncertainty Methodological appropriateness223 and consistency Method Application of LCI modelling and method provisions of this document Adhering to the provisions for the selection and LCI modelling of the applicable goal situation A, B, or C. Chapter 6.5.4, and referenced chapters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5748, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 335, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 6.5.4, and referenced chapters. Application of other method provisions of this document Adhering to the other method provisions of this document. Other chapters with method provisions. Nomenclatu re Correctness and consistency of applied nomenclature Appropriate naming of flows and processes, consistent use of ILCD reference elementary flows, appropriate and consistent use of units, etc. Chapter 7.4.3 and separate document \"Nomenclature and other conventions\". Correctness and consistency of applied terminology Correct and consistent use of technical terms (LCA and other domains). Key terms of chapter 3, \"terms and concepts\" boxes throughout the document, and application of the separate terminology. Review Appropriateness of applied review type Selection of the applicable review type. Chapter 11 and separate document \"Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment 223 See text for reason to include \u201cmethod...\u201d in both data quality and as separate item \u201cMethod\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5749, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 335, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 12 Annex A: Data quality concept and approach (LCA)\". Correctness of applied review scope Correct scope of what is reviewed. Separate document on \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\". Correctness of applied review methods Correct methods of how to review each of the items within the review scope. Separate document on \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\". Correctness of the review documentation224 Correct scope, form and extent of what is documented about the final outcome of the review. Separate document on \"Review scope, methods, and documentation\". Documentat ion Appropriateness of documentation extent Appropriate coverage of what is reported / documented. Chapter 10. Appropriateness of form of documentation Selection of the applicable form(s) of reporting / documentation. Chapter 10.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5750, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 336, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 10. Appropriateness of form of documentation Selection of the applicable form(s) of reporting / documentation. Chapter 10.3. Appropriateness of documentation format Selection and correct use of the data set format or report template, plus review documentation requirements. See separate ILCD data set format and LCA report template (separately available files). 224 The documentation of the review findings belongs to the \"Review\" part, since it does not relate to the documentation of the object of the data set.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5751, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 336, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation Many aspects influence emissions form land transformations. Their combinations result in the native soil carbon stock, varied by three further influence factors: \uf0b7 Native soil carbon stock (factors climate region and soil type (Table 10)), \uf0b7 land use factor (land use type, temperature regime, and moisture regime (Table 11)), and \uf0b7 management factor (specific land management for cropland and for grassland (Table 12 and Table 13)), and the related \uf0b7 input level factor (in variation of the above named land management types, in the same tables). These aspects and resulting factors are derived from the most recent available related IPCC reports and are included in the tables below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5752, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These aspects and resulting factors are derived from the most recent available related IPCC reports and are included in the tables below. CO2 emissions from any land transformation can be easily calculated by calculating the difference of the steady-state soil carbon content between the land use before and after transformation. This number is then to be multiplied by 44/12 to convert C-losses stoichiometrically to CO2 emissions. The steadystate carbon stock of each land use is calculated by simple multiplication of its basic soil carbon stock with the loss factors. Formula 4 and Formula 5 serve to calculate the soil organic carbon stock of the initial and final land use. Formula 6 provides the final prescription", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5753, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Formula 4 and Formula 5 serve to calculate the soil organic carbon stock of the initial and final land use. Formula 6 provides the final prescription. Formula 4 * * * IL LMF LUF SOCn SOCi with \uf0b7 SOCi = Initial soil organic carbon stock of initial land use \"1\", given in [t/ha] \uf0b7 SOCn = Native soil organic carbon stock (climate region, soil type); Table 10, given in [t/ha] \uf0b7 LUF = Land use factor; Table 11, dimensionless \uf0b7 LMF = Land management factor; Table 12 and Table 13, dimensionless \uf0b7 IL = Input level factor; also Table 12 and Table 13, dimensionless Formula 5 * * * IL LMF LUF SOCn SOCf with \uf0b7 SOCf = Final soil organic carbon stock of land use \"2\", i.e. after transformation, given in [t/ha] Formula 6 * ) ( SOCf SOCi CO with", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5754, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation CO2 = resulting CO2 emissions from soil (given in [t/ha]) as the difference in soil carbon stocks multiplied by the atomic weight of CO2 and divided by the atomic weight of C. Note that this is the total amount of CO2 that has to be allocated to the individual crops and/or crop years after conversion, as detailed in chapter 7.4.4.1. At the end of the tables some example calculations are given", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5755, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "At the end of the tables some example calculations are given. Table 10 Native soil carbon stocks under native vegetation (tonnes C ha-1 in upper 30 cm of soil) (IPCC 2006) Climate Region High activity clay soils Low activity clay soils Sandy soils Spodic soils Volcanic soils Wetland soils Boreal NA Cold temperate, dry NA Cold temperate, moist Warm temperate, dry NA Warm temperate, moist NA Tropical, dry NA Tropical, moist NA Tropical, wet NA Tropical montane NA Table 11 Land use factors (IPCC 2006) Land-use Temperature regime Moisture regime Land use factors (IPCC default) Error (\u00b1)225 Long-term cultivated Temperate/Boreal Dry 0.80 9 % Moist 0.69 12 % Tropical Dry 0.58 61 % Moist/Wet 0.48 46 % Tropical montane n/a 0.64 50 % 225 Error = two standard deviations, expressed as a percent of the mean; where sufficient studies were not available for a statistical analysis a default, a value based on expert judgement (40 %, 50%, or 90%) is used as a measure of the error", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5756, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "NA denotes \u201eNot Applicable\u201f, for factor values that constitute reference values or nominal practices for the input or management classes. This error range does not include potential systematic error due to small sample sizes that may not be representative of the true impact for all regions of the world.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5757, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 80, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation Permanent grassland All 1.00 Paddy rice All Dry and Moist/Wet 1.10 50 % Perennial/Tree Crop All 1.00 50 % Set-aside (< 20 yrs) Temperate/Boreal and Tropical Dry 0.93 11 % Moist/Wet 0.82 17 % Tropical montane n/a 0.88 90 % Table 12 Land management and input level factors for cropland (IPCC 2006) Land management (for cultivated land only) Land-use management Temperature regime Moisture regime Land management and input level factors (IPCC defaults) Error (\u00b1)225 Full tillage All Dry and Moist/Wet 1.00 NA Reduced tillage Temperate/Boreal Dry 1.02 6 % Moist 1.08 5 % Tropical Dry 1.09 9 % Moist/Wet 1.15 8 % Tropical montane n/a 1.09 50 % No tillage Temperate/Boreal Dry 1.10 5 % Moist 1.15 4 % Tropical Dry 1.17 8 % Moist/Wet 1.22 7 % Tropical montane n/a 1.16 50 % Input level (for cultivated land only) Low input Temperate/Boreal Dry 0.95 13", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5758, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 339, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Temperate/Boreal Dry 1.10 5 % Moist 1.15 4 % Tropical Dry 1.17 8 % Moist/Wet 1.22 7 % Tropical montane n/a 1.16 50 % Input level (for cultivated land only) Low input Temperate/Boreal Dry 0.95 13 % Moist 0.92 14 % Tropical Dry 0.95 13 % Moist/Wet 0.92 14 % Tropical montane n/a 0.94 50 % Medium input All Dry and 1.00 NA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5759, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 339, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation Moist/Wet High input without manure Temperate/Boreal and Tropical Dry 1.04 13 % Moist/Wet 1.11 10 % Tropical montane n/a 1.08 50 % High input with manure Temperate/Boreal and Tropical Dry 1.37 12 % Moist/Wet 1.44 13 % Tropical montane n/a 1.41 50 % Table 13 Land management and input level factors for grassland (IPCC 2006) Land management (for grassland only) Land-use management Temperature regime Land management and input level factors (IPCC defaults) Error (\u00b1)225 Nominally managed (non-degraded) All 1.00 NA Moderately degraded Temperate/Boreal 0.95 13 % Tropical 0.97 11 % Tropical Montane 0.96 40 % Severely degraded All 0.70 40 % Improved grassland Temperate/Boreal 1.14 11 % Tropical 1.17 9 % Tropical Montane 1.16 40 % Input level (for improved grass land only) Medium All 1.00 NA High All 1.11 7 % In order to calculate the annual", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5760, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 340, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "grassland Temperate/Boreal 1.14 11 % Tropical 1.17 9 % Tropical Montane 1.16 40 % Input level (for improved grass land only) Medium All 1.00 NA High All 1.11 7 % In order to calculate the annual changes in carbon stocks due to land-use change, please refer to the following three illustrative examples226: Example 1: Transformation of \"set-aside land\" in the UK for \"annual crop production\" Aspects: \uf0b7 Climate Region of UK: Cold temperature 226 Note: The climate regions, soil types, temperature and moisture regimes, as well and the land use and management adopted in all these examples is for illustrative purposes only.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5761, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 340, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation Moisture Regime of UK: Moist \uf0b7 Soil type (typical, average, or specific, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5762, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 341, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "this might be): High activity clay soils --> SOCn = 95 t/ha (Table 10) \uf0b7 Land use 1 (before transformation): Set-aside land (< 20 yrs) --> LUF1 = 0.82 (Table 11) \uf0b7 Land use 2 (after transformation): Long-term cultivated crop land --> LUF2 = 0.69 (Table 11) \uf0b7 Land management of land use 1: none (as land use is \"set-aside land\") --> LMF1 = 1227 \uf0b7 Input factor land use 1: none (as land use is \"set-aside land\") --> IF1 = 1 \uf0b7 Land management of land use 2: Full tillage --> LUF2 = 1.00 (Table 12) \uf0b7 Input factor land use 2: High input without manure --> IF2 = 1.11 (Table 12) Factors from the tables and calculations: \uf0b7 Original carbon stock of land use 1= 95 * 0.82 * 1 * 1 = 77.9 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Final carbon stock of land use 2= 95 * 0.69 * 1.00 * 1.11 = 72.8 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Loss in carbon stock = 5.1 tonnes of Carbon per ha Resulting annual CO2 emissions to be attributed to that \"annual crop\" over the applicable entire time period of use (20 years) = 5.1 * 44 / 12 = 18.7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5763, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 341, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in carbon stock = 5.1 tonnes of Carbon per ha Resulting annual CO2 emissions to be attributed to that \"annual crop\" over the applicable entire time period of use (20 years) = 5.1 * 44 / 12 = 18.7 tonnes of CO2 emissions per ha228,229", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5764, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 341, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Example 2: Transformation of forest in Indonesia for annual crop production \uf0b7 Climate Region of Indonesia: Tropical \uf0b7 Moisture Regime of Indonesia: wet \uf0b7 Soil type: Volcanic \uf0b7 Land use 1: Native \uf0b7 Land use 2: Long-term cultivated \uf0b7 Land management and input level of land use 1: none 227 For no use of the land (i.e. fallow, natural forest, etc.), the land management factor and the input factor are both always = 1; these values are not given in the table that only lists factors for managed land (i.e. cropland and grassland). 228 The numbers are given per ha (10,000 m2) and need to be converted to the e.g. kg of harvested crop. 229 These numbers are of course to be complemented with other GHG etc. emissions from machine operation, fertiliser production, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5765, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 341, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 13 Annex B: Calculation of CO2 emissions from land transformation Land management and input level of land use 2: Reduced tillage, low input \uf0b7 Original carbon stock of land use 1= 130 * 1.00 * 1 * 1 = 130 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Final carbon stock of land use 2 = 130 * 0.48 * 1.15 * 0.92 = 66.0 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Loss in carbon stock = 64.0 tonnes of Carbon per ha230 Resulting annual CO2 emissions to be attributed to that \"annual crop\" over the applicable entire time period of use (20 years) = 64 * 44 / 12 = 234.67 tonnes of CO2 emissions per ha", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5766, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 342, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Example 3: Transformation of grassland in Canada for annual crop production \uf0b7 Climate Region of Canada: Cold temperate \uf0b7 Moisture Regime of Canada: dry \uf0b7 Soil type: Sandy soils \uf0b7 Land use 1: Permanent grassland \uf0b7 Land use 2: Long-term cultivated \uf0b7 Land management and input level of land use 1: Nominally managed (non-degraded), medium input \uf0b7 Land management and input level of land use 2: Full tillage, high input with manure \uf0b7 Original carbon stock of land use 1 = 34 * 1.00 * 1.00 * 1.00= 34 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Final carbon stock of land use 2 = 34 * 0.80 * 1.00 * 1.37 = 37.3 tonnes of Carbon per ha \uf0b7 Loss in carbon stock = -3.3231 tonnes of Carbon per ha Resulting annual CO2 emissions to be attributed to that \"annual crop\" over the applicable entire time period of use (20 years) = -3.3 * 44 / 12 = -12.1 tonnes of CO2 emissions per ha, i.e. 12.1 tonnes of CO2 accumulation / binding as soil organic carbon", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5767, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 342, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "12.1 tonnes of CO2 accumulation / binding as soil organic carbon. This last example illustrates a land transformation that results in net carbon storage in the soil. Please note that, even though this crop is credited for sequestering Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil, the temporary nature of this storage may need to be considered in the results interpretation. 230 Note that the Carbon bound in the biomass (i.e. trees) of the natural tropical forest is several times higher. 231 Negative loss, i.e. an accumulation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5768, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 342, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.1 Introduction and overview (Refers to ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) Note that this chapter refers to ruse, recycling and recovery from the perspective of the tobe-recycled end-of-life product or waste, i.e. the system that generates it, not from the perspective of a multifunctional recycling or reuse system (e.g. a mixed waste incineration plant). For solving multifunctionality of such multi-waste treatment / recycling processes see chapter 7.2.4.6 for consequential modelling and chapter 7.9 for attributional modelling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5769, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 343, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For solving multifunctionality of such multi-waste treatment / recycling processes see chapter 7.2.4.6 for consequential modelling and chapter 7.9 for attributional modelling. Terminology \u201creuse/recycle/recover\u201d and \u201csecondary good\u201d in LCA-context Through the processing of waste and end-of-life products secondary materials, energy resources, parts and complex goods are regained in a form, which allows to use them in subsequent products. There they can replace primary production of the same or another material, energy form, part, or product. Note also that this always involves some form of processing (and be it only the cleaning of refillable bottles or the in-house storage and transport as in case of internal recycling of e.g. polymer production waste). Terms and concepts: Reuse/recycling/recovery and secondary good Methodologically, all the different forms of e.g. reuse, recycling, and recovery of energy are equivalent in LCA. This covers e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5770, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 343, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Terms and concepts: Reuse/recycling/recovery and secondary good Methodologically, all the different forms of e.g. reuse, recycling, and recovery of energy are equivalent in LCA. This covers e.g. reprocessing of production waste, regeneration of nuclear fuels, restoration of buildings, reclaiming or recovering energy, reusing and further using of parts or goods, refitting of parts for other goods, repair, rehash, etc. To ease reading, all these forms are referred to as \u201creusing/recycling/recovery\u201d in this document, unless specifically differentiated. A common cover term could not be identified and the most widely understood term \"recycling\" was found incorrect as being too narrow. Note that the terms used here do not imply any legal meaning but relate exclusively to the use in LCA methodology. The product of these processes i.e. the recycled material, recovered energy, or reused or further used part or good etc. is generally referred to as the \u201csecondary good\u201d throughout the text", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5771, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 343, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The product of these processes i.e. the recycled material, recovered energy, or reused or further used part or good etc. is generally referred to as the \u201csecondary good\u201d throughout the text. The terms closed-loop and open-loop recycling (including two sub-types \u201copen loop \u2013 same primary route\u201d and \u201copen loop \u2013 different primary route\u201d) are detailed in the subchapters 14.3.2.1 and 14.3.2.2. Recycling and multifunctionality Recycling is methodologically a case of multifunctionality, with the product to be recycled having two functions: firstly the function(s) the product is primarily made for and secondly the function of providing secondary resources for use in subsequent life cycles / systems. This fully applies not only to end-of-life products but to all types of waste, as long as any valuable products are recycled from the waste.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5772, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 343, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Frequent errors: Omission or double counting/modelling of recycling An error that still in some cases of LCI and LCA studies can be seen is the omission or double counting of recycling. Care must be taken to ensure consistency in modelling and background data, avoiding e.g. that in case background already considers recycling, the recycling is modelling twice, respectively in case it is not included in the data that it is correctly modelled once. Dispute over the correct way how to model recycling The correct way how to model recycling has been extensively discussed over the past two decades. Many approaches have been suggested. These range from simple cut-offs, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5773, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 344, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Many approaches have been suggested. These range from simple cut-offs, i.e. assigning all waste management burdens and benefits of having a valuable secondary good to the second system, to a wide range of combinations of how the primary production, the waste pre-treatment, recycling steps and waste land-filling are to be shared between the first and second life cycle (and directly or indirectly the subsequent life cycles). Some of these approaches are more closely derived along the ISO hierarchy. Some (including some that have been developed in pre-ISO times) look at the justice of allocation, trying to provide incentives for an increased use of secondary goods and increased recyclability via the allocation / substitution procedures. It can also be observed that most of the discussions on how to model recycling are in fact discussions on whether to use attributional or consequential modelling in the first place", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5774, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 344, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It can also be observed that most of the discussions on how to model recycling are in fact discussions on whether to use attributional or consequential modelling in the first place. Others relate to the question whether the ISO hierarchy should be generally followed or whether the way how recycling is modelled should be derived from the goal of improving the situation (i.e. to implement incentives that award the use of secondary goods respectively improved recyclability of products). ILCD guidance: Goal-oriented application of the ISO hierarchy It is argued here that the appropriate LCI modelling provisions are to be derived by applying the ISO hierarchy based on the decision-context of the goal of the LCI/LCA study. There is no free choice but the goal limits the options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5775, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 344, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "There is no free choice but the goal limits the options. However, it will also be discussed whether the ILCD approach to recycling provides the appropriate incentives to improve the situation regarding increased use of secondary goods and improved recyclability of products, as for the given case indicated. Terms and concepts: Recycling in ISO 14044:2006 ISO 14044:2006 states that the allocation hierarchy applies also to recycling situations. It is clarified that in cases of recycling the drawing of the system boundary (between the first and subsequent life cycles) needs special attention and justification. In addition (and implicitly referring to those cases where substitution is to be applied) any change in the inherent properties of the secondary good must be taken into account. As allocation criteria (implicitly referring to cases of attributional modelling and where allocation is to be applied) the following ones should be used: Physical properties (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5776, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 344, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As allocation criteria (implicitly referring to cases of attributional modelling and where allocation is to be applied) the following ones should be used: Physical properties (e.g. mass), economic value (price ratio secondary good to primary production), the number of subsequent uses of the secondary good. Attributional modelling of recycling From the perspective of attributional LCI modelling it is appropriate to assign to both the system that generates the waste or end-of-life product and to the one that uses the secondary good the corresponding share of the inventory (e.g. emissions, consumables etc.).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5777, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 344, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Important is that the allocation is done - strictly spoken - not between the first and second life cycle, but between the two co-functions that the reused, recycled or recovered good performs once for the primary product and ones for further products as the secondary good. Note that as a preceding step the true joint process (see Figure 29) needs to be identified for all cases. Consequential modelling of recycling From the perspective of consequential modelling, the modelling is to reflect the consequences of the recycling. This implies that it has to motivate \u2013 to the most appropriate degree \u2013 both recycling (both quantitatively and qualitatively) and the use of the secondary good (again both quantitatively and qualitatively, e.g. in high value applications, substituting high value primary production)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5778, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 345, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in high value applications, substituting high value primary production). In the case of consequential modelling, the superseded mix of processes is to be determined and their avoided production is credited. This is detailed in chapter 14.5. Note that also for consequential modelling of reuse/recycling/recovery the true joint process (see Figure 29) needs to be identified. Before developing the guidance for how to model recycling in line with the goal and scope of the LCI/LCA study, the two main different recycling situations (\u201cclosed loop\u201d and \u201copen loop\u201d) will be explained. A sub-case of open loop recycling (\u201csame primary route\u201d) is introduced. 14.2 True joint process and true co-product True joint process and co-product - consequential modelling The true joint process of the generated waste or end-of-life product is that process earlier in the life cycle of the analysed system, where the function (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5779, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 345, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "a primary aluminium bar) is technically approximately equivalent to the secondary good produced from the waste or endof-life product (e.g. an aluminium bar produced from aluminium scrap). I.e. in this example, the primary aluminium bar would be the true joint product of the secondary aluminium bar. That means that first the true joint process has to be identified that is understood to produce both the primary and secondary good. Figure 29 illustrates the principle: the true joint process is the process step \"M1\" that produces a technically about equivalent good \"Xj\" to the secondary good \"Xc\" that has been obtained via recycling. The same principle applied for production waste that is recycled. Figure 29 True joint process (M1) and true co-product (Xj) for the secondary good (Xc) obtained from recycling of an end-of-life product, under consequential modelling; schematic. Under attributional modelling, Xj is the co-product of Xa, if the latter has a positive market value, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5780, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 345, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Under attributional modelling, Xj is the co-product of Xa, if the latter has a positive market value, i.e. is a valuable product. For cases of \"open loop - different primary route\" recycling (for the concept see chapter 14.3.2.2) the true joint process and co-product is slightly more difficult to be identified: this is, Extraction Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling M1 M2 Material production Xa Xc Xj", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5781, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 345, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery since the secondary is not of the same type of good as the primary good from which is derived. An example: Heavily soiled postconsumer paper packaging waste is incinerated an electricity produced. Which is the true joint process, as electricity has not been an interim production step from wood to the paper? In such cases, the process that produces a product with the minimum required functional characteristics that would be equivalent to the secondary good (e.g. electricity, as in the above example) should be considered the true joint process. This can mean to go back to the initial resource extraction, i.e. ignoring all further processing steps (except for the transport to the location where the waste is e.g. incinerated, as in this example). Here this could be e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5782, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ignoring all further processing steps (except for the transport to the location where the waste is e.g. incinerated, as in this example). Here this could be e.g. the round-wood logs delivered to the paper mill, which could be found to be the true joint product and process for the electricity. The logic is the same as before, i.e. to exclude all earlier processing steps that are not required towards obtaining an technical equivalent to the secondary good (here: electricity). In this example these would be all preceding manufacturing steps of the wood including fibre production, papermaking, paper use etc. These are exclusively required for the product of the first life cycle and hence entirely attributed to it; same as all the initial waste treatment steps of the negatively valued waste that are attributed to the first life cycle. However, the production of the e.g. round wood is the basis for both the first life cycle and for the second and further life cycles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5783, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, the production of the e.g. round wood is the basis for both the first life cycle and for the second and further life cycles. True joint process and co-product - attributional modelling The principle for this step is the same as under consequential modelling, with the difference that the final secondary good after recycling is not the co-product for which the true joint process and true co-product are identified: Under attributional modelling, this coproduct is the waste or end-of-life product as it is generated, if its market price is positive (\"Xa\" in Figure 29). Otherwise, if this market price is negative, the co-product is that valuable good that is directly produced by the process step that is located at the boundary between the first and second life cycle (see Figure 33). I.e. in contrast to consequential modelling, the further steps of recycling etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5784, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "I.e. in contrast to consequential modelling, the further steps of recycling etc. are not modelled, but at a maximum the initial treatment steps towards the first valuable product with at least minimum positive market value. Once the true joint process has been identified, the attributional and consequential modelling provisions are applied, as required. For attributional modelling that means that the two-step allocation guidance is applied as for all multifunctional processes. This is detailed in chapter 14.4.1, applying this general approach to waste and end-of-life product reuse, recycling, and recovery", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5785, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is detailed in chapter 14.4.1, applying this general approach to waste and end-of-life product reuse, recycling, and recovery. 14.3 Concepts: Closed-loop and open-loop recycling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.3.1 Closed-loop recycling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The simplest form of recycling is closed-loop recycling: the secondary good is shunted back to an earlier process in the same system where it directly replaces (\"supersedes\") input from primary production of the same e.g. material. An example is the recycling and re-melting of runners from a flow injection moulding process, where the recycled high-density polyethylene directly replaces virgin high-density polyethylene in the inlet to the process (\u201cinternal production waste recycling\u201d). Another example is the use of refillable 5 l aluminium kegs for packaging of beer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5786, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Another example is the use of refillable 5 l aluminium kegs for packaging of beer. The consumer pays a deposit, which ensures that a high percentage of the kegs are returned for refill where they supersede an input of newly produced kegs (\u201creuse\u201d).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5787, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 346, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Schematically closed-loop recycling is shown in Figure 30. Figure 30 \"Closed loop\" recycling (schematic): The recycled material, recovered energy, or reused part/product is entering again the supply-chain replacing the input of newly produced materials, energy or parts. In the cases of process-internal recycling this can even happen without any environmentally relevant recycling process (see internal loop leaving and reentering the \u201cMaterial production\u201d process). There is one variant of recycling that is sometimes interpreted as closed-loop recycling, while it is in fact a form of open-loop recycling: the secondary good is used within the same system, but it is substantially changed during recycling. A prominent example is the incineration of e.g. post-consumer plastic waste with energy recovery in form of e.g. electricity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5788, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 347, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "A prominent example is the incineration of e.g. post-consumer plastic waste with energy recovery in form of e.g. electricity. Even though the analysed system may also use electricity and the recovered energy in form of electricity may be modelled to replace this electricity, the secondary good (i.e. electricity) is a very different product than the original material (i.e. polymer), why such cases belong to \u201copen-loop recycling\u201d. It is to be noted that sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between closed-loop recycling and open-loop recycling: e.g. in the 5 l aluminium keg example the keg-refilling plant will have seen some minor modifications at the time when the used kegs are returned for another refill. Or beer of another producer is filled into the keg, hence it is not resulting in the same product. It is however providing again the same functional unit, why this is easier to be understood as closed-loop recycling from the perspective of the keg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5789, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 347, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It is however providing again the same functional unit, why this is easier to be understood as closed-loop recycling from the perspective of the keg. In the injection moulding example, the machine may produce some other kind of polyethylene parts, i.e. formally another system. From LCA perspective it can be argued that what matters most, is that the secondary good is providing again the same functional unit, independently whether it is used in the same or another product. I.e. as long as the secondary good is not changing its inherent technical properties and provides the same functional unit, closed-loop recycling best captures the situation. However, to ensure robustness and plausibility of results, as well as applicability in daily practice, there is hence a need for a coherent treatment of closedloop and open-loop cases in any case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5790, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 347, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, to ensure robustness and plausibility of results, as well as applicability in daily practice, there is hence a need for a coherent treatment of closedloop and open-loop cases in any case. 14.3.2 Open-loop recycling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) A more complex and more common form of recycling is the open-loop recycling, where at least a share of the secondary good is used in different systems. Open-loop recycling is frequent for recyclable materials that often are recycled to the same type of material, but are used for at least somewhat different products (e.g. recycled steel from a soft drink can is used to produce a beer can). Two variants should be differentiated: \u201cOpen loop - same primary route\u201d (in ISO 14044:2006 described as \"open-loop product system where no changes occur in the inherent properties of the recycled material\") and \u201cOpen loop \u2013 different primary route\u201d (in ISO 14044:2006 \"open-loop product systems where the material ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5791, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 347, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Extraction Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling, refurbishing ... Material production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5792, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 347, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery undergoes a change to its inherent properties\"). These imply a somewhat different modelling of the recycling inventory: 14.3.2.1 Open loop - same primary route (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The case of closed-loop recycling, in the stricter sense, is not very common as discussed above. From the perspective of the materiality and the potential replacement of primary production, as modelled in consequential modelling, there is however no strict necessity that the secondary good is used for the same product. Important is, that it is replacing the same primary production route. To support this differentiation, a respective sub-type of open-loop recycling is used here that stands between closed-loop and open-loop recycling: \u201cclosed loop - same primary route\u201d recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5793, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 348, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "To support this differentiation, a respective sub-type of open-loop recycling is used here that stands between closed-loop and open-loop recycling: \u201cclosed loop - same primary route\u201d recycling. An example: if steel cans are recycled to steel cans, this would be closed-loop recycling. If steel cans are recycled to tailored blanks for cars, this would be open-loop recycling. But if both the steel cans and the tailored blanks need the same steel basis they are identical regarding their primary route. This would also be applicable if the secondary good would be degraded during the recycling process, as often for e.g. for recycled polymers. Important is hence only that the secondary good effectively substitutes the same primary route, also if it does not replace the same but a lower amount. This situation is therefore called \u201copen loop - same primary route\u201d. Figure 31 illustrates this schematically", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5794, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 348, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This situation is therefore called \u201copen loop - same primary route\u201d. Figure 31 illustrates this schematically. Figure 31 \u201cOpen loop - same primary route\u201d recycling: Waste or the end-of-life product from the first system (light blue) is collected and recycled/pre-treated (green) and brought to use in OTHER systems (dark blue), but is replacing the SAME primary route of its first life cycle. 14.3.2.2 Open loop - different primary route (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The other sub-type of open-loop recycling, here referred to as \u201copen loop - different primary route\u201d, is where the secondary good replaces a different kind of material, energy or part while with the same or very similar function. An example is the incineration of postconsumer plastics with energy-recovery as electricity and use of the electricity in other applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5795, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 348, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An example is the incineration of postconsumer plastics with energy-recovery as electricity and use of the electricity in other applications. The criteria for identifying whether a secondary good is replacing the same or a different primary route and material, energy or part is not always straightforward and gradually different interim cases exist. Schematically the \u201copen loop \u2013 different primary route\u201d recycling is shown in Figure 32. Extraction1 Material production1 Assembly1 Use1 Disposal1 Recycling Disposal2 Use2 Assembly2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5796, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 348, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Figure 32 \u201cOpen loop - different primary route\u201d recycling: Waste or the end-of-life product from the first system (light blue) is collected and recycled/pre-treated (green) and brought to use in another system (dark blue), replacing a different primary production route. The open-loop recycling can in addition be anonymous in the sense that it is unknown (or exceedingly laborious to find out in practice) in which one or many system(s) the secondary good will be used (e.g. in case of electronic end-of-life product recycling in third countries). This causes additional difficulties in pinpointing the superseded processes in substitution. Often however, the one or many uses of the secondary good are known or can be sufficiently identified and quantified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5797, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 349, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "14.4 Recycling in attributional modelling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.4.1 Detailed aspects of attributional modelling of recycling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.4.1.1 Introduction (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The following main questions come up when modelling recycling in attributional modelling: \uf0b7 Where to draw the system boundary between the first and subsequent life cycles?, and \uf0b7 How to apply the ILCD two-step allocation procedure to these cases? The following information is required for answering these questions: \uf0b7 The market value of the waste or end-of-life product, \uf0b7 If the market value is below zero: Is there any valuable secondary good generated during treatment and if so in which processing step?, and \uf0b7 In any case: What are its physical characteristics and market value? The two cases of market value above and below zero need to be differentiated, as explained below: Extraction1 Material", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5798, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 349, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and \uf0b7 In any case: What are its physical characteristics and market value? The two cases of market value above and below zero need to be differentiated, as explained below: Extraction1 Material production1 Assembly1 Use1 Disposal1 Recycling Extraction2 Material production2 Assembly2 Use2 Disposal2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5799, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 349, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery 14.4.1.2 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is above zero, i.e. it is a co-product (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) Introduction If the market value of the waste / end-of-life product at its point of origin is above zero, in LCA perspective it is a co-product and the multifunctionality is to be solved by allocation. This is done applying the two-step procedure as detailed in chapter 7.9.3. As a special step, the true co-producing process is to be identified: this is that process step that has produced a product that is technically most similar to the waste / end-of-life product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5800, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As a special step, the true co-producing process is to be identified: this is that process step that has produced a product that is technically most similar to the waste / end-of-life product. The case of recycling is insofar different from the general case of multifunctionality, as the secondary good is not only a co-function of the system but itself is again and again recycled (while each time at lower amounts and/or quality, considering losses of each loop). We have hence many co-products, respectively a higher amount of secondary good uses than the amount available after the first recycling round. When aiming at identifying an inventory for the secondary good this is to be considered. Applying strictly attributional modelling, allocating by physical causality, these differently often recycled secondary goods have different inventories: some have only had e.g. one preceding recycling round, others e.g. 10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5801, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "one preceding recycling round, others e.g. 10. To come to an average inventory, the inventories of the different amounts of differently often recycled secondary good are to be integrated and averaged\u201d. This is required in practice, as the number of cycles a secondary good already has made typically cannot be measured and also as typical questions relate to the average product, not the specific cycle. First step: Total amount of uses When an end-of-life product is recycled, some fraction of the original material, parts or energy is obtained as secondary good and incorporated into a new product. If the product made from this secondary good is itself recycled, a smaller fraction of the original material, part, or energy is again obtained and incorporated into a third product. Given the recyclability and losses during recycling, the shares of the differently often recycled secondary goods in the market can be calculated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5802, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Given the recyclability and losses during recycling, the shares of the differently often recycled secondary goods in the market can be calculated. This can be summed up to represent the total amount of one unit of material that effectively has been used, once all material is lost after in theory indefinite loops of recycling: This total amount of use \"U\" is the sum of the amount of primary use \"p\" plus amount obtained after first recycling round, plus amount obtained after second recycling round, etc. An example: If one has 1 kg of a packaging made from primary route material X and can recycle the packaging with 90 % recycling rate, the total amount of uses from the primary materials is 1 kg + 0.9 kg, + 0.81 kg + 0.729 kg etc. It can hence be calculated from the total number of times \"n\" that the original material, part or energy content is recycled and by the recycling rate \"r\" of each step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5803, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It can hence be calculated from the total number of times \"n\" that the original material, part or energy content is recycled and by the recycling rate \"r\" of each step. For the first two recycling loops one obtains \"u'\" accordingly as: Formula 7 ' r p r p p u u' total amount of uses after first and second recycling loop p primary amount r average recycling rate [0...1), incorporating both collection efficiencies and processing efficiencies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5804, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 2, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery With \"n\" as total number of loops, and simplifying the resulting mathematical series, the total amount of uses after n loops is: Formula 8 r r p r p U n n i i / U total amount of use i recycling loop number n total number of recycling loops In the above example of starting with p = 1 kg and a recycling rate of 95 % (r = 0.95) after indefinite number n of loops one obtains a total amount of use of 20 kg (as in that case U = p/(1-r) ). Second step: Total life cycle inventory of total amount of use The total life cycle inventory of the total amount of use is the sum of the inventories of primary production \"P\" (up to the level of quality of the waste / end-of-life product), all recycling loops \"R\", and all final waste management of not recycled fractions and other losses \"W\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5805, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The repeated recycling processes and the disposal contribute to the total inventory. This total inventory hence includes all processes up to the level of the quality of the primary material, energy carrier or part as obtained also later via recycling, plus all recycling and waste treatment steps. It does not include however any of the processes from the manufacture and use of the products made from the material, energy carrier or part because those processes are not physically related to the production of the later reused/recycled/recovered material, energy carrier, or part232", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5806, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As prescription one obtains: Formula 9 )) /( ) ( ( * r r r R W P p I n I total LCI of total amount of use of one initial unit of primary material, part or energy carrier P LCI of primary production per unit of material, part, or energy carrier R LCI of effort for reuse/recycling/recovery per unit of material, part, or energy carrier 232 This can best be explained along an example: an aluminium beverage can, as an illustrative example, has as first co-function the function to carry and protect the beverage it contains, its second co-function is the aluminium scrap (i.e. the end-of-life can) it provides as secondary resource for subsequent product systems. To provide the first co-function of delivering the beverage, the can has to be produced, of course", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5807, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the end-of-life can) it provides as secondary resource for subsequent product systems. To provide the first co-function of delivering the beverage, the can has to be produced, of course. To provide the second cofunction of being a secondary resource in form of scrap it is however sufficient if the aluminium grade the can is made of is produced, while all other steps of transporting the aluminium to the can plant, making the can, etc. are not related / attributable to the provision of the scrap. Hence both co-functions share the production steps until the aluminium grade that is equivalent to that of the scrap is produced. The true co-producing process is hence the one that produces the e.g. metal bar in the quality as it is also available in the e.g. scrap.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5808, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery W LCI of final waste management per unit of discarded material, part, or energy carrier Final step: Average inventory per unit and value correction Now the determining physical allocation criterion is to be determined to allocate these cradle-to-gate inventories of the material, energy, or part between the two co-functions. In this case, the criterion is simply mass, as the amount of material, part or energy carrier that is physically required for both co-functions is obviously the same", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5809, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this case, the criterion is simply mass, as the amount of material, part or energy carrier that is physically required for both co-functions is obviously the same. From this one can obtain the average inventory \"e\" per unit of material, part, or energy carrier, dividing the total life cycle inventory of the total amount of use \"I\" by the total amount of use \"U\": Formula 10 ) /( ) 1( * ) /( ) ( * * r r p r r r R W P p U I e n n e average LCI per unit of material, part, or energy carrier The above expression for \"e\" can be further simplified as follows: Formula 11 ) 1( ) ( * ) 1( * n n r r r R r W P e With an indefinite number of loops the expression nr approximates 0 (as r [0...1) and the formula is simplified to yield the final version: Formula 12 r R r W P e * ) 1( * Note that this assumes technical equality between primary produced and reused/recycled/recovered material, part, or energy carrier. If these differ (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5810, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If these differ (e.g. as for many recycled polymers), a correction factor is to be introduced. This factor can be understood to correct for not full equivalence of the technical quality of the primary produced material/energy or part from the true co-producing process and the end-of-life product. Especially for complex end-of-life products, this also captures the additional effort for e.g. dismantling towards isolating the different materials or parts. This correction factor should be the market price ratio of secondary/primary material, part, or energy carrier. 14.4.1.3 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is negative (i.e. a waste treatment fee is to be paid) (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) In those cases where the waste / end-of-life product cannot directly be sold, it is not a coproduct but waste. However, there are two types of cases to be differentiated: - In those cases where during the waste treatment no valuable product is produced at all (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5811, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, there are two types of cases to be differentiated: - In those cases where during the waste treatment no valuable product is produced at all (e.g. the waste is directly land-filled, incinerated without energy-recovery, etc.), all waste treatment steps are to be modelled and the inventory is fully to be assigned to the first system that has generated the waste / end-of-life product.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5812, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 1, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery - In those cases, where during the waste treatment processes a valuable product is produced (e.g. electricity from waste incineration or a secondary good after some additional cleaning and treatment steps, etc.), this secondary good is a co-product of the first system and an allocation is to be applied. This leads to the question, which burden this secondary good is to carry. It is argued that all treatment processes that are necessary until the treated waste / endof-life product is achieving a market value of zero are within the responsibility of the first system (i.e. process steps P1 to including Pn-1 in Figure 33). This is because the waste or end-of-life product is generated by the first system, while a waste can per se not carry any burden of treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5813, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "process steps P1 to including Pn-1 in Figure 33). This is because the waste or end-of-life product is generated by the first system, while a waste can per se not carry any burden of treatment. Furthermore is it considered inappropriate to attribute all preceding waste treatment processes to the eventually produced secondary good233. An allocation of burdens to the secondary goods can plausibly therefore only be done at that process step where a valuable secondary good is produced (Pn). The following procedure shall be applied: Modelling firstly the waste / end-of-life management/treatment processes until the treated waste crosses the \u201czero market value\u201d border (see Figure 33). Subsequently the two-step allocation procedure is to be applied on this process step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5814, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Subsequently the two-step allocation procedure is to be applied on this process step. Figure 33 Allocation of waste / end-of-life products if the management / treatment processes result in any valuable product (secondary good): In addition to the allocation of the good of the true joint process and the secondary good, the inventory of the treatment process step Pn where the waste crosses the zero market value border (MV < O to MV \uf0b3 0) is to be allocated between the two life cycles: The encircled emissions, wastes and products / consumables are to be shared between the pre-treated waste / EoL product (i.e. the first system) and the secondary good (i.e. the second system). See text for details. Note that for the \"market price is below zero\" case, a double allocation is to be done: Firstly between the co-products of the true joint process (i.e. the primary good that is about equivalent to the secondary good), as always", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5815, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the primary good that is about equivalent to the secondary good), as always. Secondly, and in addition, between the pretreated waste / end-of-life product that enters the process Pn that stands at the border between the first and second life cycle and the secondary good that leaves it (see Figure 33). For both these two allocations, the same two-step procedure of chapter 7.9.3 is applied: 1st criterion of determining physical causality: if such exists during the process step when a valuable product (secondary good) is obtained, the corresponding inventory values are allocated between the first life cycle and the secondary good. 233 An example: if the waste is a highly toxic waste that needs special transport, storage and treatment in a waste incineration facility and finally a little amount of electricity is produced, this cannot justify assigning the high environmental impact of the waste treatment incl. depositing of remaining waste and ashes to the electricity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5816, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "depositing of remaining waste and ashes to the electricity. For accounting different versions of products over time, this approach would e.g. not capture improvements in the quantity or quality of wastes and end-of-life products. 2nd (product) system 1st (product) system Secondary good MV Waste / EoL product (MV < 0) Pre-treated waste / EoL product (MV < 0) Emissions Wastes ... ... Products Wastes Products Emissions ... Use phase P1...n-1 Pn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5817, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 0, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery 2nd criterion of market value: the remaining inventory exclusively of the process step that produces a valuable product (secondary good) is allocated with the market value criterion between the secondary good(s), i.e. the second life cycle, and the (potentially pre-treated) waste / end-of-life product that enters this process step, i.e. the first life cycle. Note finally that the market value of the pre-treated waste / end-of-life product before it enters the process step that finally produces a valuable secondary good, is below zero and that hence the absolute value of its (negative) market price234 shall be used when allocating between the first and second life cycle. The rest of the allocation calculation is the same. Note: the Provisions of this annex are found in the main text, in chapter 7.9.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5818, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 354, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The rest of the allocation calculation is the same. Note: the Provisions of this annex are found in the main text, in chapter 7.9.3. 14.5 Recycling in consequential modelling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.5.1 Introduction and overview As explained earlier, reuse/recycling/recovery in consequential modelling is methodologically equivalent to other situations of multifunctionality. It has some special aspects that are logically derived from the same modelling approach while they lead not always to immediately intuitive solutions. They are explained in this chapter. 14.5.2 Recyclability substitution approach (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The recyclability substitution approach (also called \"end-of-life recycling\" or \"recycling potential\" approach235) follows the logic of consequential modelling236 and is its archetypal approach for solving multifunctionality. This mechanism stimulates high recyclability in both quantity and quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5819, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 354, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This mechanism stimulates high recyclability in both quantity and quality. Note that the content of recycled material in the product itself is not directly considered in the final inventory, as that amount is corrected by the product's recyclability. In the further text, details are provided how and why this approach (combined with a correction for reduced technical properties/functionality) is also appropriate in case the recycled content needs to be stimulated for the material that is analysed. The recyclability substitution approach is described in the following Box and illustrated in Figure 34. 234 If the market value / gate fee of the pre-treated waste is e.g. \u201e-1 US$\u201c, the market value used for allocation would be \u201e1 US$\u201c. (One can interpret this also as an allocation between the secondary good and the waste treatment service that is here priced at \"1US$\")", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5820, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 354, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(One can interpret this also as an allocation between the secondary good and the waste treatment service that is here priced at \"1US$\"). 235 The term \"recycling potential\" is not well capturing - at least for short-lived products - that the actually achieved recycling rate is used. The term \"end-of-life recycling\" is only covering end-of-life products, but no production waste and has no methodological reference in its name. Hence, a different term is used here, combining the used criteria \"recyclability\" with the applied method \"substitution\". 236 See the footnote 24 on the question whether this approach and substitution in general are an attributional or a consequential approach. In fact, it is argued to be an approach both to model \"additional consequences\" (as done in Situation A and B) and \"existing consequences\" (as done in Situation C1); the latter could also be termed \"interactional\".", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5821, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 354, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Terms and concepts: Recyclability substitution approach In the recyclability substitution approach, the avoided inventory of primary production of a good is credited to the end-of-life product or waste according to the degree that it is recyclable. Only the amount of good that cannot be quantitatively obtained back from the secondary good (i.e. losses due to incomplete collection, losses during recycling, etc.) is modelled as primary production. The recycling efforts, deposition of any finally remaining waste etc. and the related impacts are part of the first life cycle. Note that this is analogous to substitute the mix of the most cost-competitive or least cost-competitive processes/systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5822, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "and the related impacts are part of the first life cycle. Note that this is analogous to substitute the mix of the most cost-competitive or least cost-competitive processes/systems. An example for \"closed loop\" and \"open loop - same primary route\" recycling (see Figure 30 and Figure 31, respectively): A product Y, made from only one material X (to make the example clearer) is produced from 2 kg primary material and 2 kg secondary material (i.e. recycled content = 50 %); see top graphic in Figure 34. The 3.5 kg that are recycled result in 3 kg secondary good of the same quality as the one produced via the primary route (recyclability by mass = 75 %). The surplus of 1 kg secondary good, that is not required for the product's production, is substituted (see the curved arrow and the \"S\" in the graphics) by 1 kg primary production of material X (\"-1 kg\")", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5823, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This results in an effective inventory for the analysed system of 2 kg - 1 kg = 1 kg of the primary-produced material X, plus its assembly and use stage, plus the \u201crecycling-processes-only\u201d inventory of 3.5 kg of the recycled end-oflife product, plus waste disposal processes for each 0.5 kg of the directly deposited end-oflife product and 0.5 kg of waste generated during recycling. Note that it does not matter whether the 2 kg used secondary material stem from the recycling of this product or any other product made of that material. (In case the quality of the secondary material would be lower than the quality of the primary material, this would be considered by crediting a lower amount or by market-value correction). If in the above example, the recyclability would be lower than the recycled content, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5824, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "If in the above example, the recyclability would be lower than the recycled content, e.g. resulting in only 1 kg secondary material (second graphic in Figure 34), the lacking 1 kg of material would be added by primary produced material X (\"1 kg\"), to complete the required 4 kg. Applying the same approach, but this time for another product, assuming that the secondary material X would normally not be used but disposed off (see third graphic in Figure 34): if 3 kg of the secondary material X are produced but only 2 kg are used in the production of the product, 1 kg needs to be disposed off; this is to be modelled instead of crediting avoided primary production (\"1 kg\" to disposal; see lower left process box). If however the analysed product would using more secondary material X than it produces (bottom graphic in Figure 34), this means that the here additionally required 1 kg of secondary X has to come from somewhere else", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5825, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "As any additionally produced amount secondary X is disposed off, this additional demand diverts 1 kg of secondary material X from landfill, i.e. the product gets a credit of 1 kg avoided disposal (\"-1 kg\" avoided disposal; see lower left process box). In summary, this approach is rewarding a high recyclability, especially of valuable resources/goods and/or recycling to higher value secondary goods. Recycled content is rewarded when otherwise unused/landfilled secondary resources are used. Note that the routes of primary production and of the substituted primary production do not need to be identical, as e.g. a specific route may be used for the purchased material, while the credit would be given for the mix of the most cost-competitive routes (under full consequential modelling; but see simplifications for Situation A, B, and C1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5826, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Lower quality of the secondary good is considered by substituting accordingly less primary production or applying value correction (details see chapter 14.5.3.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5827, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 355, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Note that the recyclability substitution approach applies fully analogously to production waste and to other forms than recycling such as energy recovery, parts reuse, etc. An example for open-loop recycling, with the example of \"further use\" of a product: If I produce a metal-table of 4 kg metal X and after some years, I foresee a further use of the table (e.g. high class restaurant that is selling their tables after 5 years for further use elsewhere). The alternative route for the buyer of these tables is the primary production of such a table. Given the 5 years reduced average lifetime (at a total technical lifetime of e.g. 20 years), we would give a credit237 of 15/20 = 75 % of the inventory of the newly produced table. These 75 % of the remaining lifetime is the functional equivalent the product has", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5828, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 356, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "20 years), we would give a credit237 of 15/20 = 75 % of the inventory of the newly produced table. These 75 % of the remaining lifetime is the functional equivalent the product has. In addition, after its useful life the table can still be recycled, achieving an e.g. 87.5 % recyclability rate, i.e. 87.5 % (i.e. 3.5 kg) primary metal production would be credited to the combined life cycles of the first and second use of the table. If the original table was produced with 2 kg primary metal X and 2 kg secondary metal X, we have a surplus of 3.5 kg - 2 kg = 1.5 kg secondary metal X, for which the system gets the respective credit of avoided primary production. As the recycled metal and the credits are part of the production of the table, in the end the first use of the tables carries 25 % of the inventory and the further (i.e. second) use 75 %, plus each of them any specific activities during their use such as cleaning etc. Note that if instead of the functional equivalent (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5829, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 356, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "second) use 75 %, plus each of them any specific activities during their use such as cleaning etc. Note that if instead of the functional equivalent (i.e. table years of use) the market value correction would be used, it can be assumed that the first use of te table would carry a higher share of the overall inventory, as a 5 year old table would probably be sold for less than 75 % of its original price. This illustrates that it is important to aim at depicting the actually replaced quantity of the function, instead of using the value correction; any lack of accuracy from the value correction would need to be considered in the interpretation. Note also that this is also an example of joint production, of the two uses of the table. The example also illustrates that for cases of \"further use\" it is necessary to consider the full cycle, here up to recycling back to the originally produced material, along all the uses that the original material may have (as far as quantitatively relevant)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5830, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 356, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The recyclability substitution approach then simply calculates the inventory per functional unit (here: 20 years table use) and that the different uses of the table (here: 5 years restaurant, 15 years other uses) carry the same inventory per unit of function (here: per year of use). What if the end-of-life of the table after its second use would result in very different use (e.g. the metal would be powdered and used as some polymer filler), i.e. there is no link back to the original table production: the table would get a credit of avoided production of the superseded alternative filler. The table production would be modelled entirely from primary produced metal as the system is an open-loop system, i.e. does not return secondary metal. The two uses of the table share the inventory in the same ratio as above, per functional unit, here per year of useful life. 237 Applicable in a growing, stable or slightly declining market.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5831, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 356, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Extraction Material production Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling 2kg 4kg 0.5kg 4kg 2kg 3kg (recyclability = 75%) 2kg 4kg 3.5kg 0.5kg disposal processes for 0.5kg+0.5kg recycling processes for 3.5kg primary production for 2kg \u2212(avoided) primary production for 1kg = primary production for 1kg S Extraction Material production -1kg -1kg Extraction Material production -1kg -1kg Extraction Material production Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling 2kg 4kg 2.5kg 4kg 1kg 1kg (recyclability = 25%) 2kg 4kg 1.5kg 0.5kg disposal processes for 2.5kg+0.5kg recycling processes for 1.5kg primary production for 2kg + 1kg = 3kg S Extraction Material production 1kg 1kg Extraction Material production 1kg 1kg 1kg Extraction Material production Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling 2kg 4kg 0.5kg 4kg 2kg 3kg (recyclability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5832, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 357, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Material production 1kg 1kg Extraction Material production 1kg 1kg 1kg Extraction Material production Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling 2kg 4kg 0.5kg 4kg 2kg 3kg (recyclability = 75%) 2kg 4kg 3.5kg 0.5kg disposal processes for 0.5kg+0.5kg recycling processes for 3.5kg Disposal (secondary material) 1kg primary production for 2kg disposal processes for 1kg S Extraction Material production Part production & Assembly Use Disposal Recycling 2kg 4kg 2.5kg 4kg 1kg (recyclability = 25%) 2kg 4kg 1.5kg 0.5kg disposal processes for 2.5kg+0.5kg recycling processes for 1.5kg Disposal (secondary material) -1kg primary production for 2kg avoided disposal processes for 1kg S 1kg 1kg Figure 34 Recyclability substitution approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5833, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 357, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Explanations see \"Terms and concepts\" box and text. Note that this applies analogously to reuse and recovery processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5834, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 357, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery 14.5.3 Detailed aspects of using the recyclability substitution approach of consequential modelling (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) 14.5.3.1 Introduction (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) The recyclability substitution approach is especially suitable for \u201cclosed loop\u201d and \u201copen loop \u2013 same primary route\u201d cases and where the secondary good enters the same system somewhere else in the background system (e.g. electricity from waste incineration). However, also if the secondary good is of a different kind as the primary good (i.e. in open loop - different primary route situations), analogous results are achieved by crediting the respectively superseded mix of other processes / systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5835, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 358, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "in open loop - different primary route situations), analogous results are achieved by crediting the respectively superseded mix of other processes / systems. For closed loop cases, this approach can also be interpreted / understood as a (product) system wide, average internal recycling loop, with any surplus of secondary goods provided (compared to the recycled content of the recycled end-of-life product or waste) resulting in additional credits for avoided primary production and any reduced provision of secondary goods resulting in additionally modelled primary production. It also applies if the secondary good has a lower quality than its primary route delivers (as can be the case e.g. for recycling of post-consumer plastic waste). In that case, the change in functional equivalence between the secondary good and the superseded product is considered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5836, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 358, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "for recycling of post-consumer plastic waste). In that case, the change in functional equivalence between the secondary good and the superseded product is considered. Four aspects need attention in this context when applying the recyclability substitution approach: \uf0b7 The way how the recyclability is defined/measured, \uf0b7 changes in the inherent properties of the secondary good, \uf0b7 identifying the superseded process(es), and \uf0b7 time aspects in \u201cdelayed\u201d recycling of long-living products. Note that in analogy to delayed Climate change relevant emissions from other processes (see chapter 7.4.3.7.3), also delayed Climate change relevant emissions and credited future avoided burdens from recyclingshould be considered in the inventory", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5837, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 358, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "However, in calculating the results and interpretation, the storage and delayed emissions are only considered if a discounting of climate change / radiative forcing is explicitly foreseen as part of the goal definition of the study; per default this is not considered, since the LCA approach per default is not discounting impacts over time. These issues are addressed in the following subchapters: 14.5.3.2 Determining recyclability (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) Under recyclability in the sense as required for use in the recyclability substitution approach, the term is to integrate all losses that occur for whatever reason. This covers all process from the point when the waste is generated or the end-of-life product is reaching the end of its useful life to the point of the produced secondary good. This includes e.g. loss due to incomplete collection, sorting, recovery, during recycling processing, rejection, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5838, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 358, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This includes e.g. loss due to incomplete collection, sorting, recovery, during recycling processing, rejection, etc. In short, the recyclability is the % of the primary good's amount in the waste or end-of-life product that can be found in the secondary good(s).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5839, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 358, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Both average numbers for a material can be of interest and product-specific recyclabilities (e.g. 85 % average recyclability of material X in Europe, or 70 % specific recyclability of material X from product Y); this depends on the study. Note that for different materials, parts etc. that are reused/recycled/recovered from complex products, these calculations need to be done separately for each secondary material, part, etc. (e.g. copper and PVC from cable recycling). For practical reasons and for long-living products the recyclability should per convention be the currently achieved recyclability for this product (or for new/projected products of comparable products in the same market). This is unless the study would explicitly look at the effect of different recyclability scenarios e.g. in design-for-recycling studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5840, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 359, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is unless the study would explicitly look at the effect of different recyclability scenarios e.g. in design-for-recycling studies. 14.5.3.3 Changes of inherent technical properties of the secondary good (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3.2) The technical properties of a material or part can be unfavourably changed in the refurbishing, recycling or recovery process (e.g. shortening of fibres in paper recycling, greyish colour and less good processing properties of recycled polymers due to limited sorting specificity and remaining content of additives, fillers etc., shortened lifetime of a reused mechanical motor part, etc.). This \u201cdown-cycling\u201d can mean that the secondary good cannot replace the primary produced material or part, or only in certain applications. In addition or alternatively this can mean that the secondary good can replace it only after additional measures have been performed, and/or to a limited degree, or for a limited duration (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5841, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 359, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In addition or alternatively this can mean that the secondary good can replace it only after additional measures have been performed, and/or to a limited degree, or for a limited duration (e.g. due to a reduced lifetime of a reused part). For those e.g. materials that degrade during use and recycling, this puts a limit to the number of cycles that they can go through, also independently from any quantitative losses that occur. There is a range of specific consequences and corresponding solutions to address this \u201cdown-cycling\u201d, that need a closer view: In some cases, the secondary good can only replace the primary produced material or part in some of the applications, where the requirements to the changed property are not too demanding. In other cases, a higher amount of the recycled material is needed than of the virgin material, in order to provide the same functionality (e.g. stiffness of a polymer part)238", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5842, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 359, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In other cases, a higher amount of the recycled material is needed than of the virgin material, in order to provide the same functionality (e.g. stiffness of a polymer part)238. In again other cases, the down-cycled secondary material is to be mixed with primary material or higher quality secondary material to meet the minimum technical specifications. On the other hand, the effect of downcycling may be substantially counteracted by special technologies: these may be able e.g. remove a too high amount of tramp elements from steel. Or e.g. subsequent purification steps are applied to recovered solvents. In summary: The changed properties of the potentially down-cycled secondary good and the consequences in its use must be considered when modelling the substitution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5843, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 359, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In summary: The changed properties of the potentially down-cycled secondary good and the consequences in its use must be considered when modelling the substitution. This is done by two mechanisms: if the specific use or uses of the secondary good are known, the actually replaced amounts of the superseded process(es) / system(s) are 238 Note however that: this is a different issue that is not to be explicitly considered here as it is implicitly already covered via a lower market price.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5844, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 359, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery modelled. If the uses or amounts are not known, \u201cvalue correction\u201d239 is applied, i.e. by using the market-price ratio of the secondary good to the superseded primary produced good, crediting an accordingly reduced amount of the primary material inventory. Two examples are given to illustrate this value correction, one for \"closed loop\" or \u201copen loop \u2013 same primary route\u201d recycling and one for \"open -loop - different primary route\": If e.g. for a polymer-based product of 0.2 kg weight, the recycled polymer granulate may have a market price of e.g. 0.9 US$ / kg. The primary material granulate that is replaced in the same (or different) product may cost 1.2 US$. In that case only 0.9/1.2 = 0.75 shares (i.e. 75 %) of the 0.2 kg, i.e. 0.15 kg, primary polymer would be substituted (\u201ccredited\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5845, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In that case only 0.9/1.2 = 0.75 shares (i.e. 75 %) of the 0.2 kg, i.e. 0.15 kg, primary polymer would be substituted (\u201ccredited\u201d). An example of \"open loop - different primary route\" recycling, involving energy-recovery: For another polymer-based product of 0.2 kg weight, the recycled polymer might due to e.g. material-degrading after long-time use or due to soiling etc. only be used for energy recovery. The secondary good would in that case be the e.g. 0.28 kWh240 electricity generated from the incinerated plastic waste that is fed into the grid. This electricity is technically equivalent but also be assumed to have the same market price as the average large producer electricity price of e.g. 0.04 Euro per kWh. In consequence, the full241 0.28 kWh primary produced electricity would be substituted (\u201ccredited\u201d)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5846, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "0.04 Euro per kWh. In consequence, the full241 0.28 kWh primary produced electricity would be substituted (\u201ccredited\u201d). Under full consequential modelling, the superseded electricity would be the mix of the most 242cost-competitive technologies of the electricity market / country where the recycling takes place (but see the simplifications for Situation A, B, and C1). The next text-sections will show that this approach is reasonable also for very different reasons: 14.5.3.4 Identifying superseded processes in line with market consequences to consider (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapter 4.3.4.3) It is often argued, that the life cycle model should give the correct incentives for more and better recycling, if there is a high demand for this secondary good or for higher quality. At the same time it should give an incentive for more use of the secondary good, if there is little demand for it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5847, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "At the same time it should give an incentive for more use of the secondary good, if there is little demand for it. For meeting these requirements, two different perspectives can be taken to identify the superseded process(es): firstly the consequential approach of identifying the superseded processes / systems. Secondly the perspective looking at how to steer the waste 239 Another and more specific approach discussed is to use the changes in the relevant specific technical properties as corrector. While this would allow using a correction-factor that closer relates to the technical properties, it has a number of shortcomings: 1) It involves subjective choices on which technical property to use for correction. This lowers the reproducibility, even more so as often several properties are affected that only jointly define the technical usability/value of a secondary good. These properties cannot simply be added up, as they are measured in all kinds of different units", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5848, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These properties cannot simply be added up, as they are measured in all kinds of different units. Also, some properties may be qualitative (e.g. mixed and dark colours of secondary goods). 2) The technical properties do not reflect the important question, whether there is a real market for the secondary good or not, as e.g. perception (\u201ewaste image\u201c, \u201egreen image\u201c) plays an important role as well. 3) The necessary technical information is typically more difficult to collect or measure that are the market prices. 240 The number is illustrative and approximate only: 0.2 kg e.g. PP has roughly 10 MJ lower calorific value energy content. At 10% conversion efficiency of the waste incineration plant to electricity (considering the internal consumption for off-gas cleaning etc.) 1 MJ electricity, i.e. 1 [MJ] / 3.6 [kWh/MJ] = ca. 0.28 kWh remain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5849, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "1 [MJ] / 3.6 [kWh/MJ] = ca. 0.28 kWh remain. 241 While 100% of the produced electricity is credited, the absolute environmental benefit that is credited is clearly lower than crediting the use of replacing the 0.15 kg primary PP of the preceding example. 242 \"Most\" cost-competitive if the market is \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\", as assumed in case of this electricity market.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5850, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 360, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery / end-of-life product situation towards an overall improvement, i.e. reduction of impacts. The following paragraphs look at the same question from these two perspectives: Consequential modelling perspective In consequential modelling, considering the two cases of \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\" markets and of \"strongly declining\" markets, and deriving the most likely superseded processes, the following would be modelled: \uf0b7 Additional supply of the secondary good, as surplus from recycling (i.e. more secondary good generated than used in the product's production): - For \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\" markets, the additionally available amount of the secondary good would supersede the mix of the most cost-competitive primary production process(es) of the same material, energy, or part", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5851, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 361, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- In \"strongly declining\" markets, the additionally available secondary good could be argued to not be used at all. However, the way the recyclability is defined here, i.e. capturing the actual availability and use of the secondary good in the market, it is de facto used and is to be credited as well. It will supersede in this case the mix of the least cost-competitive processes / systems. If the secondary good is at least partly un-used (i.e. deposited)243, any additional supply would directly go to waste depositing, as the market is already saturated/over-supplied. Accordingly, no credit is given, but waste depositing is modelled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5852, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 361, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "deposited)243, any additional supply would directly go to waste depositing, as the market is already saturated/over-supplied. Accordingly, no credit is given, but waste depositing is modelled. \uf0b7 Additional demand for the secondary good: An additional demand for the secondary good occurs, if the amount of secondary good that is generated by recycling is smaller than the amount that is used in the product's production: - In \"growing, stable, or slightly declining\" markets again the most cost-competitive processes / systems would be affected, in this case the production of the lacking amount is modelled as additional primary production inventory. If this additional demand relates to an at least partly un-used (i.e. deposited) secondary good, the avoided waste treatment of the otherwise not used secondary good is credited. - Finally, in \"strongly declining\" markets, the additionally demanded secondary good would supersede again the mix of the least cost-competitive processes / systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5853, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 361, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- Finally, in \"strongly declining\" markets, the additionally demanded secondary good would supersede again the mix of the least cost-competitive processes / systems. If the secondary good is at least partly un-used (i.e. deposited), any additional demand would avoid the waste deposition of the same secondary good that is produced from other waste or end-of-life products. Accordingly, a credit for avoided waste depositing is given. The specifically superseded amount of primary good or the relative market value of the secondary good vs. the replaced good is used to reflect the reduced technical properties of the secondary good. If this information is lacking, market-value correction is done. 243 This is indicated by a market value of below zero, while still it is used in some application. Note that the value is below zero and not \"zero or below\", as the waste depositing has a cost (i.e. a gate fee is to be paid)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5854, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 361, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Note that the value is below zero and not \"zero or below\", as the waste depositing has a cost (i.e. a gate fee is to be paid). That means that it is not automatically clear from the market price alone whether a secondary good is at least partly deposited. This is exactly then the case if the negative market value equals the waste fee. These fees differ considerably among countries globally and also for the type of waste to be deposited; they are roughly in the range of -0.005 US$ and -0.5 US$ per kg.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5855, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 361, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery Perspective of creating Incentives for increased recyclability vs. increased use of secondary goods In markets that are growing or where for other reasons (e.g. \u201cgreen image\u201d) the demand for a secondary good is higher than the amount that is available via recycling/reuse/recovery (e.g. in most but not all current material markets), the main necessity is obviously to increase the recycling rate (i.e. recyclability) and not the demand for recycled materials (i.e. recycled content). A comparatively high market price of the secondary good compared to the price of the same primary good means at least one of the following: - the market is growing AND the recycled material is of sufficient / high quality and/or - there is demand for the secondary good for other reasons (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5856, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 362, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "positive \u201cgreen\u201d perception) In consequence, mainly the quantitative extent of reuse/recycling/recovery needs to be promoted, i.e. the recyclability. This is what the approach \u201crecyclability substitution\u201d does. A comparatively low price of the secondary good (compared to the one of the primary produced good) indicates at least one of the following: - there is a high recycling rate for some reason that provides an excess of the secondary good, and/or - the achieved technical quality of the secondary good is low (in view of the required minimum quality for most applications; this is typical for down-cycling in open loop), and/or - there is a limited demand for the secondary good for other reasons (e.g. \u201cwasteimage\u201d perception, hygiene legislation, etc.). If the amount that is available via reuse/recycling/recovery is higher then the demand, and the market value is accordingly below zero, the main necessity is to increase the demand for the secondary good (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5857, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 362, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "recycled content) and/or its technical quality (i.e. high-quality recyclability), but not the simple recycling rate (i.e. general recyclability). That situation seems to call for either using the recycled content approach, or for only considering high-value recyclability, or overcoming the obstacles/constraints of e.g. hygiene legislation. This however would need a deeper investigation of identifying the underlying causes while a generally applicable, reproducible calculation rule is required here that still provides the right incentives. Is the recyclability substitution providing this solution?: The recyclability substitution considers the reduced technical properties, i.e. how much of which alternative primary good the secondary good is able to replace. Or it considers this via value correction. In both cases, for producing low quality / low value or even value-less secondary goods, a lower credit is given", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5858, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 362, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Or it considers this via value correction. In both cases, for producing low quality / low value or even value-less secondary goods, a lower credit is given. The value-corrected credit reflects hence both the amount and quality of the secondary good, stimulating higher quality recycling or other measures that effectively overcome other existing obstacles to use the secondary goods (e.g. overcoming waste image, changing legislation, etc.). If the additional supply of secondary good is just ending in a waste deposit, no credit is given, but waste depositing is modelled. If the analysed system uses otherwise deposited secondary goods, the recyclability substitution approach gives a clear incentive to do so, as avoided waste depositing is credited - the more is used as recycled content and the more problematic the waste's deposit behaviour is, the more credit is given. In such cases, a higher recycled content is rewarded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5859, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 362, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery and stimulated. This stimulation is proportionally stronger, the lower technical quality / value the secondary good has. Conclusion The recyclability substitution approach with value correction and considering the supply/demand of otherwise deposited secondary goods yields the right incentives for both stimulating quantity and quality of recyclability and use of secondary goods, as required in the respective situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5860, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 363, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "14.5.3.5 Time aspects in \u201cdelayed\u201d recycling of long-living products (Refers to aspect of ISO 14044:2006 chapters 4.3.4.3, 4.2.3.5, 4.2.3.6.2 and 4.3.2.1) If carbon storage and delayed emissions are considered in an LCA study, the following applies: In line of the 100 years time-horizon of inventory data collection and Climate change impact modelling, the question arises, how to account for the delayed/future benefits of providing recyclable long-living products to future generations. For the question of biogenic and fossil delayed emissions of greenhouse gases, the same question was answered by using a special flow that keeps the information of the delay of up to 100 years in the inventory. Using the same approach, future recycling is to be modelled by using a correction flow for greenhouse gases related to recycling operations and equally for the credits of future reuse/recycling/recovery. This is done by using the same correction flows, so that the full information is kept", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5861, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 363, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is done by using the same correction flows, so that the full information is kept. However, as LCA in general has an infinite time-horizon, by default this correction flows are not considered when calculating the results. If radiative forcing is explicitly meant to be discounted to zero over 100 years from the time of the study, this is to be explicit part of the goal definition. This means that only in that case the avoided future emissions of CO2, CH4 and N2O for avoided primary production of e.g. copper from cables, calculated using the recyclability substitution approach, would be scaled down for a product with a life-time of 10 years (e.g. a car) by 10 % (i.e. 10 years / 100 years). Note: the Provisions of this annex are found in the main text, in chapter 7.2.4.6; but observe the specific simplified provisions made for Situation A, B, and C1 in chapters 6.5.4.2 and 6.5.4.3.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5862, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 363, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 14 Annex C: Modelling reuse, recycling, and energy recovery", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5863, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 364, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) 15.1 Introduction and overview (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Sometimes, elements of the goal and scope definition are, possibly inadvertently, performed in a way that leads to misleading results. Or the results of an LCA are interpreted in a way that is not in accordance with the goal of the study or the way the analysis was scoped, and this again leads to misleading conclusions244. This appendix identifies types of errors that are made in the goal and scope definition and in the interpretation of an LCA study that can lead to misleading results and conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5864, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 365, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This appendix identifies types of errors that are made in the goal and scope definition and in the interpretation of an LCA study that can lead to misleading results and conclusions. It hence guides towards non-misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation. 15.2 Misleading goal definition and scoping (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) The goal definition defines the decision-context of the study, identifies the intended applications of the results, and names the targeted audiences. The scoping of the study is done in accordance with the goal definition, and the interpretation must also respect the goal definition. The goal definition itself might be not misleading", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5865, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 365, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The scoping of the study is done in accordance with the goal definition, and the interpretation must also respect the goal definition. The goal definition itself might be not misleading. It can however state something else than what is truly the goal of the LCA but if the scoping, the LCI and LCIA work is done in accordance with the stated goal, the misleading only occurs when the results of the LCA are interpreted according to the true goal rather than the defined goal. This is an error that occurs during the interpretation and is discussed there. In other cases also the interpretation of the results may be correct, but the results that may build on very specific goals are condensed in a way that the leads the reader to misunderstand and misinterpret or generalise the factually very limited recommendations. In this sense, also the definition of goals needs guidance to avoid it can be the basis for misleading results interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5866, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 365, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In this sense, also the definition of goals needs guidance to avoid it can be the basis for misleading results interpretation. The goal definition must hence be very clear on: - the comparative character of the LCA study (e.g. \u201cComparison of the environmental impacts associated with fuel-type A and fuel-type B for use in private cars in Country X\u201d) and if assertions about environmental superiority or equality are made and these are foreseen to be published, - the reasons to carry out the study, including the decision-context (e.g. \u201cSupport governmental decisions on the introduction of new fuel-types for private cars in Country X\u201d), - who commissioned the study (e.g. \u201cThe National Ministry for Transportation in Country X\u201d), and 244 After the goal definition and scoping, another main source of misleading results lays in the inventory and impact assessment phases: this is when the goal and scope settings are implemented in a deviating way", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5867, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 365, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is however not an issue of misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation, but of incorrect LCI and LCIA work in general and not further discussed here.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5868, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 365, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation - the target audience of the study, especially whether these have technical knowledge or LCA knowledge Furthermore are goals to be avoided that - analyse highly specific and uncommon e.g. product use case scenarios, comparing a product A exclusively with an outdated, highly inefficient and polluting alternative product B with the purpose to later demonstrate and communicate to the public the \u201cenvironmental superiority of product A\u201d. This is misleading if products C, D, etc. would be in the market, having a better environmental performance than A. Several aspects of the scope definition present a risk of errors that can lead to misleading results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5869, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 366, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "would be in the market, having a better environmental performance than A. Several aspects of the scope definition present a risk of errors that can lead to misleading results. Important examples are given in the following sections 15.2.1 Functional unit (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Failing to base comparisons on a valid functional unit: In the cases where the LCA is intended for comparison of two or more products or systems, the functional unit must give an unambiguous definition of the service or function that the compared products must provide. Based on this definition the reference flows of the products can be determined. When the functional unit does not reflect the service provided or the reference flows are not based on a functional unit, seriously misleading results may occur. Examples are: \uf0b7 The chassis of a television set can be made from plastic type A, from metal M or from bio-based material B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5870, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 366, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Examples are: \uf0b7 The chassis of a television set can be made from plastic type A, from metal M or from bio-based material B. In order to decide which of the three solutions has the lowest environmental impacts, the material impact profiles are compared for one kg of each material. This is a misleading choice of reference flow since the weight of material required to construct the chassis differs between the three materials. The correct reference flows should be derived from the functional unit (in this case one television set) and would for each material reflect the quantity applied in producing the chassis of same technical quality (e.g. mechanic stability, durability, etc.). It is rarely appropriate to compare materials on an equal weight basis. \uf0b7 A study is intended to guide the choice between refillable bottles of material A and oneway beverage cartons of material B for distribution of milk to households. An LCA is performed for one bottle and one beverage carton", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5871, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 366, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An LCA is performed for one bottle and one beverage carton. This is a misleading choice of reference flow since it ignores the fact that on average the refillable bottle is returned and reused to give a total of e.g. 25 use situations while the beverage carton is used only once. At the same time would this ignore among others the need for return transport, cleaning, etc. of the bottles and the benefit of e.g. recycling and/or energyrecovery of both products after their use. Again, the relevant reference flows should be derived from a correct functional unit, which might be \u201dPackaging 1000 litres of fresh milk in 1 l containers that may serve for distribution and storage of the milk in the chain from dairy to the private household\u201d. With this functional unit the relevant basis of comparison would be reference flows of e.g. 1000 beverage cartons and 40 bottles245. \uf0b7 In a comparison of two farming methods, the impacts from cultivating one hectare with wheat are compared", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5872, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 366, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "1000 beverage cartons and 40 bottles245. \uf0b7 In a comparison of two farming methods, the impacts from cultivating one hectare with wheat are compared. This is a misleading choice of functional unit if the results are 245 Note that in addition other functional aspects would need to be considered such as comfort, shelf-life, protection from light or from smell of the fridge, etc.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5873, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 386, "book_page": 366, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation used to support comparison of the products in which the wheat is applied: it ignores e.g. the fact that the yields will often differ between different farming methods. Quality differences of the wheat may additionally need to be considered. The correct functional unit should specify the amount of products to be compared, not the area cropped", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5874, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 367, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Quality differences of the wheat may additionally need to be considered. The correct functional unit should specify the amount of products to be compared, not the area cropped. 15.2.2 Modelling principle (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Failing to choose the proper LCI modelling principle and associated approaches The choice of modelling principle - attributional or consequential - decides whether the technologies to be covered by the collected unit process data in the inventory analysis should reflect the average technology for a given region and time-period or rather the marginal technology that is increased or decreased in use as consequence of the studied decision. The decision-context of the goal of the LCA determines the appropriate LCI modelling principle and method approach to be applied. Considering other issues such as reproducibility and robustness the practical guidance of this guidance document was derived", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5875, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 367, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Considering other issues such as reproducibility and robustness the practical guidance of this guidance document was derived. The difference between the marginal and the average can be large for some technologies. In the case of electricity generation, the marginal technology can be coal-fired power or windpower, while the average technology will typically look very different. For products or systems that use much electricity, the single choice of electricity technology (mix) will often be decisive for the overall results and the wrong choice of modelling principle will then give misleading results. The same issue applies to all kinds of processes and is hence one of the most outstanding methodological choices in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5876, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 367, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The same issue applies to all kinds of processes and is hence one of the most outstanding methodological choices in LCA. 15.2.3 Drawing of system boundaries (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Leaving out activities or whole life cycle stages that are environmentally relevant The iterative procedure applied in LCA is intended to assure that the important processes and activities are included in the inventory analysis. That means that the system boundaries are drawn so only things of minor importance are left out, and that the data quality is sufficiently strong for the most important processes to ensure robust results for the intended applications. Misleading results may occur when system boundaries are drawn in a way that important processes are excluded e.g. due to: \uf0b7 Use of too weak or irrelevant cut-off criteria (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5877, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 367, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Misleading results may occur when system boundaries are drawn in a way that important processes are excluded e.g. due to: \uf0b7 Use of too weak or irrelevant cut-off criteria (e.g. limited to mass and energy), when the chosen cut-off criteria are not in accordance with the requirements given by the intended application. Or when cut-off criteria are set on single elementary flows without consideration of their individual environmental impacts. The latter is particularly a problem for the chemical-related impact categories addressing human toxicity and ecotoxicity, where elementary flows can have characterisation factors that differ by many orders of magnitude. \uf0b7 Lack of proper screening and iterative approach causing the practitioner to focus on the wrong processes in the data collection of the inventory and miss the most important processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5878, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 367, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation Systematic exclusion of activities that play a quantitative role without checking whether this is justified by their insignificant contribution to the overall impacts \u2013 e.g. a priori decide to exclude: - the production of capital goods - services ( e.g. \u201cretailing\u201d when comparing frozen/non-frozen food, \u201cmaintenance\u201d when comparing sensitive equipment, \u201ctransportation\u201d or \u201cstorage\u201d of products - consumption of auxiliary materials (e.g. lubricants, detergents, etc.) - waste treatment (e.g. wrongly considering them as appropriate inventory flows or assuming their irrelevance). \uf0b7 Systematic exclusion of complete life cycle stages due to missing insight of their relevance for the compared products (see e.g. the example on beverage boxes vs. bottles where reuse and end-of-life where wrongly ignored to be of relevance)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5879, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "the example on beverage boxes vs. bottles where reuse and end-of-life where wrongly ignored to be of relevance). An example: In a comparison study of reusable cotton diapers and one-use diapers it would thus be misleading if one or more of the following elements were omitted from the system scope: - End-of-life of reusable diapers (also reusable products must be disposed of) - Retail and shopping of many single-use diapers vs. one reusable diaper - Auxiliary materials, e.g. \u00b0 Detergent for washing of reusable diapers \u00b0 Packaging for single-use diapers \u00b0 Special pants for reusable diapers, worn to ensure comfort \u00b0 ..", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5880, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "one reusable diaper - Auxiliary materials, e.g. \u00b0 Detergent for washing of reusable diapers \u00b0 Packaging for single-use diapers \u00b0 Special pants for reusable diapers, worn to ensure comfort \u00b0 ... 15.2.4 Choice of LCIA impact categories, LCIA methods, normalisation and weighting sets (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Limitations in coverage of environmental impacts The selection of impact categories must be consistent with the goal of the study and the intended applications of the results, and it must be comprehensive in the sense that it covers all the main environmental issues related to the system. If the goal definition does not specifically limit the scope of impacts to be covered (e.g. by defining the study as a carbon footprint study or an analysis of the energy flows in the life cycle), serious misleading may occur by omitting some of the impacts that the system has", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5881, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "by defining the study as a carbon footprint study or an analysis of the energy flows in the life cycle), serious misleading may occur by omitting some of the impacts that the system has. This is in particular when two technologies that differ in their pattern of environmental impacts are being compared. Take as an example high pressure cleaners A and B that both use electricity and water in the use stage. Cleaner B also applies detergents in the water stream and thereby provides the cleaning function specified in the functional unit with smaller use of water and energy. The use of detergents also leads to impacts in their production and use stage. An LCA that only focuses on the water and energy use will be in the favour of cleaner B but the results can be misleading if the detergent-related impacts are important.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5882, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 368, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation Selection of specific LCIA methods and normalisation and weighting sets The LCIA methods (and any normalisation or weighting factors) are to be identified in the scope definition and this decision is to be documented. Misleading results may intentionally be created by changing the choice of LCIA methods and normalisation or weighting factors after seeing the results of the impact assessment. If sub-sequent changes would be made, LCIA factors could be chosen that give the most positive results for the commissioner\u201fs own product. 15.2.5 Representativeness of data (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Representativeness is the ability of the inventory data to describe the emissions and environmental impacts of the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5883, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 369, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "It depends on how well the inventory data represent the process for which they are collected and how well that process represents the process of the system that is modelled. Good representativeness is particularly important for the most important processes of the system. Representativeness has three components \u2013 technological -, geographical \u2013 and timerelated representativeness, which interrelate and are all to be considered and met by the used data. 15.2.5.1 Technological representativeness (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Poor or distorted technological representativeness for key processes The data used to represent the key processes of the system must be representative in terms of their technology to ensure that the data has the sufficient technological accuracy. Different technologies may result in identical products (e.g. diesel fuel), but the processing steps including the raw material bases e.g. may differ completely (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5884, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 369, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Different technologies may result in identical products (e.g. diesel fuel), but the processing steps including the raw material bases e.g. may differ completely (e.g. biomass-based synthetic diesel vs. crude-oil based diesel). The use of data that lacks the correct technological representativeness can often be as wrong as using data from a completely different product. In addition and especially for comparative assertions a balanced representativeness is crucial. This is illustrated in two examples: \uf0b7 In a comparative LCA study commissioned by company A who wants their food packaging produced from plastic X compared to a competing product produced from metal Y. The consultant performing the study receives specific data for all of company A\u201fs own processes and the company supports the procurement of specific data from all of the main suppliers involved in the product chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5885, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 369, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the competing product, company A and its consultant have no specific information and the consultant is obliged to rely on generic data from third party databases for all key processes. The result is an (unintended) distorted technological representativeness that poses a great risk of misleading results. \uf0b7 In a comparative LCA study of vehicle fuel production technologies, the current very widespread technology A is compared to the planned new technology B, which at this point is still only working in laboratory scale. Using the available data for the two technologies leads to a distorted technological representativeness for the future situation, as the development and maturation levels of the technologies are not the same. Assuming the yields and efficiencies observed today in lab scale to be directly representative for the future commercial scale situation is not reasonable and some sort", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5886, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 369, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation of extrapolation is required but must be done with caution to avoid a misleading bias in the technological representativeness. This case is closely linked to time-related representativeness (see Section 15.2.5.3) 15.2.5.2 Geographical representativeness (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Poor or distorted geographical representativeness The data used for the key processes must also be representative in terms of their geographical origin and coverage. The LCA practitioner performing the study must identify key processes and key assumptions that vary according to the geographical location and ensure the proper geographical representativeness for these", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5887, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 370, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Geographical representativeness and technological representativeness are often related in the sense that poor geographical representativeness means that the applied data represents a different technology (mix) from what is applied in the system. Similarly as using data from a different technology route, also using data from different regions can lead to completely wrong results, as big differences in the inventories may exist. 15.2.5.3 Time-related representativeness (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Poor or distorted time-related representativeness for key processes: The data used for the key processes must also be representative in terms of their timerelated origin (age). Again, there is a close relation to technological representativeness; as technology is developed and changed over time, a poor time-related representativeness often also means a poor technological representativeness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5888, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 370, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is especially the case for fast developing technologies, e.g. in ITC systems, renewable energy systems, services, and the like. For basic materials and energy carriers these changes are much slower. Data sets should therefore inform about the validity (\u201cexpiry date\u201d) of its inventory. Two examples: \uf0b7 In the above comparison of company A\u201fs plastic-based food packaging with the food packaging produced from metal Y, quoted in Section 15.2.5.1, part of the distortion in the representativeness of the applied data resides in a distorted time-related representativeness: The data of company A\u201fs own production and supply chain is quite recent and represents the current state of operation for all its own processes and data for suppliers is also recent. In contrast, the data for the competing food packaging is retrieved from databases or literature and as such typically at some years old, some of it potentially much older", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5889, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 370, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In contrast, the data for the competing food packaging is retrieved from databases or literature and as such typically at some years old, some of it potentially much older. This bias in the time-related representativeness is followed by a further bias in technological representativeness due to the typical development of technology, typically to the advantage of the food packaging from company A. \uf0b7 In the identification of focus points and design recommendations for ecodesign of a refrigerator to be sold, used, and disposed off in Region X, an LCA is performed to find the hotspots of the life cycle. The refrigerator may be expected to have a lifetime of 15 years. In order to avoid misleading results on the impacts of the end-of-life, the data for the disposal and material recycling processes in Region X should be forecasted or at least taken from the present best available technology (BAT). This is to represent the most probable situation when the refrigerator ends its functional life", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5890, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 370, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is to represent the most probable situation when the refrigerator ends its functional life. Again, the timerelated representativeness is closely related to technological representativeness through the development of technology in time.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5891, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 370, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation 15.2.6 Consistency in comparison of systems and products (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Inconsistent scoping of systems in comparative LCAs In order to avoid misleading results, it is important that the scoping is done consistently for the different parts of the system, or for the different systems in case of comparative LCAs. In particular in the case of comparative LCAs, inconsistent treatment of any of the scoping aspects covered by Sections 15.2.1-15.2.5 can easily lead to misleading results and conclusions, \uf0b7 if the compared products A and B do not provide the same functionalities due to an inappropriate definition of the functional unit, \uf0b7 if different modelling principles are applied in the analysis of the compared products A and B and e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5892, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 371, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "marginal technologies used for key processes in the life cycle of product A while average technologies are assumed for the corresponding processes in the life cycle of product B (which is in addition also an example of inconsistent technological representativeness), \uf0b7 if the system boundaries are drawn in an inconsistent way, or \uf0b7 if the representativeness (technological, geographical or time-related) of the data differs relevantly for some of the key processes in the life cycle of products A and B. 15.3 Misleading interpretation (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Introduction In the interpretation phase the results of the LCA study are appraised and interpreted in order to answer the questions posed as part of the goal definition or by the intended applications of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5893, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 371, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The outcome of the interpretation are be conclusions or recommendations that are to respect the intentions and restrictions of the goal and scope definition of the study and also take into account the appropriateness of the functional unit and system boundaries in relation to the goal. The interpretation must thus be closely linked to the goal which was defined in the beginning of the study and respect the limitations that the scoping puts on the validity domain of the results. Misleading interpretation occurs when: Interpreting the results beyond what is supported with the chosen scope definition An example of this form of misleading interpretation is when conclusions for specific cases (e.g. specific technology, specific use scenario, specific country) are generalised to be valid for broader cases (family of technologies, all uses, globally). An example: \uf0b7 In a comparative study of diapers the goal may be defined as \u201cComparison of reusable and single-use diapers in Country X\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5894, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 371, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "An example: \uf0b7 In a comparative study of diapers the goal may be defined as \u201cComparison of reusable and single-use diapers in Country X\u201d. In Country X the single-use diapers may be treated together with household waste, i.e. incinerated with recovery of the produced energy, where as the electricity used for washing the reusable diapers may be produced from stronger polluting energy sources. This specific combination may give the single-use diapers a competitive edge over multi-use diapers in Country X from an environmental point of view. If this conclusion was generalised to other countries or even the global scale, the LCA consultant performing the study would disregard", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5895, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 371, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation - the fact that the end-of-life of this type of product is crucial in the life cycle perspective, - that the waste treatment of diapers in Country X is far from the situation in other countries or on a global scale where land-filling of household waste is much more common. Generalisation of conclusions to other scopes will often be a misleading interpretation. Another type of misleading interpretation occurs when: Interpreting results beyond what they can support As part of the interpretation of comparative studies an analysis of the overall achieved accuracy and uncertainty should performed, at least qualitatively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5896, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 372, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In comparative studies, the difference in environmental impacts that is found between the compared alternatives is to be judged against the appraised uncertainty of the results in order to identify whether there is any significant difference. In the cases where the data does not support a quantitative uncertainty analysis, conclusions about superiority of one alternative over the other should still be justified by a discussion of the qualitative uncertainty of the results relative to the differences found between the alternatives and of any omissions that might change the dominance between the compared alternatives. This is to be done together with an appraisal of the accuracy of the results. An example: \uf0b7 A comparison of ball point pens shows that one type has less environmental impacts than the other in all examined impact categories, leading to the claim that \u201cPen xx\u201d is better for the environment than \u201cPen YY\u201d. The report shows that the differences are small, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5897, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 372, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The report shows that the differences are small, e.g. less than 5 % in all impact categories examined, and no form for statistical treatment of the data has been performed in order to determine a level of significance and also the accuracy of the respective results has not be judged. The claim is thus not scientifically justified, and it is likely that the interpretation is misleading. 15.4 Misleading reporting and communication (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) The misleading interpretation of comparisons (e.g. in the above example of single-use and multiple-use diapers) might not necessarily be done by the consultant who performs the study or the commissioner, but be left to the user of the results: This is if the highly specific findings are presented in a way, where the limitations and assumptions are put into annexes and footnotes only and are not clearly stated directly in context of the presentation of conclusions and recommendations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5898, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 372, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Reporting and communication equally has to consider any limited technical and LCA methodological understanding of the addressees, e.g. of the general public. Conclusions and recommendations and the reference to limitations and assumption is hence to use the appropriate language and level of technicality for the target audience, ensuring that all targeted audience is appropriately informed about them.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5899, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 372, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation 15.5 Integrated example of misleading goal and scope definition and interpretation: cups for hot drinks246 (No corresponding ISO chapter but referring to a number of chapters) Starting point and goal definition The old cups used for hot drinks in the canteen at a large factory in country X are worn out. Company Y that owns the factory frequently uses claims of environmental sustainability in its marketing. Before purchasing new cups, the company thus wishes to investigate which solution is preferable from an overall environmental perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5900, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 373, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Before purchasing new cups, the company thus wishes to investigate which solution is preferable from an overall environmental perspective. Company Y considers the following alternative solutions: A.) Each employee gets personal own ceramic cup, brings it to the canteen takes it back to the work place and washes it by hand when deemed necessary B.) The canteen buys ceramic cups which stay in the canteen where they are washed by dishwashing machine. C.) The canteen uses single-use cups made from material Z. The cups are collected after use and treated together with household waste, i.e. transported to incinerator and burned with electricity production from the generated waste heat. Misleading functional unit and reference flow In a first attempt company Y asks a consultant perform a comparison of the environmental impacts of one ceramic cup (alternative A and B) and one single-use cup (alternative C)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5901, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 373, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is an example of misleading definition of \u201cfunctional unit\u201d: it disregards the functionality of the products that are compared. In accordance with the goal of the company and the intended application of the results an appropriate functional unit might be: \u201cCup that can contain 2 dl of hot beverage (tea, coffee, bouillon) three times per day in one year (200 working days) for 1000 employees and serve as a drinking device\u201d. With this functional unit the relevant reference flows would be 1000 ceramic cups for alternative A and B (assuming that the ceramic cups have the same average lifetime of 1 year for both use scenarios) and 6*105 single-use cups for alternative C, i.e. one ceramic cup versus 600 single use cups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5902, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 373, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "one ceramic cup versus 600 single use cups. Misleading drawing of system boundaries Based on feedback from an involved supplier, the consultant realizes that in a comparative LCA it must be consistent in the drawing of system boundaries and since there are no impacts in the use stage of the single-use cup it decides to omit the use stage for all three alternatives from the study. This is an example of leaving out life cycle phases that are important for at least one of the compared alternatives: With the frequent washing of the ceramic cups (three times per day for alternative B and perhaps 1-3 times per day for alternative A depending on the hygiene of the individual employee) and the use of hot water and detergent in the dishwashing, the use stage is probably the most important for these two alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5903, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 373, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This would have been revealed by the kind of screening based on simple calculations and easily available data or estimates that should always be carried out as a first iteration when performing an LCA. 246 This example is of course purely illustrative and virtual, including the results and conclusions that must not be misinterpreted as having any factual basis or even detailed analysis underneath.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5904, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 373, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation Misleading choice of impact categories For simplicity, company Y decides to concentrate on the carbon footprint of the three alternatives and decides to focus the data collection on the use of petrochemical fuels and feedstock in the different stages of the life cycles of the three alternatives. This narrow choice of impact categories is not in accordance with the goal to investigate the overall environmental impacts of the three alternatives. It causes misleading results in this case since two of the alternatives have potentially important other impacts from the detergents and organic load from the washing of the cups during the use stage in country X, where wastewater is discharged directly to a river even in several of the major cities across the country", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5905, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 374, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "These impacts are not revealed when only carbon footprint is assessed and the study may easily result in a wrong recommendation. Being informed about these limitations, the company decides to also include other impacts of relevance. Poor and distorted technological representativeness for key processes Company Y has found an old study of the environmental impacts from the production of ceramic cups containing all the data needed for this part of the LCA of alternatives A and B. The production covered by the study took place in a different part of the world but the cups are of a type similar to alternative A and B. For alternative C, company Y has to contact a major producer of these single-use cups and this producer provides the required information to company Y. Due to poor time-related and geographical representativeness of the data on the ceramic cups, also the technological representativeness must be expected to be poor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5906, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 374, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Due to poor time-related and geographical representativeness of the data on the ceramic cups, also the technological representativeness must be expected to be poor. In contrast, the technological, time-related and geographical representativeness is very good for the singleuse cups with data from the specific producer and supply chain of the single-use cups. This means that the representativeness of the production data is biased between the alternatives. In effect the recommendations of the study can be expected to be distorted, in this case towards favouring the alternative C. Misleading interpretation Based on the results company Y concludes that - contrary to what they expected - the single-use cups are preferable over the ceramic cup alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5907, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 374, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Misleading interpretation Based on the results company Y concludes that - contrary to what they expected - the single-use cups are preferable over the ceramic cup alternatives. It turns out that even though a lot of energy resources are used to produce the many single-use cups, the energy recovery from their combustion in the end of life treatment in recently installed municipal incineration plants is rather efficient. Furthermore the canteen\u201fs dishwasher is rather old and inefficient, and in country X the electricity is mainly produced from lignite. Overall the energy account and carbon footprint give no clear preference and the other impacts from the discharge of the untreated dishwashing water in alternatives A and B tip the balance in favour of alternative C. Company Y concludes the superiority of single use cups and implements it in recommendations to the canteens in its factories around the world to replace ceramic cups and other tableware with single-use tableware", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5908, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 374, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is an example of interpreting the results far beyond what is supported with the chosen scope definition. The dominance of alternative C relied among other aspects on: \uf0b7 The efficient recovery of heat and generation of electricity at the waste incinerators where the cups were combusted after use and the coal-based power plants producing the electricity which is replaced by electricity from the incinerator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5909, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 374, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation The lack of treatment of wastewater which means that the contents of detergents from washing the ceramic cups is discharged untreated directly into rivers of Country X \uf0b7 The inefficient dishwasher in the canteen of the factory in Country X. If these aspects are not representative of the situation in another country, the conclusion from country X will most likely not be valid here. Concluding remark This example also shows that most errors made by the company and consultant (and the related costs of changing the study and scope of data twice in its course) could have been avoided building on LCA experience. If done properly, the results would have been valid and hence the cost be justified.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5910, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": 375, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 15 Annex D: Avoiding misleading goal and scope definition and results interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5911, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 376, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 16 Annex E: Addressing uncertainties in LCA 16 Annex E: Addressing uncertainties in LCA 16.1 Introduction and overview Introduction Life cycle assessments are often comparative, i.e. performed in order to analyse differences between products, processes or other systems. The construction and analysis of the systems involves potential sources of uncertainties, not only in the case of future studies, but also in studies describing the present situation. In order to determine whether the apparent differences between the compared alternatives are real (statistically significant), it is necessary to perform an assessment of the uncertainties accompanying the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5912, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 377, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The following sections give a brief presentation of some of the concepts and approaches that can be applied for addressing uncertainties in LCA Overview Three main sources of uncertainty have been addressed: \uf0b7 stochastic uncertainty \uf0b7 choice uncertainty \uf0b7 lack of knowledge of the studied system. The stochastic uncertainties of the inventory data and LCIA methods must be considered jointly with the important choice-related uncertainties in order to determine how they propagate into the final results of the LCA. The stochastic uncertainty of final results can be assessed in two fundamentally different ways \u2013 through an analytical solution or through simulation. Uncertainty calculation is applied to quantify stochastic parameter uncertainties of data. Monte-Carlo Simulation is an especially suitable method to do so in LCA, as it allows varying many factors in parallel and calculating the overall resulting uncertainty on the system level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5913, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 377, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Monte-Carlo Simulation is an especially suitable method to do so in LCA, as it allows varying many factors in parallel and calculating the overall resulting uncertainty on the system level. When performing Monte Carlo analysis it is recommended to consider the correlation among the various data values and impact factors if it is known. The outcome of the stochastic uncertainty calculation should not be over-interpreted; it also may have high degree of uncertainty and especially of bias as it is not capturing systematic uncertainty and gaps in modelling and data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5914, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 377, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "16.2 Types and sources of uncertainty in LCA Overview Uncertainties in the results of an LCA originate in \uf0b7 the data that is used in the inventory analysis to represent the elementary flows for all the processes in the system \uf0b7 the data that is used in the impact assessment for translating the inventory flows into environmental impact scores \uf0b7 the assumptions that are made when constructing the system, (related to the representativeness of the processes that are used in the model)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5915, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 377, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 16 Annex E: Addressing uncertainties in LCA the choices that are made on central decisions like allocation key, choice impact assessment methodology or on which future developments are considered in future studies The uncertainty of the data for elementary flows is statistic uncertainty, i.e. of a stochastic nature. The same holds true for impact assessment factors within a given impact assessment methodology, while the uncertainty introduced by the key assumptions and choices is of a different nature in that a number of discrete outcomes are possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5916, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 378, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Stochastic data The stochastic uncertainty of process data (like emissions and input of resources) and assessment data (like characterisation factors) means that they are adequately described in traditional statistical terms providing \uf0b7 a measure of the mean, \uf0b7 a measure of the variation around the mean, and \uf0b7 information about the type of distribution that the data follows. Measured data are often assumed to follow a normal distribution or a logarithmic normal distribution (in which case the logarithm of the data value follows a normal distribution). For normal distributed data, the average and the standard deviation are used to describe the mean and the variation around the mean. Choices In contrast to the statistic uncertainty, the variation accompanying choices that are made when performing the LCA is of a discrete nature, i.e. several specific options are possible while options in between these are not", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5917, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 378, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "several specific options are possible while options in between these are not. In the case of LCAs studying future situations, a number of possible and probable future settings is defined and investigated, and only these are considered relevant, not the potential futures that lie in between. In the performance of an LCA study ,there are also potentially a number of methodological choices including: \uf0b7 LCI modelling principles \uf0b7 LCI method approaches (and normalisation basis and weighting set, if included) \uf0b7 Cut-off decisions and other system boundary settings \uf0b7 Choice of LCI data sets to represent the background processes \uf0b7 Choice of impact categories and LCIA methods \uf0b7 Other assumptions (e.g. use of upper or lower calorific value, modelling of future processes, etc.) Even within an LCIA methodology there may be choices to make in terms of time perspective or cultural perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5918, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 378, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "use of upper or lower calorific value, modelling of future processes, etc.) Even within an LCIA methodology there may be choices to make in terms of time perspective or cultural perspective. Due to the discrete nature of the choice-related uncertainties, these are not described by a continuous statistical distribution but rather modelled as separate settings for the LCA (e.g. as distinct scenarios). Secondly, there are the main choices that have the potential to influence the precision of the final results of the LCA. These can be significant choices are to be identified in a different way than the main contributors: by running the different possible choices as scenarios and comparing the scenario results.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5919, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 378, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 16 Annex E: Addressing uncertainties in LCA Ignorance A third source of uncertainty is the error attributable to ignorance, i.e. the lack of knowledge about the system, leading to omission of data or incorrect assumptions about processes or elementary flows. Ignorance is related to choice uncertainty in the sense that it shows discrete behaviour but since it is not realized, it cannot be dealt with in the way that choices are dealt with. It is not handled by quantitative uncertainty assessment, but may be revealed by a qualified peer review. 16.3 Aggregating uncertainties over the life cycle Overview The stochastic uncertainties of the inventory and assessment data must be known together with the important choice-related uncertainties in order to determine how they propagate into the final results of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5920, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 379, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For the stochastic uncertainties, the influence on the stochastic uncertainty of final results can be assessed in two fundamentally different ways \u2013 through an analytical solution or through simulation. Both require knowledge about distribution type, mean and variation for the process and assessment data. Analytical solution When the inventory results are calculated disregarding the variation of the individual inventory data (i.e. just using the mean values), the result is the true mean value of final results, but this approach fails to give any information about the uncertainty of this mean. The analytical approach to meet this challenge develops an equation describing the distribution (and hence also variation) of the final results as function of the distributions of process data for all processes in the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5921, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 379, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The analytical solution becomes a very complex expression for even a simple system but it can be approximated with a Taylor series expressing the error on the results as a function of the error on the process data for each process. Although it can be simplified in this way, the analytical approach requires qualified simplifying assumptions in order to be operational for the types of systems normally modelled in LCAs. Therefore, the simulation approach is normally applied in software used for modelling of systems Simulation Simulation of the error on the total results of an LCA is typically done using a Monte Carlo approach. Each peace of inventory data is varied independently of the other inventory data around its mean following the distribution that is specified for it (type of distribution and measure of variation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5922, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 379, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Each peace of inventory data is varied independently of the other inventory data around its mean following the distribution that is specified for it (type of distribution and measure of variation). A calculation of the inventory results is performed and stored, and the inventory data is varied again at random within the distributions to arrive at a new set of inventory results. The distribution of the calculated inventory results will approach the true distribution of the results when the number of calculations gets sufficiently high (often above 1000), and thus give an estimate of the variation around the mean for the final results. In Monte Carlo simulation it is a default assumption that all processes and elementary flows are independent and hence vary independently of each other, both within the system and among the systems that are compared in a comparative LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5923, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 379, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "This is often not the case as the processes may have a technically based mutual dependency or even be the same process occurring at different places in the system (e.g. for background processes like power production or transportation). Next to positive correlation also negative correlation occurs. Rather than independent variation, these cases may have a high degree of co-variation which will tend to either reduce or increase the variation of the final results, and it must therefore be taken into account when setting up the simulation, which is often not straight forward.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5924, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 379, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 16 Annex E: Addressing uncertainties in LCA Choice-related variation The variation in the final results that is caused by choice-related differences must be handled by separate calculations for each combination of the identified relevant choices. Where the stochastic uncertainties can be handled and aggregated into one set of final results as described above, the choice-related variation thus leads to a number of discrete results that may be presented to the decision maker together with a specification of the underlying choices as possible outcomes of the LCA, dependent on which choices are made. In order to strengthen the decision-making support of the LCA results it is important to reduce the number of choices that are considered to the required minimum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5925, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 380, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In order to strengthen the decision-making support of the LCA results it is important to reduce the number of choices that are considered to the required minimum. A pragmatic approach Simulation using the Monte Carlo approach relies on the information on the distribution of the individual elementary flows that are provided by the LCA practitioner. It is often a challenge to provide good information about the statistic distribution of all elementary flows for all processes in the system and this influences the quality of the statistic information provided by a Monte Carlo simulation. Sensitivity analysis is a useful tool to identify where good basic statistic information is most needed. The processes and flows that contribute most to the final results are also the ones with the strongest potential to contribute to the uncertainty of the final results, and particularly for these key figures, it is thus crucial that the statistical information is correct", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5926, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 380, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "In the absence of tools to support a Monte Carlo simulation, an analysis of the uncertainty of the final results may still be performed along this line, using a sensitivity analysis to identify the key processes, key elementary flows and key choices. For each of these, the potential variation is analysed and basically handled as discrete choices (for stochastic uncertainties as realistic worst case and realistic best case values) in a number of what-if calculations. The outcome in some cases allows an indicative answer to the question of the goal definition. In other cases the outcome is inconclusive meaning that a more detailed approach is needed in a new iteration, but then it helps focus the effort on some of the identified key data and assumptions. The earlier mentioned \"reasonably best case\" and \"reasonably worst case\" can be formed in this way and help to quantify approximately the range of results and hence the robustness of the results interpretation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5927, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 380, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 17 Annex F: System boundary template 17 Annex F: System boundary template A system boundary diagram is essential to clarify which life cycle stages and processes have been included in the system model. Technical audience For technical audience it makes sense to have a more formalised diagram. The system boundary template of Figure 35 is also available as MS PowerPointTM file for free use. It contains graphical elements that represent the ecosphere, the technosphere, the main life cycle stages and sub-stages, sets of product and waste flows that enter or leave the system boundary from or to the rest of the technosphere, respectively, and sets of excluded activity types and processes that need to be explicitly listed in complementation of the diagram. Alternatively also other diagrams can be used (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5928, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 381, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Alternatively also other diagrams can be used (e.g. the one described below, that is also suitable for non-technical audience) as long as it correctly depicts the system boundary, names the fist and last process step in case of incomplete life cycle models, lists quantified but not fully modelled product and waste flows, and lists excluded items. Non-technical audience For non-technical audience it is equally useful to have a representation of what is included, while less formalised. The challenge is that a system boundary diagram ideally should show all of the following: included life cycle stages, systematically excluded activity types and elementary flows, specifically excluded processes and elementary flows, and quantified but not completely modelled product and waste flows. For in-complete life cycles (e.g. cradle-to-gate) in addition the first and/or last included process step is to be identified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5929, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 381, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "For in-complete life cycles (e.g. cradle-to-gate) in addition the first and/or last included process step is to be identified. Especially to show a potentially large number of excluded activity types, processes, and flows would overload such a diagram. To provide guidance on a suitable diagram for nontechnical audience that is not misleading on what is included / excluded, it is suggested to combine a diagram with lists of excluded items. The description of the diagram shall state that it is schematic and incomplete (unless it would be complete, as possible e.g. in case of a single unit process). It would also refer to the lists of excluded items and state that in principle all relevant activities, processes and elementary flows are included in the life cycle model unless explicitly listed. .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5930, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 381, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 17 Annex F: System boundary template Figure 35 System boundary diagram template for technical audience. This example sketches a system (e.g. it could be a partly terminated system data set of an electric heater, excluding use stage but including the main recycling step). The diagram shows that the system includes the production stages up to the production of the final product plus the recycling / recovery, while excluding specific initial waste management steps (e.g. collection) and final depositing. These excluded steps would be listed separately, referring to the boxes Ein and Eout. The system also has at least one product or waste flow in the input (Pin) that needs to be completed when using the data of that system. Additionally the fist and last process step of the end-of-life stage would need to be named to ensure correct use of the data set when completing the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5931, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 382, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Additionally the fist and last process step of the end-of-life stage would need to be named to ensure correct use of the data set when completing the system. Ecosphere Rest of technosphere Production stage Use stage End-of-life stage Eout Ein Pin Uin Pout Uout Pin Eout Ein", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5932, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 382, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document 18 Annex G: Development of this document Based on and considering the following documents The background document has been drafted taking into account amongst others the following existing sources: Harmonised ISO standards \uf0b7 ISO 14040: 2006 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment \u2013 Principles and framework \uf0b7 ISO 14044: 2006 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and guidelines A large number of LCA manuals of business associations, national LCA projects, consultants and research groups as well as scientific LCA publications have been analysed and taken into account. The detailed list is provided more below. Drafting This document was initially drafted by contractors (see list below) with support under the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC) contract no. contract no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5933, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 383, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Drafting This document was initially drafted by contractors (see list below) with support under the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC) contract no. contract no. 383136 F1SC concerning \u201cDevelopment of a technical guidance handbook on Life Cycle Assessment\u201d. This work has been funded by the European Commission, partially supported through Commission-internal Administrative Arrangements (Nos 070402/2005/414023/G4, 070402/2006/443456/G4, 070307/2007/474521/G4, and 070307/2008/513489/G4) between DG Environment and the Joint Research Centre. Invited stakeholder consultations An earlier draft version of this document has been distributed to more than 60 organisations and groups", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5934, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 383, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Invited stakeholder consultations An earlier draft version of this document has been distributed to more than 60 organisations and groups. These include the 27 EU Member States, various European Commission (EC) services, National Life Cycle Database Initiatives outside the European Union, business associations as members of the Business Advisory Group, Life Cycle Assessment software and database developers and Life Cycle Impact Assessment method developers as members of the respective Advisory Groups, as well as other relevant institutions. Public consultation A public consultation was carried out on the advanced draft guidance document from June 10, 2009 to August 31, 2009. This included a public consultation workshop, which took place from June 29 to July 2, 2009, in Brussels. Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5935, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 383, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document. Overview of involved or consulted organisations and individuals The following organisations and individuals have been consulted or provided comments, inputs and feedback during the invited or public consultations in the development of this document:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5936, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 383, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document Invited consultation Internal EU steering committee: - European Commission services (EC), - European Environment Agency (EEA), - European Committee for Standardization (CEN), - IPP Regular Meeting Representatives of the 27 EU Member States National database projects and international organisations: - United Nations Environment Programme, DTIE Department (UNEP-DTIE) - World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) - Brazilian Institute for Informatics in Science and Technology (IBICT) - University of Brasilia (UnB) - China National Institute for Standardization (CNIS) - Sichuan University, Chengdu, China - Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry (JEMAI) - Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment (AIST), Japan - SIRIM-Berhad, Malaysia - National Metal and Material Technology Center (MTEC), Focus Center on Life Cycle Assessment and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5937, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 384, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Industry (JEMAI) - Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment (AIST), Japan - SIRIM-Berhad, Malaysia - National Metal and Material Technology Center (MTEC), Focus Center on Life Cycle Assessment and EcoProduct Development, Thailand Advisory group members Business advisory group members: - Alliance for Beverage Cartons and the Environment (ACE) - Association of Plastics Manufacturers (PlasticsEurope) - Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy plants (CEWEP) - European Aluminium Association - European Automobile Manufacturers' Association (ACEA) - European Cement Association (CEMBUREAU) - European Confederation of Iron and Steel Industries (EUROFER) - European Copper Institute - European Confederation of woodworking industries (CEI-Bois) - European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers (FEFCO) - Industrial Minerals Association Europe (IMA Europe) - Lead Development Association International (LDAI) - Sustainable Landfill Foundation (SLF) - The Voice of the European Gypsum Industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5938, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 384, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(FEFCO) - Industrial Minerals Association Europe (IMA Europe) - Lead Development Association International (LDAI) - Sustainable Landfill Foundation (SLF) - The Voice of the European Gypsum Industry (EUROGYPSUM) - Tiles and Bricks of Europe (TBE) - Technical Association of the European Natural Gas Industry (Marcogaz) Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5939, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 384, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document LCA database and tool advisory group members: - BRE Building Research Establishment Ltd - Watford (United Kingdom) - CML Institute of Environmental Science, University of Leiden (The Netherlands) - CODDE Conception, Developement Durable, Environnement (now: Bureau Veritas) - Paris (France) - ecoinvent centre \u2013 (Switzerland) - ENEA \u2013 Bologna (Italy) - Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH - Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen (Germany) - Green Delta TC GmbH \u2013 Berlin (Germany) - Ifu Institut f\u00fcr Umweltinformatik GmbH \u2013 Hamburg (Germany) - IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute \u2013 Stockholm (Sweden) - KCL Oy Keskuslaboratorio-Centrallaboratorium Ab \u2013 Espoo (Finland) - LBP, University Stuttgart (Germany) - LCA Center Denmark c/o FORCE Technology \u2013 Lyngby (Denmark) - LEGEP Software GmbH - Dachau (Germany) - PE International GmbH \u2013 Leinfelden-Echterdingen (Germany) - PR\u00e9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5940, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 385, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "University Stuttgart (Germany) - LCA Center Denmark c/o FORCE Technology \u2013 Lyngby (Denmark) - LEGEP Software GmbH - Dachau (Germany) - PE International GmbH \u2013 Leinfelden-Echterdingen (Germany) - PR\u00e9 Consultants \u2013 Amersfoort (The Netherlands) - Wuppertal Institut f\u00fcr Klima, Umwelt, Energie GmbH \u2013 Wuppertal (Germany) Life Cycle Impact Assessment advisory group members: - CIRAIG \u2013 Montreal (Canada) - CML Institute of Environmental Science, University of Leiden (The Netherlands) - Ecointesys Life Cycle Systems - Lausanne (Switzerland) - IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute \u2013 Stockholm (Sweden) - PR\u00e9 Consultants \u2013 Amersfoort (The Netherlands) - LCA Center Denmark \u2013 Lyngby (Denmark) - Musashi Institute of Technology (Japan) - Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment (AIST) (Japan) - U.S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5941, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 385, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (USA) Public consultation Contributors providing written feedback in the public consultation (\"General guide on LCA\" and \"Specific guide for LCI data sets\") Organisations - French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) - Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs of the UK (DEFRA) - Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) Switzerland - 2.-0 LCA Consultants (Denmark) - Alliance for Beverage Cartons and the Environment (ACE) Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5942, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 385, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document - BASF AG (Germany) - Confederation of the European Waste-to-Energy plants (CEWEP) - Chair of Building Physics (LBP), University of Stuttgart (Germany) - DuPont Life Cycle Group (USA) - ESU services (Switzerland) - European Aluminium Association (EAA) - European Container Glass Federation (FEVE) - Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), Switzerland - GreenDelta TC GmbH (Germany) - Henkel KG (Germany) - KCL/VTT (Finland) - Nestle Research Centre (Switzerland) - Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) (Norway) - Novozymes a/s (Denmark) - PE International GmbH (Germany) - PlasticsEurope - RDC Environment (Belgium) - Stahlinstitut VDEh (Germany) - Volkswagen AG, (Germany) As citizen - Sten-Erik Bj\u00f6rling - Chris Foster (EuGeos, Macclesfield, UK) - Reinout Heijungs (CML Leiden, The Netherlands) - Philip McKeown (Unilever, UK) - Heinz Stichnothe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5943, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 386, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Volkswagen AG, (Germany) As citizen - Sten-Erik Bj\u00f6rling - Chris Foster (EuGeos, Macclesfield, UK) - Reinout Heijungs (CML Leiden, The Netherlands) - Philip McKeown (Unilever, UK) - Heinz Stichnothe (University of Manchester, UK) - Songwon Suh (University of Michigan, USA) - Alexander Voronov (Russia) Participating in consultation workshops (written registration) SURNAME Name Organisation - COCKBURN David ACE - RETHORE Olivier ADEME - MELANIE Rimbault AFNOR - RASNEUR Anne AGC FLAT GLASS EUROPE - VAN MARCKE DE LUMMEN Guy AGC FLAT GLASS EUROPE - CREPIAT Ashley Airbus Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5944, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 386, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document - TAHARA Kiyotaka AIST - MARTIN Michelle ALSTOM Transport - PAVANELLO Romeo Ambiente Italia srl - JORNS Axel APFE \u2013 European Reinforcement Glass Fibre Producers - CHIAPPINI Mauro ARCELORMITTAL R&D - LIONEL CRETEGNY BAFU - PIEROBON Marianna BASF SE - DE LATHAUWER Dieter Belgian federal public service, DG Environment - GOREY Brendan BKG - ALLBURY Kim bre global ltd - ANDERSON Jane bre global ltd - VITAL Xavier Bureau Veritas, CODDE - MIETH Stephan BV Glas e.V. - RAMM Kevin Carbon trust - XAVIER Joppin CELABOR - JURY Colin Centre de Ressources des Technologies pour l'Environnement (CRTE) - FIESCHI Maurizio CESISP - FILARETO Assunta CEsiSP (Centro per la sostenibilit\u00e0 dei prodotti) - VISSER Rene Corus Staal b.v", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5945, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 387, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- MAXWELL Dorothy Defra & GVSS - HARRIS Rocky Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs - NOWAK Maureen Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs - LONGO Sonia Dipartimento di Ricerche Energetiche ed Ambientali \u2013 University of Palermo - DANILA Ana EAA - LEROY Christian EAA - O'CONNELL Adrian EBB - TOMOZEI Luciana EBB - DR. TIKANA Ladji ECI - MARTIN Jean-Baptiste Ecoeff - MORENO RUIZ Emilia Ecoeff - CHAUMET Benoit EDF R&D - EROL Pinar EEA Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5946, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 387, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document - Toueix ELO2 - MASONI Paolo ENEA - AUMONIER Simon ERM LTD - FRISCHKNECHT Rolf ESU-services Ltd", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5947, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 388, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- DRIELSMA Johannes Euromines - SAHNOUNE Abdelhadi ExxonMobil - KELCHTERMANS Mauritz ExxonMobil Chemical Europe - DEFOURNY Anne Federation of Enterprises in Belgium - FEB - DE BEAUFORT-LANGEVELD Angeline FEFCO - RIVET Fabrice FEVE - European Container Glass Federation - DELLE SELVE Michael FEVE AISBL - KANEMITSU Hideyuki FUJITSU - BARRUETABE\u00d1A Leire Gaiker - DEWULF Wim Group T - Leuven Engineering College - BRUNNER Markus HeidelbergCement Group - SCH\u00d6NE Stefan HeidelbergCement Group - HEFER Ben Hernic Ferrochrome (Pty) Ltd - TAYAH Mira IMA-Europe - SCHERHAUFER Silvia Institute of Waste Management, Department of Water, Atmosphere and Environment, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna - WATAYA Tomohisa ISSF - DOBON Antonio ITENE - NAKANO Katsuyuki JEMAI - DIEDERICHS Stefan Johann Heinrich von Th\u00fcnen-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Institute for Wood Technology and Wood Biology - BETZEL Peter Kreab Gavin Anderson", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5948, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 388, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Stefan Johann Heinrich von Th\u00fcnen-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Institute for Wood Technology and Wood Biology - BETZEL Peter Kreab Gavin Anderson - FURKEL Maxime lexmark int", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5949, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 388, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- GONZALO PEDRERO Gema Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural y Marino (Ministry of the environment and rural and marine affairs\") - ARANDA MART\u00cdN Desiderio MITYC - NURMI Pauliina MTT Agrifood Research Finland Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5950, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 388, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document - VERSARI Marco Novamont Spa - BAITZ Martin PE International GmbH - BETZ Michael PE International GmbH - GUY Castelan PlasticsEurope - MARECHAL Freddy PlasticsEurope - DEWAELE Joost PROCTER & GAMBLE - VAN HOOF Gert PROCTER & GAMBLE - FLOCH Emilie PwC-Ecobilan - H\u00c9BERT Jean-Michel PwC-Ecobilan - GYLLENRAM Rutger Royal Institute of Technology, KTH - SIRET Cl\u00e9mence SAFT - GOHY Didier Service public de Wallonie (one of the three Regions of Belgium), D\u00e9partement du Sol et des D\u00e9chets, Direction de la politique des D\u00e9chets (Waste policy service) - WANG Hongtao Sichuan University - KRIGSVOLL Guri SINTEF - SAU SOON Chen SIRIM - VLADIMIROV Valentin Sofia University - SVENDING Ola Stora Enso - M\u00dcLLER Anja Sunicon AG - TARISCIOTTI Francesco Tarisciotti - FREDERIC Madry Tractebel - ROBERTZ B\u00e9n\u00e9dicte Umicore - SONNEMANN Guido UNEP - ANDRI\u00c8S V\u00e9ronique UNIFE (ALSTOM", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5951, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 389, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "- SVENDING Ola Stora Enso - M\u00dcLLER Anja Sunicon AG - TARISCIOTTI Francesco Tarisciotti - FREDERIC Madry Tractebel - ROBERTZ B\u00e9n\u00e9dicte Umicore - SONNEMANN Guido UNEP - ANDRI\u00c8S V\u00e9ronique UNIFE (ALSTOM TRANSPORT) - MCKEOWN Philip Unilever PLC - DE CAMILLIS Camillo Universit\u00e0 degli Studi \"G", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5952, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 389, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "d'Annunzio\" Pescara-Chieti - CASTANHO Carla University of Brasilia - STICHNOTHE Heinz University of Manchester (School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science) - PARISI Maria Laura University of Siena - BARE Jane US EPA - GEERKEN Theo VITO - BOSSDORF-ZIMMER Benjamin Volkswagen AG - BOUREIMA Faycal Vrije Universiteit Brussel - MESSAGIE Maarten Vrije Universiteit Brussel Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5953, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 389, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document - VARES Sirje VTT - KUJANP\u00c4\u00c4 Marjukka VTT Technical Research Center of Finland - SOKKA Laura VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland - BENGTSSON Dan (registered without affiliation) - BOLLEN Jan (registered without affiliation) - BONAFFINI Davide (registered without affiliation) - BOVY Marcel (registered without affiliation) - CALDEIRA Carla (registered without affiliation) - HISCHIER Roland (registered without affiliation) - WEIDEMA Bo (registered without affiliation) - RICARD Olivier (registered without affiliation) Contractors as members of the initial drafting team - Michael Hauschild, DTU and LCA Center Denmark - Stig Olsen, DTU (Denmark) - Anders Schmidt, FORCE technology (Denmark) Coordinators and contributors from the Joint Research Centre (JRC, IES) - Marc-Andree Wolf (project coordinator) - Kirana Chomkhamsri - Miguel Brand\u00e3o - Rana Pant - Fulvio", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5954, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 390, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "FORCE technology (Denmark) Coordinators and contributors from the Joint Research Centre (JRC, IES) - Marc-Andree Wolf (project coordinator) - Kirana Chomkhamsri - Miguel Brand\u00e3o - Rana Pant - Fulvio Ardente - David W", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5955, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 390, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Pennington - Simone Manfredi - Camillo de Camillis - Ma\u0142gorzata G\u00f3ralczyk Disclaimer: Involvement in the development or consultation process does not imply an agreement with or endorsement of this document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5956, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 390, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document Existing provisions The guidance document has been drafted starting from the following existing sources: Harmonised standards \uf0b7 ISO 14040:2006 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment \u2013 Principles and framework \uf0b7 ISO 14044:2006 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Requirements and guidelines \uf0b7 CEN/TC 261 SC4 WG1 on \u201cPackaging \u2013 LCA\u201d and the CEN/TR 13910 \u201cPackaging - Report on criteria and methodologies for life cycle analysis of packaging (2000)\u201d (under revision). Governmental guidance documents \uf0b7 BSI British Standards Institute (2008): PAS 2050 \u201dSpecification for the measurement of the embodied greenhouse gas emissions of products and services\u201d on Carbon footprinting. And: BSI British Standards (with DEFRA and Carbon Trust) (2008). Guide to PAS 2050 - How to assess the carbon footprint of goods and services. ISBN 978-0580-64636-2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5957, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 391, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "And: BSI British Standards (with DEFRA and Carbon Trust) (2008). Guide to PAS 2050 - How to assess the carbon footprint of goods and services. ISBN 978-0580-64636-2. \uf0b7 AFNOR / ADEME France (2009): General principles for an environmental communication on mass market products. In series: Repository of good practices. BP X 30-323. ISSN 0335-3931.1st issue September 2009. National LCA database manuals \uf0b7 AusLCI and ALCAS: Guidelines for Data Development for an Australian Life Cycle Inventory Database. Committee Draft of 8th July 2008. (http://alcas.asn.au/auslci/pmwiki/uploads/AusLCI/AUSLCI_Data_Guidelines_CD_July0 8.doc). \uf0b7 Danish EPA (editor): Reports of the EDIP guidelines 2003. Environmental Project No. 216.6, 862 2003, 863 2003, 70 2004. \uf0b7 JEMAI (2002): Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry (JEMAI) data collection manual. 2002", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5958, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 391, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Environmental Project No. 216.6, 862 2003, 863 2003, 70 2004. \uf0b7 JEMAI (2002): Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry (JEMAI) data collection manual. 2002. \uf0b7 Korea: Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation - APEC & Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy Republic of Korea (editors): Lee, Kun-Mo & Inaba, Atsushi: Life Cycle Assessment - Best Practices of ISO 14040 Series. February 2004. \uf0b7 Swiss ecoinvent Centre (2007) - Frischknecht, R., Jungbluth, N. (editors), Althaus, H.- J.; Doka, G.; Dones, R.; Heck, T.; Hellweg, S.; Hischier, R.; Nemecek, T.; Rebitzer, G.; Spielmann, M.; Wernet, G. (authors): Ecoinvent report No. 1: Overview and Methodology for the ecoinvent database v. 2.0. D\u00fcbendorf, 2007. (www.ecoinvent.org). \uf0b7 NREL: U.S. LCI Database Project Development Guidelines (Final draft). Feb. 2004. NREL/SR-33806. (http://www.nrel.gov/lci/docs/dataguidelinesfinalrpt1-13-04.doc).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5959, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 391, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document Methodological handbooks of industry associations \uf0b7 ACE (no year): Guideline on Liquid Packaging Board (LPB) LCI data compilation, version 1.0. Unpublished \uf0b7 EUROFER (2000): European LCI Database for Coiled Flat Stainless Steel Products. Methodology Report. European Confederation of Iron and Steel Industries, Stainless Producers Group. April 2000. Unpublished. \uf0b7 worldsteel/IISI (2002, 2005, 2007): Worldwide LCI Database for Industry Steel Products. Final Methodology Report of the International Iron and Steel Institute. 2002. Updated annex \"IISI Recycling methodology\", 2005. Plus separate methodology report \"Geyer, R. & Bren, D.: Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emission Assessments of Automotive Materials -The Example of Mild Steel, Advanced High Strength Steel and Aluminium in Body in White Applications\" on recycling modelling methods, 2007. (www.worldsteel.org)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5960, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 392, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(www.worldsteel.org). \uf0b7 FEFCO, GEO, ECO (2006): European Database for Corrugated Board Life Cycle Studies, November 2006. (European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers - FEFCO, European Association of makers of Corrugated Base Papers - GEO, European Containerboard Organisation - ECO). (www.fefco.org). \uf0b7 IAI (2003): Life Cycle Assessment of Aluminium: Inventory Data for the Worldwide Primary Aluminium Industry, March 2003. (www.world-aluminium.org). \uf0b7 Boustead I (2005). Eco-Profiles of the European Plastics Industry. Methodology. Report for PlasticsEurope, Last revision March 2005. (www.plasticseurope.org). \uf0b7 DEKRA Umwelt GmbH (2008). Final draft: PlasticsEurope Eco-profiles and Environmental Declarations - Life Cycle Inventory Methodology and Product Category Rules (PCR) for Uncompounded Polymer Resins and Reactive Polymer Precursors. December 2008. Unpublished. \uf0b7 Tikana L, Sievers H, Klassert A (2005). Life Cycle Assessment of Copper Products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5961, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 392, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "December 2008. Unpublished. \uf0b7 Tikana L, Sievers H, Klassert A (2005). Life Cycle Assessment of Copper Products. Deutsches Kupferinstitut (DKI) and European Copper Institute (ECI). Unpublished. Guidance documents in the field of Life Cycle Assessment and other scientific literature \uf0b7 Baumann, H. & Tillman, A,-M. 2004: The Hitch Hiker's Guide to LCA. ISBN: 9144023642. \uf0b7 Beaufort-Langeveld, A. et al. (Eds.): SETAC Code of Life-Cycle Inventory Practice, 2001. Developed by the former SETAC WG on Data Availability and Quality 1998-2001. \uf0b7 CML: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment, Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. CML 2002 (www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/projects/lca) \uf0b7 Curran M. A. (2007): Co-Product and Input Allocation Approaches for Creating Life Cycle Inventory Data: A literature Review. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment (2007) 12:65-78. \uf0b7 Ecobilan: DEAMTM methodical handbook, 2005 (http://www.ecobilan.com/uk_deam.php) \uf0b7 Ekvall, T., Tillman; A.-M.; Molander, S. (2005)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5962, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 392, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment (2007) 12:65-78. \uf0b7 Ecobilan: DEAMTM methodical handbook, 2005 (http://www.ecobilan.com/uk_deam.php) \uf0b7 Ekvall, T., Tillman; A.-M.; Molander, S. (2005). Normative ethics and methodology for life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production 13 (2005) pp 1225-1234.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5963, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 392, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document Finnveden, G. (2008). A world with CO2 caps \u2013 Electricity production in consequential assessments. Editorial in: International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment (2008) 13:365-367. \uf0b7 Frank C. et al.: SETAC Guidelines for Life Cycle Assessment: A \u201cCode of Practice\u201d, 1993. \uf0b7 Frischknecht, R. (2007): Cut-off vs. avoided burden in metals\u201f recycling: in view of environmental sustainability, risk perception and eco-efficiency. Presentation held at: 33rd LCA forum. November 22, 2007, Lausanne, Switzerland. \uf0b7 Griesshammer R & Hochfeld C. (2009): Position statement on measurement and communication of the product carbon footprint for international standardization and harmonization purposes. (http://www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/memorandum_pcf_en_bf.pdf, accessed Jan 2010) \uf0b7 Guin\u00e9e, J. B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5964, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 393, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(http://www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/memorandum_pcf_en_bf.pdf, accessed Jan 2010) \uf0b7 Guin\u00e9e, J. B. (Ed.) 2002: Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment - Operational Guide to the ISO Standards. Series: Eco-Efficiency in Industry and Science, Vol. 7. 2002, 708 p., Softcover. ISBN: 1-4020-0557-1. \uf0b7 Hauschild, M.Z. & Wenzel, H. (1998). Environmental assessment of products. Vol. 2 - Scientific background, 565 pp. Chapman & Hall, United Kingdom, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA. USA. ISBN 0412 80810 2. \uf0b7 Heijungs, R. & Guinee, J. B. (2007). Allocation and \u201ewhat-if\u201f scenarios in life cycle assessment of waste management systems. Waste Management 27 (2007) pp 9971005. \uf0b7 Hellweg, S. & Frischknecht, R. 2004: \"Evaluation of Long-Term Impacts in LCA.\" In Int J LCA Vol. 9 (5): 339-341. \uf0b7 IPCC (2006): 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Volume 4. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5965, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 393, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "9 (5): 339-341. \uf0b7 IPCC (2006): 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Volume 4. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use. (accessed at http://www.ipccnggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol4.html) \uf0b7 Jensen, A. A.; Hoffmann L.; M\u00f8ller B. et al. (1997): Life Cycle Assessment. A guide to approaches, experiences and information sources. Environmental Issues Series No. 6. European Environmenta Agency, 1997. \uf0b7 Kemna, K.; van Elburg, M.; Li, W.; van Holstein, R. (2005). MEEUP Methodology Report. Final report to the European Commission, dated 28.11.2005. \uf0b7 LBP University of Stuttgart / PE International: GaBi handbook and GaBi modelling principles, 2006 (www.gabi-software.com) \uf0b7 Lindfors, L.-G.; Christiansen, K.; Hoffman, L.; Virtanen, Y.; Juntilla, V.; Hanssen, O.-J.; R\u00f6nning, A.; Ekvall, T.; and Finnveden, G. (1995). Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. (Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5966, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 393, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(1995). Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. (Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers). \uf0b7 Margni, M.; Lesage, P.; Michaud R.; Belley, C.; Cl\u00e9ment, E.; Samson, R. (2008): Presentation at LCM2009 on \u201cExtending System Boundaries to Capture Indirect Effects on LCA \u2013 An Enlightening Example!\u201d (http://www.lcm2009.org/presentations/OR19%20- %20Margni.pdf, accessed online October 2009). \uf0b7 NN (2007): General programme instructions for an International EPD\u00aesystem for environmental product declarations, Draft Version 0.3 - dated 2007-11-09.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5967, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 393, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 18 Annex G: Development of this document NN: Meeting report of the \u201cInternational Workshop on Quality of LCI Data\u201d; FZK; Karlsruhe, Germany, 2003 \uf0b7 Pehnt M. (2005): Dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) of renewable energy technologies. Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 55-71. \uf0b7 Reap, J.;. Roman, F.; Duncan, S.; Bras, B. (2008). A survey of unresolved problems in life cycle assessment. Part 1: goal and scope and inventory analysis. Int J LCA 13(4); June 2008. \uf0b7 Sanden, B.A. & Karlstr\u00f6m, M. (2007). Positive and negative feedback in consequential life-cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) pp 1469-1481. \uf0b7 UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Life Cycle Inventory programme, First phase 20012005: - Task Force 2, chapter 4\"; Draft version by IVAM, Amsterdam and IKP, Stuttgart", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5968, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 2007, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "\uf0b7 UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, Life Cycle Inventory programme, First phase 20012005: - Task Force 2, chapter 4\"; Draft version by IVAM, Amsterdam and IKP, Stuttgart. - Task force 3: Frankl, P.; Fullana, P.; Kreissig, J.: Communication of life cycle information in the building and energy sectors; Reviewed Final Draft version 4.2. July - Task force 3: Lundie, S.; Ciroth, A.; Huppes, G.: Inventory methods in LCA: towards consistency and improvement. Final report. June 2007 \uf0b7 Weidema, B. (2003). Market information in life cycle assessment. Environmental Project No. 863 2003. Danish Environmental Protection Agency \uf0b7 Weidema, B.; Cappellaro, F.; Carlson, R.; Notten, P. P\u00e5lsson, A.-C.; Patyk, A.; Regalini, E.; Sacchetto, F.; Scalbi, S. (2004): Procedural guideline for the collection, treatment, and quality documentation of LCA data. Printed by ENEA. ISBN 88-8286-110-4 \uf0b7 Wenzel, H. (1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5969, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 2007, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "(2004): Procedural guideline for the collection, treatment, and quality documentation of LCA data. Printed by ENEA. ISBN 88-8286-110-4 \uf0b7 Wenzel, H. (1998). Application Dependency of LCA Methodology: Key Variables and Their Mode of Influencing the Method, International Journal of LCA 3, 281-288. \uf0b7 Wenzel, H.; Hauschild M.Z.; and Alting, L. (1997). Environmental assessment of products. Vol. 1 - Methodology, tools and case studies in product development, 544 pp. Chapman & Hall, United Kingdom, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA. USA. ISBN 0 412 80800 5. \uf0b7 Zamagni, A.; Buttol, P.; Porta, P.L.; Buonamici, R.; Masoni, P., Guinee, J.; Heijungs, R.; Ekvall, T.; Bersani, R.; Bienkowska, A.; Pretato, U. (2008). Critical review of the current research needs and limitations related to ISO-LCA practice. CALCAS project report D7. Published and printed by ENEA, Italy. ISBN 88-8286-166-X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5970, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 2007, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "European Commission EUR 24708 EN \u2013 Joint Research Centre \u2013 Institute for Environment and Sustainability Title: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance. Author(s): - Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 2010 \u2013 398 pp. \u201321.0 x 29.7 cm EUR \u2013 Scientific and Technical Research series \u2013 ISSN 1018-5593 ISBN 978-92-79-19092-6 doi:10.2788/38479 Cite as: European Commission - Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010. Abstract Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are the scientific approaches behind modern environmental policies and business decision support related to Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5971, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) provides a common basis for consistent, robust and quality-assured life cycle data and studies. Such data and studies support coherent SCP instruments, such as Ecolabelling, Ecodesign, Carbon footprinting, and Green Public Procurement. This guide is a component of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook. It provides technical guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and provides the technical basis to derive product-specific criteria, guides, and simplified tools. It is based on and conforms to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards on LCA. The principle target audience for this guide is the LCA practitioner as well as technical experts in the public and private sector dealing with environmental decision support related to products, resources, and waste management.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5972, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "How to obtain EU publications Our priced publications are available from EU Bookshop (http://bookshop.europa.eu), where you can place an order with the sales agent of your choice. The Publications Office has a worldwide network of sales agents. You can obtain their contact details by sending a fax to (352) 29 29-42758.\n\nThe mission of the JRC is to provide customer-driven scientific and technical support for the conception, development, implementation and monitoring of EU policies. As a service of the European Commission, the JRC functions as a reference centre of science and technology for the Union. Close to the policymaking process, it serves the common interest of the Member States, while being independent of special interests, whether private or national. LB-NA-24708-EN-C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5973, "book": "ilcd", "chapter": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": null, "source": "European Commission \u2013 JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)"}}
{"text": "Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment\n\nECO-EFFICIENCY IN INDUSTRY AND SCIENCE VOLUME 7 Series Editor: Dr. Arnold Tukker, TNO Institute of Strategy, Technology and Policy Editorial Advisory Board: Prof. Martin Charter, Centre for Sustainable Design, The Surrey Institute of Art & Design Prof. John Ehrenfeld, International Society for Industrial Ecology Dr. Gjalt Huppes, Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University Mr. Reid Lifset, Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Dr. Theo de Bruijn, Center for Clean Technology and Environmental Policy (CSTM), University of Twente", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5974, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment Operational Guide to the ISO Standards Jeroen B. Guin\u00e9e (final editor) \u2013 Marieke Gorr\u00e9e \u2013 Reinout Heijungs Gjalt Huppes \u2013 Ren\u00e9 Kleijn \u2013 Arjan de Koning \u2013 Lauran van Oers Anneke Wegener Sleeswijk \u2013 Sangwon Suh \u2013 Helias A. Udo de Haes Centre of Environmental Science \u2013 Leiden University Hans de Bruijn School of Systems Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management \u2013 Delft University of Technology Robbert van Duin Fuels and Raw Materials Bureau Mark A.J. Huijbregts Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science, University of Amsterdam Currently employed at the University of Nijmegen - Department of Environmental Studies, Nijmegen With contributions by: Erwin Lindeijer IVAM-Environmental Research Currently employed at TNO-lndustrial Technology - Division of sustainable product development, Eindhoven Aksel A.H. Roorda \u2013 Bernhard L. van der Ven Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Currently employed at IWACO, \u2019s Hertogenbosch Bo P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5975, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Roorda \u2013 Bernhard L. van der Ven Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Currently employed at IWACO, \u2019s Hertogenbosch Bo P. Weidema 2.\u20130 LCA consultants KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS NEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5976, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eBook ISBN: 0-306-48055-7 Print ISBN: 1-4020-0228-9 \u00a92004 Kluwer Academic Publishers New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow Print \u00a92002 Kluwer Academic Publishers All rights reserved No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher Created in the United States of America Visit Kluwer Online at: http://kluweronline.com and Kluwer's eBookstore at: http://ebooks.kluweronline.com Dordrecht", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5977, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contents Preface vii Foreword ix Part 1: LCA in perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why a new Guide to LCA? Main characteristics of LCA International developments Guiding principles for the present Guide Reading guide Part 2a: Guide Reading guidance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Management of LCA projects: procedures Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Appendix A: Terms, definitions and abbreviations Part 2b: Operational annex List of tables Reading guidance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Management of LCA projects: procedures Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation References\n\nvi Contents Part 3: Scientific background Reading guidance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. General introduction Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation References Annex A: Contributors Appendix B: Areas of application of LCA Appendix C: Partitioning economic inputs and outputs to product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5978, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 13, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "vii Preface Environmental policy aims at the transition to sustainable production and consumption. This is taking place in different ways and at different levels. In cases where businesses are continuously active to improve the environmental performance of their products and activities, the availability of knowledge on environmental impacts is indispensable. The integrated assessment of all environmental impacts from cradle to grave is the basis for many decisions relating to achieving improved products and services. The assessment tool most widely used for this is the environmental Life Cycle Assessment, or LCA. Before you is the new Handbook of LCA replacing the previous edition of 1992. New developments in LCA methodology from all over the world have been discussed and, where possible, included in this new Handbook. Integration of all developments into a new, consistent method has been the main aim for the new Handbook", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5979, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Integration of all developments into a new, consistent method has been the main aim for the new Handbook. The thinking on environment and sustainability is, however, quickly evolving so that it is already clear now that this new LCA Handbook does not embrace the very latest developments. Therefore, further revisions will have to take place in the future. A major advantage of this Handbook is that it now also advises which procedures should be followed to achieve adequate, relevant and accepted results. Furthermore, the distinction between detailed and simplified LCA makes this Handbook more broadly applicable, while guidance is provided as to which additional information can be relevant for specialised applications. I hope that this Handbook will contribute to the necessary transition to sustainable production and consumption. On behalf of the Ministry of VROM-DGM, Mw. Mr. C.M. Zwartepoorte Director of Directorate Climate Change and Industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5980, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 8, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Foreword ix In 1992 the Centre of Environmental Science - Leiden University (CML) collaborated with the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) and the Fuels and Raw Materials Bureau (Bureau B&G) to produce a Guide and Background document on the environmental Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Its full title was \u201c Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of products. Guide and Backgrounds\u201d by R. Heijungs, J.B. Guin\u00e9e, G. Huppes, R.M. Lankreijer, H.A. Udo de Haes, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, A.M.M. Ansems, P.G. Eggels, R. van Duin and H.P. de Goede, 1992. Since then, there have been many methodological developments, which are indeed still taking place. To address these ongoing developments, the \u201c LCA in environmental policy\u201d project was initiated, resulting in the compilation of an entirely new Guide, which you have before you. The \u201cLCA in environmental policy\u201d project was funded by the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM-DGM; co-ordinator ir", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5981, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The \u201cLCA in environmental policy\u201d project was funded by the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM-DGM; co-ordinator ir. H.L.J.M. Wijnen), the Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ), the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W). The project was carried out between June 1997 and May 2001 by CML, with contributions by the Institute of Environmental Studies - Vrije Universiteit (IVM); the School of Systems Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management \u2013 Delft University of Technology (TUD/TB); Bureau B&G; the Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science, University of Amsterdam (UVA); IVAM-Environmental Research (IVAM-ER); TNO; and 2.-0 LCA consultants (Denmark)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5982, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To assess the wishes and requirements of potential users of LCA and allied tools for environmental policy in general and environment-related product policy in particular, a Pilot Paper was first prepared by IVM, the findings of which defined the basic parameters for further elaboration of the project. This Pilot Paper was published as an independent document by VROM-DGM. Next, TNO prepared a comprehensive inventory of the potential uses of LCA, as well as its limitations of scope, the requirements associated with specific applications and the potential overlap with other tools. In addition, possible extensions of the scope of LCA to include multi-functional systems (for example, cascade systems) were inventoried. The report of TNO is included as an appendix to this Guide. For a number of LCA applications, TUD/TB and Bureau B&G have drawn up recommendations for embedding LCA in procedural guidelines. This is a topic that has not previously been addressed within LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5983, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is a topic that has not previously been addressed within LCA studies. This means it is innovative work that is still at an early stage of development. The efforts by TUD/TB and Bureau B&G have resulted in two reports, which have been incorporated in the main text of the present Guide. Allocation is one of the most sensitive issues in LCA methodology. It is therefore especially important that coverage of this issue in the Guide and Background documents should enjoy the widest possible support. The topic of allocation was consequently addressed in particular detail in a desk study carried out by IVAM-ER in close collaboration with CML. The report on this desk study is included as an appendix to the present Guide. In addition, 2.-0 LCA consultants of Denmark have prepared a paper on this issue, which is likewise included in this Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5984, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, 2.-0 LCA consultants of Denmark have prepared a paper on this issue, which is likewise included in this Guide. The treatment of the theme of toxicity in the 1992 Guide and Background document then was incomplete and unsatisfactory, lacking a fate analysis, for example. As part of a PhD project at the UVA, new toxicity factors for over 180 substances have been calculated, using the more recent USES 2.0 model as well as more sophisticated data. The results of this work have been integrated in the main text of the present document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5985, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 9, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Foreword The new Guide consists of three parts. Part 1 - \u201cLCA in perspective\u201d - provides a general introduction to LCA and includes a discussion of the possibilities and limitations of LCA and the organisations involved in LCA. Part 2 consists of two parts, 2a (\u201cGuide\u201d) and 2b (\u201cOperational annex\u201d). Part 2a provides an introduction to the procedural design of an LCA project, and guidelines on the best available practice for each of the steps involved in an LCA study, at two levels of LCA sophistication: simplified and detailed. The two levels of sophistication relate to different decision situations, linked to different methodological choices. On certain points of detail there may often be good reason for undertaking a more in-depth analysis than can be provided even by the \u2018standard\u2019 detailed LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5986, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On certain points of detail there may often be good reason for undertaking a more in-depth analysis than can be provided even by the \u2018standard\u2019 detailed LCA. This kind of in-depth analysis has not been specified here as a separate method; instead, we provide an indication of possible extensions that can improve the quality of detailed LCA in those respects where shortcomings are most obvious. Part 2b provides the most up-to-date operational models and data associated with the best available practice for these two levels of sophistication, as a separate document. This has been done to facilitate updating of these operational elements, most of which are likely to change regularly. Part 2b thus operationalises the guidelines provided in Part 2a. Part 3 provides the scientific background to the study, as well as a reasoned justification of all the choices made in designing a best available practice for each phase of an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5987, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 provides the scientific background to the study, as well as a reasoned justification of all the choices made in designing a best available practice for each phase of an LCA. Finally, we would like to thank all those active in the project resulting in this Guide, which involves, apart from the authors and editors, the steering committee, the think-tank, the supervisory committee and the international observers group. The number of people involved is so large, nearly a hundred, too many to mention individually. A list of all involved is presented in Annex A of Part 3. Two persons deserve special mention. At the top of the project pyramid, Henk Wijnen of VROM-DGM has taken care of co-ordination, budget extensions and the like. At CML, supportive work throughout the project has been carried out by Esther Philips. Leiden, July 2001 Jeroen Guin\u00e9e Project Leader x", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5988, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 10, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "xi Acknowledgements This study was commissioned by: Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM-DGM) Rijnstraat 8, P.O. Box 30945, 2500 GX Den Haag, The Netherlands Tel +31 70 3393939 Co-ordinator: ir. H.L.J.M. Wijnen Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ) Bezuidenhoutseweg 30, P.O. Box 20101, 2500 EC Den Haag, The Netherlands Tel +31 70 3798911 Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W) Plesmanweg 1-6, P.O. Box 20901, 2500 EX Den Haag, The Netherlands Tel +31 70 3516171 Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) Bezuidenhoutseweg 73, P.O. Box 20401, 2500 EK Den Haag, The Netherlands Tel +31 70 3786868 The parties commissioning this study cannot guarantee the correctness or completeness of information nor the designs, structures, products or production methods referred to or described in this report or their suitability for any particular purpose", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5989, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This study was carried out jointly by: CML (Centre of Environmental Science) Einsteinweg 2, P.O. Box 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands Tel +31 71 5277 477, fax +31 71 5277 434 Bureau B&G (Fuels and Raw Materials Bureau) Pollenseveenweg 11, 8166 HT Emst, The Netherlands Tel +31 578 662227, fax +31 578 662456 School of Systems Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management \u2013 Delft University of Technology Jaffalaan 5, P.O. Box 5015, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands Tel + 31 15 2787100, fax + 31 15 2784811 with contributions by: IVM (Institute for Environmental Studies - Vrije Universiteit) De Boelelaan 1115, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tel +31 20 4449555, fax: +31 20 4449553 UVA (Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science, University of Amsterdam) Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, 1018 VZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tel +31 20 525 6206, fax +31 20 525 6272 IVAM-ER (IVAM Environmental Research) Plantage Muidergracht 14, P.O", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5990, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Box 18180, 1001 ZB Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tel +31 20 525 5080, fax +31 20 525 5850 TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) Laan van Westenenk 501, P.O. Box 342, 7300 AH Apeldoorn, The Netherlands Tel +31 55 493 493, fax +31 55 419 837 2.-0 LCA consultants Borgergade 6, 1., 1300 K\u00f8benhavn K, Denmark Tel +45 333 22822, fax +45 339 11103 English language editing (parts 1, 2a and 2b) by: Jan Klerkx B\u00e8ta Vertalingen Raccordement 120C 6221 HE Maastricht, The Netherlands Tel +31 43 3510982, fax +31 43 3510645", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5991, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 11, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PART 1 LCA IN PERSPECTIVE\n\nContents of Part 1 1. Why a new Guide to LCA? 2. Main characteristics of LCA 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 What is LCA? Role of LCA in relation to products Role of LCA in wider applications Limitations of LCA LCA as part of a tool box Management of LCA projects: procedures 3. International developments 3.1 3.2 3.3 SETAC ISO UNEP 4. Guiding principles for the present Guide 5. Reading guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5992, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 12, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective 1. Why a new Guide to LCA? The first Dutch Guide to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was published in 1992. It was written by the Centre of Environmental Science -Leiden University (CML), the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) and the Fuels and Raw Materials Bureau (Bureau B&G), under the auspices of the National Reuse of Waste Research Programme (NOH). It is often referred to as \u201cthe NOH Guide\u201d, \u201cthe CML Guide\u201d, \u201cthe Dutch Guide\u201d, \u201cHeijungs et al. (1992)\u201d, and so on. It has been used extensively and has stimulated discussions in scientific and societal fora. However, there are many reasons why an updated Guide is now needed. In the past decade, there have been many advances in LCA methodology, especially through the scientific work of SETAC (the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry). In addition, there have been extensive developments in ISO standards relating to LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5993, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, there have been extensive developments in ISO standards relating to LCA. Thirdly, there is the increasing role of UNEP, stimulating the global use of LCA. And finally there is now a broad range of applications for LCA, giving many opportunities for clarification of the original text by means of up-to-date examples. This new Guide has been commissioned by the Dutch Government, in particular by the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM-DGM), the Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ), the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LNV) and the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (V&W). The production process of the new Guide has been supported by a group of over a hundred people. They guided our strategy and read and commented on our proposals and texts. They included the Supervisory Committee, the Steering Committee, the project\u2019s Think Tank, the International Observers Group and numerous individuals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5994, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "They included the Supervisory Committee, the Steering Committee, the project\u2019s Think Tank, the International Observers Group and numerous individuals. A full list of names is to be found in appendix A of Part 3. The Document consists of three Parts: Part 1: LCA in perspective. An introduction to LCA, its purpose and background. Part 2: Guide. An overview of LCA in practice, consisting of two parts. Part 2a describes how to organise and set up a specific LCA project. Part 2b is an Operational Annex containing tables with data and other practical details. Part 3: Scientific Background. This part provides detailed materials and references in support of Parts 1 and 2. The present Part 1 further clarifies the general purpose and perspective of LCA. 2. Main characteristics of LCA This chapter explores what LCA is, and what role it can play in different types of decision situations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5995, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2. Main characteristics of LCA This chapter explores what LCA is, and what role it can play in different types of decision situations. We also examine how LCA developments are embedded within an international framework of consensus building and standardising activities. 2.1 What is LCA? In ISO 14040 (see below) LCA is defined as the \"compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle\". Thus, LCA is a tool for the analysis of the environmental burden of products at all stages in their life cycle \u2013 from the extraction of resources, through the production of materials, product parts and the product itself, and the use of the product to the management after it is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5996, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 14, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective discarded, either by reuse, recycling or final disposal (in effect, therefore, \u2018from the cradle to the grave\u2019). The total system of unit processes involved in the life cycle of a product is called the \"product system\". The environmental burden covers all types of impacts upon the environment, including extraction of different types of resources, emission of hazardous substances and different types of land use. The term \u2018product\u2019 is taken in its broadest sense \u2013 including physical goods as well as services; it includes goods and services at both operational and strategic levels. It is important to note that in comparative LCA studies, it is not the products themselves that form the basis for the comparison, but the function provided by these products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5997, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": 6, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is important to note that in comparative LCA studies, it is not the products themselves that form the basis for the comparison, but the function provided by these products. LCA is, as far as possible, quantitative in character; where this is not possible, qualitative aspects can \u2013 and should \u2013 be taken into account, so that as complete a picture as possible is given of the environmental impacts involved. Most important, a cradle-to-grave analysis involves a 'holistic' approach, bringing the environmental impacts into one consistent framework, wherever and whenever these impacts have occurred, or will occur. One fundamental reason for choosing such an approach is related to the fact that the final consumption of products happens to be the driving force of the economy. Therefore, this final consumption offers core opportunities for indirect environmental management along the whole chain or network of unit processes related to a product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5998, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": 6, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Therefore, this final consumption offers core opportunities for indirect environmental management along the whole chain or network of unit processes related to a product. Another fundamental reason is that a cradle-to-grave approach avoids \u2018problem shifting\u2019. It is important in eco-design not to solve one environmental problem merely by shifting it to another stage in the product\u2019s life cycle. For instance, making a car out of aluminium instead of steel means that its gasoline consumption is reduced, but the production of aluminium requires more energy than that of steel. Only when all these facts are taken into account can it be judged whether a car made of aluminium is truly more environmentally friendly than one made of steel. The main applications of LCA are in: analysing the origins of problems related to a particular product; comparing improvement variants of a given product; designing new products; choosing between a number of comparable products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 5999, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": 6, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Similar applications can be distinguished at a strategic level, dealing with government policies and business strategies. The way an LCA project is implemented depends on the intended use of the LCA results. 2.2 Role of LCA in relation to products LCA can play a useful role in public and private environmental management in relation to products. This may involve both an environmental comparison between existing products and the development of new products, which also includes comparisons with prototypes. In this section, we discuss different technical types of applications; in section 2.6, we will briefly discuss procedural situations, which can be distinguished for different technical types of applications. For instance, a major application involves \u2018green\u2019 procurement \u2013 that is, a \u2018green\u2019 purchasing policy, which can be implemented by both authorities and companies. However, the ranking of resources, materials or products for purchasing reasons need not necessarily be done on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6000, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 15, "book_page": 6, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective a quantitative basis, using LCA. Thus, tropical hardwood with a label from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) can, without LCA, be compared with hardwood without such a label (as long as all other aspects remain the same), using a simpler and more focused style of analysis based on just one qualitative criterion. However, if different types of processed wood are to be compared for other reasons besides avoiding the use of tropical hardwood, LCA may well make an essential contribution. Another application concerns eco-labeling (i.e. assigning a \u2019green label\u2019 to environmentallyfriendly product alternatives), enabling consumers to make comparisons between products. Eco-labeling programmes like the EU\u2019s are increasingly based on LCA. Up to now, some of these programmes have not lived up to their expectations. Positive examples in this area are the Blue Angel eco-labeling programme in Germany and the Green Swan eco-label in Scandinavia", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6001, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Positive examples in this area are the Blue Angel eco-labeling programme in Germany and the Green Swan eco-label in Scandinavia. A further application in relation to products is the design of more environmentally friendly products, otherwise known as eco-design. This is an activity of increasing importance, which imposes specific requirements on the available life cycle information: it must be very simple to use. It is generally an activity in which the results of LCA are used within the company, rather than in the market place. 2.3 Role of LCA in wider applications Apart from direct product applications, it is also possible to use LCA in a wider sense. Rather than dealing with well-defined physical goods or simple services, LCA is applied here to complex business strategies or government policies relating to consumption and lifestyle choices in various sectors of society", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6002, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As in the situations described above, it is the function provided which is the core object of the LCA project, but now this function is more complex, more encompassing, and related to strategic decisions. Examples of the wider applications of LCA include: The choice of one-way packaging by an industry. The EU\u2019s Packaging Directive allows this, on condition that it can be proved that this creates less of an environmental burden than the use of reusable packaging materials. Comparison between different types of waste management by a municipality, or the development of a waste management strategy. Assessment of the environmental benefits of different types of biomass use (including thinning wood), for instance in the production of electricity or paper. Strategic comparison between different modes of freight transport (road, rail, water) as a basis for public investment in new infrastructure. The \u2018greening\u2019 of the building industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6003, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Strategic comparison between different modes of freight transport (road, rail, water) as a basis for public investment in new infrastructure. The \u2018greening\u2019 of the building industry. In the Netherlands, for instance, new houses must in the future meet minimum environmental requirements. In addition to energy consumption, this specifically includes requirements on the environmental burdens imposed by all materials used in the building of a house, to be based upon quantitative LCA. The difference between the two areas distinguished here, that relating to products and the wider applications, is in fact merely one of degree. For instance, the first and the last example mentioned above, that of the choice for one-way packaging and of LCA in the building industry, offers the potential of \u2018greening\u2019 every aspect of the industries involved. At the same time, it could also be seen as an example of product policy, where the product is unusually large \u2013 a whole building.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6004, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 16, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective Convergence between the requirements of LCA in product policy and wider applications is also seen in eco-design. For instance, LCA is used in the design of new cars in the German automotive industry. The design process itself allows only simple criteria to be used. However, once a car has been completed, a full LCA is performed on the end product. The results of this analysis provide the basis for the establishment of \u2013 again simple \u2013 new design criteria. This process implies a \u2018learning curve\u2019. This also points at yet another type of application. In all of the above applications, LCA is used on a project basis: the goal of the project is defined, the study is performed and the conclusions are drawn. But the scope of LCA practice can also be further widened, by using LCA rather as a management tool, on a more continuous basis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6005, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "But the scope of LCA practice can also be further widened, by using LCA rather as a management tool, on a more continuous basis. In this case, criteria are derived from a more extensive LCA study, which are then used for the ongoing monitoring of the management process. A specific example concerns benchmarking of business and governmental activities. 2.4 Limitations of LCA The core characteristic of LCA is its 'holistic' nature, which is both its major strength and, at the same time, its limitation. The broad scope of analysing the complete life cycle of a product can only be achieved at the expense of simplifying other aspects. First of all, LCA cannot address localised impacts. It is possible to scale down some of the results and to identify the regions in which certain emissions take place, after which differences in the sensitivity of these regions can be taken into account in the context of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6006, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "But LCA does not provide the framework for a full-fledged local risk assessment study, identifying which impacts can be expected due to the functioning of a facility in a specific locality. The same is true for the time aspect. LCA is typically a steady-state, rather than a dynamic approach. However, future technological developments are increasingly taken into account in more detailed LCA studies. The LCA model focuses on physical characteristics of the industrial activities and other economic processes; it does not include market mechanisms or secondary effects on technological development. In general, LCA regards all processes as linear, both in the economy and in the environment. Again, some progress is being made in reducing this limitation, but at heart, LCA is a tool based on linear modeling. Furthermore, LCA focuses on the environmental aspects of products, and says nothing about their economic, social and other characteristics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6007, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, LCA focuses on the environmental aspects of products, and says nothing about their economic, social and other characteristics. The environmental impacts are often described as \"potential impacts\" (see also the ISO definition), because they are not specified in time and space and are related to an (often) arbitrarily defined functional unit. Although LCA aims to be science-based, it involves a number of technical assumptions and value choices. An important role is played by the ISO standardisation process, which helps to avoid arbitrariness (see below). An important aim is to make these assumptions and choices as transparent as possible; this is also an important element for embedding LCA in procedures (see also Part 2a). A further limitation can lie in the availability of data. Indeed, databases are being developed in various countries, and the format for databases is being standardised (see below). But in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6008, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 17, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective practice, data are frequently obsolete, incomparable, or of unknown quality. More in particular, data are generally available at the level of building blocks, i.e., for combinations of processes such as \u2019electricity production\u2019 or \u2019aluminium production\u2019, rather than for the individual constituting processes themselves. Finally, a more fundamental characteristic concerns the nature of LCA as an analytical tool. As such, it provides information for decision support. LCA cannot replace the decision making process itself. One cannot say: \u2018The LCA study has proved that this decision must be made,\u2019 but rather \u2018Based on an LCA study and other evidence, the following decision has been made.\u2019 This last aspect calls for a clear view of the procedural aspects of the use of LCA, a point given ample attention in this Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6009, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": 9, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.5 LCA as part of a tool box The above limitations of LCA can be addressed by extending the analysis and/or bringing in other analytical tools to given decision situations. For instance, a product can be analysed using LCA and, at the same time, a Risk Assessment (RA) can be performed for a number of core processes in the chain, in which the emphasis is on the local environmental impacts. Both types of data may well be relevant for decision making. Another useful approach is the complementary use of LCA and Substance Flow Analysis (SFA). This is particularly appropriate if one specific substance dominates the product, such as cadmium in rechargeable batteries or phosphates in detergents. For a single substance, market mechanisms might then also become part of the analysis. Of course, the complementary use of various tools is imperative if one is interested in other aspects of a new product, such as the wider environmental implications or social and economic aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6010, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": 9, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Of course, the complementary use of various tools is imperative if one is interested in other aspects of a new product, such as the wider environmental implications or social and economic aspects. Such aspects include public health and safety (e.g., the quality of food products) animal welfare and the use of child labour in the production stage of a product. Where economic aspects are concerned, there is the Life Cycle Costing (LCC) approach for evaluating the economics of the life cycle of a product. LCC can be expected to become a standard addition to LCA applications. The aim is to provide a tool box which offers opportunities for different types of analysis, in line with the requirements of the given decision situation. The limitations described in the previous section not only refer to the state of the art of the various tools, but also to the availability of correct data. Such a tool box is therefore a long-term goal, rather than one to be achieved in the short term", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6011, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": 9, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such a tool box is therefore a long-term goal, rather than one to be achieved in the short term. Nevertheless, the aim of combining the use of different tools in one decision situation is certainly valid. 2.6 Management of LCA projects: procedures LCA studies can be performed in a whole range of different decision-making situations, ranging from mere internal use to public comparative use. These different situations also impose different requirements on the type of decision procedure which has to be followed.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6012, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 18, "book_page": 9, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective The present Guide distinguishes the following decision situations (see Table). Global exploration of The LCA study is performed to get a first impression of the options environmental effect of certain options. Company-internal innovation Sector-driven innovation Strategic planning Comparison Comparative assertion disclosed to the public The LCA study is performed to assess the environmental impact of company-internal product improvements, product development or technical innovations. Similar to the above, except that it is sector-oriented (in a formal organisation representing a branch of chain of companies, it can be regarded as an internal activity). The LCA study is performed to assess the environmental impact of strategic scenarios. The LCA study is performed to assess whether a product or system meets certain environmental standards, or whether it is environmentally sounder than another product or system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6013, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": 10, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The LCA study is performed to assess whether a product or system meets certain environmental standards, or whether it is environmentally sounder than another product or system. The LCA study aims to provide an environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product which performs the same function. These six situations are subsequently grouped into three categories: situations with few diverging interests and with potentially strong impact; situations with many diverging interests and with potentially weak impact; and situations with many diverging interests and with potentially strong impact. Guidelines have to be set particularly for how to deal with assignment, critical reviews, process planning and management and with stakeholder participation. These procedural guidelines become stricter as one goes from the first to the third group of decision situations. LCA is a core topic in the field of environmental management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6014, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": 10, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These procedural guidelines become stricter as one goes from the first to the third group of decision situations. LCA is a core topic in the field of environmental management. Its history goes back to the early seventies, though in the past, it went by different names such as Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA), Energy Analysis or Product Ecobalance. Here we review the role of a number of international bodies that have been \u2013and are \u2013 concerned with the development and application of LCA. SETAC (the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry) was the first international body to act as an umbrella organisation for the development of LCA. It is a scientific organisation with its roots in academia, industry and government and, as such, has been able to offer a science-based platform for the coherent development of LCA as a tool", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6015, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": 10, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is a scientific organisation with its roots in academia, industry and government and, as such, has been able to offer a science-based platform for the coherent development of LCA as a tool. SETAC\u2019s aims are scientific development in specific areas of research and application of the results in the field of environmental management. SETAC\u2019S involvement with LCA dates from 1989, when its first workshop was held in Smugglers Notch, Vermont. A year later this was followed up with a workshop in Leuven, Belgium. These workshops set the scene for the emergence of two different schools of LCA development in North America and Europe, which have dominated the scene for many years. 3. International developments 3.1 SETAC", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6016, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 19, "book_page": 10, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective The main activities of SETAC\u2019s LCA section are: annual scientific meetings both in North America and Europe, which are a regular part of SETAC\u2019s meetings calendar and include sessions focusing on LCA methodology development; an annual Case Studies Symposium, held in Brussels, focusing on the application of LCA in different branches of industry; since 1996, a number of working groups which deal with different aspects of LCA methodology and application, both in Europe and North America. The European working groups have regarded the development and harmonisation of LCA methodology as their main aim, while the North American groups have focused on analysing the limitations of LCA and warning against its unwarranted use. Despite the differences between the two SETAC branches (North America and Europe), there are also major areas of co-operation. A major example has been the development of a \u2018Code of Practice\u2019 for LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6017, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": 1998, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A major example has been the development of a \u2018Code of Practice\u2019 for LCA. This was an important step towards harmonisation of the tool, as it presented the first internationally accepted technical framework for LCA. It may be hard to recall, from today\u2019s standpoint, but even the term LCA was not generally accepted in the late 1980s \u2013 the tool was still being called by a number of alternative names. The Code of Practice pointed out that, besides science, LCA also involves procedural aspects and value choices. Indeed, this Code of Practice was the forerunner of the activities which are now performed under ISO. 3.2 ISO ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a world-wide private organisation, including national bodies from both industrialised and developing countries, which aims to standardise a wide range of products and activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6018, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": 1998, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One of its key activities is the development of the 9000 series of standards, which is aimed at the integration of quality aspects into business practice. The 14000 series of ISO standards includes the standard 14001 on Environmental Management Systems, as well as a series of standards relating to LCA (the 14040 series). These ISO activities began in 1994 and aim to produce the first complete series of LCA standards. The ISO LCA standards concern the technical as well as organisational aspects of an LCA project. The organisational aspects mainly focus on the design of critical review processes, with special attention to comparative assertions disclosed to the public. They also cover matters such as the involvement of stakeholders The following general standards and technical reports have been or are being produced by ISO in the 14040 series (Environmental management - Life cycle assessment): ISO 14040: A standard on principles and framework", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6019, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": 1998, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Edition 1997 ISO 14041: A standard on goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. Edition ISO 14042: A standard on life cycle impact assessment. Edition 2000 ISO 14043: A standard on life cycle interpretation. Edition 2000 CD 14047: A draft technical report presenting examples for ISO 14042 on life cycle impact assessment (in preparation) CD 14048: A draft standard on data format (in preparation) TR 14049: A technical report presenting examples for ISO 14041 on the life cycle inventory phase. Edition 1999.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6020, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 20, "book_page": 1998, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective In addition, other ISO activities also bear a relationship to the ISO series on LCA. One example concerns the technical report TR 14025 on so-called Type III environmental declarations, which require a life cycle approach, including formal LCA. Another example concerns TR 14062, a technical report which is still in preparation, dealing with guidelines to integrate environmental aspects into product development, and also involving life cycle aspects. Scientific activities within SETAC have greatly enhanced the quality of work in ISO. At the same time, ISO has played a major role in bringing together the different schools of LCA, by requiring agreement on every single word of the different standards. The choice of wording in terms of \u2018may\u2019, \u2018should\u2019 or \u2018shall\u2019 \u2013the three normative vehicles of any standard \u2013 was a particularly good example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6021, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The choice of wording in terms of \u2018may\u2019, \u2018should\u2019 or \u2018shall\u2019 \u2013the three normative vehicles of any standard \u2013 was a particularly good example. The international standards and additional technical reports have also greatly enhanced the acceptance of LCA as a tool for decision support by both industry and government. It is to be expected that after the completion of the first full series of the 14040 standards and technical reports, a second, revised series will be compiled, taking account of new developments in LCA methodology. 3.3 UNEP A third international player in the field of LCA is UNEP (the United Nations Environmental Programme), represented by its Department of Technology, Industry and Economics in Paris. UNEP\u2019s focus is mainly on the application of LCA, particularly in developing countries. An important contribution was the publication in 1996 of UNEP\u2019s user-friendly and easy-toread guide to LCA, entitled Life Cycle Assessment: What it is, and what to do about it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6022, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An important contribution was the publication in 1996 of UNEP\u2019s user-friendly and easy-toread guide to LCA, entitled Life Cycle Assessment: What it is, and what to do about it. A second publication of interest is Towards Global Use of Life Cycle Assessment, published in 1999. Furthermore, a series of international workshops dealing with various aspects of LCA are being organised by the Environmental Protection Agency of the US (US-EPA) and CML in the Netherlands, under the auspices of UNEP. SETAC and UNEP are now co-operating in a major new task, concerning the identification of best available practice in the field of life cycle assessment, on the initiative of a SETACEurope working group. The task involves the identification of best available practice in establishing a database for the life cycle inventory phase, and a list of environmental impact categories and accompanying factors to address these impact categories. 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6023, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4. Guiding principles for the present Guide The following guiding principles were used in the preparation of the present Guide. It had to be based on up-to-date science, as developed within the scientific community of SETAC and its working groups. It had to operationalise the ISO standards in a \u2018cookbook\u2019 format, being as compatible as possible with the ISO standards on LCA and indicating explicitly where the present Guide goes beyond ISO. It had to be unambiguous, specifying best practice. In places, other LCA methods, leading to different outcomes, are presented. This has been done in such a way that they can easily be incorporated into a sensitivity analysis. It had to be relevant to various types of applications. This involved having a baseline practice specified, differentiating between a simplified and a detailed method. Possibilities for extensions aimed at specific applications are also considered.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6024, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 21, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1: LCA in perspective It had to be a practical Guide, aiming for precise guidelines for use in practice. These are presented separately from the descriptions of operational methods and data and from the description of the scientific background. They are illustrated by a number of examples. It had to present the guidelines in the framework of a number of possible decision situations, specifying the relevant procedural steps to be taken. 5. Reading guide The present Guide consists of the following Parts. Part 1, the part in front of you, gives a general overview of LCA in perspective: the reasons for developing a new Guide, the main characteristics of LCA, the main international developments and the guiding principles for the present Guide. The main target audience of this part is those who use the results of LCA, for instance policymakers and corporate managers. Part 2 is the Guide itself, which itself consists of two parts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6025, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 13, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The main target audience of this part is those who use the results of LCA, for instance policymakers and corporate managers. Part 2 is the Guide itself, which itself consists of two parts. Part 2a deals with process management and procedural guidelines, and contains an overall description of the technical guidelines. Part 2b offers an operational annex, including elements for all LCA phases but emphasising modeling rules for the inventory phase and factors for the impact assessment phase. This part is mainly intended for those carrying out life cycle assessments. Part 3 offers an overview of the scientific background for the guidelines presented in Part 2a. Its main intended readership is scientists working on the further development of LCA and persons carrying out LCAs or using the results of LCAs who wish to understand why certain methodological choices have been made, which other options could be considered, and why the possibilities and limitations of LCA are as they are", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6026, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 13, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Additional reading guides for Parts 2 and 3 are provided within these documents.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6027, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 22, "book_page": 13, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PART 2A GUIDE", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6028, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 23, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contents of Part 2a Reading guidance 1. Management of LCA projects: procedures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Designing an LCA project Context of an LCA project Process management in LCA Organisation and assignment Reporting an LCA project Example (case history) Goal and scope definition 2..1 2.2 2.3 Topic Starting points Recipe 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 Procedures Goal definition Scope definition Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows Results of Goal and scope definition 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6029, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inventory analysis 3.1 3.2 3.3 Topic Starting points Recipe 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8 3.3.9 3.3.10 Procedures Economy-environment system boundary Flow diagram Format and data categories Data quality Data collection and relating data to unit processes Data validation Cut-off and data estimation Multifunctionality and allocation Calculation method Results of Inventory analysis Impact assessment 4.1 4.2 4.3 Topic Starting points Recipe 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 Procedures Selection of impact categories Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.2 4.3.3.3 4.3.3.3.1 Depletion of abiotic resources Depletion of biotic resources Impacts of land use Land competition 2.4 3.4 4. 2.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6030, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 24, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.3.3.2 4.3.3.3.3 Loss of biodiversity Loss of life support function 4.3.3.4 4.3.3.5 4.3.3.6 4.3.3.7 4.3.3.8 Desiccation Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity 4.3.3.8.1 4.3.3.8.2 4.3.3.8.3 4.3.3.8.4 4.3.3.8.5 Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity Marine sediment ecotoxicity 4.3.3.9 4.3.3.10 4.3.3.11 4.3.3.12 4.3.3.13 Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication Waste heat Odour 4.3.3.13.1 4.3.3.13.2 Malodorous air Malodorous water 4.3.3.14 4.3.3.15 4.3.3.16 4.3.3.17 4.3.3.18 Noise Impacts of ionising radiation Casualties Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Economic flows not followed to system boundary 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 Classification Characterisation Normalisation Grouping Weighting Results of Impact assessment 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6031, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 109, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interpretation 5.1 5.2 5.3 Topic Starting points Recipe 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 Procedures Consistency check Completeness check Contribution analysis Perturbation analysis Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Conclusions and recommendations Results of Interpretation Appendix A: Terms, definitions and abbreviations 4.4 5.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6032, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 25, "book_page": 109, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Reading guidance This is Part 2a of the publication entitled \u201cHandbook on life cycle assessment: An operational guide to the ISO standards\u201d. The entire publication consists of three parts: Part 1 (\u201cLCA in perspective\u201d) is a short introduction describing in broad terms the purpose, role, applications and limitations of life cycle assessment. Its main intended readership consists of people who have to commission the execution of LCAs and who will use the results of such analyses. Part 2 consists of two parts: 2a (\u201cGuide\u201d) and 2b (\u201cOperational annex\u201d). Its target audience is those concerned with the actual execution of LCAs. Depending on the context and the complexity, this may be one person or an entire research team with diverging backgrounds, such as process technology, product design, end-of-pipe solutions, ecotoxicology and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6033, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 (\u201cScientific background\u201d) provides the foundations and arguments for certain methodological choices, the alternative options available, and much more. It is intended to stimulate scientific debate and progress and to function as a reference book for those who wish to learn more about the rationale behind the Guide\u2019s rules. The working method for LCA is structured along a framework that has become the subject of world-wide consensus and that forms the basis of a number of ISO standards. This framework divides the entire LCA procedure into four distinct phases: Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation The present Guide has chapters corresponding to each of these four phases. In addition, an opening chapter on procedures for managing LCA projects has been included, bringing the total number of chapters to five. Chapter 1 presents rules that should be kept in mind during the organisation, assignment and progress of LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6034, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Chapter 1 presents rules that should be kept in mind during the organisation, assignment and progress of LCAs. Chapters 2 to 5, which are devoted to the four LCA phases, each consist of four sections: Topic, describing briefly the role and function of this phase. Starting points, summarising the main methodological considerations for this phase. Recipe, providing detailed instructions for carrying out this phase. Results, describing results that will be obtained from this phase. Within each of the four phases, there are several steps (like characterisation) and elements (like a flow diagram). Because the elements also involve steps to be taken (like constructing the flow diagram), only the term \"step\" will be used in the remainder of this document. These steps are presented as individual subsections in the Recipe section of each phase. Their treatment is almost invariably as follows: Topic, describing briefly the role and function of this particular step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6035, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Their treatment is almost invariably as follows: Topic, describing briefly the role and function of this particular step. Main choices, summarising the basis for implementation of this step. Guidelines, providing detailed instructions for this step. Example, using a hypothetical situation to illustrate1 the application of the guidelines. 1 It should be understood that a strict application of the guidelines would mean that the examples for certain steps would require 50 pages or more. Therefore, we have chosen to give the examples an illustrative function only, without pretending to be purist. Furthermore, most \u2013 though no t all \u2013 examples are based on a simple hypothetical system, the data for which is provided with the CMLCA software. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6036, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 26, "book_page": 19, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since an LCA can be conducted at various degrees of sophistication, the guidelines distinguish between the baseline detailed level, a simplified level, and possible extensions to the detailed level. Note that in a detailed LCA, certain steps may be conducted at the simplified level, or that it is possible to choose, even within one step, to apply detailed guidelines for some unit processes or impact categories and simplified guidelines for others. Note also that a simplified LCA is not simple in the sense of being easy. The guidelines for simplified LCA are largely in line with the ISO standards, but not entirely. For example, the allocation procedure recommended for simplified LCA does not comply with the stepwise procedure described in ISO 14041. The guidelines for detailed LCA comply fully with the various ISO standards, however, although they are elaborated here at a more operational level. Many of the optional extensions do not fit into the ISO framework", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6037, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 20, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Many of the optional extensions do not fit into the ISO framework. Application of the guidelines requires detailed working instructions and data. All data, and especially all extensive tables with substance-specific factors, and all instructions that extend beyond a few lines have been included in the operational annex (Part 2b). To ensure proper correspondence with the step to which they belong, the numbering of chapters and sections is the same for Parts 2a and 2b. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6038, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 27, "book_page": 20, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Management of LCA projects: procedures Designing an LCA project An LCA project is more than just a study. The results of the project could be used in decision-making by industry, government and non-governmental organisations. They could guide decisions on investment, policy issues or strategy determination. So it is best to consider an LCA project as an organisational process, which can be carried out in several ways. This process approach is based on the idea that the results of an LCA will only be considered authoritative if the most important stakeholders have been involved in the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6039, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This process approach is based on the idea that the results of an LCA will only be considered authoritative if the most important stakeholders have been involved in the analysis. This has to be done in a proper and correct way, necessitating a process design which should define: the parties and the individuals who will be involved in the LCA project; the tasks and responsibilities of parties/individuals involved; the points at which the parties/individuals involved can exercise their influence (decision points); how decision-making will work at these points; the arrangements for dealing with \u2018bottlenecks\u2019 during the process; the actual planning and management of the process. The execution of an LCA and the accompanying process should be carefully attuned to its ultimate goal. This requires that both the LCA client and other possible stakeholders reflect upon this goal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6040, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The execution of an LCA and the accompanying process should be carefully attuned to its ultimate goal. This requires that both the LCA client and other possible stakeholders reflect upon this goal. Meanwhile, the LCA researchers themselves should also keep the goal firmly in mind, considering how this could affect the conditions and constraints of the project itself. The LCA client also needs to consider the design, the organisational set-up and the management of the accompanying process. A suitable process design can be defined as a set of rules agreed on by the parties involved; these cover who is involved, and also when and how the process is to be carried out. A proper and transparent process can only be realised by a design that maximises all potential advantages, whilst keeping the risks of the process approach to a minimum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6041, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A proper and transparent process can only be realised by a design that maximises all potential advantages, whilst keeping the risks of the process approach to a minimum. The advantages of the process approach are that a qualitatively better LCA is realised, and that broader support for the results from the parties involved is more likely to be achieved. After all, the stakeholders are far more likely to support the results of an LCA project if they themselves have been actively involved in the execution of the analysis. Further advantages of the process approach include: the opportunity to educate stakeholders and shape their views; better quality of the data and other information used in the LCA; improved transparency of the LCA report; better quality of execution of the LCA. However, the process approach does carry some risks \u2013 mainly of improper manipulation by stakeholders or researchers of the study itself, the results of the analysis or the decisionmaking process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6042, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, the process approach does carry some risks \u2013 mainly of improper manipulation by stakeholders or researchers of the study itself, the results of the analysis or the decisionmaking process. The process design must be clear in its objectives, which means that a distinct starting point and a distinct endpoint of the process must be defined. An optimised interaction between 1. 1.1 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6043, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 28, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the execution of the LCA as such and the practical use of the LCA\u2019s results should be arranged. In general, four steps can be distinguished in LCA-based decision-making processes: assignment of the research; execution of the LCA; presentation of the LCA\u2019s results with conclusions; implementation based on the LCA\u2019s results. All parties involved can influence the procedure and choices in these four steps. A process design should indicate who can make decisions, when they should be made, and what can be decided in each step. Context of an LCA project The organisational set-up and execution of the decision-making process should be attuned, as far as possible, to the specific nature of this kind of decision-making and to the process context. For instance, making a decision on whether to replace long-life products by disposables might require more process regulation than decision-making on product innovation, especially where there are sharply diverging views among interested parties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6044, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "What determines the type of process design and development is, first of all, the nature and number of parties with diverging interests. Secondly, the possible effects of the intended use of the LCA\u2019s results also determine the extent and manner of regulation of the development process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6045, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 1 (Section 2.6) distinguished six different process situations and stated that LCAs are conducted to obtain results that can be used in: global exploration of options (the LCA study is conducted to get a first impression of the environmental effect of certain options); company-internal innovation (the LCA study is conducted to assess the environmental impact of company-internal product improvements, product development or technical innovations); sector-driven innovation (similar to the above, except that it is sector-oriented, although in a formal organisation representing a branch or chain of companies, it can be regarded as an internal activity); strategy determination (the LCA study is conducted to assess the environmental impact of strategic scenarios); comparison (the LCA study is conducted to assess whether a product or system meets certain environmental standards, or whether it is more environmentally sound than another product or system); comparative assertion disclosed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6046, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is conducted to assess whether a product or system meets certain environmental standards, or whether it is more environmentally sound than another product or system); comparative assertion disclosed to the public (environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product which performs the same function)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6047, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is self-evident that in a situation of global exploration or company-internal innovation, there is, in general, less need for process regulation than in a situation involving disclosure or justification to the public. For process situations in between these two extremes it is important to realise what impact the LCA\u2019s results can have for the parties involved. In such situations, there may be potential interests which could be important for long-term strategies, but one or more of the parties could also be affected by more short-term interests. 1 Part 1 (Section 2.3) also mentioned another evolving type of LCA application: LCA as a management tool on a more continuous basis, as in benchmarking. This type of application has not been given any specific attention during the work on procedures described here. 1.2 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6048, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 29, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Note that determining the decision situation in advance of the execution of the LCA study does not imply that the decision to be taken is already fixed. It only implies that a certain decision is aimed for and that a number of procedural arrangements may be necessary. With respect to the process context, four categories can be defined by making distinctions on grounds of diverging interests and on the relative potential impact of the LCA\u2019s results on the stakeholders. In the case of global exploration of options, there are generally few diverging interests, and there is a weak impact. In such a situation, a process approach is unnecessary. In the remaining three cases, process design needs to be attuned to the various process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6049, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In such a situation, a process approach is unnecessary. In the remaining three cases, process design needs to be attuned to the various process contexts. These are described below: process context I: few diverging interests, potentially strong impact; process context II: many diverging interests, potentially weak impact; process context III: many diverging interests, potentially strong impact. Figure 1.2.1 helps to determine the process context that is applicable. Process management in LCA Many LCAs are conducted as company-internal matters. They may be restricted to a general exploration of the environmental burden associated with specific options, in which case the procedural approach to the LCA project can remain a purely internal affair. But the results of LCA projects often have more far-reaching implications, in that policy choices, investments and other important decisions may be driven by them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6050, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "But the results of LCA projects often have more far-reaching implications, in that policy choices, investments and other important decisions may be driven by them. Realisation of a correct and transparent process involves shaping the execution of the process in accordance with the process design, as arranged by the various parties involved. In the case of processes in context III (above), the appointment of an independent process manager is recommended. 1.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6051, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 30, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The next chapters of this Guide provide procedural guidelines for the process management of the separate phases of LCA. In the meantime, the following general principles can be given: Process rules according to the decision situation All procedural guidelines for the specific LCA phases are given for the three distinct types of process context. In general, context III is the most complex and requires the most detailed rules. Process rules based on guidelines for LCA phases The exact definition of the guidelines does not depend on the complexity of the LCA itself, but rather on the complexity of the interests of the parties involved. It is possible, for instance, that a relatively simple LCA will require a detailed LCA process \u2013 because of the varied interests of those involved. This implies that the procedural guidelines only provide a general basis for detailed process rules, which themselves have to be designed by the parties involved in a given situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6052, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 24, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This implies that the procedural guidelines only provide a general basis for detailed process rules, which themselves have to be designed by the parties involved in a given situation. Process design based on general guidelines The following nine guidelines can form the basis for process design: Entry guideline The following parties should be invited to be part of the decision-making process: all who have an interest in the results of the LCA and those who could influence or block the purpose of the LCA. This basic rule will need to be worked out in each specific context. It may be necessary to involve more parties \u2013 because of policy considerations \u2013 or to r estrict the number, in the interest of management considerations. Consensus guideline The most important guideline for decision-making is to have decisions made by consensus, and to use a majority of votes, arbitration, or another previously determined procedure for decision-making only if there is no other alternative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6053, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 24, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The reason is that those who find themselves in the minority a few times may lose commitment to the process and so to the final result. Minority gets a say It is important that minority wishes should be granted if they do not run counter to the majority view. For example, a minority party may want a supplementary analysis to be conducted. Granting such a wish is sensible, because it will increase the authoritativeness of the final result of the LCA. If the wish is not granted, the minority may dissociate itself from the final conclusions. Test of professionalism When parties negotiate the formulation of an assignment or an interim report, they may, in the interest of consensus, produce an assignment or statement that turns out not to be up to scientific standards in terms of content. For instance, the formulation of the assignment could contradict the core scientific content of this LCA Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6054, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 24, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, the formulation of the assignment could contradict the core scientific content of this LCA Guide. In such cases, the investigators should test the content of the parties\u2019 statements and report explicitly when they find a statement debatable in scientific terms. Reporting in the case of a conflict between investigators and stakeholders In such cases, the investigators' opinions should be explicitised in the LCA report. This allows the investigators to keep their professional integrity intact, while stimulating the stakeholders to revise their opinion. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6055, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 31, "book_page": 24, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Explicitness Stakeholders may have conflicting opinions about, for example, the formulation of an assignment, about the quality of the result of an investigation or about the analysis of such results. The rule of explicitness ensures that the stakeholders make such differences of opinion explicit. They must indicate \u2013 preferably in writing \u2013 what they understand the difference of opinion to be. External test rule (critical review or peer review) This rule states that there should be external testing of certain aspects of an LCA project during the process by independent critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6056, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 25, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "External test rule (critical review or peer review) This rule states that there should be external testing of certain aspects of an LCA project during the process by independent critical review. ISO10404 states that the critical review shall ensure that: the methods used to carry out the LCA are consistent with the ISO standards on LCA; the methods used to carry out the LCA are scientifically and technically valid; the data used are appropriate and reasonable in relation to the goal of the study; the interpretations reflect the limitations identified and the goal of the study; the study report is transparent and consistent. A critical review could, for instance, be applicable to an interim LCA report, or to specific issues giving rise to conflict between investigators and stakeholders, or to conflict between stakeholders", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6057, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 25, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "But it may be useful to have a critical review carried out in any case, by way of overall error check, and to justify the reasonableness of assumptions, the appropriateness of data and the correctness of methods. Reporting in the case of a conflict between stakeholders This second reporting rule allows for unresolved conflicts between stakeholders to be described in the final report. In such cases, one or more stakeholders may dissociate themselves from the results because they feel the LCA guidelines have not been properly applied. The reporting rule requires that a judgement by the research institute and a critical reviewer be added to the stakeholders\u2019 opinions. On the one hand, this does justice to minority opinions, since these are noted in the final report. On the other hand, strategic behaviour is exposed, since it will become evident if minority views cannot stand up to a critical appraisal of their content", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6058, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 25, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, strategic behaviour is exposed, since it will become evident if minority views cannot stand up to a critical appraisal of their content. Iteration rule One or more stakeholders may require iteration, particularly in the last two process steps. If all parties agree, there is no problem, but if a minority group wants iteration, a conflict may arise. Other parties may wish to end the investigation. The iteration rule says that if a minority wants iteration of the last two steps, this should be allowed. It should be realised that a process involving many parties cannot be driven by rules alone, and that the way the process is managed is equally important. Can the process manager create sufficient confidence that all parties will participate in all consultations arising from the LCA project? This is important, since each guideline can be used by uncooperative parties for their own ends, particularly to slow down the whole process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6059, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 25, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is up to the process manager to make it clear that everyone profits from a proper application of the rules \u2013 and that they all suffer if the rules are abused. There is much to be gained if the manager can make this clear to all concerned. Organisation and assignment Before the start of the executive work in the first phase of LCA (the Goal and scope definition; see Chapter 2), the organisational set-up needs to be established. The following points have to be taken into consideration. 1.4 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6060, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 32, "book_page": 25, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Selection of stakeholders Selection of the interested parties should be based on the entry guideline described above. ISO 14040 identifies a number of possible categories of participants in the example of a \u2018comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public\u2019 requiring a critical review. Assignment The actual execution of the first phase of a study should follow a clearly formulated assignment procedure. In LCA, this formulation should not be regarded as merely a necessary preparatory activity, but rather as an important first step and as part of the execution itself and the underlying process. The execution of the first phase (the Goal and scope definition) is so closely connected to the formulation of the assignment that intensive interaction between the LCA client and the LCA researchers will be necessary. In practice, it has been noted that lack of foresight at the assignment stage creates certain risks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6061, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, it has been noted that lack of foresight at the assignment stage creates certain risks. Unjustifiable simplifications must be avoided - as must extrapolation of the LCA results. For instance, if the analysis aims at a general comparison of two types of product systems, it is insufficient to merely compare a few specific cases. The process design also needs to describe how the assignment might be revised in the light of new information, such as changes in the intended use of the LCA, the involvement of stakeholders, LCA quality requirements, and so on. Project organisation The organisational set-up of a properly carried out LCA project requires the initiator to pay particular attention to the first steps, followed by a common approach shared by the stakeholders. From the start, the competencies of all parties should be established, with respect to both the set-up and the other four phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6062, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From the start, the competencies of all parties should be established, with respect to both the set-up and the other four phases. Revising important principles, the formulation of the assignment, and/or process planning should all be avoided during the actual execution of an LCA. Therefore, a well-planned process design and management are essential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6063, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is best done by focusing attention on the following key points: views on assignment, process planning and process management; selection criteria for parties to be involved in the process; possible choice of an independent process manager; description of the intended use of the LCA results in the assignment, and the feasibility of that use in terms of the budget and limitations of the LCA; description of the intended quality of the LCA results in the assignment; intentions with respect to the execution of one or more critical reviews (under ISO it is possible to choose a critical review and/or panel review); intentions with respect to the extent of transparency of the report, regarding principles, data, assumptions, choices and so on; methods of obtaining an independent validation of non-public data and/or data delivered by interested parties (critical review); other process principles, process intentions and intended procedures required to achieve the proper course of the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6064, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "of non-public data and/or data delivered by interested parties (critical review); other process principles, process intentions and intended procedures required to achieve the proper course of the process; possible departures from the guidelines during the course of the process and the motivation for such deviations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6065, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6066, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 33, "book_page": 26, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Reporting an LCA project Reporting is a crucial issue in LCA. A technically excellent LCA without a transparent and unambiguous report will be of very limited value. This applies not only to external studies but also to internal studies. The requirements for external studies are clear: claims made to the public, the use of results by governments and all other applications which involve third parties will require that these third parties can see which choices and assumptions have been made, which parts of the life cycle have been excluded, which data have been used, and so on. For internal studies there is not primarily a need with regard to third parties, but third parties may become involved over time, as experience has shown that companyinternal innovation studies sometimes come to be used outside the company. Even for purely internal purposes, however, clear reporting is of prime interest", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6067, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 27, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Even for purely internal purposes, however, clear reporting is of prime interest. An LCA may often spawn product or process improvements, and after a year or so there may be an update study which builds on the original one. Moreover, the steps involved are complicated and there are many points at which data are needed and assumptions and choices have to be made. The baseline quality of an LCA can only be guaranteed if all steps undertaken are clearly reported. It is therefore only natural that a Guide for LCA should include guidelines for setting up a clear report. The chapters below provide many guidelines indicating how specific issues (choices, assumptions, data, calculation rules, results, conclusions) are to be reported. But there are also certain general principles for reporting LCA. There are three main guiding principles: all issues should be reported; all issues should be reported in a transparent way; all issues should be reported explicitly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6068, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 27, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are three main guiding principles: all issues should be reported; all issues should be reported in a transparent way; all issues should be reported explicitly. However, if we adhere to these main principles, reporting on an LCA becomes an extremely time-consuming activity, and LCA reports become huge documents. Fortunately, the present Guide and related documents have \u201cpre-digested\u201d a large number of choices and data, and a simple reference to this Guide and the related texts will often suffice. For instance, Part 2b of this Guide contains dozens of pages with characterisation factors. If these are used in a case study, a proper reference may replace the retyping of these tables. Note, though, that a proper reference is still needed at the appropriate place. What holds for data also holds for argumentation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6069, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 27, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Note, though, that a proper reference is still needed at the appropriate place. What holds for data also holds for argumentation. ISO\u2019s requirement to justify the environmental relevance of the choice of impact categories in an Impact assessment, for instance, can be addressed by referring to the discussion in specific chapters of Part 3 of this Guide. Nevertheless, reporting on an LCA requires a careful planning and is likely to result in a main report of 20-80 pages, accompanied by annexes with process data and specific characterisation factors, comprising some 50-500 pages, depending on the goal and scope of the LCA. The main report in particular is something that should be planned. Again, the present Guide may assist in the process of writing such a report. It provides certain sample tables that may serve as blueprints for the tables in the main report. This is also true of the structure of the present Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6070, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 27, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It provides certain sample tables that may serve as blueprints for the tables in the main report. This is also true of the structure of the present Guide. It is strongly recommended to have separate chapters for the different phases of an LCA. A blueprint for a report could look as follows: Summary Introduction Procedures Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Final conclusions Moreover, many of the steps identified in this Guide should preferably be included in such a report, e.g., economy-environment system boundary, flow diagram, etc. Some of these 1.5 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6071, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 34, "book_page": 27, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "steps (e.g., calculation method, classification) may only require a short text, while other steps (e.g., data collection and relating data to unit processes, sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis) may require a large number of pages, including tables, figures and annexes. Reporting quantitative results poses special requirements. The following issues need attention. Figures that represent quantities, such as mass or volume, are figures relating to units. The units agree with the dimensions of the quantities, and should always be explicitly reported. The guidelines below recommend the use of SI units. Figures should never suggest greater precision than is appropriate. For instance, pocket calculators and computer programs often produce results in 8 digits, but only a few of them are significant. Thus, 1/3 should be written as 0.3, not as 0.33333333. Figures suggest precision, even if the number of significant digits is limited", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6072, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 28, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Thus, 1/3 should be written as 0.3, not as 0.33333333. Figures suggest precision, even if the number of significant digits is limited. When standard errors are available, these may be added, indicated by\"\u00b1\". In other cases, ranges may be available. Use a table to present large sets of figures. In some cases, graphic representation may be useful. However, the design of good graphs is not without its problems. Some issues include the following. Add labels for the quantity represented, its unit and the numerical values for at least some of the marks of the axes. Be cautious about using one graph to display different quantities at the same time. Be cautious about using logarithmic axes. Do not limit figure captions to a mere \"Figure 12: Results of the characterisation\"; expand them to include explanatory material. As will be clear from the text below on procedures for the various phases of LCA, there will in general be a draft interim report and a final report after revision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6073, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 28, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As will be clear from the text below on procedures for the various phases of LCA, there will in general be a draft interim report and a final report after revision. It is also emphasized in many places that LCA is an iterative process, which includes regular checks to see whether the choices made are consistent with the goal and scope of the study. It follows that reporting LCA is also an iterative process. It is not a matter of defining procedural steps, gathering data, making calculations and then writing a report. Procedural issues are everywhere in the LCA process, and good decisions by clients, stakeholders, LCA researchers and critical reviewers can only be made on the basis of written documentation, like a draft interim report. The initialising phase of defining the goal and scope is crucial in this respect. Many choices are made here, relating to purpose, intended application, product alternatives, scope of the analysis, and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6074, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 28, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Many choices are made here, relating to purpose, intended application, product alternatives, scope of the analysis, and so on. It also points out where data gaps can be expected, which pitfalls may show up, how much time will be needed for the rest of the LCA, what additional information may be needed, and so on. In practice, a fairly complete report on the Goal and scope definition often serves as a milestone in the LCA project. It provides a good point for rethinking the goal and scope, for allocating budget, for appointing additional reviewers and for deciding whether to continue the project at all. As such, a so-called Goal and scope report plays an important role. One should realise that a Goal and scope report in this sense may be quite different from the chapter on Goal and scope definition in the final complete report, precisely because the Goal and scope report may induce a focus for the goal, a change in scope, or some other major modification of the final LCA plan", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6075, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 28, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Moreover, a Goal and scope report will, in principle, include all of the chapters of the final report (see the list above), although most chapters (Inventory analysis, Impact assessment, Interpretation) will not yet include any results, but only outline the main choices to be made during these phases. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6076, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 35, "book_page": 28, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (case history) Since the late 1980s, Unilever has conducted many LCA-type studies for almost all its major product groups, including margarine, ice cream, detergent and shampoo. Both in the UK and in the Netherlands, various specialists have developed the necessary skills, and have built up a substantial database. Thanks to this expertise, they have been able to explore improvement options in all parts of the process chain of their products. Unilever has also conducted in-house environmental and market-economic comparisons between one-way and multiple-way packaging for several of its products. These studies were part of the Dutch Packaging Covenant, and have contributed to the formal decision-making process in the Netherlands, involving the government, NGOs, academia and the business community. Its extensive experience has also enabled the company to conduct a so-called Overall Business Impact Analysis, which formed the basis of its 1998 Environmental Report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6077, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 29, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Its extensive experience has also enabled the company to conduct a so-called Overall Business Impact Analysis, which formed the basis of its 1998 Environmental Report. This study estimated the combined environmental impact related to the generation of all raw materials, the manufacturing of all products and the use of those products, and related this to Unilever\u2019s economic contribution. The outcome of this study has led Unilever to formulate three main environmental focus areas, viz. sustainable agriculture, sustainable fishing and clean water stewardship. As a consequence of these initiatives, life cycle thinking has become common practice in many places within the company. Although full-scale LCA studies are rarely being conducted anymore, the expertise which has been built up helps to formulate improvement options and to monitor the improvement process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6078, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 29, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although full-scale LCA studies are rarely being conducted anymore, the expertise which has been built up helps to formulate improvement options and to monitor the improvement process. The next chapters of this part of the Guide describe competencies and responsibilities, together with brief guidelines for handling potential bottlenecks in the various LCA phases by making arrangements that will guarantee the smooth progress of the whole project. 1.6 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6079, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 36, "book_page": 29, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Goal and scope definition Recipe Page Procedures Goal definition Scope definition Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows Topic The Goal and scope definition is the phase in which the initial choices which determine the working plan of the entire LCA are made. The goal of the study is formulated in terms of the exact question, target audience and intended application. The scope of the study is defined in terms of temporal, geographical and technological coverage, and the level of sophistication of the study in relation to its goal. Finally, the products (or product) that are the object of the analysis are described in terms of function, functional unit and reference flows. Starting points The general starting points for the LCA as elaborated in this Guide are as follows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6080, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Starting points The general starting points for the LCA as elaborated in this Guide are as follows. There is a focus on change-oriented, structural decisions, that is, the method is mainly intended to support decisions with respect to changing a situation, for instance from one material to another, and for decisions that are assumed to be effective for an indefinite time. There is a focus on the main function of a product; possible other functions are identified but ignored or carried over through an allocation step. There is no specific focus on particular processes, chemicals, environmental impacts, countries, years and so on. In principle, the analysis covers all processes (cradle-to-grave), taking place at all locations and throughout the entire life cycle period, and includes extractions of natural resources, releases of chemicals, use of land, and all impacts resulting from these interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6081, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We have made ISO 14040/14041 the general starting point of the Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis phases. The ISO requirements have since been made operational through the work of the SETAC Working Group on Inventory Enhancement and many individual projects. The steps for Inventory analysis laid out in the next chapter of this Guide are copied from ISO 14041, with a few adaptations. For a justification and explanation of these adaptations, see Part 3 of this Guide. The requirements of ISO 14041 have been closely followed, with certain additions or further specifications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6082, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For a justification and explanation of these adaptations, see Part 3 of this Guide. The requirements of ISO 14041 have been closely followed, with certain additions or further specifications. These are: the distinction between two modes of analysis \u2013 descriptive and change-oriented; a clearer distinction between reporting the main choices to be made in the Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation parts of Scope Definition, and in the Inventory analysis, Impact assessment, and Interpretation phases themselves; the implementation of an analysis of the data quality in the section on key issues for sensitivity analysis; the latter is conducted as part of the Interpretation phase; the choice between actual, standard and recommended performance of products has been shifted to the Inventory analysis phase. Further information about the individual steps within the Goal and scope definition phase can be found in Part 3. 2. 2.1 2.2 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6083, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 37, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recipe Procedures Topic The procedural organisation should allow for a common treatment of all general and specific subjects that the parties involved will want to discuss during this first LCA phase. Attention should particularly be given to the following issues: normative choices to be made prior to defining the goal and scope; choices with respect to details of the construction of product systems and scenarios that will be analysed and/or compared; choices with respect to the reliability, validity and sensitivity of LCA input and output; possibilities for adjusting the details of the assignment and/or LCA process design; intentions for the approach to be used in the subsequent phases (including allocation and weighting); further LCA process planning and LCA process management. Main choices The procedures in the LCA study must be laid down right from the start of the Goal and scope definition phase. First, a supervision process must be set up", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6084, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 32, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices The procedures in the LCA study must be laid down right from the start of the Goal and scope definition phase. First, a supervision process must be set up. The project initiator should carry out the first steps, while the stakeholders arrange the organisational set-up of the project. During this initial phase of the LCA, the supervision process must be set up with due regard to the authoritativeness of the study results. Input from the stakeholders must not be ignored. There must be interaction between all parties involved on topics that are relevant to the goal and scope of the study. Guidelines Determine the LCA process context by means of the decision tree in Chapter 1 (Figure 1.2.1). Determine the competencies and responsibilities of the LCA research scientists, critical reviewers (if any), the LCA clients and other interested parties, using Table 2.3.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6085, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 32, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Determine the competencies and responsibilities of the LCA research scientists, critical reviewers (if any), the LCA clients and other interested parties, using Table 2.3.1. Address potential bottlenecks in the LCA process by making arrangements on the basis of Table 2.3.2 to ensure the orderly progress of the project. 2.3 2.3.1 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6086, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 38, "book_page": 32, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 2.3.1. Overview of the competencies of the various actors during the LCA process for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6087, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b Description first instructions with respect to fulfilment of LCA assignment first instructions with respect to fulfilment of the assignment of a critical reviewer written response to instruction on LCA assignment written response to instructions on assignment of a critical reviewer possible revision of the first instructions on LCA assignment possible report on incompatible opinions on LCA assignment presentation of draft interim report (= draft text of Goal and scope definition) written reaction to draft interim report on Goal and scope definition possible revision of draft report on Goal and scope definition possible report on incompatible opinions arising during the goal and scope definition final opinion on final interim report on Goal and scope definition Process context I C - L - C L L C L L C II C or S L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6088, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "context I C - L - C L L C L L C II C or S L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact C = first LCA client(s) S = stakeholders (including C) L = LCA research scientists R = critical reviewer Table 2.3.2 Overview of the arrangements that can be made between the various actors for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6089, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item a b c d e Description I widening/supplementation of the study (on o request) validation by an independent expert (on request) o binding advice on contentious issues by the o critical reviewer final decision-making by the largest possible o majority, arbitration or another previously determined procedure quantification of the influence of incompatible o opinions in the final report Process context II III r r r r r r o r r r 1 The actual implementation of all guidelines in this Guide should be checked in a critical review. Part 2a: Guide C or S S III", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6090, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 39, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact r = recommended o = option Example (case history) No example. Goal definition Topic The first step in the Goal and scope definition phase involves stating and justifying the goal of the LCA study, explaining the goal (aim or objective) of the study and specifying the intended use of the results (application), the initiator (and commissioner) of the study, the practitioner, the stakeholders1 and the intended users of the study results (target audience). Main choices The goal, application, initiator, stakeholders and commissioners must always be defined as unambiguously as possible. A special case is that of the so-called comparative assertions disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6091, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 34, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A special case is that of the so-called comparative assertions disclosed to the public. LCAs reporting on such studies have been a source of controversy in quite a few instances in the past, and therefore require special care. Guidelines State the goal(s) of the study unambiguously and transparently, not only in terms of what is to be done (e.g., comparing systems A and B, carrying out a cradle-to-gate or cradleto-grave analysis, hot-spot identification, etc.), but also in terms of the reasons for executing the study. The intended application(s) and decision(s) to be supported should be defined as precisely as possible. Determine whether the goal meets the definition2 of \u201cComparative assertion disclosed to the public\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6092, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 34, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Determine whether the goal meets the definition2 of \u201cComparative assertion disclosed to the public\u201d. List the parties involved: those undertaking the study (the researchers) and their affiliations and LCA experience; the LCA commissioner (the client and/or the funding body); the target audience (or users) and other interested parties; the members of the steering committee or any other supervising committee; the expert reviewer(s) and/or members of an expert review panel. Determine whether LCA is the most appropriate tool to answer the specific research question, or whether other instruments may be more suitable for the goal defined. State the possibilities and limitations of LCA clearly, and clarify the potential value of the use of other tools in addition to LCA (see Part 1 for limitations and other tools). 1 Referred to in ISO 14040 (1997E) as \u201cinterested parties\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6093, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 34, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 Referred to in ISO 14040 (1997E) as \u201cinterested parties\u201d. 2 An environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product which performs the same function. 2.3.2 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6094, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 40, "book_page": 34, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Check and report whether the general starting points for all phases of the LCA (Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment, Interpretation) as described in Sections 2.2, 3.2, 4.2 and 5.2 have been followed. Any deviations from these starting points should be reported and justified. See the general reporting issues (Section 1.5) for the preferred way to report these issues. Check the formulation of the goal(s) (in relation to the limitations of LCA as stated before). Consider whether adjustments of the goal are necessary or whether there are issues that have to be analysed further in the Interpretation phase. The thoroughness of the check and the extent of the adjustments can vary from minor for a simplified LCA to major for a detailed LCA. If product alternatives are to be compared, determine which differences in results are large enough to allow the conclusion that a certain product alternative is more environmentally sound than another", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6095, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 35, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe goal of the LCA is to identify options for improving the environmental performance of the material polyethylene in disposable bread bags. The results of this LCA will be used for product and process development. The plastic bag manufacturer wants to be able to analyse the effects of changes in its processes, in terms of technology, inputs and product composition, on the total environmental impact. This information, in turn, can be used to prioritise different measures that can be taken to improve the environmental performance. This LCA does not aim at a public comparative assertion. The study is conducted by Pro-Duct Consultancy Ltd, a moderate-sized private engineering bureau. The commissioner is Bag-Away, a large producer of plastic disposable bags. Interested parties are mainly the plastics industry, bakeries and shops. A steering committee with representatives of the producer, the ministry of the environment and academia will be formed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6096, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 35, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interested parties are mainly the plastics industry, bakeries and shops. A steering committee with representatives of the producer, the ministry of the environment and academia will be formed. Finally, an expert review will be carried out at NILCAR, the National Institute for LCA Research.\u201d Scope definition Topic The Scope Definition step establishes the main characteristics of an intended LCA study, covering such issues as temporal, geographical and technology coverage, the mode of analysis employed and the overall level of sophistication of the study. A so-called Goal and scope report (see Section 1.5) may also be drafted for the sake of critical review and comments from interested parties. This report should justify all the main choices with respect to the step \u201cFunction, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows\u201d and the phases of Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6097, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 35, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices The guidelines given in this Guide are basically intended for change-oriented, structural decisions. The emphasis in the guidelines is on detailed LCA, in which simplified guidelines have been derived from the detailed ones, and extended guidelines have been designed as add-ons to the detailed ones. Guidelines are for so-called cradle-to-grave analysis, although partial analyses, such as cradle-to-gate analyses may largely follow the same guidelines; deviations for cradle-to-gate analysis are specified. 2.3.3 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6098, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 41, "book_page": 35, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for Impact assessment are based on so-called mid-point effects: somewhere between total mass loadings and mortality increase (see Part 3, Section 4.2). Furthermore, impacts on the environment are the primary focus in defining impact categories. Thus, energy in MJ is not a category, while depletion of resources (including energy carriers) in certain well-defined terms is one. Guidelines Determine, justify and report the temporal coverage of the study in relation to its goal. This will be a reference point for other choices, e.g., that of the base-period for data collection and the reference period for normalisation. Consider the desired age of the data and the time period over which they have been collected (e.g., one year). Determine, justify and report the geographical coverage of the study in relation to its goal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6099, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 36, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Determine, justify and report the geographical coverage of the study in relation to its goal. This will also be a reference point for other choices, e.g., the base-area for the choice of system alternatives in a comparison and the reference area for specifying reference flows (performance characteristics). Determine, justify and report the technology coverage of the study, e.g., weighted average of the actual process mix, best available technology or worst-operating unit, in relation to the goal of the study. A baseline choice for the average level of technology currently installed in the specified geographical area (i.e., modal-modern technology) will suffice for many structural, change-oriented decisions. Determine, justify and report the coverage of economic processes (activities) in relation the goal of the study (= initial system boundaries). Determine, justify and report the coverage of environmental interventions in relation to the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6100, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 36, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Determine, justify and report the coverage of environmental interventions in relation to the goal of the study. All relevant emissions and extractions must be included in the study. The researcher can use the list of interventions given in Part 2b, section 4.4, which summarises all interventions covered by the baseline Impact assessment methods (described in Section 4.3.3), as a checklist. The researcher\u2019s level of experience and knowledge of the economic processes concerned and their possible interventions are equally important. Determine, justify and report the coverage of environmental impacts in relation to the goal of the study. All relevant impact categories must be included in the study. The researcher can use the baseline list of impact categories given in Section 4.3.2, which summarises all impact categories covered by the baseline Impact assessment methods (described in Section 4.3.3), as a checklist", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6101, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 36, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The researcher\u2019s level of experience and knowledge of on the economic processes concerned and their possible impacts on the environment are equally important. Interventions and/or impact categories which are deemed important but which are unlikely to be quantified during the analysis should be given a separate status (\u2019flags\u2019). Determine, justify and report whether the mode of analysis (change-oriented, structural decisions) which is the starting point for this Guide is appropriate to the goal of the study. Determine, justify and report the appropriate level of sophistication (simplified, detailed, and possible options for extensions) in relation to the goal of the study and the decision situation at hand. Keep in mind that this choice means choosing a baseline level of sophistication, and that it is always possible to deviate from this choice for specific steps, unit processes, impact categories and so on, provided that such deviations are justified and reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6102, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 36, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of a comparison, determine whether it is useful to restrict the LCA to a difference analysis, in which parts of the life cycle that are qualitatively and quantitatively identical (or almost identical) are omitted from the analysis. If it is decided to conduct a difference analysis, justify and report this, along with a list of the life cycle stages and/or unit processes that have been omitted. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6103, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 42, "book_page": 36, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The scope of the study should be defined sufficiently comprehensively and in sufficient detail to enable the study to address the stated objectives. Note that LCA is an iterative technique, and not a purely sequential process. This guideline should be kept in mind along the entire LCA process, as the need to revise and reiterate previous steps may arise at any stage. Example (hypothetical) \u201cAn LCA is carried out to identify hot spots for the improvement of processes in the Netherlands, so data should be representative of the present state of technology in that country. The study uses the most recent data available, mainly from 1999. The purpose is in agreement with the scope of structural, change-oriented LCA, and simplified guidelines will suffice for most steps. The total size of the study is 8 person-months", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6104, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The purpose is in agreement with the scope of structural, change-oriented LCA, and simplified guidelines will suffice for most steps. The total size of the study is 8 person-months. A large proportion of this time will be devoted to the collection of representative data of the most important production, recycling and upgrading processes.\u201d Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows Topic In this step, the function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows are defined. The functional unit describes the primary function(s) fulfilled by a product system, and indicates how much of this function is to be considered in the intended LCA study. It will be used as a basis for selecting one or more alternative product systems that might provide these function(s). The functional unit enables different systems to be treated as functionally equivalent and allows reference flows to be determined for each of them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6105, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The functional unit enables different systems to be treated as functionally equivalent and allows reference flows to be determined for each of them. For instance, one could define a functional unit for wall painting in terms of the area to be covered, the type of wall, the ability of the paint to cover the underlying surface and its useful life. In a real example, then, the functional unit of a wall covering would be of wall covering with a thermal resistance of K/W, with a coloured surface of 98% opacity, not requiring any other painting for 5 years.\u201d On the basis of the functional unit, a number of alternative product systems can be declared functionally equivalent and reference flows will be determined for these systems. The reference flow is a measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system which are required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6106, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The reference flow is a measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system which are required to fulfil the function expressed by the functional unit. For example, the above functional unit of wall covering might be fulfilled by of wall covered with paint A, and this is therefore the reference flow for the product system that corresponds to paint A. The fact that 10 litres of paint are needed for this purpose is not a part of the goal definition, but rather of the process data (Section 3.3.6). Main choices Functions must be defined as closely as possible to the end-use Depending on the goal and application, the actual, standard or recommended use should guide the definition of the reference flows. Alternatives should be selected on the basis of functional equivalence in the context of the study, but additional considerations may play a role as well. SI units (or SI-derived or SI-based units) must be used to define the functional unit and the reference flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6107, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "SI units (or SI-derived or SI-based units) must be used to define the functional unit and the reference flows. 2.3.4 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6108, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 43, "book_page": 37, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The size of the functional unit may be chosen arbitrarily (e.g., protecting a 10 square metre wall), or derived from the actual annual size (e.g., protecting 225,000 square metres of wall). The choice of using the actual, standard or recommended performance of products is discussed in section 3.3.6 of the Inventory analysis phase, although most authors, including ISO, discuss it in the context of the present step. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Follow a stepwise procedure. Step 1: Identify the functions to be analysed, formulating them in terms of the final use function(s) of a specific product system, or from a final need or goal. For cradle-to-gate analyses, identify the functions to be analysed, formulating them in terms of physical output (e.g., covering a floor or producing a certain amount of floor covering material)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6109, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For cradle-to-gate analyses, identify the functions to be analysed, formulating them in terms of physical output (e.g., covering a floor or producing a certain amount of floor covering material). Step 2: Determine and describe the function to be analysed or, in the case of more than one function, select the primary function and decide to allocate (see Section 3.3.9) all economic flows and environmental interventions between the primary function and possible additional functions not included in the analysis; or ignore all additional functions and document these ignored functions (e.g., the primary function is that of covering the floor, and the colour and softness have been ignored). Step 3: Define the functional unit. Determine the key parameters for the system\u2019s functioning (e.g., surface to be covered, lifespan of a product, mass etc.) and the units in which they can be expressed; use SI-derived or SI-based units whenever possible (e.g., see Part 2b, Section 2.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6110, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Define the function of the system in terms of these key parameters as accurately as possible and unambiguously, since this will determine the number of alternative systems that can be considered. Take an arbitrary amount of this function to quantify the amount of function analysed (e.g., Step 4a: Select equivalent alternative product systems meeting the requirements of the functional unit (e.g., carpets, wooden floors). Ensure that the product or service systems selected are consistent with the goal of the study. Justify and explain, if relevant, why certain product or service systems are considered while others have been omitted from the assessment, although they obviously fulfil the same function or service. Describe the consequences of not considering certain functionally comparable systems for the validity of the study's results and conclusions . Make sure that the alternatives selected are real substitutes (see also under step 4b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6111, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Make sure that the alternatives selected are real substitutes (see also under step 4b). If a reference system is to serve as the baseline for comparisons (e.g., to see whether a particular alternative system means an improvement or not, or one for which all results will be put to 1), justify the choice of this reference system in relation to the goal of the study; select the reference system in such a way that the data qualities of the reference system in particular are reasonably consistent in relation to the other systems. 1 From this step on, separate guidelines will be offered for the different levels of sophistication: simplified, detailed and extended, subdivided, where relevant, for various applications. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6112, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 44, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Document and justify in a transparent manner the \u201cfuture\u201d assumptions made if the product systems selected include systems that are yet to be developed or do not feature on the current market. Step 4b: Determine the reference flows needed to fulfil the function defined by the functional unit (e.g., of floor covered with carpet, of floor covered with wood), based on standard or recommended use tests. Make sure that the reference flow of every alternative system is a real substitute for the reference flows of the other alternatives (e.g., are we comparing 100 g of steak with 100 g of cutlets or an average portion of steak (100 g) with an average portion of cutlet (150 g)? 1 This step should be done in iteration with the definition of the primary function. Check the function, functional unit, alternative product systems and reference flows that have been selected and defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6113, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 39, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Check the function, functional unit, alternative product systems and reference flows that have been selected and defined. Has the function been selected in accordance with the goal(s) defined? Are the units and quantity determined for the functional unit consistent and comprehensive in relation to the goal(s) defined? Functional equivalence: are the product systems selected on the basis of the functional unit really functionally comparable? Report every step that is carried out properly and unambiguously. Give a brief description of the product (or product group) or service studied. Clearly state the relevant function(s) selected as the basis for the LCA study. State any additional functions that have been excluded from the comparison. State the functional unit(s) defined in the proper and unambiguous terms. Justify the product systems selected and describe the main characteristics (trip rate, life span etc...) of these systems. Describe the reference flows properly and unambiguously", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6114, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 39, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Justify the product systems selected and describe the main characteristics (trip rate, life span etc...) of these systems. Describe the reference flows properly and unambiguously. In the case of a comparative assertion, it is mandatory to provide a description of the equivalence of the systems being compared in terms of performance, system boundaries, data quality, allocation procedures, decision rules on evaluating inputs and outputs and Impact assessment, in accordance with ISO 14040, Clause 5.1.2.4. In the case of a comparative assertion, comment on relevant alternatives not covered by the study or list them in the report. If no relevant alternatives exist, it is equally important to state this. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions Follow a stepwise procedure. Step 1: As for simplified LCA. Step 2: Select the relevant function(s) in relation to the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6115, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 39, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions Follow a stepwise procedure. Step 1: As for simplified LCA. Step 2: Select the relevant function(s) in relation to the goal of the study. If there is only one function at stake, use this as the basis for the definition of the functional unit. If various functions are important, the formulation of the functional unit depends on the goal of the study. Formulate a single primary function (e.g., floor covering), preferably by physically separating the functions and allocating (see Section 3.3.9) all economic flows and environmental interventions between the primary function and possible additional functions not included in the analysis; or if functions cannot be separated physically, by selecting the primary function and documenting the omitted other additional functions. Or formulate an integrated function of the system in terms of all important functions (e.g., floor covering that is soft and blue)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6116, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 39, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Or formulate an integrated function of the system in terms of all important functions (e.g., floor covering that is soft and blue). Step 3: Define the functional unit as in a simplified LCA, except for the following: 1 Observe that the choice of comparing equal portions versus comparing average portions is closely related to the question of choosing actual, standard or recommended performance. This is a choice that has to be made for many (foreground) processes, and is therefore discussed in Section 3.3.6. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6117, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 45, "book_page": 39, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Use the actual amount to quantify the amount of function analysed; if not possible, use an arbitrary amount. Step 4a: Select equivalent product systems fulfilling the functional unit as in a simplified LCA. Step 4b: Determine the reference flows. Make sure that the reference flow of every alternative system is a real substitute for the reference flows of the other alternatives. (E.g., are we comparing 100 g of steak with 100 g of cutlets or an average portion of steak (100 g) with an average portion of cutlets (150 g)?) This step should be done in iteration with the definition of the primary or integrated function, especially in multifunction situations. All other guidelines for checks and reporting mentioned for a simplified LCA must also be applied to detailed LCAs and optional extensions. Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe function studied in the LCA is that of washing dyed clothes in a household situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6118, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe function studied in the LCA is that of washing dyed clothes in a household situation. The functional unit has been defined as cleaning 100 kg of dyed clothes in a standard washing machine, in such a way that an independent panel judges the clothes to be sufficiently clean", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6119, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The functional unit has been defined as cleaning 100 kg of dyed clothes in a standard washing machine, in such a way that an independent panel judges the clothes to be sufficiently clean. The alternatives which are supposed to meet the requirements imposed by the functional unit are: \u2022 Clean-em-all at a temperature of \u2022 Small-Clean at a temperature of \u2022 Cold-Wash at a temperature of The reference flows belonging to these alternatives are: \u2022 20 cycles of the washing machine with the recommended dose of Clean-em-all; \u2022 30 cycles of the washing machine with the recommended dose of Small-Clean; \u2022 20 cycles of the washing machine with the recommended dose of Cold-Clean.\u201d Results of Goal and scope definition The results of the Goal and scope definition phase consist of a clear specification of the goal of the study, the functional unit, and the reference flows for the various alternative product systems. In addition, the scope of the study will guide further choices in subsequent phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6120, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, the scope of the study will guide further choices in subsequent phases. These results form the input for the next phase of the LCA, the Inventory analysis. 2.4 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6121, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 46, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inventory analysis Topic Starting points The Inventory analysis is the phase in which the product system (or product systems if there is more than one alternative) is defined. In this context, defining includes setting the system boundaries (between economy and environment, with other product systems, and in relation to cut-off), designing the flow diagrams with unit processes, collecting the data for each of these processes1, performing allocation steps for multifunctional processes and completing the final calculations. Its main result is in an inventory table listing the quantified inputs from and outputs to the environment associated with the functional unit, in terms of kgs of carbon dioxide, mgs of phenol, kgs of iron ore, cubic metres of natural gas, etc. ISO 14040/14041 has been our general starting point for this phase, as it was for the previous Goal and scope definition phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6122, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 60, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14040/14041 has been our general starting point for this phase, as it was for the previous Goal and scope definition phase. As before, the ISO requirements have been made operational through the work of the SETAC LCI group and many individual projects. The inventory steps laid out in this Guide have been copied from ISO 14041, with a few modifications. For a justification and explanation of these adaptations, see Part 3 of this document, Chapter 1. The Inventory analysis phase follows the requirements of ISO 14041, with some additions or further specifications, as described below. Modifications have been made to bring the method in line with the choice of changeoriented, structural decisions. ISO\u2019s preference order for co-product allocation has been further specified, in that a clearer distinction is made between avoiding allocation by more detailed modeling and using real allocation where it cannot be avoided by such modeling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6123, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 60, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A quality analysis has been shifted to the Interpretation. All additional main methodological choices, including references to all ISO steps, are addressed in the section on main choices; the subsequent sections discuss guideline steps - which sometimes deviate from the ISO steps - for the actual performance of LCA studies. Furthermore, this Guide provides advice on mandatory and optional steps for a number of LCA applications. 1 For the sake of brevity, unit processes are often simply referred to as processes below. In compound terms, the term unit has always been omitted, as for instance in process data and foreground process. Recipe Procedures Economy-environment system boundary Flow diagram Format and data categories Data quality Data collection and relating data to unit processes Data validation Cut-off and data estimation Multifunctionality and allocation Calculation method Page 3. 3.1 3.2 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6124, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 47, "book_page": 60, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From the general set-up, some general starting points have been derived for the Inventory analysis phase in this Guide. The underlying model for the Inventory analysis phase in this Guide is based on steady-state equilibrium modeling. This implies, for one thing, that it is primarily to be used to assess the long-term consequences of a decision, i.e., including newly established market equilibriums. The method used in this Guide ignores non-linearities in the relationships between inputs and outputs and flows and effects in industrial and ecologic systems. The method developed ignores details regarding the temporal distribution of activities, emissions, and effects. Emissions are specified as total time-integrated releases, and a similar procedure is used for environmental impacts. At the same time, however, sensitivity analyses allow for finite time horizons, e.g., for landfill processes. The method ignores spatial details as well", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6125, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 42, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the same time, however, sensitivity analyses allow for finite time horizons, e.g., for landfill processes. The method ignores spatial details as well. For instance, pollutants are assumed to be released to the water, without indicating to which water. Certain site-dependent additions, however, are available. Most economic, socio-cultural and technological mechanisms are either grossly simplified or completely excluded. Recipe Procedures Topic The procedural organisation should ensure identical treatment of all general and specific subjects that the parties involved want to discuss in the Inventory analysis phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6126, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 42, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recipe Procedures Topic The procedural organisation should ensure identical treatment of all general and specific subjects that the parties involved want to discuss in the Inventory analysis phase. Attention should be given to the following issues: normative choices made prior to modeling the product system; the choice of data sources and data quality requirements (possibly validation) to be enforced; enforcement of the accounting rules; choices with respect to the processing of data (for example, scaling) into \u2018useful\u2019 specifications; the LCI calculation method, including validation of software programs; researchers and calculations to be used for the purpose of the significance analysis; the type of presentation of the LCI results; possible conclusions based on the LCI results; further process planning and process management. Main choices In the course of this LCA phase, the supervisory process should be arranged so as to preserve the authoritativeness of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6127, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 42, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices In the course of this LCA phase, the supervisory process should be arranged so as to preserve the authoritativeness of the results. The potential input from stakeholders should also be used to improve the quality of the LCA. In this situation of \u2018mandated science\u2019, this implies that, depending on the specific process context, there should be room for interaction between the parties involved on topics that are relevant to the definition of system boundaries, cut-off and allocation rules, data quality and so on. 3.3 3.3.1 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6128, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 48, "book_page": 42, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Determine the competencies and responsibilities of the LCA research scientists, any critical reviewers, the LCA clients and other interested parties, using Table 3.3.1. Address potential bottlenecks in the LCA process by making arrangements in line with Table 3.3.2 to ensure the orderly progress of the project. Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact C = first LCA client(s) S = stakeholders (including C) L = LCA research scientists R = critical reviewer 1 The actual implementation of all guidelines of this guide should be checked in a critical review. Table 3.3.1 Overview of the competencies of the various actors during the LCA process for the various process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6129, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item Description Process context I II III 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b first instructions with respect to fulfilment of LCA assignment first instructions with respect to fulfilment of assignment of critical reviewer written response to instructions on LCA assignment written response to instructions on assignment of critical reviewer1 possible revision of the first instructions on LCA assignment possible report on incompatible opinions on LCA assignment presentation of draft interim report (= draft text of Inventory analysis) written response to draft report on Inventory analysis possible revision of draft report on Inventory analysis possible report on incompatible opinions arising during the Inventory analysis final opinion on report on Inventory analysis C \u2014 L \u2013 C L L C L L C C or S C or S L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6130, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 49, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 3.3.2 Overview of arrangements that can be made between the various different process contexts. Item a b c d e Description widening/supplementation of the study (on request) validation by an independent expert (on request) binding advice on decision points by the critical reviewer final decision-making by the largest possible majority, arbitration, or another previously determined procedure quantification of the influence of incompatible opinions in the final report I o actors for the Process context II r r r r III r r r r r Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact r = recommended o = option Example (case history) In order to develop a sound response to the various lists of environmentally preferable materials, the Dutch building materials sector started the so-called MRPI project in 1996", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6131, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 0, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The umbrella organisation for this sector (NVTB) initiated and co-ordinated the MRPI project with the objective of providing the building sector with \u201creliable information on environmental aspects of building materials, building products or building elements, delivered at the initiative of the producer or his representative by means of LCA\u201d. Since the interpretation of the LCA output and the use of LCAs to generate environmentally relevant information on products (= MRPI data) turned out to be an important item, the building materials sector is making extensive efforts to educate its members on this issue. The Dutch Concrete Association, for example, developed an LCA training course focusing on the collection and processing of relevant data and the handling of information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6132, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 0, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The Dutch Concrete Association, for example, developed an LCA training course focusing on the collection and processing of relevant data and the handling of information. This LCA training course characterises the collection of data as the bottleneck \u2018pi\u00e8ce de r\u00e9sistance\u2019, necessitating orientation on data concerning processes outside the company, i.e., elsewhere in the product chain. But: \u201dIn practice the suppliers of semi-products and raw materials are a little bit reluctant still when it comes to supplying environmental data. Everybody seems to be afraid of being compared to his competitors. At the same time people in the business chain together have the key in their hands to reach a fundamental break-through in reducing the environmental load.\u201d Nevertheless, the Dutch building materials sector succeeded in implementing the MRPI project; currently, 80 MRPI licences have been issued, in about 20 building sectors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6133, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 0, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "All MRPI data are based on LCAs and all data have been verified by independent organisations. At present (2000) the sector is trying to develop a structural embedding, by providing regular updates to the MRPI data. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6134, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 50, "book_page": 0, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Economy-environment system boundary Topic In LCA, each and every flow should be followed until its economic inputs and outputs have all been translated into environmental interventions. The term \u2018environmental interventions\u2019 refers to flows entering the product system (for example, natural resources, but also land use) which have been drawn from the environment without prior human transformation, or flows of materials leaving the product system which are discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation. Environmental interventions are thus flows crossing the boundary between the economy (= product system) and the environment. To create a clear distinction between the product system and the environment and between elementary and other flows, the economy-environment boundary should be explicitly defined. Whenever a system is studied, system boundaries are needed to separate the system from the rest of the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6135, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 45, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whenever a system is studied, system boundaries are needed to separate the system from the rest of the world. An LCA Inventory analysis distinguishes three types of boundaries: the boundary between the product system and the environment system; the boundary between processes that are relevant and irrelevant to the product system (cut-off); the boundary between the product system under consideration and other product systems (allocation). The first of these will be discussed here, while the second is addressed under the heading \"Cut-off and data estimation\" (Section 3.3.8) and the third under the heading \"Multifunctionality and allocation\" (Section 3.3.9). Main choices Human control over processes is the main criterion for regarding a process as a unit process and hence including it in the economic system. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Use the definition of system boundaries that is applied in existing databases and literature sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6136, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 45, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Use the definition of system boundaries that is applied in existing databases and literature sources. Take note of possible inconsistencies between the various data sources used and of possible deviations from the advice given in this Guide for detailed LCA and optional extensions. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions Determine the boundary between the product system1 studied and the (natural) environment by applying the definitions for elementary flows (see the Appendix on terms and definitions). In particular: Controlled landfills should be regarded as economic processes from which emissions take place (emissions of organics should be integrated over 200 years, emissions of inorganics like heavy metals ad infinitum); uncontrolled landfills should be regarded as part of the environment system. Partially controlled landfills should be treated as a mixture of these two extremes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6137, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 45, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Partially controlled landfills should be treated as a mixture of these two extremes. 1 When two or more alternative product systems are being studied, the economy-environment system boundary should be determined for each of these alternatives. 3.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6138, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 51, "book_page": 45, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Wastewater treatment should be regarded as an economic process. This implies that releases to a sewage system are not considered as emissions into the environment, but that only the releases of the treated wastewater after sewage treatment is considered as such. Because process data for wastewater treatment are sometimes difficult to obtain, one will in practice sometimes exclude wastewater treatment from the flow diagram. The latter should, however, be clearly reported and justified as a flow that has not been followed to the system boundary. Agriculture and forestry are regarded as economic processes, although agricultural and forestry soils are part of the environment system. Further, the harvested part of a crop should be regarded as a part of the economic system, while the nonharvested part belongs to the environment system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6139, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 46, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Further, the harvested part of a crop should be regarded as a part of the economic system, while the nonharvested part belongs to the environment system. This means that pesticides on the harvested part of a crop do not show up in the LCA, unless they enter the environment at a later stage, for instance when the crops are washed before cooking and the water used for washing is released to the environment. Treatment of mining tips should be similar to that of landfills. Distinguish, if relevant, between \u201cpositive\u201d and \u201cnegative\u201d emissions and extractions. Dredging for specific uses (water transport; clay for bricks or dykes) should be included as a negative emission (from the environment), and as a positive emission when it is returned to the environment (particularly to another environmental compartment)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6140, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 46, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In agriculture, and particularly in forestry, sequestering of in biomass should be regarded as a negative emission, while or released during waste processing of the agricultural product should be considered a positive emission. Justify the reasons for possible deviations from the baseline advice given above. Ensure that system boundaries are defined consistently throughout the LCA study and also beyond the study, with respect to the characterisation factors and normalisation factors used. Check that the economy-environment system boundary defined is consistent with the scope of the study and with these guidelines. In the case of a comparison, check whether the economy-environment system boundary is handled consistently over the various product systems that are being compared. For studies on agricultural products and landfill systems, check whether there are defensible alternative choices with respect to the definition of the economy-environment system boundary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6141, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 46, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For studies on agricultural products and landfill systems, check whether there are defensible alternative choices with respect to the definition of the economy-environment system boundary. Report the following issues: systems and system boundaries for all stages of the product system life cycle, including inputs, processing routes and spatial and temporal considerations; a justification of the final system boundaries in relation to the goal of the study; inputs and outputs of the system as elementary flows. Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn the LCA, agriculture for the production of biofuels has been included in the product system, just like the controlled landfilling of waste. Disposal of sludge into rivers, however, has been categorised as belonging to the environment system. Uptake of carbon dioxide by crops is counted as a negative emission.\u201d Flow diagram Topic The flow diagram provides an outline of all the major unit processes to be modeled, including their interrelationships", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6142, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 46, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is helpful in understanding and completing a system to describe the system using a process flow diagram. 3.3.3 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6143, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 52, "book_page": 46, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices Appropriately constructed flow diagrams are important for understanding the product systems Drafting flow diagrams can be done at different levels of complexity, also in relation to the level of sophistication (detailed, simplified), the most complete being a diagram in terms of unit processes Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA For each alternative product system studied, draft an initial flow diagram at the level of aggregated processes for each life cycle stage. Start from the reference flow, the process producing the reference flow and adjacent processes, up to and including the processes producing the main materials and those managing the main waste flows. It is convenient to use boxes for unit processes (or aggregated processes) and arrows for the economic flows linking them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6144, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 47, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is convenient to use boxes for unit processes (or aggregated processes) and arrows for the economic flows linking them. Environmental interventions are often omitted from the flow diagram, because the main function of the flow diagram is to illustrate the structure of the product system and the relationships between the unit processes. Text labels in boxes should clearly indicate the names of the unit processes, and text labels attached to arrows show the names of the economic flows. Use arrows primarily to indicate the physical direction of flows. For instance, use an arrow from consumption to waste treatment to indicate the flow of disposed products, and not the other way around to indicate the flow of the waste treatment service. However, it is often more convenient to indicate service-providing activities in a different way. Thus, a cleaning process does not absorb dirt, but provides a cleaning service", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6145, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 47, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, it is often more convenient to indicate service-providing activities in a different way. Thus, a cleaning process does not absorb dirt, but provides a cleaning service. Indicate clearly which of the boxes refers to a unit process and which to a partial flow diagram with aggregated unit processes. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions These are the same as for a simplified LCA, but with the following additional guidelines. Draft a detailed flow diagram in iteration with the data collection step (see Section 3.3.6), starting from the initial flow diagram. Solve the problem of huge numbers of unit processes and complex interrelationships by zooming in from the initial flow diagram to the underlying unit processes in partial flow diagrams", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6146, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 47, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Solve the problem of huge numbers of unit processes and complex interrelationships by zooming in from the initial flow diagram to the underlying unit processes in partial flow diagrams. Check whether the number of flows for which estimated data must be collected in relation to the number of flows for which specific data have been collected is consistent with the goal(s) and scope of the study and the guidelines given. Check whether the flow diagram is complete. In the case of a comparison, check whether there are any inconsistencies between the flow diagrams of the systems being compared. Report process flow diagrams describing the complete system under study. Include system boundaries, major inputs, products and co-products in the process flow diagrams. The process flow diagrams should include the main production sequence, ancillary materials and energy/fuel production. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6147, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 53, "book_page": 47, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) Part 2a: Guide \u201cThe flow diagram for the investigated system of PE disposable bags is visualised below. The environmental inflows and outflows have been omitted for the sake of readability.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6148, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 54, "book_page": 48, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Format and data categories Topic A key task of the Inventory phase is the collection of process data. This usually involves large quantities of data in electronic form, retrieved in part from databases set up by others. To render these comparable and mutually consistent, a standard data format must be developed. All the various data categories should be assigned a specific place in this format and a general description given of each to facilitate and guide data entry and retrieval. Main choices Choice of data categories should be made in relation to the impact categories and characterisation factors included. Using a transparent format is important. Conformity with a data exchange standard is important. The so-called SPOLD format provides such a standard. Adaptations of this standard may be required in relation to choices made in other steps, like terminology and definitions of data categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6149, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The so-called SPOLD format provides such a standard. Adaptations of this standard may be required in relation to choices made in other steps, like terminology and definitions of data categories. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Use the SPOLD format as much as possible for the collection of data for foreground processes; for background processes, use the format applied in the database or literature source used for data on these background processes, or if possible, convert these data to the SPOLD format too. See Part 2b, Section 3.4 for references to further information. Use the headings of the SPOLD format as the main data categories. However, adaptations are needed; see Part 2b, Section 3.4 for a list of data categories. Treat energy inputs and outputs like any other economic input and output to an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6150, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, adaptations are needed; see Part 2b, Section 3.4 for a list of data categories. Treat energy inputs and outputs like any other economic input and output to an LCA. Use the list of elementary flows for which Impact assessment data are available (see Part 2b, Section 4.3) as a reference list to specify these main data categories. Use the CAS number where possible and relevant. Distinguish emission compartments, where relevant, into air; fresh water; seawater; agricultural soil; industrial soil. In addition to the reference list provided above, include data on some more relevant inventory items. Depending on the goal and scope of the study and on the choice of impact categories, inventory items of interest may be: land occupation; land transformation; emissions of waste heat; casualties; sound. Report decisions about data categories and details about individual data categories. 3.3.4 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6151, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 55, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) No example. Data quality Topic For LCA models, like any other model, it holds that \u201cgarbage in = garbage out\u201d. In other words, data quality has a major influence on results, and proper evaluation of data quality is therefore an important step in every LCA. Even if the quality of individual datasets is high, however, such data can still yield erroneous results if used to answer questions on which they have limited or no bearing. The data used in a given case study should, for instance, be representative of that particular study. Quality requirements thus refer to both the reliability and the validity of process data. Since validity depends on the application in question, it is not validity requirements as such that are specified here but the data needed to assess that validity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6152, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 50, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since validity depends on the application in question, it is not validity requirements as such that are specified here but the data needed to assess that validity. Main choices Since fully operational models for assessing the influence of data quality on output validity are lacking, a partial qualitative data quality assessment is provisionally proposed, based on suggestions from ISO 14041. Although a full quantitative assessment of every dataset is not feasible, one should not neglect to include quantitative data quality information (meta-data) for those items for which this is available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6153, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 50, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Data quality should be specified in terms of: collection from specific sites versus general data; being measured, calculated or estimated; precision, as a measure of the variability of the data values for each data category expressed (e.g., variance); completeness, as a percentage of locations reporting primary data from the potential number in existence for each data category in a unit process; representativeness, as a qualitative assessment of the degree to which the dataset reflects the true population of interest (i.e., geographical, time period and technology coverage); consistency, as a qualitative assessment of the degree of uniformity with which the study methodology is applied to the study serving as the data source; reproducibility, as a qualitative assessment of the extent to which information about the methodology and data values allows an independent practitioner to reproduce the results reported in the study serving", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6154, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 50, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "as a qualitative assessment of the extent to which information about the methodology and data values allows an independent practitioner to reproduce the results reported in the study serving as the data source; justification of the choice of data sources selected in relation to the goal of the study and particularly to scope issues such as temporal, geographical and technology coverage; reliability of different data sources in qualitative terms; completeness of the data provided (for instance, if there are unreported emissions); correctness of the mass and energy balances; agreement between the data sources used and other data sources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6155, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 50, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.3.5 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6156, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 56, "book_page": 50, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If possible, ask for opinions of technical (non-LCA) experts. If a comparison is being made, check whether: the data quality requirements and the choice between marginal and average data are consistently elaborated between the product systems compared; there are any major differences between the product systems being compared, with respect to the ratio between background and foreground data; the estimated importance of the flows for which specific data are lacking differs considerably between the various systems being compared. In the case of a comparative assertion, report on the assessment of the precision, completeness and representativeness of the data used. Justify and report maximum baseline data quality requirements. The report must clearly establish and define data quality goals, as well as any variability of data considered in the study. Identify clearly all data sources for the study and reference them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6157, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 51, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The report must clearly establish and define data quality goals, as well as any variability of data considered in the study. Identify clearly all data sources for the study and reference them. Key indicators of data quality should be reported, so that choices are justified and transparent, including: age of data; frequency of collection; spatial and temporal considerations; any other relevant factors. The quality assessments may be reported as a Pedigree Matrix per process (see Part 2b, Section 3.5). If data are presented in aggregate form (e.g., for reasons of confidentiality), is the aggregation procedure fully described? A sensitivity analysis of key data sets should be included. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for simplified and detailed LCA apply here. Consider developing a new method for data quality assessment. If so, document and justify comprehensively and transparently the method developed and the choices and assumptions made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6158, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 51, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Consider developing a new method for data quality assessment. If so, document and justify comprehensively and transparently the method developed and the choices and assumptions made. Example (hypothetical) See example under Section 3.3.6. 3.3.6 Data collection and relating data to unit processes Topic This step of the Inventory analysis phase involves the collection of all relevant data on the unit processes and quantifying all flows connected to the unit processes in accordance with the format specified above (Section 3.3.4). The reference flow(s) (see Section 2.3.4) defined in the Goal and scope definition phase of the study form(s) the starting point for data collection. The process data available to the practitioner may be structured in any number of ways. In LCA databases, process data are often organised around unit processes, relating a given economic output to economic inputs and environmental inputs and outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6159, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 51, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In LCA databases, process data are often organised around unit processes, relating a given economic output to economic inputs and environmental inputs and outputs. Process data provided by companies are often also organised around unit processes, but given in terms of inputs and outputs per unit of time, e.g., emission of 5 tonnes of per year, input of 1000 tonnes of wood per year, etc. In existing LCA databases, process data are almost always quantified in relation to some physical (reference) flow (e.g., one kg of material or 1 MJ of electricity). Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6160, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 57, "book_page": 51, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices The ISO step labeled \"Relating data to unit processes\" has been integrated with ISO\u2019s \"Data collection\" step, since the activity of relating data to unit processes has too little substance to make it a separate element, and since it is inextricably linked with the activity of data collection. If possible, conversion of the data should be minimised and, if necessary, clearly documented. A distinction will be made between foreground and background processes, although various definitions of these terms are in use, and an unambiguous partitioning of processes into these two sets may be impossible. In this Guide, foreground processes are those unit processes for which case-specific primary data are used, while background processes are those unit processes for which more general information is used. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Determine a small number of foreground processes, i.e., processes for which primary data will be collected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6161, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 52, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Determine a small number of foreground processes, i.e., processes for which primary data will be collected. The remainder of processes are treated as background processes for which secondary data sources, such as generic databases, literature or IOA data (see Section 3.3.8 on data estimation) may be used. With respect to data collection for foreground processes, the following guidelines apply. Collect process data, preferably in flow-per-time figures, and relate the data to one of the flows through scaling factors, using time as a dimension, if the software allows for this (see Section 3.3.10 on calculation method). SI units (or SI-derived or SI-based units) should be used wherever possible in collecting data for all economic and environmental flows. For suggested units in the various data categories, see Part 2b, Section 2.4. Consider to what extent market mixes should form the basis for the data on a particular unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6162, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 52, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For suggested units in the various data categories, see Part 2b, Section 2.4. Consider to what extent market mixes should form the basis for the data on a particular unit process. For instance, a study on bottles for the European market will probably involve many bottle producers, so that a market mix, proportional to the market shares, is more representative than a choice of one particular bottle producer. If a market mix is to be used, the average level of currently installed technology in the relevant geographical area (i.e., modal vs. modern technology) will in many cases be a good choice. Justify and document procedures used for data collection. Describe each of the unit processes initially to define where the unit process begins (in terms of the receipt of raw materials or intermediate products and the nature of the transformations and operations that occur as part of the unit process) and where it ends (in terms of the destinations of the intermediate or final products)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6163, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 52, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the unit process from which the reference flow emanates (usually the use process), determine whether actual, standard or recommended performance is the best option in relation to the goal of the study. Consider whether this choice is also relevant to other foreground processes. For these processes: if geographical context is relevant, adapt standard or recommended use to the specific geographical circumstances; if temporal context is relevant, adapt standard or recommended use to the specific temporal circumstances; check whether the options that are being compared have the same performance; present the result of a performance measurement. With respect to data collection of background processes, the following guidelines apply. Where data are collected from published literature, specify the source. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6164, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 58, "book_page": 52, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The practitioner must realise that the choice of secondary data sources may significantly influence the outcome of the study and limits the opportunities for choosing different allocation rules or cut-off criteria and conducting sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. The practitioner must explicitly justify that the data source(s) selected for the background processes are representative with respect to the specification of the goal and scope of the study. A list showing a number of commonly used databases with process data is included in Part 2b, Section 3.6. Avoid the use of group parameters (such as CxHy, PAH, heavy metals, AOX) as much as possible1. If some process emissions are specified as a group parameter: split up the group parameter into its individual chemical constituents; convert the group parameter using generic conversion factors like those included in Part 2b, Section 3.6; if this is not possible, report original data, conversion methods and converted data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6165, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 53, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For those emissions for which the characterisation tables in Part 2b, Section 4.3 require this, specify, where possible, the emission compartment: air; water, divided for certain substances into fresh water and seawater; soil, divided for certain substances into agricultural soil and industrial soil. If such a specification is not known, assign the emissions to the most plausible emission compartment, and report what has been done. Some example guidelines include the following. Emissions of volatile substances can be assigned to the air compartment. Emissions of substances to water can be assigned to the freshwater compartment. Emissions of pesticides and fertilizers to the soil can be assigned to the agricultural soil compartment. Emissions of industrial processes to the soil can be assigned to the industrial soil compartment. Interventions that are not assigned to any impact category or that lack appropriate characterisation factors should not be omitted from the Inventory analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6166, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 53, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interventions that are not assigned to any impact category or that lack appropriate characterisation factors should not be omitted from the Inventory analysis. The use of data from pre-allocated databases is to be restricted to simplified LCA. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions All guidelines provided above for simplified studies also apply here, except for the first. The first guideline, stating that data must be obtained for a small number of foreground processes, is replaced by the following guideline: determine a large number of foreground processes, i.e., processes for which primary data will be collected. In addition, the following guidelines apply for detailed and extended studies: Assess all primary data collected by the data quality requirements defined in Section 3.3.5. Whenever possible (e.g., in the case of consumer products), determine the data for the unit process from which the reference flow emanates (usually the use process)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6167, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 53, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whenever possible (e.g., in the case of consumer products), determine the data for the unit process from which the reference flow emanates (usually the use process). Based on the relevant performance test, the following hierarchy of preference can be used: actual use, e.g., based on behaviour surveys, consumer enquiries or market studies; standard use in combination with consumer behaviour studies; recommended use in combination with consumer behaviour studies. Specify all secondary data collected from databases, literature, etc., as well as the published literature which supplies details about the relevant data collection process, about the time when data have been collected and about further data quality indicators. Perform this step in iteration with the contribution and perturbation analyses (see Sections 5.3.4 and 5.3.5). 1 Note: group parameters are only legitimate parameters if measured as such, not if calculated from measurements of individual chemicals. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6168, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 59, "book_page": 53, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Include estimated process data (see Section 3.3.8), and indicate these as such. Include details of the calculation procedure used for the energy systems in the report. In particular, specify whether country-specific or average energy has been used for materials and processing, the use of high or low calorific values, the approach used for feedstock energy and the conversion of electricity into primary energy. Try to avoid the use of data from pre-allocated databases. Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe table below presents the production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6169, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Try to avoid the use of data from pre-allocated databases. Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe table below presents the production. Item general information name code author date source status precision temporal representativeness geographical representativeness economic outputs ethylene economic inputs naphtha emissions to air benzene ethylene emissions to fresh water benzene cadmium phenol fictitious process data for Value production of ethylene Z-23-4f CML 14 May 2001 Jones (2000): The Handbook based on average of representative plants the unit process of ethylene of Life Cycle Data measurements from not specified, but there seems to be little variation across the individual plants mid-nineties average for Western Europe 950kg 1000kg 3.3.7 Data validation Topic This step involves checking the validity of the process data collected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6170, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Various tools are available for this purpose, including mass balances, energy balances and comparison with data from other sources (e.g., comparative analysis of emission factors). Any data found to be inadequate during the validation process should be replaced. Similarly, missing data should be identified in this step and a decision made on how these gaps are to be filled. Main choices Not applicable. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6171, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 60, "book_page": 23, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Validate data collected for the foreground processes, and for all background processes significant for the conclusions of the study, by establishing mass and energy balances and by comparative analysis of the different data sources used. A contribution analysis (see Section 5.3.4) can be used to point out this class of data. Address missing data and gaps in the foreground data and significant background data by means of one of the following: a non-zero data value which is justified; a zero data value, if justified; a calculated value based on values reported for similar technology, or another type of estimate (see the Section 3.3.8 on data estimation). Document and justify the criteria used for determining the \u201ccorrect\u201d data values from such validation procedures. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions In addition to the above guidelines for simplified LCA, the following also apply", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6172, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 55, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions In addition to the above guidelines for simplified LCA, the following also apply. Report anomalies in foreground data, and wherever possible also in significant background data, to the reporting location (i.e., internal company experts) or reporting source to determine their validity. Obvious anomalies in the data appearing from such validation procedures must result in alternative data values, which comply with the data quality requirements established in Section 3.3.5. Example (hypothetical) No example. 3.3.8 Cut-off and data estimation Topic In principle, an LCA should track all the processes in the life cycle of a given product system, from the cradle to the grave. In practice this is impossible, however, and a number of flows1 must be either roughly estimated or cut off2 and subsequently ignored", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6173, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 55, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice this is impossible, however, and a number of flows1 must be either roughly estimated or cut off2 and subsequently ignored. The root problem behind the cut-off issue is the lack of readily accessible data, implying disproportionate expenditure of funds and effort on data collection. Cut-off can substantially influence the outcome of an LCA study, however, which means that \u2018easy\u2019 LCAs come at a price. The cut-off problem can be formulated as a problem of having to quantitatively estimate the environmental interventions associated with flows for which no readily accessible data are available. Main choices Cut-off is necessary mainly for reasons of lack of data, in combination with lack of time and money. The problem comes up after data collection, when it turns out that production processes for some inflows and waste treatment processes for some outflows are unknown or undocumented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6174, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 55, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The problem comes up after data collection, when it turns out that production processes for some inflows and waste treatment processes for some outflows are unknown or undocumented. 1 In the cut-off discussion, the term \u201cflows\u201d refers specifically to all economic input flows and the output flow \u201cwaste to be treated\u201d. 2 One important additional situation in which a cut-off may be introduced is a difference analysis (see Section 2.3.3). Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6175, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 61, "book_page": 55, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cut-off is interpreted as more than simply ignoring certain parts. More importantly, the estimation of lacking data is an essential element in this Guide. Cut-off comprises two distinct aspects: dealing with missing unit processes and dealing with missing interventions from the unit processes included. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA In a difference analysis (see Section 2.3.3), cut-off of flows that are qualitatively and quantitatively identical across the various alternative product systems considered may provide an attractive shortcut. Try to avoid cut-off as much as possible. Several estimation procedures are available for this purpose; see under Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions below. In practice, however, time and budget will not allow the application of these estimation procedures for most of the data gaps. Cut-off will then be achieved by putting flows explicitly to zero", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6176, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 56, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, however, time and budget will not allow the application of these estimation procedures for most of the data gaps. Cut-off will then be achieved by putting flows explicitly to zero. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions In a difference analysis (see Section 2.3.3), cut-off of flows that are qualitatively and quantitatively identical across the various alternative product systems considered may provide an attractive shortcut. Avoid cut-offs as much as possible by collecting process-specific data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6177, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 56, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Avoid cut-offs as much as possible by collecting process-specific data. If this is not possible, estimations must, whenever reasonably possible, be made of the significance for the remainder of processes for which specific data cannot be found by environmental input-output analysis at the sectoral level1 (see Part 2b, Section 3.8); approximation of the process by a similar process (for instance estimating HDPE production by LDPE production); comparing the flow for which data are lacking with a reasonably similar flow for which data are known (see Part 2b, Section 3.8), and justify whether cutting off is reasonable or whether specific process data should be gathered after all. If estimation is not possible, try to estimate the potential quantitative and qualitative significance of the flow for which specific data are lacking", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6178, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 56, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If estimation is not possible, try to estimate the potential quantitative and qualitative significance of the flow for which specific data are lacking. If all of the above options are not feasible, cut off only those flows for which data are lacking, by putting them to zero, and report these flows clearly (see also Section 4.3.3.18). After each of the above-mentioned estimation steps, it should be decided \u2013 and the decision should be justified \u2013 whether or not the estimations give cause for additional collection of specific process data after all", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6179, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 56, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Report: criteria for initial inclusion of inputs and outputs; description of criteria and assumptions used for estimating or ignoring missing flows; estimated effect of estimation or omission on the results; in the case of a comparative assertion: analysis of material flows to justify their inclusion or exclusion in a comparative context; sensitivity analysis to refine the system boundaries; omissions of life cycle stages, processes or economic and/or environmental flows; estimated process data along with primary and secondary process data, indicating clearly which data items have been estimated, and which estimation principles have been used (in Section 3.3.6). 1 As noted in Parts 2b and 3, input-output analysis cannot be applied to the use and waste management phases. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6180, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 62, "book_page": 56, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn the example system, several inputs and outputs are cut off. These cut-offs have not all been included, for the sake of clarity. As an example, the potential contributions of the refinery facility and a catalyst, e.g., platinum, are estimated by Input-Output Analysis. The analysis uses the MIET model (see Part 2b, Section 3.8). See the table below for results. resources crude oil emissions to air 1-butene benzene carbon dioxide dioxins (unspecified) ethylene nitrogen oxides sulphur dioxide emissions to water benzene cadmium lead mercury phenol catalyst chemicals 0.023 kg _ 0.054 kg \u2014 0.00016 kg 0.00020 kg equipment 0.0034 kg _ 0.021 kg \u2013 In addition, cut-offs have been used for the input of lubricants for refining, the outputs of residue to dump from the incineration of chemical waste, and the output of used bags from the use process (packaging a loaf of bread)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6181, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 57, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, the co-product of \"recovered energy from incineration of chemical waste\" has not been allocated, but just ignored for the sake of simplicity. This can be justified by acknowledging that the revenues from energy recovery are negligible compared to those of waste incineration.\u201d 3.3.9 Multifunctionality and allocation Topic Most industrial processes are multifunctional. Their output generally comprises more than a single product, and raw material inputs often include intermediates or discarded products. LCA practitioners are thus faced with the problem that the product system or systems under study provide more functions than that which is investigated in the functional unit of interest. An appropriate decision must therefore be made as to which of the economic flows and environmental interventions associated with the product system under study are to be allocated to the functional unit produced by that system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6182, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 57, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Decisions on the specifics of allocation will obviously be determined by the precise nature of the system boundaries as previously defined (see Section 3.3.2), since these determine which inputs and outputs are to be regarded as associated with the function of interest. An appropriate allocation procedure is thus required to partition the inputs and outputs of all relevant processes to the appropriate product systems. Main choices Allocation is the result of the multifunctionality of one or more unit processes, and is performed at the unit process level. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6183, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 63, "book_page": 57, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The use of data from allocated databases is to be restricted to simplified LCAs; for detailed LCAs, this is to be avoided as much as possible. The ISO preference order for dealing with allocation is more clearly specified with regard to the application of the different options in simplified and detailed LCAs and in possible extensions, with regard to more detailed modeling and actual allocation, and with regard to operational aspects. Co-production, combined waste treatment and recycling are treated on the basis of the same allocation principles. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA If possible, avoid allocation by modeling within the Inventory analysis. Possible methods are the following, in order of preference. Use single-function (cradle-to-gate databases) as a basis, such as ETH or BUWAL (see Part 2b, Section 3.6 for references to these databases). In this case all multifunction processes are already allocated by the maker", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6184, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 58, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case all multifunction processes are already allocated by the maker. Treat open-loop recycling as closed-loop recycling, using a quality factor indicating the lower value of the recycled material. Use existing physical-causal waste management models. If allocation cannot be avoided, possible allocation methods are: economic allocation based on the value of all resulting functions, where feasible (see Part 2b, Section 3.9.1); substitution with pre-allocated cradle-to-gate database data; allocation based on indicators of economic value, such as mass, volume, or energy content; quick and dirty last resort methods, based on very rough estimations, such as 5050%, prices of similar products etc., or allocating all flows to the function investigated. Justify and describe the methods used to avoid allocation and the methods used to allocate. Check the following issues and, where relevant, use them to make recommendations for further analysis in the Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6185, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 58, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Check the following issues and, where relevant, use them to make recommendations for further analysis in the Interpretation. Are any other simplified allocation keys possible? In the case of a comparison, are there important differences in the allocation situations between the various systems compared? A decision should be taken as to whether and how the influence of different allocation methods will be further analysed in the Interpretation phase. Guidelines for detailed LCA If possible, avoid allocation by modeling within the Inventory analysis. Possible methods are the following, in order of preference. Split up processes that are not really multiple. In practice, this means that more detailed process sheets or databases are consulted, or that more detailed measurements are made. Model long-term technical-physical relations in waste processing, in addition to existing models", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6186, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 58, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Model long-term technical-physical relations in waste processing, in addition to existing models. If allocation cannot be avoided, allocate using economic allocation based on the market value or constructed market value of all the resulting functions (see Part 2b, Section 3.9.1). If the above-mentioned methods cannot be applied, use one of the possible methods for allocation mentioned under simplified LCA as a last resort. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6187, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 64, "book_page": 58, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Justify and describe the methods used to avoid allocation and the methods used to allocate, giving special attention to the situations where a last resort method had to be used. Check the following issues. Are any other allocation keys possible? In the case of a comparison, are there major differences in the allocation situations between the various systems compared? The influence of the allocation methods used should be further analysed in the Interpretation phase in the form of a sensitivity analysis. If last resort methods have been applied, they must be given special attention in the sensitivity analysis in Section 5.3.6. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for detailed LCA apply here. In addition to the first guideline on avoiding allocation by means of modeling within the Inventory analysis, the following guideline is given. If relevant and possible, apply market analysis for main co-products (= system expansion) to avoid allocation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6188, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 6000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If relevant and possible, apply market analysis for main co-products (= system expansion) to avoid allocation. If relevant and possible, make a linear programming optimisation model for one main process to avoid allocation. We advise the LCA practitioner to do this only if (s)he is familiar with optimisation models (see the various papers by Azapagic and Clift referenced in Part 3 for more details). If relevant and possible, apply symmetrical substitution as an allocation method in addition to economic allocation (see Part 2b, Section 3.9.2) Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe refinery process is a multifunctional process. The allocation is based on sales (= quantity \u00d7 price) of the products. The proceeds of the six products as produced by the installation are summarised in the table. The share of each product in total proceeds is the allocation factor for that product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6189, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 6000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The proceeds of the six products as produced by the installation are summarised in the table. The share of each product in total proceeds is the allocation factor for that product. product 1: fuel oil (good) 2: naphtha (good) 3: kerosene (good) 4: long residue \u201cwaste\u201d (good) 5: food waste (service) 6: wood waste (service) Total quantity price 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 0.80 \u2013 proceeds allocation factor 0.25 0.30 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.27 1.00 Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6190, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 65, "book_page": 6000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resulting six mono-functional processes are tabulated below. production of fuel oil production of naphtha production of kerosene production of long residue \"waste\" treatment of food waste treatment of wood waste economic outflows (kton) fuel oil naphtha kerosene long residue \"waste\" chemical waste 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.06 0.2 0.54 economic inflows (kton) food waste wood waste PE (ton) lubricants 0.0025 0.003 0.0005 0.0003 0.6 0.0001 0.0027 5.4 emissions to air (g) 7.2 1.2 9.6 0.72 2.4 6.5 emissions to water (g) Cd Hg benzene 0.07 0.7 8.4 0.084 0.84 1.4 0.014 0.14 0.84 0.0084 0.084 2.8 0.028 0.28 7.6 0.076 0.76 3.3.10 Calculation method Topic Collection of process data yields a database of processes. The act of quantitatively relating these processes to one another, scaled to the reference flow following from the functional unit, is referred to here as the calculation method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6191, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The act of quantitatively relating these processes to one another, scaled to the reference flow following from the functional unit, is referred to here as the calculation method. The calculation result is a set of linked and scaled processes, each with scaled environmental interventions, which are usually aggregated. Main choices Matrix-based calculations are preferred because they easily allow for recursive relationships. The calculation of inventory results includes an aggregation of all interventions over all unit processes, but there are also unaggregated results, which serve all types of purposes, like the contribution analysis (see Section 5.3.4) Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA For each alternative product system, calculate the inventory table by scaling all processes in relation to the reference flow of that product system. This means that, Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6192, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 66, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "within each product system, each unit process should be scaled in such a way that it delivers the quantity of product or service that is necessary for the reference flow. Use software based on matrix inversion. If this is not possible, use other software. Document explicitly any software used for the calculation, if possible along with the calculation procedures involved. If the final calculation shows that the system delivers not only the desired functional unit but also another function or functions, further allocation must take place. Check which unit process delivers the \u201cextra\u201d function(s) and allocate this process (see Section 3.3.9). After this, recalculate the inventory table. Report the inventory table and all economic flows not followed to the system boundary together. It may be convenient to report the results for the different alternatives in one table. An example form for completion is provided in Part 2b, Section 3.10", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6193, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 61, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It may be convenient to report the results for the different alternatives in one table. An example form for completion is provided in Part 2b, Section 3.10. Guidelines for detailed LCA and optional extensions Guidelines for simplified LCA also apply here, but the first guideline is replaced by the following set of guidelines. For each alternative product system, calculate the inventory table by scaling all processes in relation to the reference flow of that product system. This means that, within each product system, each unit process should be scaled in such a way that it yields the quantity of product or service that is necessary for the reference flow. Use software based on matrix inversion. If this is not possible, use other documented software, or specify the algorithm or algebra used for the calculations, and specify whether the outcomes are compatible with the outcomes of matrix inversion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6194, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 61, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Document explicitly any software used for the calculation, along with the calculation procedures involved. If a sequential1 calculation technique is applied: check whether there are any loops within the systems studied; in the case of a comparison, check whether the number of loops differs for the various product systems studied. Check how loops have been treated in the literature and in the reference databases used, and, in the case of a comparison, whether the number of loops differs for the background processes of the various product systems studied. If deficits are identified, these can be adjusted directly by using a different calculation method. If this is not possible for practical reasons, assess the influence that ignoring loops might have on each of the systems studied, by means of a sensitivity analysis in the Interpretation phase2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6195, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 61, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If this is not possible for practical reasons, assess the influence that ignoring loops might have on each of the systems studied, by means of a sensitivity analysis in the Interpretation phase2. 1 In a product system there may be internal loops, for instance when the extraction of coal requires electricity and the production of coal requires electricity. In a matrix method, the calculation takes this accurately into account, while in a sequential method, the solution is only an approximation, and the accuracy depends on the number of times the loop is passed. Depending on the software used, the number of passes may be one, a fixed number (e.g. 5), or it may depend on the size that each additional pass adds to the results. 2 This may be a qualitative sensitivity analysis for detailed LCA and a quantitative sensitivity analysis modeling the loops concerned, as an optional extension. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6196, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 67, "book_page": 61, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn the example of PE bags, all processes have been scaled using a matrix-based algorithm. The scaling factors are as listed. unit process refining; allocated to fuel oil refining; allocated to naphtha extraction of oil incineration of chemical waste production of ethylene production of PE production of plastic bags production of electricity packaging a loaf scaling factor 8.1 0.0008 0.01 0.01 The interventions of each process have been scaled accordingly and aggregated over the entire system. This produces the following results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6197, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This produces the following results. intervention resources crude oil emissions to air 1-butene benzene carbon dioxide dioxins (unspecified) ethylene nitrogen oxides sulphur dioxide emissions to water benzene cadmium lead mercury phenol product system 8.1 kg 7.8E\u20137 kg 9.9E\u20137 kg 2.2 kg 8.1E\u201314 kg 1 .2E\u20134 kg 3.7E\u20133 kg 2.0E\u20132 kg 1 .2E\u20139 kg 4.4E\u20138 kg 3.0E\u20139 kg 2.8E\u20139 kg 2.4E\u20138 kg economic inflows not followed to the system boundary lubricants economic outflows boundary used plastic bags residue to dump recovered energy 2.4 kg not followed to the system 0.08 kg 0.0008 MJ Notice that these results exclude the estimates of the IOA.\u201d 3.4 Results of Inventory analysis The main result of this phase, which is the input of the next phase \u2013 Impact assessment \u2013 is the inventory table; see above for an example. But of course, there is a host of additional information, like aspects that could not be quantified, information related to data quality, and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6198, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "But of course, there is a host of additional information, like aspects that could not be quantified, information related to data quality, and so on. These other forms of information are especially useful in the Interpretation phase. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6199, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 68, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Impact assessment Recipe Procedures Selection of impact categories Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models Depletion of abiotic resources Depletion of biotic resources Land competition Loss of biodiversity Loss of life support function Desiccation Climate change Stratospheric ozone Human toxicity Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Terrestrial ecotoxicity Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity Marine sediment ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication Waste heat Malodorous air Malodorous water Noise Impacts of ionising radiation Casualties Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Economic flows not followed to system boundary Classification Characterisation Normalisation Grouping Weighting Page Topic Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is the phase in which the set of results of the Inventory analysis \u2013 mainly the inventory table \u2013 is further processed and interpreted in terms of environmental impacts and societal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6200, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Assessment (LCIA) is the phase in which the set of results of the Inventory analysis \u2013 mainly the inventory table \u2013 is further processed and interpreted in terms of environmental impacts and societal preferences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6201, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To this end, a list of impact categories is defined, and models for relating the environmental interventions to suitable category indicators for these impact categories are selected. The actual modeling results are calculated in the characterisation step, and an optional normalisation serves to indicate the share of the modeled results in a worldwide or regional total. Finally, the category indicator results can be grouped and weighted to include societal preferences of the various impact categories. Part 2a: Guide 4. 4.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6202, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 69, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Starting points ISO 14042 has been the general starting point for this phase. The ISO requirements have subsequently been made operational through the work of the SETAC Working Group on Impact Assessment and many individual projects. The Impact assessment steps described in this Guide have been copied from ISO 14042, with a few adaptations. For a justification and explanation of these adaptations, see Part 3, chapter 1. The requirements of ISO 14042 have been closely followed, with the following additions or further specifications: The list of impact categories and best available models drawn up by the SETACEurope Working Group on Impact Assessment has been taken as the basis for the baseline impact categories and category indicators. In this method, the impact indicators focus on the so-called midpoints of the cause-effect chain, and the method is referred to below as the problem-oriented approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6203, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 64, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this method, the impact indicators focus on the so-called midpoints of the cause-effect chain, and the method is referred to below as the problem-oriented approach. Quality analysis has been implemented in the section on key issues for sensitivity analysis; the latter is conducted as part of the Interpretation. All additional main methodological choices, including references to all ISO steps, are addressed in the following sections on main choices; recipe steps are given, sometimes deviating from ISO 14042. Instead of the baseline Impact assessment approach, entirely different approaches towards Impact assessment could be chosen. Eco-indicator 99 provides such an approach, with partly different impact categories and category indicators. EPS is another example. Recipe 4.3.1 Procedures Topic Procedural organisation should involve a common treatment of all general and specific subjects that the parties involved wish to discuss in this Impact assessment phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6204, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 64, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recipe 4.3.1 Procedures Topic Procedural organisation should involve a common treatment of all general and specific subjects that the parties involved wish to discuss in this Impact assessment phase. Attention should be given to the following issues of this phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6205, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 64, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Attention should be given to the following issues of this phase. The choice of impact categories to be taken into consideration (whether or not quantified) The choice (and/or development) and use of the characterisation method(s) The choice of process groups/substance groups to be taken apart from calculation and presentation The calculation of effect scores per impact category (including a validated software program) The presentation of the quantitative results of the Impact assessment per impact category An account of non-quantified but relevant environmental aspects The execution of the normalisation step The execution of the weighting step The execution of a sensitivity analysis The presentation of results, including marginal notes and possible (preliminary) conclusions Intentions with respect to the approach to be used in the following phases (especially that of Interpretation) Further process planning and process management Part 2a: Guide 4.2 4.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6206, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 70, "book_page": 64, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices In the course of this LCA phase, the supervisory process should be arranged so as to preserve the authoritativeness of the results. The potential input from stakeholders should also be used to improve the quality of the LCA. In this situation of \u2018mandated science\u2019, this implies that, depending on the specific process context, there should be room for interaction between the parties involved on topics that are relevant to the selection and definition of impact categories, characterisation methods, normalisation references, weighting principles and so on. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Determine the competencies and responsibilities of the LCA research scientists, any critical reviewers, the LCA clients and other interested parties, using Table 4.3.1. Address potential bottlenecks in the LCA process by making arrangements in line with Table 4.3.2 to ensure the orderly progress of the project. Table 4.3.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6207, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Address potential bottlenecks in the LCA process by making arrangements in line with Table 4.3.2 to ensure the orderly progress of the project. Table 4.3.1. Overview of the competencies of the various actors during the LCA process for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6208, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b Description first instructions with respect to fulfilment of LCA assignment first instructions with respect to fulfilment of assignment of critical reviewer written response to instruction on LCA assignment written response to instructions on assignment of critical reviewer1 possible revision of the first instructions on LCA assignment possible report on incompatible opinions on LCA assignment presentation of draft interim report (= draft text of Impact assessment report) written response to draft interim report on Impact assessment possible revision of draft report on Impact assessment possible report on incompatible opinions arising during the Impact assessment final opinion on final interim report on Impact assessment Process context I C \u2013 L \u2013 C L L C L L C II C or S C or S L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S III S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6209, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "or S C or S L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S III S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact C = first LCA client(s) 1 The actual implementation of all guidelines in this Guide should be checked in a critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6210, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6211, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 71, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide S = stakeholders (including C) L = LCA research scientists R = critical reviewer Table 4.3.2 Overview of the arrangements that can be made between the various actors for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6212, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 66, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item a b c d e Description widening/supplementation of the study (on request) validation by an independent expert (on request) binding advice on decision points by the critical O reviewer final decision-making by the biggest possible majority, arbitration or another previously determined procedure quantification of the influence of incompatible opinions in the final report Process context I o II r r r o r III r r r r r Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact r = recommended o = option Example (case history) In the spring of 2000, the Waste Department of the Dutch Ministry of Environmental Affairs finished the OMA project, which aimed to develop an instrument for comparing the total environmental load of different waste policy options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6213, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 66, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This project was started in 1999, because of doubts about the general validity of the standard order of preference with respect to waste disposal (prevention, product reuse, materials recycling, incineration with energy recovery, dumping). The way this problem was addressed in practice was found to be problematic: \u201cIn those cases where it was decided to execute of an LCA, there have been differences in scope, environmental aspects taken into account and weighting methods. There is no systematic approach to the use of integral environmental analyses in waste policy.\u201d A project group of staff members of the Waste Department addressed the problem in a few workshops together with selected staff members of other departments of the Ministry of Environmental Affairs. They discussed the results of a number of relevant LCA studies, focusing on key supplies and environmental aspects that were of overriding importance for the comparison of different waste disposal options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6214, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 66, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the sake of communication and manageability, it was deemed desirable to restrict the number of environmental aspects to be taken into account. Important criteria for achieving a justifiable simplification turned out to be the size of the differences in the scores of the alternatives and the size of the contribution to the national environmental load. The staff members concluded that in the case of waste policy, the analysis could be restricted to three main environmental aspects: greenhouse effect, dumped waste and dispersion of hazardous substances. In the near future, this approach will be used to address a number of actual waste topics and to prepare the National Waste Plan.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6215, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 72, "book_page": 66, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.2 Selection of impact categories Topic In the Impact assessment phase, the results of the Inventory analysis are translated into contributions to relevant impact categories, such as depletion of abiotic resources, climate change, acidification, etc. To this end, relevant impact categories must be identified. To facilitate the work of practitioners, a default list of impact categories has been elaborated, distinguishing between \u2019baseline\u2019 impact categories, \u2019study-specific\u2019 impact categories and \u2019other\u2019 impact categories. In this step of the LCA, then, practitioners have to select those categories relevant to the goal of their particular study, supported by the preliminary selection made in this Guide. Main choices The list of best available practice impact categories drawn up by the SETAC Working Group on Impact Assessment has served as a basic list", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6216, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 67, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices The list of best available practice impact categories drawn up by the SETAC Working Group on Impact Assessment has served as a basic list. This choice is referred to below as the problem-oriented approach, because it is driven by environmental problems (the so-called mid-point of the cause-effect chain), rather than by damage (the end-point of this chain). Three sets of impact categories are distinguished (see Table 4.3.3), depending on the environmental relevance in relation to LCA and the availability of adequate characterisation methods 1 (see Section 4.3.3). Group A, \u201cBaseline impact categories\u201d, comprises those categories for which a baseline characterisation method is selected in Part 2b, and which are included in almost all LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6217, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 67, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Group A, \u201cBaseline impact categories\u201d, comprises those categories for which a baseline characterisation method is selected in Part 2b, and which are included in almost all LCA studies. Group B, \u201cStudy-specific impact categories\u201d, comprises categories that may merit inclusion, depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study and whether appropriate data are available, and for which a baseline and/or alternative characterisation method is proposed in Part 2b. Group C, \u201cOther impact categories\u201d, comprises several categories for which no baseline characterisation method is proposed in this Guide, although alternative characterisation methods may be available. These impact categories require further elaboration before they can be used in LCA studies, with research still in progress. 1 The characterisation method for a given impact category comprises a category indicator, characterisation model and characterisation factors derived from the model. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6218, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 73, "book_page": 67, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.3: Overview of baseline and other impact categories in relation to the availability of baseline characterisation methods. Impact category A. Baseline impact categories Depletion of abiotic resources Impacts of land use land competition Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity marine aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication B. Study-specific impact categories Impacts of land use loss of life support function loss of biodiversity Ecotoxicity freshwater sediment ecotoxicity marine sediment ecotoxicity Impacts of ionising radiation Odour malodourous air Noise Waste heat Casualties C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6219, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 68, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other impact categories Depletion of biotic resources Desiccation Odour malodourous water Note: the list is restricted to the impact normalisation steps require reporting categories, as well as information on interventions not included in the model (Section Single baseline characterisation method available in the Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no Other characterisation method(s) available in the Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no yes no no categories. The results of the characterisation and of the calculated values for the selected impact 4.3.3.17) and economic flows not followed to the system boundary additional qualitative information. (Section 4.3.3.18), and Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Use the problem-oriented approach with impact categories defined at mid-point level (see the glossary at the end of this Part)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6220, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 68, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(Section 4.3.3.18), and Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Use the problem-oriented approach with impact categories defined at mid-point level (see the glossary at the end of this Part). If not, document and justify any other approach Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6221, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 74, "book_page": 68, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "chosen. As an option for a sensitivity analysis, application of an endpoint-oriented approach such as Eco-indicator 99 or EPS is suggested. See references in Part 2b, Section 3.2. Include all or a selection of the baseline impact categories (group A) from Table 4.3.3. If a selection is made, justify this selection in relation to the goal of the study. Note that it is better to have \"empty\" impact categories than omissions. For instance, do not leave out the impact category of stratospheric ozone depletion for products that are \"ozonefriendly\", but show only zeroes in the classification and characterisation. Be flexible in including additional impact categories if the goal and scope of the study demands this (e.g., always include the additional effects of the land use subcategories of \"loss of life support\" and \"loss of biodiversity\" in a study on wood applications or studies involving forestry)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6222, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 69, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Practitioners can refer to this Guide for a description and justification of the choice of impact categories as required to meet ISO 14042 standards. If it is relevant to the study, the energy carriers extracted from the environment (coal, oil and gas) can be transformed into one total amount of extracted energy in MJ. See Part 2b, Table 4.3.1.5 for a list of upper and lower heating values for a number of energy carriers. This amount should then be given as a separate \u201cimpact\u201d category. As an issue for the Interpretation phase, check whether the selection of impact categories is appropriate for the product(s) investigated, and if it is balanced in the case of a comparison. If no Impact assessment has been carried out, the reasons for this should be detailed. In the case of a comparison, select the same impact categories for each of the alternative product systems. Guidelines for detailed LCA All guidelines provided above for simplified studies apply here as well", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6223, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 69, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for detailed LCA All guidelines provided above for simplified studies apply here as well. In addition, the following guideline is given. From Table 4.3.3, include baseline impact categories (group A) and any study-specific impact categories (group B) relevant to the goal and scope of the study. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for detailed studies apply here as well. In addition, the following guideline is given. Consider whether it is justifiable, in relation to the goal and scope of the study, to add impact categories from group C or to add a new impact category. If so, document and justify comprehensively and transparently all requirements listed in Part 3, Section 4.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6224, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 69, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If so, document and justify comprehensively and transparently all requirements listed in Part 3, Section 4.1. Example (hypothetical) \u201cThis LCA includes all baseline impact categories (group A), as well as freshwater and marine sediment toxicity, because the emission of toxics is generally felt to be one of the major problems for this product.\u201d 4.3.3 Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors Topic The interventions recorded in the inventory table are quantified in terms of a common category indicator. To this end, characterisation models are used, from which characterisation factors are derived for individual pollutants and so on. For a given impact category, a characterisation method comprises a category indicator, a characterisation model and characterisation factors derived from the model. The impact categories Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6225, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 75, "book_page": 69, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "distinguished in this Guide (see 4.3.2) are treated individually in Sections 4.3.3.1 to 4.3.3.18, below, discussing the models, factors and indicators available for the category in question. Main choices Category indicators are chosen at mid-point level, since the end-point level is not comprehensive enough and is still being developed. The list of best available practice category indicators and characterisation models by the SETAC Working Group on Impact Assessment has served as a basic list", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6226, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 70, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The list of best available practice category indicators and characterisation models by the SETAC Working Group on Impact Assessment has served as a basic list. In the selection of characterisation methods for every impact category, a distinction has been made into: a baseline characterisation method, i.e., the method recommended here as the current best available practice for the impact category in question; alternative characterisation methods, which may be adopted instead of the baseline method if duly justified and documented, or may be used in tandem with the baseline method, as a sensitivity analysis; additional characterisation methods, which may be applied like the alternative methods but require additional effort (e.g., collection of additional data, development of additional models); variant characterisation methods, which start from entirely different principles, and which are referred to in Part 3, but not tabulated in Part 2b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6227, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 70, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Use the baseline characterisation method for each of the selected impact categories for which such a method exists.1 For certain impact categories, consider using one of the methods from the group of alternative methods. Justify this selection. Practitioners can refer to this Guide for a description and justification of the choice of these characterisation models and their related category indicators, as required to meet ISO 14042 standards. If an Impact assessment has been carried out, the methodology used should be clearly described in the report. Practitioners can refer to this Guide for a description and justification (as required to meet ISO 14042 standards) of the methods recommended as the baseline methods in this Guide. If other methods are used, these must be documented and justified in the report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6228, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 70, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If other methods are used, these must be documented and justified in the report. In the case of a comparison, check whether the Impact assessment has been conducted consistently between the various systems compared and whether the validity and reliability of the data sources used for Impact assessment is not too different for the various systems studied. Give a justification of the scientific and technical validity and environmental relevance of the category indicators and characterisation models used in the study. Practitioners can refer to this Guide for a description of the methods reviewed in this Guide. If other methods are used, reports must pay attention to the following topics. 1 The choice of baseline characterisation methods in the next twenty sections is based on the assumption that the problem-oriented approach has indeed been chosen, with the associated set of impact categories (see Section 4.3.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6229, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 70, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If Eco-indicator 99 and/or EPS has been chosen, the set of impact categories is considerably different from those discussed below. For a subset of impact categories, however, there is an overlap between the problem-oriented approach that is the default choice of this Guide and the alternative approaches (Ecoindicator 99, EPS). Many of the basic models used in Eco-indicator 99 and EPS, e.g. the fate and exposure model for the toxicity categories and the GWP model for climate change etc., are basically the same as those of the problem-oriented approach. Due to recent updates, however, this is as yet not the case, which may lead to \u2018unnecessary\u2019 inconsistencies. Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6230, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 76, "book_page": 70, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Can the choice of data sources for characterisation factors be justified in relation to the goal of the study and particularly to scope issues like temporal and geographical coverage? For instance, is the use of a particular model of acidification suitable and not designed for other regions than those where the bulk of the acidifying depositions will occur? What is the reliability of different data sources in qualitative terms? Are the sets of characterisation factors used complete? For instance, are any characterisation factors missing for interventions that are suspected to contribute to a given impact category? In the case of a comparison: are the above-mentioned issues not too different for the various systems studied? Include a description and justification of any new category indicators or characterisation models used for the Impact assessment, including all assumptions and limitations and all value choices made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6231, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 71, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Discuss their influence on the results, conclusions and recommendations Derive characterisation factors for the group parameter at stake, based on the arithmetic means of the individual species within that group for which characterisation factors are known. If, for example, only emission data on hydrocarbons are known, group POCPs can be derived as the arithmetic means of the POCPs of individual hydrocarbons. Include a statement as to whether or not international acceptance exists for the selected category indicators. In the case of a comparison, check whether the validity and reliability of the data sources used for Impact assessment is not potentially too different for the various systems studied. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for simplified and detailed studies apply here as well. In addition, the following optional guidelines are given. Use characterisation methods from the group of additional methods, where relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6232, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 71, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, the following optional guidelines are given. Use characterisation methods from the group of additional methods, where relevant. Where relevant, use or develop other characterisation methods and describe these according to ISO 14042. Furthermore, an appropriate indication should be given of how the category indicator results have been, or are to be, calculated. Calculate, estimate or extrapolate characterisation factors for interventions which might be important for the case in hand but for which no characterisation factors are given in Part 2b of this Guide. The new factors could be calculated based on the baseline method (see the next sections), or estimated or extrapolated based on known characterisation factors for interventions which are comparable to the new interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6233, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 71, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Try whether, in addition to the superficial qualitative assessment of reliability mentioned under simplified and detailed LCA, more extensive qualitative and/or quantitative assessments of reliability can be made. Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn this LCA we have used the baseline characterisation methods developed by Guin\u00e9e et al. (2001) for all selected impact categories.\u201d 4.3.3.1 Depletion of abiotic resources Topic \u201cAbiotic resources\u201d are natural resources (including energy resources) such as iron ore, crude oil and wind energy, which are regarded as non-living. Abiotic resource depletion is one of the most frequently discussed impact categories and there is consequently a wide variety of methods available for characterising contributions to this category. To a large Part 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6234, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 77, "book_page": 71, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "extent, these different methodologies reflect differences in problem definition. Depending on the definition, this impact category includes only natural resources, or natural resources, human health and the natural environment, among its areas of protection. Note that the debate on the characterisation of depletion-related impact categories is not settled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6235, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 72, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 additional variant Characterisation method/factor based on ultimate reserves and extraction rates based on economic reserves and extraction rates based on ultimate or economic reserves only based on exergy content \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result abiotic depletion extraction of minerals and fossil fuels (in kg) concentration-based reserves and rate of de-accumulation approach depletion of the ultimate reserve in relation to annual use abiotic depletion potential (ADP) for each extraction of minerals and fossil fuels (in kg antimony equivalents/kg extraction) kg (antimony eq) Depletion of biotic resources Topic \u201cBiotic resources\u201d are material resources (including energy resources) regarded as living, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6236, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 72, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "rainforests, elephants. Depending on the precise definition adopted, this impact category has only natural resources, or natural resources, human health and the natural and the man-made environment as areas of protection. Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 based on reserves and deaccumulation rate \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) Depletion of biotic resources has been excluded, in line with the baseline recommendation. Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6237, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 78, "book_page": 72, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Impacts of land use Topic The category \u201cImpacts of land use\u201d covers a range of consequences of human land use. A distinction has been made between use of land with impacts on the resource aspect and use of land with impacts on biodiversity, life support functions, etc. Land competition Topic This subcategory of land use impacts is concerned with the loss of land as a resource, in the sense of being temporarily unavailable. The areas of protection are natural resources and the man-made environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6238, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 2, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The areas of protection are natural resources and the man-made environment. Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor unweighted aggregation \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u20131 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result land competition land use (in unweighted aggregation land occupation 1 for all types of land use (dimensionless) (land use) Loss of biodiversity Topic In this impact category, the problems defined are the effects on biodiversity resulting from interventions such as harvesting biotic resources, or the destruction or alteration of land. Notice that the discussion on characterisation of land-use-related impact categories is far from settled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6239, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 2, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Notice that the discussion on characterisation of land-use-related impact categories is far from settled. Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 based on a statistical measure of species density based on a statistical measure of plant species density \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 1 Characterisation factor is 1 throughout. Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.3 4.3.3.3.1 4.3.3.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6240, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 79, "book_page": 2, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (for baseline) Loss of biodiversity has been excluded, in line with the baseline recommendation. Loss of life support function Topic In this impact category, the problems defined are the effects on life support function resulting from interventions such as harvesting biotic resources, or the destruction or alteration of land. Notice that the discussion on characterisation of land-use-related impact categories is far from settled. Main choices and guidelines Example (for baseline) Method status baseline alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 based on Net Primary Production \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Loss of life support function has been excluded, in line with the baseline recommendation. Desiccation Topic Desiccation refers to a group of related environmental problems caused by water shortages due to groundwater extraction for industrial and potable water supply, enhanced drainage and water management (i.e. manipulation of the water table)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6241, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 74, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "manipulation of the water table). This may lead to a lowered water table, reduced seepage, introduction of water from other areas and (consequently) changes in natural vegetation. The area of protection is the natural environment. Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor _ _ \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) Desiccation has been excluded, in line with the baseline recommendation. Climate change Topic Climate change is defined here as the impact of human emissions on the radiative forcing (i.e. heat radiation absorption) of the atmosphere. This may in turn have adverse impacts on Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.3.3 4.3.3.4 4.3.3.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6242, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 80, "book_page": 74, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide ecosystem health, human health and material welfare. Most of these emissions enhance radiative forcing, causing the temperature at the earth\u2019s surface to rise. This is popularly referred to as the \u2018greenhouse effect\u2019. The areas of protection are human health, the natural environment and the man-made environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6243, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 75, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is popularly referred to as the \u2018greenhouse effect\u2019. The areas of protection are human health, the natural environment and the man-made environment. impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result climate change emissions of greenhouse gases to the air (in kg) the model developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defining the global warming potential of different greenhouse gases infrared radiative forcing global warming potential for a 100-year time horizon (GWP100) for each greenhouse gas emission to the air (in kg carbon dioxide equivalent/kg emission) kg (carbon dioxide eq) 4.3.3.6 Stratospheric ozone depletion Topic Stratospheric ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer as a result of anthropogenic emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6244, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 75, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This causes a greater fraction of solar UV-B radiation to reach the earth\u2019s surface, with potentially harmful impacts on human health, animal health, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, biochemical cycles and materials. Stratospheric ozone depletion thus impinges on all four areas of protection: human health, the natural environment, the man-made environment and natural resources. Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 alternative 5 alternative 6 alternative 7 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b 4.3.6.1 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.2 \u2013 \u2013 Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/ upper limit of net GWP lower limit of net GWP \u2013 \u2013 factor Table in Part 2b 4.3.5.1 4.3.5.2 4.3.5.2 4.3.5.3 4.3.5.3 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) Main choices and guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6245, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 81, "book_page": 75, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide impact category stratospheric ozone depletion LCI results emissions of ozone-depleting gases to the air characterisation model the model developed by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), defining the ozone depletion potential of different gases category indicator stratospheric ozone breakdown characterisation factor ozone depletion potential in the steady state (ODP steady state) for each emission to the air (in kg CFC-11 equivalent/kg emission) unit of indicator result kg (CFC-11 eq) 4.3.3.7 Human toxicity Topic This impact category covers the impacts on human health of toxic substances present in the environment. The health risks of exposure in the workplace are also sometimes included in LCA. These latter risks are often included in a wider impact category encompassing more than exposure to toxic substances (e.g. accidents at work). In this Guide, no further consideration is given to the impacts of exposure to toxic substances in the workplace", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6246, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 76, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "accidents at work). In this Guide, no further consideration is given to the impacts of exposure to toxic substances in the workplace. The area of protection for this impact category is human health. Notice that the discussion on characterisation of toxicity-related impact categories is far from settled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6247, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 76, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The area of protection for this impact category is human health. Notice that the discussion on characterisation of toxicity-related impact categories is far from settled. Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 see Part 3 Table in 4.3.7.1 4.3.7.2 4.3.7.1 4.3.7.2 4.3.7.2 \u2013 \u2013 Part 2b impact category human toxicity LCI results emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) characterisation model USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA category indicator acceptable daily intake /predicted daily intake characterisation factor human-toxicity potential (HTP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent/kg emission) unit of indicator result kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) Example (for baseline) Main choices and guideline Example (for baseline)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6248, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 82, "book_page": 76, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.8 Ecotoxicity Topic This impact category covers the impacts of toxic substances on aquatic, terrestrial and sediment ecosystems. The area of protection is the natural environment (and natural resources). Notice that the discussion on characterisation of toxicity-related impact categories is far from settled. 4.3.3.8.1 Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity Topic Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity refers to the impacts of toxic substances on freshwater aquatic ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6249, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 77, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Method status Characterisation method/factor Table in Part 2b baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant \u2013 see Part 3 4.3.8.1 4.3.8.2 4.3.8.3 4.3.8.4 4.3.8.5 \u2013 \u2013 impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA predicted environmental concentration/predicted no-effect concentration freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential (FAETP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1 ,4dichlorobenzene equivalents /kg emission) kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.8.2 Marine aquatic ecotoxicity Topic This impact category covers impacts of toxic substances on marine aquatic ecosystems. Main choices and guidelines Example (for baseline)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6250, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 83, "book_page": 77, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 see Part 3 Table in Part 2b 4.3.8.1 4.3.8.2 4.3.8.3 4.3.8.4 4.3.8.5 \u2013 \u2013 Main choices and guidelines Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result marine aquatic ecotoxicity emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA predicted environmental concentration/predicted no-effect concentration marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential (MAETP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1,4dichlorobenzene equivalent/kg emission) kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.8.3 Terrestrial ecotoxicity Topic Terrestrial ecotoxicity refers to impacts of toxic substances on terrrestrial ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6251, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 78, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2014 see Part 3 Table in 4.3.8.1 4.3.8.2 4.3.8.3 4.3.8.4 4.3.8.5 _ \u2013 Part 2b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6252, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 84, "book_page": 78, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result terrestrial ecotoxicity emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA predicted environmental concentration/predicted no-effect concentration terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TETP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1,4dichlorobenzene equivalents/kg emission) kg (1 ,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.8.4 Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity Topic Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity refers to impacts of toxic substances on the sediment of freshwater ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6253, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 79, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2013 see Part 3 Table in Part 2b 4.3.8.1 4.3.8.2 4.3.8.3 4.3.8.4 4.3.8.5 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result freshwater sediment ecotoxicity emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA predicted environmental concentration/predicted no-effect concentration freshwater sediment ecotoxicity potential (FSETP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1 ,4dichlorobenzene equivalents/kg emission) kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.8.5 Marine sediment ecotoxicity Topic Marine sediment ecotoxicity refers to impacts of toxic substances on the sediment of sea water ecosystems.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6254, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 85, "book_page": 79, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor \u2014 see Part 3 Table in Part 2b 4.3.8.1 4.3.8.2 4.3.8.3 4.3.8.4 4.3.8.5 \u2014 - Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result marine sediment ecotoxicity emissions of toxic substances to air, water and soil (in kg) USES 2.0 model developed at RIVM, describing fate, exposure and effects of toxic substances, adapted to LCA predicted environmental concentration/predicted no-effect concentration marine sediment ecotoxicity potential (MSETP) for each emission of a toxic substance to air, water and/or soil (in kg 1 ,4dichlorobenzene equivalents/kg emission) kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.9 Photo-oxidant formation Topic Photo-oxidant formation is the formation of reactive chemical compounds such as ozone by the action of sunlight", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6255, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 80, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "emission) kg (1,4-dichlorobenzene eq) 4.3.3.9 Photo-oxidant formation Topic Photo-oxidant formation is the formation of reactive chemical compounds such as ozone by the action of sunlight on certain primary air pollutants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6256, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 80, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These reactive compounds may be injurious to human health and ecosystems and may also damage crops. The relevant areas of protection are human health, the man-made environment, the natural environment and natural resources. Photo-oxidants may be formed in the troposphere under the influence of ultraviolet light, through photochemical oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the presence of nitrogen oxides Ozone is considered the most important of these oxidising compounds, along with peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Photooxidant formation, also known as summer smog, Los Angeles smog or secondary air pollution, contrasts with winter smog, or London smog, which is characterised by high levels of inorganic compounds, mainly particles, carbon monoxide and sulphur compounds. This latter type of smog causes bronchial irritation, coughing, etc. Winter smog, as far as considered in this Guide, is part of human toxicity.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6257, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 86, "book_page": 80, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant Characterisation method/factor high NOx POCP MIR MOIR EBIR low NOx POCP \u2013 \u2013 Table in Part 2b 4.3.9.1 4.3.9.2 4.3.9.2 4.3.9.2 4.3.9.3 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result photo-oxidant formation emissions of substances (VOC, CO) to air (in kg) UNECE Trajectory model tropospheric ozone formation photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) for each emission of VOC or CO to the air (in kg ethylene equivalents/kg emission) kg (ethylene eq) 4.3.3.10 Acidification Topic Acidifying pollutants have a wide variety of impacts on soil, groundwater, surface waters, biological organisms, ecosystems and materials (buildings). Examples include fish mortality in Scandinavian lakes, forest decline and the crumbling of building materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6258, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 81, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Examples include fish mortality in Scandinavian lakes, forest decline and the crumbling of building materials. The major acidifying pollutants are and Areas of protection are the natural environment, the man-made environment, human health and natural resources. Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline average European AP alternative generic AP additional region (site) dependent AP variant see Part 3 Table in Part 2b 4.3.10.1 4.3.10.2 4.3.10.3 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result acidification emissions of acidifying substances to the air (in kg) RAINS10 model, developed at IIASA, describing the deposition of acidifying substances, adapted to LCA deposition/acidification critical load acidification potential (AP) for each acidifying emission (in kg equivalents /kg emission) kg fate and to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6259, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 87, "book_page": 81, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.11 Eutrophication Topic Eutrophication covers all potential impacts of excessively high environmental levels of macronutrients, the most important of which are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Nutrient enrichment may cause an undesirable shift in species composition and elevated biomass production in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, high nutrient concentrations may also render surface waters unacceptable as a source of drinking water. In aquatic ecosystems increased biomass production may lead to a depressed oxygen levels, because of the additional consumption of oxygen in biomass decomposition (measured as BOD, biological oxygen demand). As emissions of degradable organic matter have a similar impact, such emissions are also treated under the impact category \u201ceutrophication\u201d. The areas of protection are the natural environment, natural resources and the man-made environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6260, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 82, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The areas of protection are the natural environment, natural resources and the man-made environment. Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline generic EP alternative average European EP additional region (site) dependent EP variant \u2013 Table in Part 2b 4.3.11.1 4.3.11.2 4.3.11.2 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result eutrophication emissions of nutrients to air, water and soil (in kg) the stoichiometric procedure, which identifies the equivalence between N and P for both terrestrial and aquatic systems deposition/N/P equivalents in biomass eutrophication potential (EP) for each eutrophying emission to air, water and soil (in kg equivalents/kg emission) kg 4.3.3.12 Waste heat Topic Emissions of waste heat may increase temperatures on a local scale: in a city or lake, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6261, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 82, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "They cannot contribute to global warming on a scale such as that associated with emissions of greenhouse gases. The effects on ecosystems of waste heat emissions to the air are negligible. Depending on local conditions, the discharge of waste heat into surface waters may result in a substantial temperature rise, with a consequent impact on local aquatic ecosystems. In this Guide waste heat is treated as a separate impact category, although it covers only aquatic emissions of waste heat such as cooling water emissions from power stations. The areas of protection are the natural environment and natural resources.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6262, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 88, "book_page": 82, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline unweighted aggregation of energy alternative additional variant Table in Part 2b \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result waste heat emissions of heat (in MJ) to water unweighted aggregation heat released 1 (dimensionless) MJ (heat) 4.3.3.13 Odour Topic Odour becomes a problem when a given concentration of odorous substances is experienced as unpleasant. Whether an odour is experienced as stench will depend on the particular individual exposed. Above a certain emission level, however, every individual will experience it as such. Here, the term odour will be used for effects. The area of protection is human health. 4.3.3.13.1 Malodorous air Topic This subcategory involves airborne odour", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6263, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Here, the term odour will be used for effects. The area of protection is human health. 4.3.3.13.1 Malodorous air Topic This subcategory involves airborne odour. Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline inverse OTV alternative \u2013 additional based on fate model and odour threshold values variant Table in Part 2b 4.3.13.1 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result malodorous air emissions of odorous substances (in kg) to the air reciprocal of odour threshold value in the air volume of air filled to the odour threshold value reciprocal of odour threshold value (1/OTV, in (air) 1 Characterisation factor is 1 throughout. \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6264, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 89, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.13.2 Malodorous water Topic This subcategory deals with water-borne odour. Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor Table in Part 2b baseline \u2013 alternative additional variant Example (for baseline) Malodorous water has been excluded, in line with the baseline recommendation. 4.3.3.14 Noise Topic Noise, or noise nuisance, refers to the environmental impacts of sound. In principle, these impacts could cover at least human health and ecosystem health, but the environmental mechanisms are complex, non-linear and highly dependent upon local circumstances. Moreover, noise is similar to odour in that a given level of exposure is experienced differently by different individuals. Something considered a nuisance by one person might be appreciated by another, as exemplified by the case of loud music. Hence, whether or not sound waves will lead to \u2019nuisance\u2019 depends partly on the actual situation and partly on the person interviewed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6265, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hence, whether or not sound waves will lead to \u2019nuisance\u2019 depends partly on the actual situation and partly on the person interviewed. Main choices and guidelines Method status baseline alternative additional variant Characterisation method/factor unweighted aggregation of sound \u2013 based on DALY \u2013 Table in Part 2b \u2013\u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result noise emissions of sound (in unweighted aggregation sound (sound) 1 Characterisation factor is 1 throughout. \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6266, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 90, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 4.3.3.15 Impacts of ionising radiation Topic The impact category 'impacts of ionising radiation' covers the impacts arising from releases of radioactive substances as well as direct exposure to radiation, in building materials for example. Exposure to ionising radiation is harmful to both human beings and animals. The areas of protection are therefore human health, the natural environment and natural resources. Ionising radiation is expressed in terms of the number of atoms disintegrating (or decaying) per unit time. The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq), one Bq corresponding to one disintegration per second. The radioactivity of a substance is expressed in or Radioactivity always declines in the course of time and the time taken for the radioactivity of a given substance to decline by half is known as the half-life of the substance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6267, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 85, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline ionising radiation damage factors alternative screening factors \u2013level I additional screening factors \u2013level II variant Table in Part 2b 4.3.15.1 4.3.15.2 \u2014 - Example (for baseline) impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result impacts of ionising radiation emissions of ionising radiation to air, water and soil (in kBq1) fate and exposure models combined with epidemiological studies and the concept of disability-adjusted life years (DALY) disability-adjusted life years (DALY) ionising radiation damage factors for each ionising radiation emission to air, water and/or soil (in yr/kBq emission) yr 4.3.3.16 Casualties Topic This impact category refers to casualties resulting from accidents. The area of protection is human health", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6268, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 85, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The area of protection is human health. Main choices and guidelines Method status Characterisation method/factor baseline unweighted aggregation of victims alternative additional variant Table in Part 2b 1 Emissions of ionising substances in kg can be converted to Bq or kBq; see Part 2b, Section 3.6. 2 Characterisation factor is 1 throughout. - -- --2 - --", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6269, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 91, "book_page": 85, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Example impact category LCI results characterisation model category indicator characterisation factor unit of indicator result casualties number of victims (dimensionless) unweighted aggregation number of victims 1 (dimensionless) dimensionless 4.3.3.17 Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Topic Many practical cases will involve emissions of toxic chemicals for which no toxicity potentials are listed in the tables with characterisation factors. The same applies to acidifying substances, ionising substances, depletable resources and so on. A general guideline given for extended LCAs is to calculate, estimate or extrapolate missing characterisation factors. This will often be unfeasible, however, for lack of time or knowledge, for instance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6270, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 86, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This will often be unfeasible, however, for lack of time or knowledge, for instance. In such cases these overlooked items should be discussed in a separate part of the Impact assessment Main choices A distinction should be made between: interventions that are known to contribute to an impact category, for which no characterisation factor is available but for which a factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated; interventions that are known to contribute to an impact category, but for which no characterisation factor can be found, calculated, estimated or extrapolated; interventions assumed to be environmentally relevant but not contributing to any of the selected impact categories; interventions assumed not to be environmentally relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6271, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 86, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Include interventions for which a characterisation factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated in the environmental profile under the relevant impact category, accompanied by a clear explanation of the divergent status of the characterisation factor and the method used to obtain it. Include interventions for which no characterisation factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated but which are known to contribute to one or more impact categories in a separate part of the environmental profile labelled \"Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\", accompanied by all relevant additional information such as: substance name; emission compartment; amount emitted; impact category to which a contribution is suspected; if possible, an indication of the significance of the suspected impact; see Part 2b, Section 4.3.17", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6272, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 86, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Include interventions known to be of environmental relevance but contributing to an impact category that is not selected in the environmental profile in the same way.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6273, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 92, "book_page": 86, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Interventions expected to be environmentally irrelevant can be excluded from the environmental profile, but this should be transparently justified in the LCA report. Example (hypothetical) \u201cThe inventory table contains the entry \"dioxins (unspecified)\". Although dioxins are known to be extremely toxic, this entry does not show up in the list of characterisation factors for the models selected to address human toxicity and ecotoxicity. This could lead to a gross underestimate of the indicator results. In a sensitivity analysis, a worst-case influence can be investigated by replacing it with 2,3,7,8-TCDD (tetrachloride-dibenzo-dioxin), for which characterisation factors are available. Furthermore, emissions of 1-butene contribute to photo-oxidant formation but not to the impact categories that relate to toxicity. This can be justified because this substance is generally agreed to be non-toxic, although it is very explosive", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6274, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 87, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This can be justified because this substance is generally agreed to be non-toxic, although it is very explosive. The latter aspect, however, is outside the scope of LCA, although it should be addressed in a separate analysis of safety.\u201d 4.3.3.18 Economic flows not followed to system boundary Topic LCAs may comprise certain flows that are not specified in terms of environmental interventions, either inputs, like energy or materials, or outputs, like solid waste. Every effort should be made to avoid such flows, in the first place by applying the data estimation methods outlined in Section 3.3.8. All economic flows that cannot be followed to the system boundary should then be listed in a separate category: \u201cEconomic flows not followed to system boundary\u201d. Flows listed in this category should always be described qualitatively (e.g. \u2018hazardous waste\u2019 and \u2018non-hazardous waste\u2019) and, wherever possible, quantitatively (e.g. truck)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6275, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 87, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Flows listed in this category should always be described qualitatively (e.g. \u2018hazardous waste\u2019 and \u2018non-hazardous waste\u2019) and, wherever possible, quantitatively (e.g. truck). Main choices Economic flows should as much as possible be estimated, rather than cut off. Only if such estimation is not feasible, can a cut-off be applied, and these flows are then to be listed in the present category. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA List economic flows that are not followed to the system boundary qualitatively and quantitatively and as part of the environmental profile as a separate category, labeled \u201cEconomic flows not followed to the system boundary\u201d. Discuss these flows in the Interpretation. Guidelines for detailed LCA Estimate the possible contribution to the impact categories of flows not followed to the system boundary by applying the procedure described in Section 3.3.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6276, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 87, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for detailed LCA Estimate the possible contribution to the impact categories of flows not followed to the system boundary by applying the procedure described in Section 3.3.8. If this is not possible, list the flows concerned qualitatively and quantitatively and as part of the environmental profile, and discuss these flows in the Interpretation. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for detailed LCA apply here. In addition, the following guideline is given:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6277, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 93, "book_page": 87, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Decide and justify whether or not it is important to collect specific process data for a specific flow not followed to the boundary, based on an estimation of the possible contribution to the impact categories. If so, collect specific process data for that flow. Example (hypothetical) See the example under Characterisation. 4.3.4 Classification Topic In this step the environmental interventions qualified and quantified in the Inventory analysis are assigned on a purely qualitative basis to the various pre-selected impact categories (see Section 4.3.2). For a baseline list of interventions, for which characterisation factors have previously been derived, the classification step involves no actual work as these interventions have already been assigned to the various impact categories in this Guide (see Section 4.4 of Part 2b of this Guide). In the case of other interventions the practitioner will have to adopt an appropriate procedure of his own", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6278, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 88, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of other interventions the practitioner will have to adopt an appropriate procedure of his own. Main choices As long as a characterisation step is performed and reported with due attention to the category of \"Interventions for which characterisation factors\", no explicit implementation or reporting of the classification step is required. It may sometimes be important to consider interventions contributing to more than one impact category in more detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6279, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 88, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We distinguish the following types: emissions with parallel impacts, i.e., emissions of substances that may theoretically contribute to more than one impact category but in practice contribute only to one, e.g., an emission of which may have either toxic or acidifying impacts; emissions with serial impacts, i.e., emissions of substances that may in practice have successive impacts, e.g., emissions of heavy metals which may first have ecotoxicological impacts and subsequently, via food chains, impacts on human health; emissions with indirect impacts, i.e., emissions of substances having a primary impact that in turn leads to one or more secondary impacts, e.g., aluminium toxicity induced by acidification, or methane contributing to photo-oxidant formation, with the ozone produced contributing to climate change, which in turn may contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion; emissions with combined impacts, i.e., emissions of substances having a mutual influence on each other\u2019s impacts,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6280, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 88, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "to climate change, which in turn may contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion; emissions with combined impacts, i.e., emissions of substances having a mutual influence on each other\u2019s impacts, e.g., synergistic or antagonistic impacts of mixtures of toxic substances, or and VOC, both of which are required for photo-oxidant formation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6281, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 88, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions If the lists of characterisation factors recommended in Section 4.3.3 are observed, no action is required from the practitioners with respect to interventions for which characterisation factors have been defined. If the study\u2019s inventory table includes interventions that lack appropriate characterisation factors (in this Guide), the guidelines specified above in section 4.3.3.17 on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6282, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 94, "book_page": 88, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide \"Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\" lead to additional entries in a classification table. Interventions with serial and combined impacts are fully assigned to all relevant impact categories in the proposed baseline method. The partial assignment of interventions with parallel impacts is addressed, as much as possible, by means of fate models in the characterisation models, and does not need to be effected as part of the classification step. Where proper fate treatment is not yet possible, a full assignment to all relevant impact categories is to be made. Example (hypothetical) No example. 4.3.5 Characterisation Topic In the characterisation step of Impact assessment the environmental interventions assigned qualitatively to a particular impact category in classification are quantified in terms of a common unit for that category, allowing aggregation into a single score: the indicator result", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6283, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 89, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resulting figure for one particular impact category is referred to as a category indicator result, and the complete set of category indicator results as the environmental profile. Main choices If the choices of impact categories and category indicators are explicitly addressed, characterisation is a technical step, and emphasis can be put on proper reporting of the characterisation results. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions For each alternative studied, calculate the environmental profile by multiplying the interventions of inventory results by their concomitant characterisation factors and aggregating the results of these multiplications for each impact category. See Part 2b, Section 4.3 for specific equations and factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6284, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 89, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "See Part 2b, Section 4.3 for specific equations and factors. If a separate \u201cimpact\u201d category of energy (in MJ) has been defined (see Section 4.3.3), transform the energy carriers extracted from the environment (coal, oil and gas) into one total amount of extracted energy in MJ by multiplying the amount used by the heating value (see Part 2b, Table 4.3.5.3). Report the category indicator results, the interventions for which characterisation factors and/or methods are lacking, the flows that have not been followed up to the system boundary, and additional remarks in separate tables or in separate sections of one table. It is often convenient to report characterisation results for all alternatives studied in one table. An example form to report characterisation results is provided in Part 2b, Section 4.3.5.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6285, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 95, "book_page": 89, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Example (hypothetical) The results of the Inventory analysis are transformed after characterisation into the environmental profile shown below. Impact category Value indicator results depletion of abiotic resources photo-oxidant formation climate change freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity human toxicity acidification eutrophication 3.5 kg antimony eq ethylene eq 2.2 kg CO2 eq 0.013 kg 14DCB eq 14DCB eq 0.0088 kg 14DCB eq 0.033 kg SO2 eq PO4 eq interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking emission to air: dioxins (unspecified) economic outflows not followed to system boundary used plastic bags residue to dump recovered energy 0.08 kg 0.0008 MJ 4.3.6 Normalisation Topic ISO 14042 defines normalisation as \u201ccalculation of the magnitude of indicator results relative to reference information\u201d. The reference information may relate to a given community (e.g., The Netherlands, Europe or the world), person (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6286, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The reference information may relate to a given community (e.g., The Netherlands, Europe or the world), person (e.g. a Danish citizen) or other system, over a given period of time. Other reference information may also be adopted, of course, such as a future target situation. The main aim of normalising the category indicator results is to better understand the relative importance and magnitude of these results for each product system under study. Normalisation can also be used to check for inconsistencies, to provide and communicate information on the relative significance of the category indicator results and to prepare for additional procedures such as weighting or Interpretation. Main choices Normalisation is regarded as a strongly recommended step for any LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6287, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices Normalisation is regarded as a strongly recommended step for any LCA. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA For each alternative studied, calculate a normalised environmental profile by dividing the impact scores for each impact category by their concomitant normalisation factors. Use normalisation data based on one geographically and temporally well-defined reference system, preferably the world for one year, for all impact categories. The method based on total world interventions (method 1) or that based on the interventions of an average world citizen (method 2) are both applicable. Which one is chosen depends on the goal of the study. Part 2b, Section 4.6 provides several sets of normalisation factors per impact category for the baseline impact category indicators (see Section 4.3.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6288, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 96, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide For other category indicators, use the unaggregated data (interventions per reference area and period) to calculate normalisation factors. This can be done by applying the characterisation factors of an indicator on the interventions and adding them up to category indicator results (see Part 2b, Section 4.6 for references to the unaggregated data). If other normalisation methods are used (e.g., combining different scales) these should be described and justified in relation to the goal and scope of the study. If different scales are combined: use only per capita normalisation data; base the normalisation data for regional impact categories on the regions where the interventions of the relevant LCA study have taken place; if grouping or weighting is performed, group or weight the regionally normalised data using regional grouping methods or regional weighting factors; pay attention in the Interpretation to the seriousness of the impact categories in the regions concerned", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6289, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 91, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Normalisation factors do not need to be reported for the baseline normalisation method and impact categories if appropriate reference is made to the data set in Part 2b, including the publication date of the document. Normalisation factors not included in Part 2b should always be reported. Report normalised indicator results for every impact category. It is often convenient to report normalised indicator results for all alternatives studied in one table. An example form is provided in Part 2b, Section 4.6. When reporting normalised indicator results, specify the unit. If the result is dimensionless, this must also be stated explicitly. The preferred unit for normalised indicator results is a year. In the case of a comparison, check whether the validity and reliability of the data sources used to derive reference values for normalisation are not (potentially) too different for the various systems studied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6290, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 91, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for detailed studies apply here. In addition, the following guidelines are given: Fill (some of the) gaps in existing sets by collecting data on the magnitude of an intervention which is relevant to the study but which is not included in the normalisation data given in this Guide. Assess the reliability of different data sources in qualitative terms: Check whether the sets of normalisation factors which are used are mutually consistent. More specifically, check whether choices with respect to the economyenvironment system boundary, cut-off, allocation, characterisation methods, etc. are consistent between normalisation factors and case. Check whether sets of reference values used for normalisation are complete. Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn this example, the situation in the Netherlands is taken as a reference for all impact categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6291, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 91, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn this example, the situation in the Netherlands is taken as a reference for all impact categories. This is in line with the goal of the study, which is to identify hot spots in the product system of PE bags in the Netherlands. The reference information used refers to the year 1993, because this was the most recent complete list that was available. The results of the Inventory analysis after normalisation are shown in the normalised environmental profile below.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6292, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 97, "book_page": 91, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Impact category Value normalised indicator results depletion of abiotic resources photo-oxidant formation climate change freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity human toxicity acidification eutrophication 2.2E\u201311 yr 2.6E\u201315 yr 5.7E\u201314 yr 6.7E\u201315 yr 6.8E\u201318 yr 1.8E\u201316 yr 1.1E\u201313 yr 3.7E\u201315 yr interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking emission to air: dioxins (unspecified) 8.1E\u201314 kg economic outflows not followed to system boundary used plastic bags residue to dump recovered energy 0.08 kg 0.0008 MJ 4.3.7 Grouping Topic Grouping is a step of Impact assessment in which impact categories are aggregated into one or more sets. It is an optional element for which two possible procedures are available: sorting and ranking, defined by ISO as follows: sorting of the category indicators on a nominal basis e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6293, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is an optional element for which two possible procedures are available: sorting and ranking, defined by ISO as follows: sorting of the category indicators on a nominal basis e.g. by characteristics such as emissions and resources or global regional and local spatial scales; ranking of the category indicators on an ordinal scale, e.g. a given order or hierarchy, such as high, medium and low priority (ranking is based on valuechoices). Main choices Grouping is optional; it is allowed within ISO 14042 for comparative assertions Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Grouping is an optional step in LCA, for which no clear method is available. It is therefore not specifically applicable, except for optional extensions. Guidelines for optional extensions Grouping is an optional step in LCA, for which no clear method is available. If this is to be applied, a method, including criteria for grouping, must be developed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6294, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines for optional extensions Grouping is an optional step in LCA, for which no clear method is available. If this is to be applied, a method, including criteria for grouping, must be developed. Present the results of the grouping of impact categories as a matrix on the basis of the criteria used. The following criteria can be used as the starting point for ranking, but the criteria to be used depend on the goal and scope of the study: ecological threat potential; reversibility of the effect; scale of the effect; environmental preference of the population;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6295, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 98, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide relationship between current and/or previous pollution and quality goals. When grouping is applied, describe and justify extensively the method and criteria used to sort or rank the impact categories. When grouping or ranking is applied, include the following statements in the report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6296, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When grouping or ranking is applied, include the following statements in the report. A statement to the effect that conclusions and recommendations derived from grouping are based on value choices and that \u201cThe value choices and judgements used in the grouping procedures are the sole responsibility of the commissioner of the study (e.g., government, community, organisation, etc)\" A statement to the effect that \u201cThe ISO 14042 standard does not specify any specific methodology or support the underlying value choices used to group or rank the impact categories\" Example (hypothetical) \u201cNo grouping has been performed, as the literature provides no clearly described method.\u201d 4.3.8 Weighting Topic Weighting is an optional step of Impact assessment, in which the (normalised) indicator results for each impact category assessed are assigned numerical factors according to their relative importance, multiplied by these factors and possibly aggregated. Weighting is based on value choices (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6297, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Weighting is based on value choices (e.g. monetary values, standards, expert panel). A convenient name for the result of the weighting step is \u2018weighting result\u2019, of which there is generally one for each alternative product system analysed. The term \u2018weighting profile\u2019 is used in this Guide for the overall result of the weighting step: a table showing all the weighting results, supplemented by any other relevant information. Main choices Weighting is an optional step for all non-comparative assertions; it is not allowed within ISO 14042 for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. There is no best available method, and there is no recommended set of weighting factors. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Weighting is an optional step in LCA, for which no baseline method is proposed in this Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6298, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Weighting is an optional step in LCA, for which no baseline method is proposed in this Guide. It is therefore not specifically applicable, except for optional extensions.1 Guidelines for optional extensions According to ISO 14042, weighting is not allowed for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. One must therefore decide whether to ignore the ISO principles, keep results internal, or refrain from weighting. If a weighting is performed, first formulate the conclusions that can be drawn without weighting. 1 Certain other approaches to Impact assessment, such as Eco-indicator 99 and EPS, include operational weighting. If a weighted single result is desired in a simple or detailed LCA, one of these approaches should be selected in Section 4.3.2. We would discourage straightforward application of the weighting factors of Ecoindicator 99 and EPS to this Guide\u2019s problem-oriented approach.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6299, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 99, "book_page": 93, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Weighting is an optional step in LCA, for which no clear method is available. If this is to be applied, a method, including weighting factors, must be developed. The results of the environmental profile must in most cases be equalised as to their units before weighting. A possible method for this is normalisation (see Section 4.3.6). If normalisation is performed before weighting and this normalisation is done on different scale levels (combining regional and world scales in one LCA), weighting must also be based on these different scale levels and the regions where the interventions included in the study took place. The preferred method is the use of a complete, nationally or internationally authorised set of weighting factors covering all relevant impact categories. However, as long as such a set does not exist, one might consider developing a case-specific set of weighting factors that is most appropriate to the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6300, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 94, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, as long as such a set does not exist, one might consider developing a case-specific set of weighting factors that is most appropriate to the goal of the study. For this set, consider the following suggestions. Base the weighting factors preferably on a panel method, including all relevant parties, or should be based on publicly revealed preference data. use more than one method to develop weighting factors. Instead of single value weighting factors per impact category, use ranges based on the different views in the consultation panel or the different results of the various methods used. There are technical details that may be quite important, including the composition of the panel, the questions posed to the members of the panel, the degree of interaction between the members of the panel and the possible subdivision of impact categories into subcategories. Avoid the use of an implicit or temporary weighting factor of 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6301, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 94, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Avoid the use of an implicit or temporary weighting factor of 1. Report any further procedures that transform the category indicator results and provide a justification of the selected references, weighting factors, etc. If weighting has been undertaken, explain and justify the methodology clearly, both for quantitative and qualitative approaches. Document all advantages and disadvantages and relate them to the goal and scope. Justify the choice of weighting factors in relation to the goal of the study and particularly in relation to scope issues such as temporal and geographical coverage. If weighting has been undertaken, list all interventions and impact categories not included in the weighting directly under the weighting results (including those interventions not characterised)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6302, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 94, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If weighting has been undertaken, list all interventions and impact categories not included in the weighting directly under the weighting results (including those interventions not characterised). In the case of a comparison, check whether the validity and reliability of the data sources used to derive weighting factors are not (potentially) too different for the various systems studied? Example (hypothetical) \u201cA social panel approach has been chosen for the weighting. Details on how the panel has been instructed are provided in an appendix. The weighting factors used and the results of weighting are listed below.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6303, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 100, "book_page": 94, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Impact category Weight Value weighted indicator results depletion of abiotic resources photo-oxidant formation climate change freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity human toxicity acidification eutrophication 0.01 0.8 2.4 0.2 0.4 1.1 1.3 1.0 2.2E\u201313 yr 2.1E\u201315 yr 1.4E\u201313 yr 1.3E\u201315 yr 3.9E\u201318 yr 1.9E\u201316 yr 1.4E\u201313 yr 3.7E\u201315 yr weighting result total \u2013 5.1E\u201313 yr interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking emission to air: dioxins (unspecified) 8.1E\u201314 kg economic outflows not followed to system boundary used plastic bags residue to dump recovered energy \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 0.08 kg 0.0008 MJ Observe that the weighting result is dominated by three impact categories: depletion of abiotic resources, acidification and climate change.\u201d 4.4 Results of Impact assessment The main results of this phase, which is the input of the next phase, Interpretation, include the environmental profile, the normalised environmental profile and the weighting profile.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6304, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 101, "book_page": 1000, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.1 Topic Life Cycle Interpretation is the phase in which the results of the analysis and all choices and assumptions made during the course of the analysis are evaluated in terms of soundness and robustness, and overall conclusions are drawn. The main elements of the Interpretation phase are an evaluation of results (in terms of consistency and completeness), an analysis of results (for instance, in terms of robustness), and the formulation of the conclusions and recommendations of the study. 5.2 Starting points ISO 14043 has played a central role in the elaboration of this phase. Within this framework, three main categories of activities have been identified: evaluation of results; analysis of results; conclusions and recommendations. In addition, as in the previous phases, special attention has been given to the procedures for managing the LCA. Additional starting points for the Interpretation phase in this Guide include the following", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6305, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Additional starting points for the Interpretation phase in this Guide include the following. Interpretation does not replace an external interactive critical review. A full error analysis is not feasible for LCA. Even a partial Monte-Carlo analysis is currently unachievable for simplified or detailed LCA, and is only mentioned as an extension. 5.3 Recipe 5.3.1 Procedures Topic The procedural organisation must ensure the common treatment of general and specific subjects that the parties involved want to discuss during the Interpretation phase. The following procedural issues should be taken into account. The choice of assumptions and data to be checked or analysed in the Interpretation phase, especially product specification and system specifications, methodological choices, and the data and calculation models used. Execution of sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis. Part 2a: Guide 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6306, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Execution of sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis. Part 2a: Guide 5. Interpretation Recipe Procedures Consistency check Completeness check Contribution analysis Perturbation analysis Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Conclusions and recommendations Page", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6307, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 102, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Quantification of the accuracy of the calculated LCA results, including imprecision due to disregarding and the use of cut-off criteria, data uncertainties and uncertainties arising from deviations in the process situation being analysed. Determination of the bandwidth of the LCA results, in relation to the quantification of the accuracy of these results and the adequacy, quality and results of sensitivity analysis. Effects of the bandwidth conclusions with respect to possible implications of conclusions based on LCA results, possible adjustment of the goal of the LCA study and possible revision of further progress of the process. Intentions with respect to a possible iterative approach to the phases (in terms of allocation and weighting). Further process planning and process management. Main choices In the course of this LCA phase, the supervisory process should be arranged so as to preserve the authoritativeness of the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6308, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 98, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Further process planning and process management. Main choices In the course of this LCA phase, the supervisory process should be arranged so as to preserve the authoritativeness of the results. The potential input from stakeholders should also be used to improve the quality of the LCA. In this situation of \u2018mandated science\u2019 this implies that, depending on the specific process context, there should be room for interaction between the parties involved on topics that are relevant to the selection of topics to be included in consistency checks, sensitivity analyses, final conclusions and so on. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Determine the competencies and responsibilities of the LCA research scientists, any critical reviewers, the LCA clients and other interested parties using Table 5.3.1. Address potential bottlenecks in the LCA process by making arrangements in line with Table 5.3.2 to ensure the orderly progress of the project.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6309, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 103, "book_page": 98, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Table 5.3.1. Overview of the competencies of the various actors during the LCA process for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6310, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b Description First instructions with respect to fulfilment of LCA assignment First instructions with respect to fulfilment of assignment of critical reviewer Written response to instruction on LCA assignment Written response to instructions on assignment of critical reviewer1 Possible revision of the first instructions on LCA assignment Possible report on incompatible opinions on LCA assignment Presentation of draft interim report (= draft text of Interpretation) Written response to draft interim report on Interpretation Possible revision of draft report on Interpretation Possible report on incompatible opinions arising during the Interpretation Final opinion on final interim report on Interpretation Process context I C \u2013 L \u2013 C L L C L L C II C or S CorS L + R R C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S III S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6311, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "C or S L L + R C or S L + R L C or S III S S L + R R S L L + R S L + R L S Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact C = first LCA client(s) S = stakeholders (including C) L = LCA research scientists R = critical reviewer Table 5.3.2 Overview of the arrangements that can be made between the various actors for the different process contexts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6312, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Item Description Process context I II III a b c d e Widening/supplementation of the study (on request) Validation by an independent expert (on request) Binding advice on decision points by the critical reviewer Final decision-making by the largest possible majority, arbitration or another previously determined procedure Quantification of the influence of incompatible opinions in the final report o o o o o r r r o r r r r r r 1 The actual implementation of all guidelines in this Guide should be checked in a critical review.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6313, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 104, "book_page": 8, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Legend Process context I = few diverging interests, potentially strong impact Process context II = many diverging interests, potentially weak impact Process context III = many diverging interests, potentially strong impact r = recommended o = option Example (case history) \u201cThe first Dutch Packaging Covenant stipulated LCA studies for a number of product groups. According to this covenant, disposable packaging systems had to be replaced by refillable packaging systems in all cases where refillable systems produce \u201cclearly less environmental damage\u201d. As a result, an extensive project was organised between 1992 and 1994, to manage the implementation of the LCAs needed and to manage an accompanying process. The covenant partners did not define the phrase \u2018clearly less environmental damage\u2019, nor did they establish which environmental aspects were to be taken into account", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6314, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 100, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The covenant partners did not define the phrase \u2018clearly less environmental damage\u2019, nor did they establish which environmental aspects were to be taken into account. The LCA project was organised by a steering group involving many stakeholders (several business organisations and Dutch consumers' organisations; the environmentalist movement was not willing to participate). At the end of the project, the steering group concluded: \u201cIn general, there are no great differences in environmental aspects between disposable and refillable packaging systems, with the exception of the waste aspect.\u201d However, this first conclusion had no consequences: the commission that had to check the implementation of the covenant concluded that the interpretation of the LCA results in terms of \u201cclearly less environmental damage\u201d had not been unambiguously defined, and formulated criteria themselves. However, the commission concluded that further study was required with respect to a number of comparisons", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6315, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 100, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, the commission concluded that further study was required with respect to a number of comparisons. A good example of this is the comparison between milk in cartons and milk in a refillable polycarbonate bottles. The representatives of the consumers' organisations felt that the LCA had proved the PC-bottle packaging system to be environmentally preferable. The business organisations involved did not endorse to this. In their view, this was not a question of \u201cclearly less environmental damage\u201d because a changeover from cartons to PC bottles would only achieve waste reduction and possibly some reduction of eutrophication.\u201d 5.3.2 Consistency check Topic The objective of the consistency check is to determine whether the assumptions, methods, models and data are consistent with the goal and scope of the study, both over a product\u2019s life cycle and across various options. As discussed above, we place this issue at the very start of the Interpretation phase, contrary to ISO 14043", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6316, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 100, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As discussed above, we place this issue at the very start of the Interpretation phase, contrary to ISO 14043. All other analyses of the results and sensitivity analyses are futile if the assumptions and models used in the LCA are inconsistent with the goal and scope of the study, or inconsistent across the various options. Main choices Only those included in ISO 14043.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6317, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 105, "book_page": 100, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Conduct a consistency check to determine whether the assumptions, methods, models and data are consistent with the goal and scope of the study. Check for unexpected results based on expert knowledge, and if possible, based on a comparison between the results of the study and results of previous studies on related subjects. In the case of comparisons in particular, check for differences between the options being compared as regards data sources, data accuracy, technical level, temporal aspects, geographical representativeness and functions. If inconsistencies are found: justify them, if they are justifiable; assess their validity and influence; if possible and necessary, reiterate previous steps in the methodology and adapt the study results by removing the inconsistencies found; report any remaining inconsistencies explicitly and justify these together with the results of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6318, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 101, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition to a data-oriented consistency check, analyse and discuss the consistency of the procedures followed. Example (hypothetical) \u201cIn this example, it has been decided to develop a checklist that will be used to determine whether the model and data choices made in the study are equivalent either within a product\u2019s life cycle or across the various options. The checklist includes the following. Differences in data sources. For instance, the information on the production of ethylene may be based on the literature, while the information on PE production is based on primary data. Differences in data accuracy. For instance, a highly detailed modularisation might be available for option A, while option B is described as an accumulated black box system. Differences in technical level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6319, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 101, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, a highly detailed modularisation might be available for option A, while option B is described as an accumulated black box system. Differences in technical level. For instance, data on chemical waste incineration may be based on an experimental process (e.g., a new installation with higher process efficiency at pilot plant level) while electricity production data are based on existing large-scale technology. Temporal differences. For example, data on PE production may refer to recently developed technology, while the refining process is described for a mixture of technologies, including recently built and old plants. Differences in data age. For instance, data for option A are five-year-old primary data, whereas data for Option B have been recently collected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6320, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 101, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Differences in data age. For instance, data for option A are five-year-old primary data, whereas data for Option B have been recently collected. Differences in geographical representativeness; data for option A might represent a mixture of European technologies, while option B is representative of one EU country with a high level of environmental protection or one single plant. Differences in the functions performed by the two products or options. A detailed report on the discrepancies found has been added as an appendix to the LCA report. The overall findings suggest that no serious consistency problems were present.\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6321, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 106, "book_page": 101, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 5.3.3 Completeness check Topic The completeness check ensures that all relevant information and data needed for the Interpretation phase are available and complete. In the error check, the study is checked for false assumptions, model choices and data. Having an expert look at the results of the LCA and how they were generated can uncover errors and incomplete data. An LCA expert could check the methodology used in the different phases of the project and the results and conclusions of the analysis in relation to the goal and scope of the study. Technical experts could also look at the parameters describing the product system and the data used. Main choices Only those included in ISO 14043", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6322, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 102, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Technical experts could also look at the parameters describing the product system and the data used. Main choices Only those included in ISO 14043. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Conduct a completeness check based on the knowledge of one or more internal or external LCA experts and/or technical expert(s), and, if possible, based on a comparison between the results of the study and results of previous studies on related subjects. Refer to the \u201cInterventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\u201d and the \u201cEconomic flows not followed to system boundary\u201d If errors or gaps are found: justify them, if they are justifiable; assess their validity and influence; if possible and necessary, reiterate the previous step in the methodology and adapt the study results by correcting the errors or gaps found; report any remaining issues explicitly and justify these together with the results of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6323, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 102, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Special attention should be given to comparisons. If the completeness of the data differs between alternative systems, the influence of this difference should be estimated (e.g., by way of a contribution analysis, a perturbation analysis or a sensitivity analysis; see the next sections). In addition to a data-oriented completeness check, analyse and discuss, if necessary, the completeness of the procedures followed. Example (hypothetical) \u201cA technical expert has assessed the qualitative and quantitative validity of the system, looking at the following questions. Is the structure of the process tree correct? Are any processes missing? Are any economic inputs or outputs missing? Are any emissions or extractions missing? Is the magnitude of the emission correct? Do the mass balances add up to zero? A detailed report by the technical expert has been added as an annex. The expert did not find any major problems with the validity of the data and the system.\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6324, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 107, "book_page": 102, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide 5.3.4 Contribution analysis Topic The contribution analysis calculates the overall contribution to the results of the various factors. The contributions are usually expressed as percentages of the total. Contribution analysis answers questions about the contribution of specific environmental flows, processes or impacts to a given environmental score. Main choices Only those included in ISO 14043", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6325, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 103, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contribution analysis answers questions about the contribution of specific environmental flows, processes or impacts to a given environmental score. Main choices Only those included in ISO 14043. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Conduct several contribution analyses by calculating the contributions to the results of: individual processes within the overall process (e.g., pasteurising as a phase within the production of 1000 I of milk); a group of processes within the overall process (e.g., various conservation measures as a phase within the production of 1000 I of milk); a life-cycle stage within the overall process (e.g., the agricultural production of 1000 I of milk); the packaging phase within the overall process (e.g., the bottles used to package 1000 I of milk); an environmental flow within the overall process (e.g., flow in the production of 1000 I of milk); specific product properties, e.g., the energy requirement of a refrigerator", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6326, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 103, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Do this, when applicable, at the level of: the inventory results, e.g., emissions or extractions of (groups of) substances; the environmental profile; the normalised environmental profile; the weighting results. For a description of calculation techniques, see Part 2b, Section 5.5. Pay special attention to processes and process data whose data quality gives reason for concern (see Section 3.3.5 on data quality) or processes for which the data are based on estimations (see Section 3.3.6 on data collection and Section 3.3.8 on data estimation). If the contribution analysis shows that the contributions of these processes or flows may be substantial, this may be a reason to return to the data collection step to collect more data, or data of a better quality. Pay special attention to differences in completeness between alternative systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6327, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 103, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Pay special attention to differences in completeness between alternative systems. Are the data missing in one alternative very important contributors in another? Report and justify the levels (inventory table, environmental profile, etc.; processes, lifecycle phases, elementary flows, etc.) chosen for the contribution analyses. Compare, if possible, the results of a contribution analysis with those of contribution analyses reported in previous studies on related products. Report results of the contribution analysis as tables and, if useful, as graphs. Example (hypothetical) \u201cA contribution analysis for the emission of cadmium to fresh water yields the following list of contributing processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6328, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 108, "book_page": 103, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Process Electricity production Refining; allocated to naphtha Incineration of chemical waste Contribution 56% 25% 19% Thus, a large part (56%) of the emission of cadmium to surface water is caused by electricity production. Note that the 25% contribution made by the refining process is only the part that is allocated to naphtha production, and that this excludes the production of fuel oil and other co-products. If the emission of cadmium to surface water is a major concern in the study, it is clear that the process data for the electricity production must be checked carefully.\u201d 5.3.5 Perturbation analysis Topic Perturbation analysis involves the study of the effects of small changes within the system on the results of an LCA.1 The effects of these small changes are calculated simultaneously for all flows within the system, including economic flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6329, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 104, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The analysis can be conducted at different levels of aggregation: inventory table, indicator results, normalised indicator results or weighting results. The main difference between the contribution analysis and the perturbation analysis lies in the fact that it takes into account not only environmental flows but also economic flows between unit processes. This is important, because multipliers of economic flows can exceed unit when internal loops (see also Section 3.3.10) are present. The perturbation analysis may be very important in an improvement analysis and in a sensitivity analysis aimed at identifying important points and refining the LCA study. Main choices Perturbation analysis is a potentially useful addition to the methods mentioned in ISO 14043. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Perturbation analysis requires dedicated software routines which are not generally available. Therefore, it may be skipped in many cases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6330, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 104, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA Perturbation analysis requires dedicated software routines which are not generally available. Therefore, it may be skipped in many cases. One might consider, however, to use specialised software including a perturbation analysis in selected cases. Guidelines for optional extensions Conduct perturbation analyses at the level of: the inventory table; the environmental profile; the normalised environmental profile; the weighting results. For a description of calculation techniques, see Part 2b, Section 5.6. Pay special attention to processes and process data whose data quality gives reason for concern (see Section 3.3.5 on data quality) or processes whose data were based on 1 In the perturbation analysis, all system parameters (process data, characterisation factors, etc.) are successively changed marginally (e.g. 1%), and the resulting change in a system output (emission, category indicator result, etc.) is observed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6331, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 104, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1%), and the resulting change in a system output (emission, category indicator result, etc.) is observed. The ratio between these is the multiplier. Hence, if a 1% decrease in the fuel input of a production process leads to a 3% decrease in the emission of the multiplier is said to be 3.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6332, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 109, "book_page": 104, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide estimations (see Section 3.3.6 on data collection and Section 3.3.8 on data estimation). If the perturbation analysis shows that small changes in these processes or flows can have relatively large effects on the results, this may be a reason to go back to the data collection step to collect more data, or data of a better quality. Pay special attention to differences in completeness between alternative systems. Are the results very sensitive to small changes in the data missing in one alternative? Report and justify the level (inventory table, environmental profile, etc.) at which perturbation analyses have been conducted. If possible, compare the results of a perturbation analysis with results of perturbation analyses reported in previous studies on related products; Report the results of the perturbation analysis as tables and, if useful, as graphs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6333, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 105, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Example (hypothetical) \u201cA perturbation analysis for the emission of benzene to fresh water yields the following: Process production of ethylene production of PE production of PE production of plastic bags production of plastic bags packaging a loaf refining production of ethylene packaging a loaf rest (19 items) Flow output of ethylene input of ethylene output of PE input of PE output of plastic bags output of loaves packaged output of naphtha input of naphtha input of plastic bags Multiplier \u20131.15 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.70 <0.1 These results should be interpreted as follows: if the output of ethylene from the production of ethylene is increased by one per cent, the emission of benzene to fresh water will decrease by 1.15 per cent. This means, among other things, that the output of ethylene from the process of production of ethylene should be known fairly accurately for a reliable result on emissions of benzene to fresh water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6334, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 105, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This means, among other things, that the output of ethylene from the process of production of ethylene should be known fairly accurately for a reliable result on emissions of benzene to fresh water. It also means that a technological improvement affecting this coefficient leads to a large reduction in the emission of benzene to fresh water. Finally, it shows that most of the coefficients (19 out of 28) have a negligible influence on this emission.\u201d 5.3.6 Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Topic In order to use LCA as a tool for decision-making, information is needed on the robustness of the results. This element of the Interpretation phase assesses the influence on the results of variations in process data, model choices and other variables. In the sensitivity analysis, these changes are deliberately introduced in order to determine the robustness of the results with regard to these variations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6335, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 105, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the sensitivity analysis, these changes are deliberately introduced in order to determine the robustness of the results with regard to these variations. The uncertainty analysis uses empirical data on the uncertainty ranges of specific data to calculate the total error range of the results. Main choices Since the required data are often lacking and since most LCA software does not include the possibility to conduct a full sensitivity and uncertainty analysis, such analyses can not be made obligatory. However, it is good practice to implement at least partial sensitivity and uncertainty analyses.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6336, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 110, "book_page": 105, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Guidelines Guidelines for simplified LCA Select and justify a limited set of issues for sensitivity analysis, based on the results of contribution analysis, perturbation analysis and the subjects identified as issues for Interpretation in the various steps (e.g., influence of future scenarios, effect of data quality, key data sensitivity, possible contribution of missing processes) See Part 2b, Section 5.7 for a checklist of issues for simplified LCA. Conduct sensitivity analyses on the issues selected, at the level of: the inventory table; the environmental profile; the normalised environmental profile; the weighting results. Report the issues identified for sensitivity analyses. Report the results of the sensitivity analyses and possible uncertainty analyses conducted in table and, if useful, in graphic format. If possible, compare the results of a sensitivity and uncertainty analysis with results of such analyses reported in previous studies on related products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6337, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 106, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If possible, compare the results of a sensitivity and uncertainty analysis with results of such analyses reported in previous studies on related products. Pay special attention to processes and process data whose data quality gives reason for concern (see Section 3.3.5 on data quality) or processes whose data were based on estimations (see Section 3.3.6 on data collection and Section 3.3.8 on data estimation). If the sensitivity analysis shows that changes in these processes or flows can have important effects on the results of the LCA, this may be a reason to go back to the data collection step to collect more data, or data of a better quality Pay special attention to differences in completeness between alternative systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6338, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 106, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Are the results very sensitive to changes in the data missing in one alternative? Guidelines for detailed LCA All guidelines provided above for simplified studies apply here, but the selection of issues in the first guideline should now be comprehensive instead of limited. Guidelines for optional extensions All guidelines provided above for detailed studies apply here. In addition the following guideline is given: Conduct more detailed sensitivity analyses or, if possible, conduct partial uncertainty analysis on the issues selected and on parameters for which uncertainty ranges are known, for instance by Monte Carlo simulations. Example (hypothetical) \u201cSince the example LCA is a simplified LCA, the uncertainty analysis is skipped and the sensitivity analysis is confined to an ISO-based checklist, including: rules for allocation; characterisation method; weighting method and data; cut-off criteria; boundary setting and system definition; data; normalisation data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6339, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 106, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With regard to data uncertainties in a simplified LCA, the focus is on the most important processes and flows in the contribution and/or perturbation analyses. The data for these processes and flows have been checked and a sensitivity analysis on this data has been conducted for data variations.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6340, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 111, "book_page": 106, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide With regard to allocation rules, a sensitivity analysis has been conducted by comparing the results of economic allocation with those of allocation on the basis of energy content. Results are presented as an appendix to the report. There is no major difference with economic allocation.\u201d 5.3.7 Conclusions and recommendations Topic In this last step of the Interpretation phase, conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made for the intended audience of the study, based on the information gathered in the previous phases of the LCA and combined with the results of the previous steps of the Interpretation phase. Main choices For the sake of transparency, it is good to separate analysis and opinion, and therefore, to have a separate step in which final conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6341, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Main choices For the sake of transparency, it is good to separate analysis and opinion, and therefore, to have a separate step in which final conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made. Guidelines Guidelines for simplified and detailed LCA and optional extensions Formulate conclusions and recommendations transparently and unambiguously by: giving a summary of key issues; justifying conclusions drawn by means of materials presented in the report and on the basis of the entire report. Formulate conclusions and recommendations in line with the goal and scope of the study and the results found. Take the results of the consistency and completeness checks and the sensitivity and uncertainty analyses on data and models into account in formulating conclusions and recommendations. Inconsistencies, incompleteness and errors must either be corrected or incorporated in the conclusions of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6342, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inconsistencies, incompleteness and errors must either be corrected or incorporated in the conclusions of the study. Data and parameters to which the conclusions of the study are most sensitive must be mentioned. Check and report whether the limitations of LCA as a tool and the limitations of the models used allow for the conclusions and recommendations intended. If possible and relevant, discuss the results of the study in relation to earlier, related studies. In the case of a comparison, report and justify the significance of the differences in results. Check the concomitant statement made on this in the Goal and scope definition and indicate whether the differences in results are large enough to allow the conclusion that a certain product alternative is more environmentally sound than another alternative. In the case of a comparison, give a summary of key issues. For example, product system A is substantially better with respect to acidification than product system B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6343, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of a comparison, give a summary of key issues. For example, product system A is substantially better with respect to acidification than product system B. Example (hypothetical) \u201cAlthough there a number of data gaps, for instance relating to ancillary inputs, capital equipment, and toxicity parameters for dioxins, it seems that a fairly complete picture of the bread packaging systems has been obtained. The most important results are presented in", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6344, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 112, "book_page": 107, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide the tables and figures below. Important contributions are made by several emissions, mainly on impact categories that relate to toxicity, photo-oxidant formation, and acidification; see the table. As the goal was formulated in terms of finding options for product and process improvement, the results of the analysis cannot be used for comparison with alternative packaging systems.\u201d 5.4 Results of Interpretation The results of the Interpretation phase are two-fold. First, there are the results of all forms of consistency and uncertainty analysis, leading to a number of judgements relating to the quality and the robustness of the findings of the Inventory analysis and Impact assessment. Second, there is a description of the final conclusions and recommendations, for instance as to product choice or improvement.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6345, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 113, "book_page": 108, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Appendix A: Terms, definitions and abbreviations This glossary provides definitions of the key terms and abbreviations used in this Guide. Terms marked with an asterisk (*) are defined in accordance with the definitions given in the ISO 1404X series of standards, although not necessarily according to the letter. For reasons explained in the text, several definitions adopted here deviate substantively from those of ISO. In this Glossary these are marked as \"adapted from ISO\". Cross-references, indicated by an arrow point to the preferred terms used in this Guide. Terms abiotic resource a natural resource (including energy resources) regarded as non-living, e.g. zinc ore, crude oil, wind energy allocation multifunctionality and allocation alternative one of a set of product systems studied in a particular LCA, e.g. for comparison (note: some LCA steps are carried out for all alternatives together (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6346, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 109, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "for comparison (note: some LCA steps are carried out for all alternatives together (e.g. selection of impact categories), while others are repeated for each alternative (e.g. characterisation) area of protection a cluster of category endpoints of recognisable value to society, viz. human health, natural resources, natural environment and man-made environment average modeling proportional modeling background system/process a system or process for which secondary data, viz. databases, public references, estimated data based on input-output analysis, are used in an LCA baseline method (model, impact category, LCA, etc.) a method (etc.) recommended in this Guide for operationalising an LCA or methodological step biotic resource a natural resource (including energy resources) regarded as living, e.g. rainforests, elephants casualty human injury or death due to direct, physical cause, e.g. explosion or traffic collision (but not indirect casualties, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6347, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 109, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "rainforests, elephants casualty human injury or death due to direct, physical cause, e.g. explosion or traffic collision (but not indirect casualties, e.g. due to toxics) category endpoint * an attribute or aspect of the natural environment, human health, natural resources or the man-made environment identifying an issue of concern, e.g. loss of coral reefs or crops, damage to buildings category indicator * a quantifiable representation of an impact category, e.g. infrared radiative forcing for climate change category indicator result * indicator result cause-effect network environmental mechanism change-oriented LCA a type of LCA focusing on the environmental changes resulting from a switch to or from a particular product system or an extra functional unit of a particular product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6348, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 114, "book_page": 109, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide characterisation * a step of Impact assessment, in which the environmental interventions assigned qualitatively to a particular impact category (in classification) are quantified in terms of a common unit for that category, allowing aggregation into a single score: the indicator result; these scores together constitute the environmental profile characterisation factor * a factor derived from a characterisation model for expressing a particular environmental intervention in terms of the common unit of the category indicator, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6349, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 110, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(photochemical ozone creation potential of methanol) characterisation method a method for quantifying the impact of environmental interventions with respect to a particular impact category; it comprises a category indicator, a characterisation model and characterisation factors derived from the model characterisation model a mathematical model of the impact of environmental interventions with respect to a particular category indicator characterisation result environmental profile classification * a step of Impact assessment, in which environmental interventions are assigned to predefined impact categories on a purely qualitative basis closed loop recycling * recycling of material within one and the same product system combined waste processing a method of waste processing in which more than one form of waste is processed simultaneously comparative assertion * an environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product relative to a competing product performing the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6350, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 110, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "one form of waste is processed simultaneously comparative assertion * an environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product relative to a competing product performing the same function; particular requirements are set by ISO on comparative assertions disclosed to the public completeness check * a step of the Interpretation phase to verify whether the information yielded by the preceding phases is adequate for drawing conclusions in accordance with the Goal and scope definition consistency check * a step of the Interpretation phase to verify whether assumptions, methods and data have been applied consistently throughout the study and in accordance with the Goal and scope definition contribution analysis * a step of the Interpretation phase to assess the contributions of individual life cycle stages, (groups of) processes, environmental interventions and indicator results to the overall LCA result (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6351, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 110, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "as a percentage) co-product * any of two or more functional flows from a co-production process co-production process a unit process having more than one functional flow, e.g. crude oil refining critical review * an expert (internal or external) review of an LCA, designed to ensure validity, consistency, transparency and credibility of results damage approach definition of category indicators close to areas of protection", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6352, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 115, "book_page": 110, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide data category * a heading for classifying data in an LCA, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6353, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 111, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "energy inputs, raw material inputs, ancillary inputs, other physical inputs, products, emissions to air, emissions to water, emissions to land, other environmental aspects data quality * a data characteristic relevant for the capacity of the data to satisfy stated requirements data quality requirements * specification, in general terms, of the quality criteria to be satisfied by the data used in an LCA depletion a decrease in the stock of a biotic or abiotic resource due to extraction thereof descriptive LCA a type of LCA focusing on the contribution of a particular way of fulfilling a certain function to the entire spectrum of environmental problems as they currently exist or are being created detailed LCA the baseline LCA elaborated in this Guide, complying with the ISO 1404X standards and representative of studies typically requiring between 20 and 200 person-days of work difference analysis a type of LCA focusing on the differences between two alternative product systems, thus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6354, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 111, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "and representative of studies typically requiring between 20 and 200 person-days of work difference analysis a type of LCA focusing on the differences between two alternative product systems, thus ignoring those unit processes that are qualitatively and quantitatively identical economic flow a flow of goods, materials, services, energy or waste from one unit process to another; with either a positive (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6355, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 111, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "steel, transportation) or zero/negative (e.g. waste) economic value economic process unit process economy-environment boundary see also: system boundary elementary flow * matter or energy entering or leaving the product system under study that has been extracted from the environment without previous human transformation (e.g. timber, water, iron ore, coal) or is emitted or discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6356, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 111, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "timber, water, iron ore, coal) or is emitted or discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation (e.g. or noise emissions, wastes discarded in nature) see also: environmental intervention emission a chemical or physical discharge (of a substance, heat, noise, etc.) into the environment, considered as an environmental intervention endpoint category endpoint endpoint approach damage approach environment system the natural environment and its constituent processes environmental effect environmental impact environmental impact a consequence of an environmental intervention in the environment system environmental intervention a human intervention in the environment, either physical, chemical or biological; in particular resource extraction, emissions (incl. noise and heat) and land use; the term is thus broader than (\u2018elementary flow\u2019 environmental life cycle assessment * life cycle assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6357, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 116, "book_page": 111, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide environmental mechanism * for a given impact category, the chain of environmental processes linking interventions to impacts; modeled in LCA (usually only partially) to one or more category endpoints by means of a characterisation model environmental process a physical, chemical or biological process in the environment system that is identified as part of the causal chain linking a particular environmental intervention to a particular impact, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6358, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 112, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pollution leaching or bioaccumulation; for a given impact category, the environmental processes together form the environmental mechanism environmental profile the overall result of the characterisation step: a table showing the indicator results for all the predefined impact categories, supplemented by any other relevant information environmental relevance * the degree of linkage between a category indicator and category endpoint expert review * critical review extraction withdrawal of a biotic or abiotic resource from the environment in a unit process, considered as an environmental intervention final product a product requiring no additional transformation prior to use flow diagram a graphic representation of the interlinked unit processes comprising the product system foreground system/process a system or process for which primary, site-specific data are used in an LCA, for whatever reason format a structured framework for representing and possibly processing unit process data as", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6359, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 112, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "a system or process for which primary, site-specific data are used in an LCA, for whatever reason format a structured framework for representing and possibly processing unit process data as well as any relevant remarks function a service provided by a product system or unit process functional flow any of the flows of a unit process that constitute its goal, viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6360, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 112, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the product outflows of a production process and the waste inflows of a waste treatment process functional unit * the quantified function provided by the product system(s) under study, for use as a reference basis in an LCA, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6361, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 112, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1000 hours of light (adapted from ISO) goal and scope definition * the first phase of an LCA, establishing the aim of the intended study, the functional unit, the reference flow, the product system(s) under study and the breadth and depth of the study in relation to this aim grouping * a step of Impact assessment in which impact categories are aggregated in one or more sets defined in the Goal and scope definition phase; it may take the form of sorting and/or ranking impact assessment * the third phase of an LCA, concerned with understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts of the product system(s) under study impact category * a class representing environmental issues of concern to which environmental interventions are assigned, e.g. climate change, loss of biodiversity impact score indicator result", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6362, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 117, "book_page": 112, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide indicator result * the numerical result of the characterisation step for a particular impact category, e.g. 12 kg for climate change inflow input input a product (goods, materials, energy and services), waste for treatment or environmental intervention (including resource extraction, land use, etc.) modeled as \u2018entering\u2019 a unit process (adapted from ISO) interested party stakeholder intermediate product * an input or output from a unit process which undergoes further transformation before consumptive use interpretation * the fourth phase of an LCA, in which the results of the Inventory analysis and/or Impact assessment are interpreted in the light of the Goal and scope definition (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6363, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 113, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "by means of contribution, perturbation and uncertainty analysis, comparison with other studies) in order to draw up conclusions and recommendations intervention environmental intervention inventory analysis * the second phase of an LCA, in which the relevant inputs and outputs of the product system(s) under study throughout the life cycle are, as far as possible, compiled and quantified inventory table the result of the Inventory analysis phase: a table showing all the environmental interventions associated with a product system, supplemented by any other relevant information (adapted from ISO) land occupation the unavailability of a given plot of land for alternative uses for a certain period of time land transformation the change in the quality of a given plot of land due to a particular mode of human use, measured in terms of changes in biodiversity and life support functions LCA process the integral series of exchanges among the individuals and organisations participating in an", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6364, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 113, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "mode of human use, measured in terms of changes in biodiversity and life support functions LCA process the integral series of exchanges among the individuals and organisations participating in an LCA project, from project initiation and guidance through to interpretation and discussion of the results LCA project a project that seeks to obtain particular results by means of an LCA study and LCA process; besides commissioning parties and practitioners, it may also involve other organizations and individuals, in the capacity of data supplier, peer reviewer or interest group, for example LCA study an environmental study in which LCA methodology is employed, performed by practitioners who may or may not be affiliated to the party or parties commissioning the study life cycle * the consecutive, interlinked stages of a product system, from raw materials acquisition or natural resource extraction through to final waste disposal life cycle assessment (LCA) compilation and evaluation of the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6365, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 113, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "interlinked stages of a product system, from raw materials acquisition or natural resource extraction through to final waste disposal life cycle assessment (LCA) compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle; the term may refer to either a procedural method or a specific study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6366, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 118, "book_page": 113, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide life cycle impact assessment * impact assessment life cycle impact category indicator * category indicator life cycle interpretation * interpretation life cycle inventory analysis * inventory analysis life cycle inventory analysis result * inventory table life support functions the ecological structures and processes that sustain the productivity, adaptability and capacity for renewal of lands, water and/or the biosphere as a whole marginal modeling a type of modeling whereby changes in inputs and outputs are modeled on a marginal basis (e.g. full attribution to one additional train passenger of the extra power consumption required for transporting that passenger). Note: use of the word marginal is sometimes ambiguous; see section 1.2.3.4 of Part 3 for more details midpoint approach problem-oriented approach multifunctional process a unit process yielding more than one functional flow, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6367, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 114, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "co-production, combined waste processing, recycling multifunctionality and allocation * a step of the Inventory analysis in which the inventory model is refined and the input and output flows of multifunctional processes are partitioned to the functional flows of those processes natural resource a biotic or abiotic resource that can be extracted from the environment in a unit process non-functional flow any of the flows of a unit process that are not the goal of that process, viz. product inflows, waste outflows and environmental interventions normalisation * a step of Impact assessment in which the indicator results are expressed relative to welldefined reference information, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6368, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 114, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "relative to the indicator results for global interventions in 1995 normalisation factor the reciprocal of the indicator result for a particular impact category and reference system; used in the normalisation step normalisation result normalised environmental profile normalised environmental profile the result of the normalisation step: a table showing the normalised indicator results for all the selected impact categories, supplemented by any other relevant information normalised indicator result the numerical result of normalisation for a particular impact category, e.g. 0.02 yr for climate change open loop recycling * recycling of material generated in one product system in a different product system optional extension an option for enhancing the quality of a detailed LCA to address any obvious shortcomings outflow output", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6369, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 119, "book_page": 114, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide output an economic flow (e.g. energy, waste for treatment) or environmental intervention (e.g. pollutant or noise emission) modeled as \u2018leaving\u2019 a unit process (adapted from ISO) perturbation analysis a step of the Interpretation phase to identify any process data in which minor changes may significantly alter the inventory table, the (normalised) environmental profile or the weighting result, to identify efficient options for product improvement or to focus attention on sensitive items phase any of the four basic elements of an LCA, viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6370, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 115, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation pollution a change in the state of the environment due to emissions practitioner * an individual group or organisation conducting an LCA primary function the main function delivered by the product system under study problem-oriented approach definition of category indicators close to environmental interventions procedure the rules and arrangements adopted to manage an LCA study process unit process see also: environmental process product a positively valued economic flow of goods, materials, energy or services produced in a unit process and possibly serving as an input to another unit process product system * a set of unit processes interlinked by material, energy, product, waste or service flows and performing one or more defined functions proportional modeling a type of modeling whereby changes in inputs and outputs are modeled proportionally (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6371, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 115, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "equal attribution to all passengers of the increase in power consumption needed for transporting one additional passenger). Note: use of the word proportional (and average) is sometimes ambiguous; see section 1.2.3.4 of Part 3 for more details prospective LCA change-oriented LCA ranking * a grouping method whereby impact categories are hierarchically ranked (e.g. high, medium, and low priority), applying value choices recycling a unit process, or set of processes, for collecting and/or treating waste from a unit process for useful application in the same or in a different product system (closed and open loop recycling, respectively) reference flow quantified flow generally connected to the use phase of a product system and representing one way (i.e. by a specific product alternative) of obtaining the functional unit release emission retrospective LCA descriptive LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6372, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 120, "book_page": 115, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide sensitivity and uncertainty analysis a step of the Interpretation phase to assess the robustness of the overall LCA results with respect to variations and uncertainties in the methods and data used sensitivity check * an ISO step included in this Guide as part of sensitivity and uncertainty analysis simplified LCA a simplified variety of detailed LCA conducted according to guidelines not in full compliance with the ISO 1404X standards and representative of studies typically requiring from 1 to 20 person-days of work sorting * a grouping method whereby impact categories are sorted on a nominal basis, e.g. by characteristics such as emissions and resource use, or global, regional and local spatial scales stakeholder * an individual group or organisation concerned about or affected by the environmental performance of a product system or the outcome of an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6373, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 116, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Note: the LCA commissioner is also a stakeholder step a discrete element of any of the four phases of an LCA; some steps (e.g. data format, calculation method) are areas of concern rather than actions subcategory a subdivision of an impact category, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6374, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 116, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "data format, calculation method) are areas of concern rather than actions subcategory a subdivision of an impact category, e.g. freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity as a subcategory of ecotoxicity system boundary * the interface between a product system and the environment system or other product systems third party * a critical reviewer or a stakeholder other than the LCA commissioner or practitioner transparency * open, comprehensive and understandable presentation of information unit process * the smallest portion of a product system for which data are collected in an LCA use process a unit process in which the final product is consumed, thereby delivering the function under study waste (for treatment) an economic flow with a zero or negative value produced in a unit process and serving as an input to another unit process (note: materials such as waste paper and scrap metals with a positive economic, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6375, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 116, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "market value are thus not wastes but products) (adapted from ISO) weighting * a step of Impact assessment in which the (normalised) indicator results for each impact category assessed are assigned numerical factors according to their relative importance, multiplied by these factors and possibly aggregated; weighting is based on valuechoices (e.g. monetary values, standards, expert panel) weighting factor a factor obtained with a weighting method and used to express a particular (normalised) indicator result in terms of the common unit of the weighting result weighting profile * the result of the weighting step: a table showing all the weighting results, supplemented by any other relevant information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6376, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 121, "book_page": 116, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide weighting result the numerical part of the result of weighting and aggregation of all (normalised) indicator results, e.g. 0.08 yr (note: the result may be expressed as more than one numerical value) Explanatory figures\n\nPart 2a: Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6377, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 122, "book_page": 117, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide Abbreviations ADI ADP ALI AP BDP BUWAL CBA CFC CML CMLCA DALY DCB DGM EBIR EDIP El 99 EIA EIOLCA EP EPS ETH FAETP FNPP FSETP GWP HTP IOA IPCC ISO LCA LCI LCIA LSS MAETP MCA MIET MIR MOIR MRPI MSETP MTC MTR MVOC NOEC NPP ODP OP OTV acceptable daily intake abiotic depletion potential annual limit of intake acidification potential biotic depletion potential Bundesamt f\u00fcr Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft SAEFL) cost-benefit analysis chlorofluorocarbon Centre of Environmental Science - Leiden University chain management by life cycle assessment disability adjusted life years dichlorobenzene Netherlands Directorate-General of Environmental Management (part of VROM) equal benefit incremental reactivity environmental design of industrial products Eco-indicator 99 environmental impact assessment economic input-output life cycle assessment eutrophication potential environmental priority strategy Eidgen\u00f6ssische Technische Hochschule (Z\u00fcrich) freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6378, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 119, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "assessment economic input-output life cycle assessment eutrophication potential environmental priority strategy Eidgen\u00f6ssische Technische Hochschule (Z\u00fcrich) freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential free net primary production freshwater sediment ecotoxicity potential global warming potential human toxicity potential input-output analysis Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Organization for Standardization life cycle assessment life cycle inventory analysis (note: this abbreviation sometimes also includes the Goal and scope definition) life cycle impact assessment life support system marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential multi-criteria analysis missing inventory estimation tool maximum incremental reactivity maximum ozone incremental reactivity milieurelevante product informatie (environmentally relevant product information) marine sediment ecotoxicity potential maximum tolerable concentration maximum tolerable risk non-methane volatile organic compound no observed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6379, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 119, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(environmentally relevant product information) marine sediment ecotoxicity potential maximum tolerable concentration maximum tolerable risk non-methane volatile organic compound no observed effect concentration net primary production ozone depletion potential odour potential odour threshold value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6380, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 124, "book_page": 119, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2a: Guide P.M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6381, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 120, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PAF PBT PEC PNEC POCP RA RAINS SAEFL SETAC SFA SI SPEP SPINE SPOLD TETP UNEP USES-LCA VOC VROM WIA WMO WRI pro memoria (as a reminder) potentially affected fraction persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity predicted environmental concentration predicted no-effect concentration photochemical ozone creation potential risk assessment regional acidification information and simulation Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape BUWAL) Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry substance flow analysis Syst\u00e8ms International des Unit\u00e9s species-pool effect potential Sustainable Product Information Network for the Environment Society for the Promotion of Life-cycle assessment Development terrestrial ecotoxicity potential United Nations Environment Programme Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances, adapted for LCA volatile organic compound Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact Assessment World", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6382, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 120, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "for the Evaluation of Substances, adapted for LCA volatile organic compound Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact Assessment World Meteorological Organisation World Resources Institute", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6383, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 125, "book_page": 120, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PART 2B OPERATIONAL ANNEX", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6384, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 126, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contents of Part 2b List of tables Reading guidance 1. Management of LCA projects: procedures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Designing an LCA project Context of an LCA project Process management in LCA Organisation and assignment Reporting on an LCA project 2. Goal and scope definition 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Procedures Goal definition Scope definition Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6385, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 351, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Goal and scope definition 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Procedures Goal definition Scope definition Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows 3. Inventory analysis 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Procedures Economy-environment system boundary Flow diagram Format and data categories Data quality Data collection and relating data to unit processes Data validation Cut-off and data estimation Multifunctionality and allocation 3.9.1 3.9.2 Economic allocation Solving problems of missing and distorted market prices for step da1 3.9.3 Quantified example of economic allocation and symmetrical substitution 3.9.3.1 3.9.3.2 Economic allocation of simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process151 Symmetrical substitution of simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process 3.10 Calculation method 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6386, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 351, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Impact assessment 4.1 4.2 4.3 Procedures Selection of impact categories Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 Depletion of abiotic resources Depletion of biotic resources Impacts of land use 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.2 Land competition Loss of biodiversity and life support function 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4.3.9 Desiccation Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication Waste heat 4.3.10 4.3.11 4.3.12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6387, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 127, "book_page": 351, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.13 Odour 4.3.13.1 4.3.13.2 Malodorous air 4.3.14 4.3.15 4.3.16 4.3.17 4.3.18 Malodorous water Noise Impacts of ionising radiation Casualties Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Economic flows not followed to system boundary 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Classification Characterisation Normalisation Grouping Weighting 5. Interpretation 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Procedures Consistency check Completeness check Contribution analysis Perturbation analysis Sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis Conclusions and recommendations 6. References", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6388, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 128, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "SI and derived units often used in LCA studies Units with conversion factors to SI Prefixes used in presenting quantitative numbers. Composite units often used in LCA studies. Overview of data categories for collecting and reporting the data of unit processes Adapted version of the so-called pedigree matrix Estimation factors for converting NMVOC group emissions into individual compounds Estimation factors for converting group emissions into individual compounds. Overview of preferred units for collecting and reporting the data of unit processes Prices of products with missing or distorted markets. Proceeds from sales and allocation factors for goods and services from an SHR Calculation of selected environmental exchanges to be attributed to waste hydrocarbons from wood preservation (per kton waste hydrocarbon input to the refinery)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6389, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Calculation of selected environmental exchanges to be attributed to kerosene (per kton kerosene output from the refinery) Default list of impact categories Requirements for documenting and justifying new impact categories. Impact categories in the Eco-indicator \u201999 approach Eco-indicator \u201999 damage factors. Environmental Load Units (ELUs) for natural resources. Environmental Load Units (ELUs) for emissions. Requirements for documenting and justifying new impact categories ADP factors for characterising abiotic resources based on ultimate reserves and extraction rates Values for reserve and de-accumulation rates that can be used to calculate alternative reserve and de-accumulation rate based ADPs Factors for characterising abiotic resources based on exergy content (Finnveden, 1996b) Factors for characterising abiotic resources based on exergy content (Ayres et al., Upper (and middle) heating values", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6390, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "factors for characterising climate gases and factors for characterising climate gases Upper and lower limits of the uncertainty range of net GWPs for a few ozone depleting gases factors for characterising ozone depleting gases Time-dependent ODP factors for characterising ozone depleting gases HTP factors for characterising human toxic releases, for infinite and 100-year time horizons and global scale. Alternative HTP factors for characterising human toxic releases, for 20- and 500-year time horizons and global scale, and for infinite time horizon and continental scale. FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for infinite time horizon and global scale. Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 100-year time horizon and global scale Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 20-year time horizon and global scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6391, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 500-year time horizon and global scale Alternative MAETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for infinite time horizon and continental scale. Table 2.4.1: Table 2.4.2: Table 2.4.3: Table 2.4.4: Table 3.4.1: Table 3.5.1: Table 3.6.1: Table 3.6.2: Table 3.6.3: Table 3.9.2.1: Table 3.9.3.1.1: Table 3.9.3.2.1: Table 3.9.3.2.2: Table 4.2.1: Table 4.2.2: Table 4.2.3: Table 4.3.1: Table 4.3.2: Table 4.3.3: Table 4.3.4: Table 4.3.1.1: Table 4.3.1.2: Table 4.3.1.3: Table 4.3.1.4: Table 4.3.1.5: Table 4.3.5.1: Table 4.3.5.2: Table 4.3.5.3: Table 4.3.6.1: Table 4.3.6.2: Table 4.3.7.1: Table 4.3.7.2: Table 4.3.8.1: Table 4.3.8.2: Table 4.3.8.3: Table 4.3.8.4: Table 4.3.8.5: List of tables 1996).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6392, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 129, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "High POCPs for background concentrations for characterising photooxidant forming releases to the air. Alternative MIRs, MOIRs and EBIRs for characterising photo-oxidant forming releases to the air Alternative low POCPs for characterising photo-oxidant forming releases to the air Average European AP factors for characterising acidifying releases to the air. Alternative generic AP factors for characterising acidifying releases to the air. Additional region- (or site-) dependent AP factors for characterising acidifying releases to the air Generic EP factors for characterising eutrophying releases to air, water and soil Alternative average and additional region- (site-) dependent European EP factors for characterising eutrophying releases to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6393, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 387, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inverse OTV factors for characterising odour releases to air Damage factors for characterising radioactive releases Screening factors for characterising radioactive releases (level I) All interventions for which baseline characterisation factors are available Factors for normalisation with the annual extent of the baseline impact categories and characterisation methods for different reference regions Factors for normalisation with the annual per-capita extent of the baseline impact categories and characterisation methods for different reference regions Table 4.3.9.1: Table 4.3.9.2: Table 4.3.9.3: Table 4.3.10.1: Table 4.3.10.2: Table 4.3.10.3: Table 4.3.11.1: Table 4.3.11.2: Table 4.3.13.1: Table 4.3.15.1: Table 4.3.15.2: Table 4.4.1: Table 4.6.1: Table 4.6.2:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6394, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 130, "book_page": 387, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Reading guidance This is Part 2b of the publication entitled \u201cHandbook on life cycle assessment: An operational guide to the ISO standards\u201d. The entire publication consists of three parts: Part 1 (\u201cLCA in perspective\u201d) is a short introduction describing in broad terms the purpose, role, applications and limitations of life cycle assessment. Its main intended readership consists of people who have to commission the execution of LCAs and who will use the results of such analyses. Part 2 consists of two parts: 2a (\u201cGuide\u201d) and 2b (\u201cOperational annex\u201d). Its target audience is those concerned with the actual execution of LCAs. Depending on the context and the complexity, this may be one person or an entire research team with diverging backgrounds, such as process technology, product design, end-of-pipe solutions, ecotoxicology and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6395, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 127, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 (\u201cScientific background\u201d) provides the foundations and arguments for certain methodological choices, the alternative options available, and much more. It is intended to stimulate scientific debate and progress and to function as a reference book for those who wish to learn more about the rationale behind the Guide\u2019s rules. Part 2b adds operational models and data to the Guidelines formulated in Part 2a. The operational models and data published in this part have been carefully selected on the basis of a set of criteria, including scientific and technical validity, environmental relevance, etc. (see Part 3). In addition to these criteria, the operational data and models had to be publicly accessible. The operational models and data are published in a separate document in order to allow them to be regularly updated without updating the other parts of this LCA Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6396, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 127, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The operational models and data are published in a separate document in order to allow them to be regularly updated without updating the other parts of this LCA Guide. In principle, operational models or data can be provided for each methodological step for which guidelines have been provided in Part 2a. In this edition of the Handbook, however, it has not been possible to provide guidelines for each step. More emphasis has been placed here on the impact assessment steps (providing lists of characterisation factors etc.). It is our intention to address the other steps in a similar way should a subsequent updated edition of the Handbook be realised sometime in the future. The steps which have not been addressed in this edition are labelled \"to be inserted\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6397, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 127, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The steps which have not been addressed in this edition are labelled \"to be inserted\". The latest updates of Part 2b, including the models and data referred to in this part, can be found on and downloaded from the following website: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/lca2/index.html We would encourage the reader to check this site regularly.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6398, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 131, "book_page": 127, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 1. Management of LCA projects: procedures 1.1 Designing an LCA project To be inserted 1.2 Context of an LCA project To be inserted 1.3 Process management in LCA To be inserted 1.4 Organisation and assignment To be inserted 1.5 Reporting on an LCA project To be inserted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6399, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 132, "book_page": 129, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 2. Goal and scope definition 2.1 Procedures To be inserted 2.2 Goal definition To be inserted 2.3 Scope definition To be inserted 2.4 Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows SI UNITS Table 2.4.1: Quantity distance, length energy mass radioactivity temperature time volume work SI and derived units often used in LCA studies. Unit meter joule kilogram becquerel kelvin second cubic meter joule Symbol m J = N m kg K s J = N m Table 2.4.2: unit are day hour kilowattuur litre minute (time) tonne year Units with conversion factors to SI. symbol a d h kWh I min t a, y in SI-units 60 s Table 2.4.3: factor Prefixes used in presenting quantitative numbers. name kilo mega giga tera peta centi milli micro nano pico symbol k M G T P c m n p", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6400, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 133, "book_page": 131, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 2.4.4: quantity transport functional units Composite units often used in LCA studies units ton km year; lumen year; etc. For the conversion of other units to SI units (or SI-based or SI-derived units), see also: http://www.df.lth.se/~thanisa/recept/units js.html", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6401, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 134, "book_page": 132, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 3. Inventory analysis 3.1 Procedures To be inserted 3.2 Economy-environment system boundary To be inserted 3.3 Flow diagram To be inserted 3.4 Format and data categories THE SPOLD AND SPINE DATA FORMATS FOR LCI DATA Spold format can be found on: http://www.spold.org/ Spine format can be found on: http://deville.tep.chalmers.se/SPINE_ElM/iso.html CHOICE OF DATA CATEGORIES Table 3.4.1 : Overview of data categories for collecting and reporting the data of unit processes. main category data category economic flows inputs and outputs of goods inputs and outputs of services (including transport) inputs and outputs of materials inputs and outputs of energy inputs and outputs of waste (for treatment) environmental interventions extractions of abiotic resources (including gas) extractions of biotic resources land transformation land occupation emissions of chemicals (including radionuclides) emissions of sound emissions of waste heat casualties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6402, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 135, "book_page": 133, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 3.5 Data quality EXAMPLE OF PEDIGREE MATRIX Table 3.5.1 : Adapted version of the so-called pedigree matrix. pedigree reliability verified data based on measured data verified data based partly on assumptions, or non-verified data based on measurements non-verified data partly based on assumptions qualified estimate (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6403, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "by industrial expert) non-qualified estimate completeness representative data from a sufficient sample of sites over an adequate period to even out normal fluctuations representative data from a smaller number of sites but for adequate periods representative data from an adequate number of sites but for shorter periods representative data but from a smaller number of sites, for shorter periods, or incomplete data for an adequate number of sites and periods representativeness unknown, or incomplete data from a smaller number of sites and/or for shorter periods temporal correlation less than 3 years of difference from the year of study less than 6 years of difference less than 10 years of difference less than 15 years of difference age of data unknown, or more than 15 years of difference geographical correlation data from area under study average data from larger area that includes area under study data from area with similar production conditions data from area with slightly similar", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6404, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "geographical correlation data from area under study average data from larger area that includes area under study data from area with similar production conditions data from area with slightly similar production conditions data from unknown area or area with very different production conditions further technical correlation data from enterprises, processes and materials under study data on processes and materials under study but from different enterprises data on processes and materials under study but with different technology data on related processes or materials but with same technology data on related processes materials but with different technology 3.6 Data collection and relating data to unit processes BACKGROUND PROCESS DATA The inventory analysis requires data on the physical inputs and outputs of the processes of the product system, regarding product flows as well as elementary flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6405, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such data are mostly collected on a caseby-case basis, with the help of the companies involved. In addition, there are a number of public data bases which are used more generally: the ETH database for energy production processes (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996), the APME database for plastics (Boustead, 1994), the BUWAL/SAEFL database for packaging materials (SAEFL, 1998) and the SIMAPRO database containing data from the above databases and additional data (Pr\u00e9 Consultants, 1997). As stated above, the inventory analysis requires extensive data, and the availability and quality of the data may largely determine the outcome of the study. Therefore there is a great need for more standardised data, particularly about background processes, i.e., proceses which are not specific for the given product system. Source: UNEP, 1999. Source: Weidema, 1998b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6406, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 136, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex GENERIC CONVERSION FACTORS FOR BREAKING DOWN GROUP PARAMETERS INTO THEIR INDIVIDUAL CONSTITUENTS NOTE that these data are only ESTIMATES ! Table 3.6.1: Estimation factors for converting NMVOC group emissions into individual compounds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6407, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 135, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Name Ethane Propane n-butane i-butane n-pentane i-pentane n-hexane 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane 2,2-dimethylbutane 2,3-dimethylbutane n-heptane 2-methylhexane 3-methylhexane n-octane 2-methylheptane n-nonane 2-methyloctane n-decane 2-methylnonane n-undecane dodecane cyclohexane methylcyclohexane ethylene propylene 1-butene 2-butene butylene 1-pentene 2-pentene 2-methylbut\u20131 -ene 3-methylbut\u20131-ene 2-methylbut\u20132-ene styrene acetylene benzene toluene o-xylene m-xylene p-xylene ethylbenzene n-propylbenzene i-propylbenzene 1,2,3-trimethylbenzene 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene o-ethyltoluene Mass fraction in the UK NMVOC emission inventory 0.016821 0.005324 0.064891 0.042643 0.020604 0.034201 0.013661 0.011779 0.008001 0.002695 0.003601 0.003503 0.005425 0.004652 0.002905 0.016173 0.010857 0.012271 0.010938 0.011402 0.012351 0.003342 0.000013 0.002054 0.037958 0.016409 0.004922 0.009375 0.002279 0.003206 0.006196 0.001243 0.001644 0.002713 0.003603 0.016869 0.022817", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6408, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 135, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.016173 0.010857 0.012271 0.010938 0.011402 0.012351 0.003342 0.000013 0.002054 0.037958 0.016409 0.004922 0.009375 0.002279 0.003206 0.006196 0.001243 0.001644 0.002713 0.003603 0.016869 0.022817 0.069846 0.026428 0.030537 0.030476 0.013297 0.004994 0.004111 0.005409 0.012314 0.006074 0.005673", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6409, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 137, "book_page": 135, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Name m-ethyltoluene p-ethyltoluene 3,5-dimethylethylbenzene 3,5-diethyltoluene formaldehyde acetaldehyde propionaldehyde butyraldehyde i-butyraldehyde valeraldehyde benzaldehyde acetone methylethylketone methyl-i-butylketone cyclohexanone methanol ethanol i-propanol n-butanol i-butanol s-butanol t-butanol cyclohexanol diacetone alcohol dimethyl ether methyl-t-butylether methoxypropanol butylglycol methylacetate ethylacetate n-propylacetate i-propylacetate n-butylacetate s-butylacetate formic acid acetic acid propionic acid methyl chloride methylene chloride methyl chloroform tetrachloroethylene trichloroethylene 1,1-dichloroethylene cis 1,2-dichloroethylene trans dichloroethylene vinylchloride Mass fraction in the UK NMVOC emission inventory 0.007223 0.007223 0.0049 0.0049 0.007788 0.001468 0.001647 0.00102 0.000901 0.000159 0.000726 0.008934 0.007959 0.014137 0.005441 0.000173 0.042804 0.004108 0.014342 0.010091 0.00872 0.000013 0.002054 0.00872 0.000013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6410, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 136, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.0049 0.0049 0.007788 0.001468 0.001647 0.00102 0.000901 0.000159 0.000726 0.008934 0.007959 0.014137 0.005441 0.000173 0.042804 0.004108 0.014342 0.010091 0.00872 0.000013 0.002054 0.00872 0.000013 0.000013 0.00227 0.008576 0.000018 0.007261 0.000013 0.000027 0.004396 0.004396 0.000021 0.000021 0.000013 0.000389 0.003999 0.011243 0.007927 0.010883 0.000013 0.000013 0.000013 0.002378 Source: Derwent et al., 1996.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6411, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 138, "book_page": 136, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 3.6.2: Estimation factors for converting group emissions into individual compounds. See table on: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html NOTE: this table might be regularly updated and only provides rough estimates of the actual contents of emission groups ! Source: VROM, Dept. Monitoring and Information Management Description (in Dutch) : Omstoffentabel registratiejaar 1996 CONVERSION OF BQ INTO KG AND OF KG INTO BQ The relation between radiation and mass m is given by and that between mass m and radiation by where is the radiation in Bq, while m is the mass in kg, is the half life in s, M is the molecular mass in and is Avogadro\u2019s number in . Tables with values of molecular mass M and half life for a large number of isotopes have been published in, e.g., The Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. For an explanation of the background argumentation, see text box:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6412, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 139, "book_page": 137, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Normally, amounts of material are expressed in terms of mass, that is in kg. The amount of a radioactive substance, however, is sometimes expressed in radiation terms, that is, in Bq. The two can be converted into each other. Below is a description of the conversion process. The equation for radioactive decay is given by where N(t) is the number of atoms present at time t and the decay constant. This differential equation can be solved for N(t): and also gives an expression for the amount of radiation namely the number of decays dN in the time interval dt: This can be elaborated to yield The decay constant K is related to the half life T via so that The amount of radiation is thus given by It only makes sense to refer to an amount of radiation if this amount is constant over a reasonable time frame", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6413, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 138, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This leads to the assumption that The amount originally present N(0) can thus be written as N, and we have: Switching to mass units m (in kg) only requires the application of the molecular mass M (in and Avogadro\u2019s number (in Furthermore, a factor 1000 is needed to convert the molecular mass to CONVERSION OF DB INTO Sound is calculated as a linear additive expression by conversion to an energy-related quantity. For a unit process, producing an annual amount of material of M kg/yr, of which an amount of m kg is needed, the inventory entry for sound in is found by where p is the sound pressure level in dB of the unit process. The constant has an implicit dimension. For an explanation of the background argumentation, see Heijungs et al. (1992; Backgrounds, p.37).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6414, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 140, "book_page": 138, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex CALCULATION OF OCCUPATION AND TRANSFORMATION IN RELATION TO LAND USE A unit process which occupies a of land and keeps it in state B, with the land being in state A before the activity and in state C after the activity, leads to two inventory entries: one for occupation (o) and one for transformation (t). If the unit process produces an annual amount of material of M kg/yr, while m kg is required, the two inventory entries are: for occupation in of state B, and fortransformationin from state A to state C. The constant 1 has an implicit dimension", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6415, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 139, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The constant 1 has an implicit dimension. UNITS IN RELATION TO DATA CATEGORIES kg MJ _ 3.7 Data validation To be inserted 3.8 Cut-off and data estimation AVOIDING CUT-OFF BY USING INPUT-OUTPUT MODELING TO ESTIMATE FLOWS FOR WHICH SPECIFIC DATA ARE LACKING A hybrid analysis combining a process-based foreground system with an input-output-based background system can be used to simulate full interactions between foreground and background systems (Suh & Huppes, 2000a). Alternatively, a default estimate derived by environmentally extended input-output analysis (envlOA) can be used directly for the missing flows. The text frame below drafts a stepwise procedure for working with a default US inventory estimation model based on input-outpout tables, called MIET (Missing Inventory Estimation Tool; available online through http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6416, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 139, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This spreadsheet provides default inventory estimates based on inpout-output tables, using various data sources, including the 1996 US input-output table and the 1998 US TRI data. Table 3.6.3: Overview of preferred units for collecting and reporting the data of unit processes. data category inputs and outputs of goods inputs and outputs of services (excluding transport) inputs and outputs of transport inputs and outputs of materials inputs and outputs of energy inputs and outputs of waste (for treatment) extractions of abiotic resources (including gas) extractions of biotic resources land occupation land transformation emissions of chemicals (including radioactive iostopes) emissions of waste heat casualties sound preferred unit \u2013 hr, \u2013, etc. tonne\u00d7km, person\u00d7km, etc. kg MJ or kWh kg kg _", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6417, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 141, "book_page": 139, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Establish prices for the inputs to be estimated by environmental IOA. Deflate the prices to the base year 1996. Convert the price into US $. Select an appropriate sector from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) Classification (SIC) code description. Enter the result of 3 into the corresponding cell in MIET (either producer\u2019s price). Include this result in the corresponding process in your LCA. or Standard Industry price or purchaser\u2019s Each flow for which process data are lacking must be quantified in money terms, i.e., in US dollars. This can either be done directly by means of company purchasing statistics or expenditure records for the flow at stake (in $ needed for the functional unit being analysed), or indirectly by means of physical data on the flow at stake (in terms of kg, etc. needed for the functional unit being analysed) and price data per physical unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6418, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "needed for the functional unit being analysed) and price data per physical unit. Make sure that the converted money value and the unit of l/O-based inventory are compatible. That is, if the calculated price is the purchaser\u2019s price, as is true in most cases, then it is also the purchaser\u2019s price which should be used in the I/O account. In most cases, I/O accounts are calculated using the producer's price. The producer\u2019s price must then be converted into the consumer\u2019s price by adding the retail, wholesale and transportation margins provided with the supply (U) table of input-output accounts. MIET automatically converts consumer\u2019s prices into producer\u2019s prices. Detailed information can be found in Suh and Huppes (2000a, 2000b). The consumption of durable capital goods can be converted accordingly, using the annual depreciation of capital goods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6419, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Detailed information can be found in Suh and Huppes (2000a, 2000b). The consumption of durable capital goods can be converted accordingly, using the annual depreciation of capital goods. Note that if the flow in question is capital-intensive, goods or services lOA-based models will yield underestimated data, since the use of capital goods is not regarded as an input in input-output convention. In this case, try to collect more specific data for the flow, or add the proportion of capital goods in the flow using annual depreciation and the corresponding capital goods column in Suh & Huppes (2000b). It should also be recognised that input-output based inventory cannot provide reliable information if the flow in question refers to an aggregated sector such as 020503: Miscellaneous crops, 110900: Other construction, 570300: Other electronic components, etc. (Suh & Huppes, 2000a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6420, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(Suh & Huppes, 2000a). With the growth of e-commerce, price information for most commodities is available by searching on the World Wide Web. Current prices should be converted to US$ values for 1996 by using an appropriate economic index. A good source of price indices is the Statistical Abstract of the United States, available online(http://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract-us.html; section 15). If prices are obtained in Euros, Dutch guilders or any other non-US dollar rate, they have to be converted into US dollars using the following exchange rates (d.d. 2000.11.13). 1 Dfl=0.389 US $ 1 Euro=0.857 US $ Etc. Please keep these factors up-to-date, as exchange rates change over time (e.g., consult: http://www.xe.net/ucc/). SIC and BEA code descriptions can be found from the websites http://www.osha.gov/cgi-bin/sic/sicser5 and http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/dn2/i-o.htm, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6421, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "SIC and BEA code descriptions can be found from the websites http://www.osha.gov/cgi-bin/sic/sicser5 and http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/dn2/i-o.htm, respectively. The estimates made on the basis of IOA have to be evaluated carefully afterwards: After entering the results as an inventory process in the LCA, it is useful to conduct a contribution and perturbation analysis (see Section 5.4 and 5.5) to assess the significance of the flow in question for the overall results of the study. Based on these analyses, decide whether it is still important to collect specific process data for that flow or not. A rule of thumb could be that if a single flow for which data are lacking contributes more than 5% to the indicator result of the product system analysed, specific process data should be collected for that flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6422, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Estimating process data by comparison with similar processes for which data are known Most of the options currently known (see Part 3) for \"Estimating process data by comparison with similar processes for which data are known\" are practical solutions applied by some practitioners, without further documentation. This implies that there is no standard working procedure for this method. Hence, if such \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6423, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 142, "book_page": 140, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex an option is applied, the procedure followed for the particular case study must be documented and justified, and the uncertainties related to the approach must be discussed. However, for the capital good approach developed by Lindeijer (1998), a working procedure has been drafted, for each level of sophistication distinguished (see text box). The environmental profile of capital goods can be estimated at three levels of sophistication: Based on an average environmental profile per building volume, and the ground surface and height of the facility (or the total building volume) and the annual production of the company. Based on the environmental profiles for different construction parts, the ground surface, the height, the annual production and the pavement surface of the facility", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6424, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 3, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Based on the environmental profiles for different construction parts, the ground surface, the height, the annual production and the pavement surface of the facility. Based on the environmental profiles for different construction parts, and: the total quantity of flooring surface the total quantity of building surface the total building volume the estimated mass of machines and equipment (kg); the quality (brick, concrete, asphalt) and the total quantity of surface pavement the expected lifetime of the building; the annual energy use, if possible; and the annual production of the company. See Lindeijer (1998) for a detailed description of this procedure. The goal of Lindeijer\u2019s study was to provide environmental profiles of the most important parts of capital goods for an average production facility. The study was aimed at buildings and did not include machinery", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6425, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 3, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The study was aimed at buildings and did not include machinery. These environmental profiles allowed a first estimate of the importance of the environmental effects of capital goods to be made, with the aid of only a very limited amount of data such as surface area, height, annual production, lifetime. The result of the study was a relatively simple, three-level method providing a rough indication of the environmental effects of capital goods. In the first-level method, the environmental effects are calculated on the basis of the volume of the building (V), the annual production (P) and the environmental effect per (E). CUT-OFF BASED ON PREDEFINED CRITERIA If the estimation methods discussed above are not applicable, for instance in the use phase and the waste management phase, or if the input data for the estimation methods cannot be obtained, the inputs or outputs for which further data are lacking will have to be cut off after all", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6426, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 3, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, before the cut-off is actually made, it is recommended to assess the possible significance of the flow cut-off quantitatively and qualitatively. With respect to quantitative assessment, the following options are available if all process flows are known in either mass or monetary terms, but specific data on preceding processes are lacking for some flows: If a flow contributes less than X % (mass/mass) to the total mass inflow of a specific process \u2013 or in ISO 14041/14049 terms, if all materials have been included that have a cumulative total of more than 100-X % of the total mass inputs of that process - the flow may be removed from further analysis (see example in ISO 14049; to be included here later). If an input contributes less than X % to the total purchase costs of a specific process - or if all materials have been included that represent the cumulative total of more than 100-X % of the total purchase costs of that process - the flow may be removed from further analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6427, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 3, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both options may have their own problems. The first option has the problem that it is often impossible to determine what is 100%, since not all flows are known in mass terms. The second option does not have this problem, as the total purchase costs are generally known based on business administration1. However, this method has not yet been elaborated and applied in practice and possible drawbacks are as yet unknown. Before this method can be recommended, therefore, it should be investigated in more detail and the definition of purchase costs (e.g., whether it should include pure costs of labour or not) should be established in scientific debate. 1 One could even consider using the average environmental burdens per unit of costs of the flows for which process data are known as an indicator of the flows for which such data are lacking. This would make the method an estimation method as well. \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6428, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 143, "book_page": 3, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Both quantitative assessment options discussed above should be combined with a qualitative assessment of the resource extractions and emissions that may be expected from the flow for which data are lacking (see also ISO 14041). This assessment can again be made by looking at similar flows (see above under the heading \u201cEstimating process data by comparison with similar processes for which data are known\u201d) and discussing the likelihood of, e.g., hazardous emissions occurring somewhere in the lifecycle of that flow. Finally, the outcomes of the quantitative and the qualitative assessment must be combined, and the choice of whether the use of cut-offs is reasonable or whether specific process data should be gathered after all must be justified and reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6429, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 142, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If both options to assess the quantitative and/or qualitative significance of flows for which process data are lacking fail to work, there is no sensible advice left and an arbitrary choice will have to be made on whether to use cut-offs or not. If a cut-off is made, this has to be reported clearly and it has to be justified that all other options to prevent a cut-off failed to work. EXAMPLE In the example system (see Part 2a), several inputs have been cut off. The cut-offs being made include all production buildings, facilities and machines, and it is assumed that a chemical catalyst input in the refinery process has also been cut off, since specific process data for that catalyst are lacking. As an example we now estimate the potential contribution of the refinery facility and a catalyst, e.g., platinum", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6430, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 142, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As an example we now estimate the potential contribution of the refinery facility and a catalyst, e.g., platinum. At least the following data for the facility are needed to estimate the facility impacts by IO analysis: \u2013 the original investment in terms of total facility (or specified per material needed for the facility, e.g., concrete, steel, aluminium etc.; a more precise IOA is possible but finding these data will take a lot of time !), corrected if necessary by a correction factor (C) based on the price index rate between 199? and the base year 1996; \u2013 the expected economic lifetime of the facility (after how many years is the facility expected to be actually substituted?); \u2013 annual average maintenance costs of the facility corrected if necessary by a correction factor (C) based on the price index rate between 199? and the base year 1996; and \u2013 the annual production of the facility (in terms of the flow analysed, i.e., naphtha)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6431, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 142, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As the facility is a multi-function facility, the allocation factor for the flow analysed in the example system, i.e., naphtha (allocation factor A = 0.31; see Section 3.9.1), needs to be known too, but this is produced by the allocation for the impacts of the process itself anyway. So, only the bulleted data above are additional to what was already known. The original investment and maintenance costs in monetary terms to be allocated to the 10 kg of naphtha output in the example system can be calculated by: In this example, the following hypothetical values have been assumed for the refinery facility: Original investment: Euro 2,400,000 (1996) Write-off period: 20 years; Average annual maintenance cost: Euro 120 per year (at 2000 price level); Annual production: 9 kton of naphtha per year", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6432, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 142, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "10 kg of naphtha is necessary for the production of 1000 PE disposable bags (= the functional unit) The maintenance costs (1997 price index) need to be corrected for the base year 1996 by applying a factor of 0.907986 (based on the consumer price index (CPI) for August 2000 and the 1996 annual CPI), but the original investment costs do not need to be corrected for the 1996 base year. This implies that the 1 As the allocation factor depends on the allocation method applied, a sensitivity analysis could be conducted on other possible allocation factors for naphta. However, this sensitivity analysis is only useful if the allocation factors differ significantly between the different allocation methods, and if the estimated contribution of the facility appears to be potentially significant for the overall results. \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6433, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 144, "book_page": 142, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u2013 \u2013 \u2013 Part 2b: Operational annex original investment and maintenance costs of the refinery facility that should be allocated to the naphtha flow amount to: {(2,400,000/20) * 0.3 * (10/9,000,000)}=Euro 0.040 (US$ 0.047); and {(120 * 0.907986) * 0.3 * 10/9,000,000}=Euro 3.6319E\u201305 (US$ 4.238E\u201305). For the catalyst, the quantity of the input in the refinery process needs to be known in mass terms or in monetary terms. In this example, the following (hypothetical) values have been assumed for platinum: Annual input of platinum catalyst into the refinery: 10 kg/year. Current platinum price: about $140,000 per kg. Annual production: 6 kg of naphtha per year. The platinum price (1999 price index) needs to be corrected for the base year 1996 by applying a factor of 0.964120 (based on the 1999 and 1996 annual CPI). This implies that the platinum that should be allocated to the naphtha flow amounts to: {14000 * 10 * 0.964120 * 0.3 * (10/9,000,000)}= US $ 0.045", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6434, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 143, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This implies that the platinum that should be allocated to the naphtha flow amounts to: {14000 * 10 * 0.964120 * 0.3 * (10/9,000,000)}= US $ 0.045. These monetary values can now be entered into the MIET spreadsheet. Users must specify whether producer\u2019s prices or consumer\u2019s prices are used. If the price data have been gathered from purchasing records, then the prices will be consumer\u2019s prices. Before entering the value, the sectors to which each missing flow belongs must be determined. For the refinery installation, this turns out to be the \u201cSIC 3559 Special Industry Machinery, Not Elsewhere Classified\u201d, while platinum belongs to \u201c2819 Industrial Inorganic Chemicals, Not Elsewhere Classified\u201d. After the calculated value has been entered, MIET calculates inventory estimates based on the 1996 US input-output table and environmental data including TRI 98 data. The results of the calculation are shown in Part 2a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6435, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 143, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The results of the calculation are shown in Part 2a. 3.9 Multifunctionality and allocation 3.9.1 Economic allocation ECONOMIC VALUE SHARES OF THE DIFFERENT CO-PRODUCTS AS ALLOCATION FACTORS For each multiple process, the economic values produced are to be expressed in one monetary unit, like Euros or Dollars, as the proceeds of each type of product sold, As ultimately only shares in proceeds are used, not the absolute values, the monetary units may be local ones, avoiding the transformation steps into one common monetary unit for all processes. Hence, the base year for the currency used is not very relevant either. For economic allocation, only a transformation into one common monetary unit is necessary, while different units may be used in different processes. The share of the sales of one product in the total proceeds of the sales of all products is the allocation factor (see Figure 3.9.1 below)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6436, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 143, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The share of the sales of one product in the total proceeds of the sales of all products is the allocation factor (see Figure 3.9.1 below). This factor is dimensionless and does not depend on the monetary units used; it is also independent of inflation. The allocation factor applies to all non-function inputs and outputs represented by flow V. These include resource extractions, emissions, inflows of products and outflows of waste with negative value. Thus, if a certain amount of flow V enters or leaves the multifunctional (combined/joint) process, we allocate to product 1 and to product 2. In cases where economic value shares are not known because of missing or distorted markets, the methods specified in Section 3.9.2 may be applied.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6437, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 145, "book_page": 143, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex With all allocation factors established, each multiple process in the product system can be split up into single-function processes. Since allocation factors have been set up as product shares in total (adjusted) proceeds, the 100% rule holds at the process level. The system as a whole, as quantified with these made-single processes, will therefore be a single function system as well. The allocation method applies not only to the situation of co-production but also to situations of recycling and combined waste management, that is, to all situations where the value creation in a process involves more than one good or service. For instance, processing chlorinated solvent wastes from the plating industry is a waste management service to the plating industry and at the same time part of PVC production and metals production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6438, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, processing chlorinated solvent wastes from the plating industry is a waste management service to the plating industry and at the same time part of PVC production and metals production. The process can then be allocated on the basis of the prices the plating industry pays for spent solvent processing, the price the PVC producers pay for the chlorine, and the price that metal producers pay for the metals regenerated. Allocation occurs in the unit process in which the chlorine and metals are stripped from the organic compounds. Simplification In many instances, proceeds are known at the level of the entire firm, rather than for the multi-functional process within the firm. There is a method available to derive the values at this multi-functional process level, viz., the gross sales value method (see below)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6439, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is a method available to derive the values at this multi-functional process level, viz., the gross sales value method (see below). If this method cannot be applied for some reason, it can be simplified by applying the allocation at the level of the firm, while checking whether this would lead to substantial differences in allocation at the process level. Though combining several processes, allocation at the firm level is much more technology-specific than allocation at the level of the system as a whole. The latter option should generally not be applied, not even as as a simplification. HOW TO MEASURE SALES VALUES? The relevant value to measure the sales of a product is the private value to the decision-maker, as he is influenced by the prices he really gets, or expects to get. Hence, regular subsidies and taxes on activities are part of the price; no correction is needed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6440, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hence, regular subsidies and taxes on activities are part of the price; no correction is needed. This is in contrast to the situation where an economic analysis is being made in terms of alternative social costs, as in Cost-Benefit Analysis. In such an analysis, transfer payments like taxes and subsidies do not reflect real cost and are to be subtracted. If the allocation data are used later, not for allocation purposes but for economic analysis in addition to LCA, a correction for transfer payments may be needed. If subsidies are given for a specific performance, this performance may be defined as a product. An example is that of subsidies for nature conservation measures in agriculture, where, for instance, farmers in the Netherlands may be paid for each successful nest of meadow birds. \u201cMeadow birds\u201d is then a co-product sold to the government, with its own clear share in the total proceeds of the farm", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6441, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u201cMeadow birds\u201d is then a co-product sold to the government, with its own clear share in the total proceeds of the farm. Some specific problems in calculating shares in (adjusted) total proceeds are worked out in Section 3.9.2. These relate to missing markets, including tax-financed processes, and to market distortions. Below, the operational guidelines for solving the multifunctionality problem are worked out, for the simplified, the detailed and the extended version. Simplified version1 The simplified version has three modeling steps and 4 allocation steps. simplified modeling sm1: Use single-function databases as a basis Cradle-to-gate databases like the ETH database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996) on energy-related processes and SAEFL (1998) on packaging have already been allocated by the makers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6442, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Without going into the details of how exactly the allocation has been brought about, such general databases are accepted for all but a few main processes in the process tree of the product system. Also, environmentally extended input-output models are becoming available as a general dataset. Since links between the sectors are in terms of one single monetary unit, these models are purely single-function. As improved versions of general databases become available, this option can provide practical solutions to many of the allocation problems. 1 The section on simplified LCA has been prepared together with Erwin Lindeijer, formerly of IVAM BV now of TNO Industry, with adaptations to the format and terminology used in this Guide. See annex C.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6443, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 146, "book_page": 144, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex sm2: Treat open-loop co-production as closed-loop co-production1 In many instances, wastes emanating from the product system are the used versions of primary production in the product system. If it is incorrectly assumed that the recycling takes place within the product system itself, the open loop is transformed into a closed loop. This will usually lead to too high an amount of primary production being subtracted, as the secondary material or product will be a degraded version of the primary material. To increase the validity of the outcome, a quality factor must then be introduced, indicating the lower value of the recycled material. This recycling comes on top of recycling materials as a realistically modeled input. It is to be specified as a subtraction process, to allow for transparent improvements in system specification. In this sense it is a value-corrected substitution method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6444, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 145, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is to be specified as a subtraction process, to allow for transparent improvements in system specification. In this sense it is a value-corrected substitution method. A similar problem may occur in situations where the product itself might seem uniform, like electricity. The co-produced electricity in waste incineration has different time-profile characteristics than the electricity obtained from the grid. Hence, its value will be lower (or possibly higher) than that of electricity purchased. In the current liberalised electricity markets, short-term prices may differ by several hundred percent points. In some instances, the quality factor may in fact be near zero, further simplifying the analysis. sm3: Use available physical-causal waste management models (ISO step 2, simplified) Such models have been developed but are not yet available in easily applicable forms2. In practice, such models combine modeling and allocation aspects. This is to be accepted, for the time being", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6445, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 145, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, such models combine modeling and allocation aspects. This is to be accepted, for the time being. simplified allocation sa1: Apply economic allocation where easily possible If data on shares in the proceeds of products from a combined process are easily available, the allocation is quite simple and straightforward. This will often be the case especially for internal studies at firm level. There is then no difference between the simplified and extended versions. If the data for economic allocation are not so easily available at process level, they may be available at systems level. In air transport, for instance, the proceeds from freight and passenger transport are available, avoiding difficult allocation analysis at process level. This step will solve some but usually not all multifunctionality problems. sa2: Use substitution with made-single cradle-to-gate database data This is not real modeling but a simplified solution to the multifunctionality problem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6446, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 145, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "sa2: Use substitution with made-single cradle-to-gate database data This is not real modeling but a simplified solution to the multifunctionality problem. It only makes sense where single-function cradle-to-gate systems can be used in the substitution, e.g., using the databases indicated under sm1 and the gate-to-grave databases mentioned under sm2. This will solve the multifunctionality problem in all common types of flows of materials and products, possibly leaving a few case-specific multi-function processes unallocated. sa3: Apply an easy value-indicating parameter common to the various co-products Depending on the situation, rough parameters for this purpose may be mass, volume or energy content. In a refinery, for instance, these different parameters all roughly co-vary with value. In other cases, like \u2018penicillin + fodder production\u2019, such simple parameters hardly make sense. sa4: Use a quick-and-dirty last resort measure This is the bag of tricks of last resort", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6447, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 145, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In other cases, like \u2018penicillin + fodder production\u2019, such simple parameters hardly make sense. sa4: Use a quick-and-dirty last resort measure This is the bag of tricks of last resort. In the penicillin example, penicillin prices and prices of a \u201csimilar fodder\u201d might be taken from a financial magazine. In recycling, the 50 \u2013 50 % approach of the Nordic Guidelines might be used (Lindfors et al. 1995a,b). For combined waste management, kg share in total waste might be taken. For chemical wastes, this usually will be too coarse a measure, but better than none. A final option is not to split at all, but to allocate all flows to the product investigated. If this product is the main product of a particular process, this yields only a slight overstatement of the environmental interventions. 1 Often called open-loop recycling but covering all non-recycling co-production as well. 2 We expect operational simplified models to become available very soon.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6448, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 147, "book_page": 145, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Detailed version The detailed version has two modeling steps and one allocation step. detailed modeling dm1: Split up processes that are not really multiple into single ones In this step, multifunctional processes may be split up. Processes are often described empirically as the sum total at a site. In this case, a closer look may reveal that in fact there are different process lines for the different products produced at the same site. This is always a useful check. Only in exceptional cases will this step solve the multifunctionality problem for a process; it usually states the multifunctional problem more precisely. In many instances of background processes, the options discussed above under simplified modeling will have to be used. dm2: Model long-term technical-physical relations in waste processing This step applies to mixed waste processing only. It involves subtracting all emissions caused by each of the wastes processed in a long-term model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6449, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It involves subtracting all emissions caused by each of the wastes processed in a long-term model. The (analytically) remaining process will virtually always be a combined one, still requiring some allocation procedure. Conceptually, this situation is very different from dm1, as the processes there were found, upon closer inspection, to be visibly independent. In the present category, processes are in principle combined, but alternatives are modeled as changes against a general background. This modeling method is not yet in common use in LCA, but is being developed. detailed allocation da1: Apply economic allocation based on market value or constructed market value The cost allocation problem in managerial accounting and the allocation problem in LCA for decision support are very similar. In LCA, the same economic principles for solution can be used, which is why this step is named \u201ceconomic allocation\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6450, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In LCA, the same economic principles for solution can be used, which is why this step is named \u201ceconomic allocation\u201d. The allocation is not applied at a systems level, nor at firms level, but at the level of a detailed in-firm view of the processes involved. Some of these processes are really combined or joint, while others function for one of the co-products only. Allocation is only relevant for the combined or joint processes. In many instances, prices are given at a firm\u2019s interface with the outside world, rather than for processes within the firm. This very common situation will be dealt with in some detail here. The method to be applied is the gross sales value method, adapted here for use in LCA. This preferred method for deriving operational allocation factors has been worked out in more detail in Part 3 of this Guide. Below, an example of economic allocation is worked out in Section 3.9.3.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6451, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Below, an example of economic allocation is worked out in Section 3.9.3.1. Guidelines on other operational aspects of dealing with distorted markets, missing markets and as yet undeveloped markets are worked out in Part 2a of this Guide. Extended options As extended options, two additional modeling options are described, and one additional option for allocation. extended modeling em1: Apply market analysis for the main co-products This is the realistic version of system expansion, in principle taking into account real elasticities of supply and demand. This analysis is quite complicated at the level of detail required for LCA. Therefore, either standardised values for elasticities are to be used, or the analysis is to be restricted to some main flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6452, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Therefore, either standardised values for elasticities are to be used, or the analysis is to be restricted to some main flows. As economic relations are not included in the detailed version of inventory modeling, this extended option may be used as a sensitivity analysis of introducing market effects in the model, giving insight into the way market modeling might influence outcomes. In general, however, the multifunctionality problem will not decrease but increase by introducing market mechanisms. em2: Develop a linear programming model for main processes If main processes are controlled by one organisation, the change in operation can be described using available information on technical relations and the aims of the processes operator. The change induced by having an extra amount of the functional unit can then be indicated involving only environmental interventions, A point of concern, however, is the time horizon of most linear programming models", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6453, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This tends to be short, while the structural LCA questions treated here require long-term modeling, including investment functions in the models. Operational versions of such models are still lacking.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6454, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 148, "book_page": 146, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex extended allocation ea1: Apply a \u2018symmetrical substitution method\u2019 In using a substitution method, the first round of substitution induced would usually lead to substitution by a cradle-to-gate system that itself contains multifunctional processes, thus leading to an endless regress. The symmetrical substitution method avoids this problem of endless regress. How generally applicable this method is, remains an open question. For a fuller description and application in an example, see Section 3.9.3.2 below. 3.9.2 Solving problems of missing and distorted market prices for step da1 In many situations, an estimate can be made of the values of the various co-products, goods and services, including waste processing services. Market prices are the basic data to be used. If market prices are not known, there are several reliable sources for many product prices, including historical prices, current prices and expected prices in terms of futures", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6455, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If market prices are not known, there are several reliable sources for many product prices, including historical prices, current prices and expected prices in terms of futures. The Worldwide Web is a unique source of price data, increasingly so as web-markets are fast emerging. Hundreds of websites on the most commonly traded products are now available. The relevant price is \u2018FOB\u2019, free on board, at the location of the supplier, without insurance or transport1. In several situations, however, market prices are nevertheless not available or, if available, may not reflect the value intended to be measured. For such problematic situations, a number of solutions are available. Problems and solutions are surveyed in Table 3.9.2.1 below. Table 3.9.2.1 : Prices of products with missing or distorted markets. problem 1. market prices not known 2. fluctuating prices 3. inflation 4. trends in real prices 5. different currencies in different processes 6. locally diverging prices 7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6456, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "problem 1. market prices not known 2. fluctuating prices 3. inflation 4. trends in real prices 5. different currencies in different processes 6. locally diverging prices 7. market prices available only further downstream 8. partially missing prices 9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6457, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "economically based market distortions (e.g., monopolies) 10.regulations-based market distortions 11 .tax-like financing of activity (e.g., sewer systems) 12.taxes and subsidies on products 13.taxes and subsidies on activities 14.in-firm prices not known 15.missing markets with public provision 16.developing markets for recycling products 17.markets not yet in existence solution look for public sources, preferably FOB prices use three-year averages, or use prices at futures market no problem, as long as the same base year is used in each process no problem, as long as the same base year is used in each process no problem, as long as the same currency is used in each process choose prices at relevant process locations or calculate averages for the relevant region gross sales value method, as worked out under \u201814\u2019 construct prices from costs and known prices use actual market prices, correct in very exceptional cases only accept prices as they are, use value or cost of close alternative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6458, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "worked out under \u201814\u2019 construct prices from costs and known prices use actual market prices, correct in very exceptional cases only accept prices as they are, use value or cost of close alternative for missing market prices treat as \u2018missing market, public provision\u2019 use the price the seller actually receives do not correct for taxes and subsidies on activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6459, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "use gross sales value method construct prices based on costs use current prices of similar products to specify the price of future recycled products use expected future market prices If prices are not given in the process data set, providing them is very similar to the methods used for other missing data like some emissions. The only difference is that for most commodities, data on prices are publicly available, in publications and increasingly on the web. \u2018Fob\u2019 prices, at the gate, are more 1 The other price type is \u2018cif\u2019, stating a specific place of delivery like \u2018cif Paris\u2019 for the price of oil delivered in Paris. 1. MARKET PRICES NOT KNOWN", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6460, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 149, "book_page": 147, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex relevant than cif prices. If market prices cannot be found, a best estimate is to be made, e.g., using available prices of slightly lower quality and slightly higher quality alternatives as a reference. Solution: Use public sources on prices; if not available, make informed estimate. 2. FLUCTUATING PRICES The problem of unstable prices is very similar to that of unstable emissions. Most processes do not emit regularly over time, in that they show daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations and long-term trends. Chemical plants, for instance, usually show a tendency for emissions to become lower in the first years after construction, while emissions go up in the last years of their functioning. For prices, similar variations may occur due to the business cycle. Trend-free irregularities can be approximated by some averaging procedure over the base year. For longer-term variations, one may use longer time series for averaging, as a non-default option", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6461, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Trend-free irregularities can be approximated by some averaging procedure over the base year. For longer-term variations, one may use longer time series for averaging, as a non-default option. This might be relevant for products with a long-term downward trend in their prices, like abiotic virgin materials and energy resources. Solution: Take three consecutive annual averages, or use prices from futures markets. 3. INFLATION Inflation does not pose a serious problem, as it is not absolute prices but shares in proceeds which are relevant. One should use prices from the same date, especially in times of high inflation rates. It is not necessary to use a specific base year and deflate the prices to this base year, as inflation will influence the prices of all products from the process in the same way; relative prices then remain the same. Base years may differ between processes but should be the same for products from the same process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6462, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Base years may differ between processes but should be the same for products from the same process. Solution: For each process use prices at the end of the base year chosen. 4. TRENDS IN REAL PRICES Apart from inflation, real prices may show a trend, like the downward trend for most primary commodities. Prices may then be deflated (or inflated) to a base year. If such trends are the same for the various products of a process, as may be expected, relative prices are not changed by deflating. As long as the same base year is used for expressing the proceeds per product, the choice of base year does not influence the outcomes. Solution: Use the same base year for each process. 5. DIFFERENT CURRENCIES IN DIFFERENT PROCESSES This poses no problem for allocation purposes, as long as the same currency is used within one process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6463, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5. DIFFERENT CURRENCIES IN DIFFERENT PROCESSES This poses no problem for allocation purposes, as long as the same currency is used within one process. For economic analysis, as in market analysis or cost-benefit analysis, one common unit is to be established, after which the various currencies are to be converted into a single one. The currency rate valid for the same year for which the process data are chosen is the most relevant one. Values for currencies used in UN/World Bank national account statistics or by the IMF are to be taken for the base year chosen, and used for conversion. Such conversions may be relevant in extended analysis. Solution: Use the same currency for each process. 6. LOCALLY DIVERGING PRICES For some products, especially those with low prices in relation to transport costs, prices may vary steeply with location. The local price of the relevant process is then the most adequate price", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6464, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The local price of the relevant process is then the most adequate price. In many cases it is not a specific process which is sought, but the processes representative of a region. In this situation, the average for the region is to be used. Transport is to be treated as a separate process. Solution: Use relevant processes or calculate an average value of product prices for processes in the relevant region. 7. MARKET PRICES AVAILABLE ONLY FURTHER DOWNSTREAM In some instances, market prices are only available in useful form after some processing of a material flow into a standard form. An example is that of working up metals from mixed waste to standard quality recycled metal. Standard prices are available for the recycled metal, e.g., aluminium ingots. For the price after the multifunctional process of \u2018collection and sorting\u2019, this is often not the case, as these prices may vary with the amounts delivered, transport distances, information on the variability of quality and the like", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6465, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If the work-up process takes place inside the same firm that does the sorting, the gross sales value method specified under '14' can be used. If this is not the case, market prices can be imputed from the point where prices are available, back to where the multifunctional process produces the flow to be worked up. The method involves using the price per unit (e.g., 1 kg) at the point in the system where it is known and subtracting the costs of the processing that takes place between that point and the multiple process where the price is needed for economic allocation. These costs may be known from experience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6466, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 150, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex or may be specified by a specialided cost calculator. They include normal profits. This method is the same as the gross sales value method described under \u201814\u2019. Solution: Use the gross sales value method to construct relevant \u201cfob-like\u201d prices. 8. PARTIALLY MISSING PRICES In some cases, some of the products of a process are priced while others are not. An example is the public processing of waste, co-producing heat and electricity sold on the market. The value of the coproduct \u2018waste processing\u2019 can be derived by subtracting the proceeds of heat and electricity from the total costs. Solution: Reconstruct the value of an unknown good or service by subtracting the known market proceeds of other products from the total costs. 9. ECONOMICALLY BASED MARKET DISTORTIONS (E.G., MONOPOLIES) In many situations, there is market failure through normal economic causes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6467, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9. ECONOMICALLY BASED MARKET DISTORTIONS (E.G., MONOPOLIES) In many situations, there is market failure through normal economic causes. For some products, economies of scale imply a production volume - where costs are minimum - much larger than the demand can absorb. This results in a natural monopoly, as exemplified by many transport systems with high fixed and low short-term marginal costs. Examples include electricity networks, cable TV networks and computer operating systems. Also, markets imply transparency as regards the quality of all products. This often is a serious problem for secondary materials. Different qualities of secondary materials are often not standardised and the costs of measuring quality may be high, for instance in the case of varying compositions of scrap metals. In such situations, markets may not emerge, as investments for secondary application are too risky", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6468, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In such situations, markets may not emerge, as investments for secondary application are too risky. Although such circumstances may have effects on prices and hence on allocation shares, the volume of such effects may be limited and will usually affect all products of the oligopolistic or monopolistic firm. Such distortions can therefore be ignored. In cost-benefit analysis, such deviations from \"true\" market prices are also usually ignored. Solution: Accept prices as they are as a default. For developing markets: see below. 10. REGULATIONS-BASED MARKET DISTORTIONS AND FAILURE This is the most complex type of market failure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6469, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Solution: Accept prices as they are as a default. For developing markets: see below. 10. REGULATIONS-BASED MARKET DISTORTIONS AND FAILURE This is the most complex type of market failure. By way of example, let us assume that there is no market for a discarded house, that recycling has been made obligatory, e.g., by means of prohibitive prices for landfill or through outright prohibition of landfill, and that road building is an allowable route for some non-organic, non-metallic mixed granulate fraction resulting from the demolition process, while other useful applications are effectively forbidden. Clearly, such regulatory activities influence prices and may even create markets. There is nothing unusual in this situation, as virtually all markets are created by public regulations. Although such prices are experienced as \u2018unnatural\u2019, this is merely a matter of getting used to the idea that markets are hardly ever natural. Hence, the resulting prices are to be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6470, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although such prices are experienced as \u2018unnatural\u2019, this is merely a matter of getting used to the idea that markets are hardly ever natural. Hence, the resulting prices are to be used. For developing markets, see under \u201816\u2019 below. Technological routes which have been cut off through regulations or pricing policy, as in waste processing, are irrelevant for the analysis, although they may, of course, be analysed as an alternative, to see if they have been blocked for sound environmental reasons. Solution: Actual prices are to be used. Take the value or cost of a closely related alternative for missing market prices. 11. TAX-LIKE FINANCING OF ACTIVITIES In many instances a price might appear to be paid for a service, while in fact some sort of tax is being levied for financing purposes. An example is the fee paid for wastewater treatment by households, based on the number of persons or rooms, or some other parameter which only very roughly indicates the volume of sewage water treated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6471, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, if such payments are close to a price per unit of service (e.g., household waste processing paid per binbag or per kg), they can be used as an indication of value. Otherwise, the situation is like that in missing markets with public provision; see under \u201815\u2019 below. Solution: If functioning as a price per unit of service: use as value. If not, treat as missing market with public provision. 12. TAXES AND SUBSIDIES ON MARKETED PRODUCTS The price the producer of a product receives is what counts in the allocation of the process. The effect of taxes and subsidies on prices and volumes is based on elasticities of supply and demand of the products involved. However, this is not a question of the effect of a tax or subsidy. The simpler question here is what the producer actually receives for his products. In the allocation between gasoline and other refinery products, the refinery receives the price excluding the excise on gasoline.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6472, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 151, "book_page": 149, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Solution: Use the price the seller actually receives, that is, the price for the purchaser minus taxes or plus subsidies. 13. TAXES AND SUBSIDIES ON ACTIVITIES Some taxes and subsidies are levied for environmental reasons. Subsidies to the process may be seen as payment for a (collective) service of that process. If paid per unit of service, as in the example where farmers were paid for each successful meadow bird nest, it is not a subsidy on activities but a price for a product. However, in most instances it is not so clear what the environmental consideration is in taxing activities, nor is it possible to link the taxes and subsidies to any specific product. For such taxes on activities, no correction on proceeds is needed. Solution: Do not correct for taxes and subsidies on activities. 14", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6473, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 150, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For such taxes on activities, no correction on proceeds is needed. Solution: Do not correct for taxes and subsidies on activities. 14. IN-FIRM PRICES NOT KNOWN In many cases, the process definition is at a more detailed level than that of firms, while proceeds from sales are measured at the level of the firm. Some processes within the firm may then not be multiple but function for one of the various products only. An example is the compression and storage of chlorine in the combined production of chlorine, caustic and hydrogen. For the purpose of allocation, we need the prices as they would be inside the firm, at the level of the real multiple process. The allocation procedure then starts with setting derived values for the flows inside the firm or business unit. The method used for this purpose is the gross sales value method1 as used for cost allocation in economic management accounting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6474, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 150, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method used for this purpose is the gross sales value method1 as used for cost allocation in economic management accounting. The contribution of a process to the total proceeds is measured in terms of its share in the total costs, as the total costs of all activities is required to produce the total output that is sold. For each of the processes in the firm, the share in the total cost is used to calculate retrospectively the value of the flows originating from the real multiple process. Thus, adjusted proceeds, P\u2019, are constructed for the products as they leave the real multiple process in the firm (process A in Figure 3.9.2.1 below). Computing its share in the total costs is quite straightforward. In disaggregating the operations of the larger business unit, its specific inputs and outputs, that is the flows to be allocated, have to be specified for each process separately. The result again is an allocation factor F", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6475, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 150, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The result again is an allocation factor F. The procedure starts at the process where each product sold originates, and then goes upstream within the firm, until the real multiple process is reached. Solution: Gross sales value method. Total proceeds of the firm are known. For all processes within the firm, compute their share in total costs. This share can be used to compute their shadow contribution to total sales. For a process functioning for one of the firm's products only, subtract the shadow contribution to sales from the total sales of the product. The result is the in-firm shadow proceeds of the in-firm products, as illustrated in Figure 3.9.2.1 for the products of the multifunctional process A. 1 See for an extensive treatment: Bierman, Dyckman and Hilton (1990), Chapter 14 and 15. See for similar methods descriptions: Drury (1992); Horngren and Foster (1991) and Raiborn et al (1993), esp pp 713\u201323", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6476, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 152, "book_page": 150, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 15. MISSING MARKETS WITH PUBLIC PROVISION Missing markets with public provision are dominant in most of transport infrastructure and in a substantial part of municipal waste processing. (For most specialised waste processing of production wastes, market prices are available.) Ideally, the social value created by the multifunctional facility is to be allocated over the different functions it fulfils, as this value is the driver for the supply of the road or waste incinerator. To reduce the different functions to the same denominator, the value for the user could be used, with the value of the facility being the total of the value for all users. The amount of money people are willing to pay for the service can be estimated, e.g., that for roads can be calculated on the basis of toll road prices. Combined waste processing financed by retributions or taxes presents a similar problem, and similar solutions can be sought", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6477, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Combined waste processing financed by retributions or taxes presents a similar problem, and similar solutions can be sought. As there is no question of sales, the value can be estimated by the willingness to pay for the various services. This shadow price can then be used to estimate \u2018shadow total sales'. Where process parts function for one of the services only, the simplified version of the gross sales value method described under point 14 can be applied to calculate adjusted shadow proceeds. In some situations, the question may be reformulated in terms of the share in the total cost caused by using the transport infrastructure or having one\u2019s household waste processed. In road transport, for example, road damage is to a large extent caused by goods vehicles, especially heavy goods vehicles. A model may be developed specifying the share of the different types of road users in the total costs of maintenance per kilometre", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6478, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A model may be developed specifying the share of the different types of road users in the total costs of maintenance per kilometre. Such a model might rather be regarded as a part of inventory modeling based on physical relations. For the main body of the road (including viaducts, which are multifunctional themselves, etc) this cost approach does not help to solve the multifunctionality problem. Solution: Compute the share of the service in the total value created by the facility for the different kinds of services rendered. 16. DEVELOPING MARKETS FOR RECYCLED PRODUCTS In many long-term functions, like housing, current recycling processes do not yet provide the kind of volume needed for developing regular markets. (This situation is not only a problem for establishing allocation factors but also for estimating environmental flows.) The first step is the specification of the future recycling process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6479, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(This situation is not only a problem for establishing allocation factors but also for estimating environmental flows.) The first step is the specification of the future recycling process. The price for the recycled product is ideally based on a simulation of the future market, in terms of the price level in the base year chosen. This hardly improves on the simpler approach of using the price of an existing, nearly equivalent product, with or without a quality-related correction. In comparative assertions disclosed to the public, only proven or guaranteed techniques and current or guaranteed market prices should be used, adding a sensitivity analysis of the reasonably expected future functioning of the processes. Solution: Use current prices of similar products to specify the price of future recycled products. 17. MARKETS NOT YET IN EXISTENCE The problem is very similar to that of developing markets, with expected future prices as the ideal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6480, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "17. MARKETS NOT YET IN EXISTENCE The problem is very similar to that of developing markets, with expected future prices as the ideal. The simple solution of using current prices, as in situation 16, may not be applicable here. In comparative assertions there are no current techniques or current market prices to refer to. This implies great demands on the quality of the analysis for estimating the future technical and market functioning of such processes. Solution: Use expected future market prices. 3.9.3 Quantified example of economic allocation and symmetrical substitution An example of a process has been worked out, covering the various multifunctionality situations that are usually distinguished: co-production, combined waste processing and recycling of discarded products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6481, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This section first works out the economic allocation (Section 3.9.3.1), and then applies the symmetrical substitution method (Section 3.9.3.2) to the same example, a simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process. 3.9.3.1 Economic allocation of simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process We take a hypothetical refinery producing a number of product outputs and non-product outputs, and also functioning as a waste processor for a number of waste flows (see Figure 3.9.3.1). These wastes are processed into main products, without it being visible whether and how recycling takes place. All that is available are totals of inputs being processed into outputs in the installation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6482, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 153, "book_page": 151, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex The proceeds from the six products produced by the installation are summarised in Table 3.9.3.1.1. The share of each product in the total proceeds is the allocation factor share in sales = allocation factor 0.25 0.30 0.05 0.03 0.10 0.27 1.00 = 100% Adjoining processes can be treated in the same way. If process 1 is upgraded with two new products, the total proceeds consist of the sum of the proceeds from processing mixed residues and the sales of the upgraded product, a lubricant. This sum is: The allocation factors are then 0.779 for processing mixed residue and 0.220 for the lubricant as the upgraded product. All other flows, that is, inputs required, wastes with negative value, and emissions, are allocated to each of the products according to their respective allocation factors. INTERPRETATION How can this result be used and interpreted? There are now effectively six analytically constructed \u201cindependent\u201d single function processes, one for each product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6483, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 152, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "INTERPRETATION How can this result be used and interpreted? There are now effectively six analytically constructed \u201cindependent\u201d single function processes, one for each product. For kerosene, there is an analytically independent process which takes 5% of all flows to be allocated, that is, all the dotted lines. If a product Table 3.9.3.1 .1 : Proceeds from sales and allocation factors for goods and services from an SHR. product 1 : fuel oil (good) 2: naphta (good) 3: kerosene (good) 4: long residue \u201cwaste\u201d (good) 5: food waste (service) 6: wood waste (service) Total quantity x price = sales", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6484, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 154, "book_page": 152, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex system needs 1 tonne of kerosene, the resulting flows are easily computed, as the process is fully linear. What might seem curious at first is that \u2018waste lubricants from garages\u2019 are also part of the allocated process for kerosene production. In the short term, this may be regarded as illogical, since a change in the amount of kerosene for airplanes does not influence the amount of waste lubricant oil from garages. On second thought, however, a more reasonable interpretation is possible. The fixed input and output coefficients of the unallocated process are determined by technical relations and all the elasticities of supply and demand involved. In using such process data, the assumption is that coefficients remain the same, which then also means that technical relations and elasticities of supply and demand remain the same", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6485, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In using such process data, the assumption is that coefficients remain the same, which then also means that technical relations and elasticities of supply and demand remain the same. Although anybody is of course free to make different assumptions, they may easily fall into the trap of having the inventory model becoming the model of the entire world. Indeed, the actual elasticity of demand and supply for waste lubricant oil from garages makes it probable that methods of processing this flow will change, as well as the cost of waste processing, the volume of waste oil processed, the volume of primary lubricant oil production, car use, etc. Such realism is beyond any operational modeling method. Our models tend to simplify considerably to remain manageable. They do not describe a total reality but give an indication of reasonable expectations about relative consequences of choosing for one or another option", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6486, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "They do not describe a total reality but give an indication of reasonable expectations about relative consequences of choosing for one or another option. Doing this analysis systematically, without invoking ad hoc adaptations, is essential for comparison. If a real-life mechanism is added, it should be added systematically. Similar limitations abound. The consequence of this outcome is that a substantial part of the crude oil input to the refinery is allocated to wood preservation, due to the high volume and highly negative price of its contaminated carbo-hydrates waste flow. This is not realistic, as to some extent the calorific value of the waste replaces crude oil as an energy source (and probably not as a material). So one could reason that the energy part of the oil is replaced by the wood preservation waste", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6487, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "So one could reason that the energy part of the oil is replaced by the wood preservation waste. However, a disproportionate part of energy use may also be due to the greater separation effort required to separate the toxic components of wood preservation from the product outputs. This would mean that an even greater share of the crude oil input would be required. Of course such things can be known and modeled. It involves looking into the \u201cinner workings\u201d of the process. Progress in this area may be expected in the not too distant future, especially if combined with some form of linear programming technique for the optimisation of goal functions. For the time being, such sophistication cannot be part of detailed LCAs, and we will have to stick to the relative clumsiness of limited models. 3.9.3.2 Symmetrical substitution of simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process1 \u00a9 Bo P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6488, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.9.3.2 Symmetrical substitution of simplified hypothetical refinery (SHR) process1 \u00a9 Bo P. Weidema, 2000, 2.\u20130 LCA consultants, Borgergade 6,1., 1300 K\u00f8benhavn K, Denmark We take the same hypothetical refinery (see Figure 3.9.3.1) but now apply the symmetrical substitution method. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ECONOMIC INPUTS AND CO-PRODUCTS The refinery has: three independently variable economic inputs: waste lubricants from garages; waste hydrocarbons from wood preservation; waste hydrocarbons from food industry. These inputs are variable in the sense that they are not needed for the process and may therefore be varied depending on supply. one dependent economic input: crude oil. This input is dependent in the sense that its volume depends on the volume of the variable inputs and outputs. three independently variable economic outputs: fuel oil; naphtha; kerosene. Within the technical limits, these outputs are variable, in that they depend on the demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6489, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "three independently variable economic outputs: fuel oil; naphtha; kerosene. Within the technical limits, these outputs are variable, in that they depend on the demand. If technical limits are encountered at the specific refinery investigated, the change in demand will lead to changes in the production of a similar refinery without these technical limits. When 1 This part has been supplied to the project by Dr B.P. Weidema. \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6490, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 155, "book_page": 153, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex studying changes that are so large that the technical boundaries of the entire refinery industry are encountered, it is necessary to regard these outputs as dependent. We assume here that the change being studied is small. three dependent economic outputs: long residues; mixed residues for upgrading; mixed residues for incineration. These outputs are minimised (not more is produced of them than technically necessary) and thus depend solely on the volume of the inputs and the variable outputs. INDEPENDENTLY VARIABLE ECONOMIC INPUTS For the independently variable economic inputs (waste lubricants and other hydrocarbons) the following conditions apply (irrespective of the economic value of the input). Upstream processes: The volume of these inputs depends on the volume of the upstream processes (processes F, G and H in Figure 3.9.3.2) of which these inputs are wastes, rather than on the volume of the refinery production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6491, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The refinery acts as a waste treatment for these inputs. The wastes are assumed to be fully utilised (since they are valuable as inputs to the refinery and the total amount available on the market does not exceed that which can be used by the refinery industry). Thus, the upstream processes are not relevant to the other refinery co-products, i.e., there is a clear cut-off at entry into the refinery. Avoided processes: The production of the crude oil replaced by the variable inputs (process D in Figure 3.9.3.2) is credited to the main products of the upstream processes of which these inputs are wastes (i.e., the products of the garages, wood preservation processes and food industry)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6492, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other effects on the refinery and downstream processes: If the input causes any changes in the environmental exchanges from the refinery or further downstream processes, compared to the use of crude oil as a raw material, these changes are attributed to the main products of the upstream processes of which these inputs are wastes (i.e., the products of the garages, wood preservation processes and food industry). This may for example be due to the nature of the waste (the hydrocarbons from food industry may be vegetable, which may, for example, lead to lower VOC emissions than from comparable fossil raw materials) or due to contamination (e.g., heavy metals from the lubricant use or wood preservation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6493, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To determine the environmental exchanges to be attributed to the products of the garages, wood preservation processes and food industry (products F, G and H in Figure 3.9.3.2) the following information on the system is needed: 1) Changes in the economic outputs resulting from changes in the independently variable inputs (waste lubricants and other hydrocarbons): We assume that there is no change in the independently variable outputs (fuel oil, naphtha, kerosene), since such changes would be undesirable for the refinery, and would thus be avoided by reducing the variable inputs accordingly. We assume that the independently variable inputs (waste lubricants and other hydrocarbons) do not give rise to outputs of long residues and mixed residues for incineration, since these inputs have already been processed once", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6494, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2) The amount of crude oil replaced by the independently variable inputs (waste lubricants and other hydrocarbons): We assume that the hydrocarbon chains of these inputs are of similar composition as those in crude oil, except, as mentioned under 1), that they do not contain the fractions that give rise to outputs of long residues and mixed residues for incineration. This leads to a slightly lower requirement of crude oil per input of waste hydrocarbons: 1 kton waste hydrocarbons yields 0.91 kton of the outputs fuel oil, naphtha, kerosene and mixed residues for upgrading (12 kton waste \u2013 9.375% process loss), while 1 kton crude oil gives only 0.66 kton of these products (20 kton \u2013 9.375% process loss \u2013 5 kton long residues and mixed residues for incineration). Thus, 1 kton waste hydrocarbons replaces 1.38 kton crude oil. As can be seen from this calculation, we have assumed that the process loss (mainly feedstock used for fuel) does not depend on the type of input", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6495, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As can be seen from this calculation, we have assumed that the process loss (mainly feedstock used for fuel) does not depend on the type of input. If the waste hydrocarbons do not need as much processing as crude oil (or need more processing), this assumption should be changed accordingly, which would also lead to a change in the amount of crude oil replaced. 3) Changes in the environmental exchanges from the refinery caused by changes in the independently variable inputs (waste lubricants and other hydrocarbons), compared to the use of crude oil as a raw material: The emissions from the refinery can roughly be divided into emissions from combustion \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6496, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 156, "book_page": 154, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex related to the use of process energy, emissions of VOC, and solid and liquid wastes. The combustion emissions depend on the processes required by the different raw materials. We have assumed that there is no change in energy requirement (see point 2), and thus no change in combustion emissions. For VOC emissions from the waste hydrocarbons, it is reasonable to assume that there will be no emissions of methane (compared to 42 kg per kton crude oil) and fewer emissions of the lighter VOCs (we assume a 10% reduction from the 380 kg per kton crude oil), since these inputs have already been processed once. If it is assumed that any contaminants in the waste hydrocarbons are either degraded during processing or left in the product outputs (see point 4), the solid and liquid wastes can also be assumed to be linked to the crude oil only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6497, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 155, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4f) Changes in the environmental exchanges from downstream processes resulting from changes in the input of waste lubricants from garages, compared to the use of crude oil as a raw material: Heavy metal contaminants (assumed to be 20 kg/kton) will be suspended in proportional amounts in all economic outputs, except the lightest fraction (mixed residues to incinerator). For the fuel fractions (fuel oil and kerosene) this will eventually end up as air pollution from the combustion. Heavy metal contaminants in the naphtha will end up in the products produced from this (plastics) and will be released from waste treatment of these products (we assume combustion). Heavy metal contaminants in the long residues will probably be fixed in the resulting products (asphalts etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6498, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 155, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heavy metal contaminants in the long residues will probably be fixed in the resulting products (asphalts etc.). 4g) Changes in the environmental exchanges from downstream processes caused by changes in the input of waste hydrocarbons from wood preservation, compared to the use of crude oil as a raw material: If the waste contains any heavy metals, these will have the same fate as that indicated under 4f). If the contaminants are organic, we assume that they are decomposed during the refinery processing. 4h) Changes in the environmental exchanges from downstream processes caused by changes in the input of waste hydrocarbons from food industry, compared to the use of crude oil as a raw material: We assume that this will not cause any changes in downstream processes. Furthermore, the following information is needed on the environmental exchanges from each of the processes involved: Process F, G, H and : In this context, we do not use real data for these processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6499, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 155, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process D (crude oil production, incl. transport): Standard literature data can be used (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996). In this example, we limit the calculation to include the following emissions (per kton crude oil): 120 ton Methane: 10 ton NMVOC: 73 ton The calculation to be made (normalised to 1 kton of waste hydrocarbon input to the refinery) is as follows: Environmental exchanges to be attributed to products F, G and H, respectively = (Environmental exchanges from process F, G or H, respectively) \u2013 (Environmental exchanges from the production of 1.38 kton crude oil) \u2013 (Refinery emissions of methane, lighter VOCs, solid and liquid wastes equivalent to 1.38 kton crude oil input) + (Downstream emissions of heavy metals equivalent to the difference in heavy metal content between the waste hydrocarbon and crude oil)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6500, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 155, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For waste hydrocarbons from wood preservation, the result is presented in Table 3.9.3.2.1 (not including the environmental exchanges from the wood preservation process itself). Table 3.9.3.2.1: Calculation of selected environmental exchanges to be attributed to waste hydrocarbons from wood preservation (per kton waste hydrocarbon input to the refinery). Emissions to air Cadmium - - Methane NMVOC I: Production of 1.38 kton crude oil 166 ton - - 14 ton 100 ton II: Refinery VOC emissions per 1 .38 kton crude oil 42 kg (i.e., negligible) - 38 kg (i.e., negligible) - III: Downstream emissions of Cd from contamination 20kg To be attributed to waste hydrocarbon per kton input: III \u2013I \u2013II 20kg - 166 ton - 14 ton \u2013100 ton If more information on the different waste hydrocarbons becomes available, the above assumptions and the calculation result can be refined.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6501, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 157, "book_page": 155, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex INDEPENDENTLY VARIABLE ECONOMIC OUTPUTS For the independently variable economic outputs (fuel oil, naphtha, kerosene), the following conditions apply: Upstream processes: The dependent input (crude oil) varies according to overall variations in the outputs. Refinery: The environmental exchanges of the refinery may vary according to the composition of the output, since different processing routes are involved. Residues: The amounts of residue are mainly determined by the raw material composition, but minor variations may be caused by changes in the output composition. The amounts of residue may thus be calculated individually for each of the variable outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6502, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The amounts of residue may thus be calculated individually for each of the variable outputs. The residues are assumed to be fully utilised, so that any intermediate treatment (upgrading and transport) of the residues before they can replace other products are attributed to the independently variable outputs in proportion to the amount of residues caused by each output (irrespective of the economic value of the residues). Avoided processes: The processes replaced by the residues (processes L, M and N in Figure 3.9.3.2) are credited to the variable outputs in proportion to the amounts of residue caused by each output (irrespective of the economic value of the residues)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6503, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To determine the environmental exchanges to be attributed to the independently variable economic outputs (products I, J, and K in Figure 3.9.3.2), the following information on the system is needed: 5) The amount of crude oil corresponding to a change in the independently variable economic outputs: We assume the same amount of crude oil input irrespective of the relative composition of the independently variable economic outputs. 6) The environmental exchanges of the refinery corresponding to a change in the independently variable economic outputs: Combustion emissions will increase if additional processing is needed to produce more of a fraction than the result of one crude distillation and one cracking of the distillation residue. The processing requirement depends on the composition of the raw material input", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6504, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The processing requirement depends on the composition of the raw material input. The relations given in the ETH data (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996) can be used to calculate the emissions per type of refinery output, unless more specific data are available. 7) The amount of residues caused by a change in the independently variable economic outputs: The amount of residues (especially the lighter residues) will increase slightly if additional processing is needed to produce more of a fraction than the result of one crude distillation and one cracking of the distillation residue. The processing requirement depends on the composition of the raw material input. Furthermore, the following information is needed on the environmental exchanges from each of the processes involved: Process D: (as above) Process We assume that upgrading of long and mixed residues will lead to emissions of the order of 20% of the total refinery emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6505, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For mixed residues for incineration, only the pumping to the incinerator is relevant (but assumed to be negligible). Process L: The replaced process is either a dedicated bitumen production, or a change in the composition of the raw material input at a refinery having bitumen as an important product, resulting in a similar change in bitumen output. We assume that 0.17 kton of bitumen is replaced per kton of the independently variable economic outputs. Process M: In parallel to process L, we assume the replacement to be accommodated by a change in the composition of the raw material input at a refinery having the upgraded product as an important product. We assume that 0.09 kton of other refinery products are replaced per kton of the independently variable economic outputs. Process N: The replaced process is the production and supply of fuel oil or natural gas, depending on the local supply situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6506, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process N: The replaced process is the production and supply of fuel oil or natural gas, depending on the local supply situation. We assume that 0.85 TJ of natural gas is replaced per kton of the independently variable economic outputs. The calculation to be made (normalised to 1 kton of the independently variable economic outputs, i.e., fuel oil, naphtha, kerosene) is as follows: Environmental exchanges to be attributed to fuel oil, naphtha and kerosene, respectively = (Environmental exchanges from production of 32/29 kton crude oil) + (Refinery emissions related to the output in question, cf. Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996) + (Environmental exchanges from the upgrading of the amount of long and mixed residues that can be related to the output in question, cf, Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996) \u2013 (Environmental exchanges of the processes replaced by the residues that can be related to the output in question, cf. Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996). \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6507, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 158, "book_page": 156, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex For kerosene, the result is presented in Table 3.9.3.2.2 (not including the environmental exchanges from the wood preservation process itself). Table 3.9.3.2.2: Calculation of selected environmental exchanges to be attributed to kerosene (per kton kerosene output from the refinery). Emissions to air Methane NMVOC I: Production of 32/29 kton crude oil 132 ton 11 ton 81 ton II: Refinery emissions related to kerosene 9 ton 0.04 ton 0.5 ton - 28kg - 470kg III: Upgrading of the amount of long and mixed residues that can be related to kerosene 1.8 ton 0.004 ton 0.05 ton 6kg 94kg IV: Processes replaced by the residues that can be related to kerosene 38 ton 105 ton 2.8 ton 18 ton 25kg 138kg To be attributed to kerosene per kton output: + II + III -IV 8.2 ton 64 ton 9kg 425kg DEPENDENT ECONOMIC OUTPUTS The dependent economic outputs (different residues) are fully utilised in other processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6508, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 157, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Thus, a change in demand for these residues will affect the same processes as those replaced by the residues (processes L, M and N). These processes are therefore attributed to the product in which the residues are utilised (irrespective of the economic value of the residues). To determine the environmental exchanges to be attributed to the products in which the residues are used (products O, P and Q in Figure 3.9.3.2), the environmental exchanges from the following processes must be known: Process L, M and N: (as above) Process O, P and Q: In this context, we do not use real data for these processes. The calculation to be made (normalised to 1 kton of the residue) is as follows: Environmental exchanges to be attributed to the product in which the residue is utilised = (Environmental exchanges from process O, P or Q, respectively) + (Environmental exchanges from process L, M or N, respectively).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6509, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 159, "book_page": 157, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex\n\n3.10 Calculation method For matrix calculation rules, see Heijungs et al. (1992) and Heijungs (1994), and/or use the CMLCA software: http://www.leidenuniv.nI/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca.html Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6510, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 160, "book_page": 158, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4. Impact assessment 4.1 Procedures To be inserted 4.2 Selection of impact categories DEFAULT LIST OF IMPACT CATEGORIES FOR THIS GUIDE Table 4.2.1 : Default list of impact categories impact category A. Baseline impact categories Depletion of abiotic resources Impacts of land use land competition Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity marine aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication B. Study-specific impact categories Impacts of land use loss of life support function loss of biodiversity Ecotoxicity freshwater sediment ecotoxicity marine sediment ecotoxicity Impacts of ionising radiation Odour malodourous air Noise Waste heat Casualties C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6511, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 161, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other impact categories Depletion of biotic resources Desiccation Odour malodourous water single baseline characterisation method available in the Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no other characterisation method(s) available in the Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no yes no no Main sources: Udo de Haes et al., 1999; Udo de Haes ed., 1996 ... ... ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6512, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 162, "book_page": 161, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex NEW IMPACT CATEGORIES If a new impact category is added to the \u201cextended WIA\u20132 list\u201d the following requirements shall be comprehensively and transparently documented and justified. Table 4.2.2: Requirements for documenting and justifying new impact categories. General starting point for the framework of impact categories and indicators: a framework shall be developed which is open to further scientific progress and further detailing of information (WIA\u20132) General starting points for the total of impact categories: 1 . the categories shall together enable an encompassing assessment of relevant impacts, which are known today (completeness) (ISO/ WIA\u20132) 2. the categories should have the least overlap as possible, and should avoid double counting unless required by the goal and scope (ISO/ WIA\u20132) 3. the categories should be internationally accepted , i.e. based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body (ISO) 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6513, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 162, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the categories should be internationally accepted , i.e. based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body (ISO) 4. the total of the impact categories should amount to a not too high number (WIA\u20132) Starting points for the selection of categories in a specific LCA study: 1 . the selected impact categories shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA-study (ISO) 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6514, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 162, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the selected impact categories shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA-study (ISO) 2. the selected impact categories shall form a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the goal and scope of the LCA-study (ISO) ECO-lNDICATOR \u201899 Table 4.2.3: Impact categories in the Eco-indicator \u201999 approach Impact category sub-categories Damageto human health Damage to ecosystem quality Damage to resources caused by carcinogenic substances caused by respriratory effects caused by climate change caused by ionising radiation caused by ozone layer depletion caused by ecotoxic substances caused by acidification an eutrophication by airborne emissions caused by land use caused by depletion of minerals and fossil fuels Source: Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999 - - - - - - - - -", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6515, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 163, "book_page": 162, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3 Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors ECO-INDICATOR \u201999 FACTORS Table 4.3.1: Eco-indicator \u201999 damage factors See the Excel table of impact assessment methods and data on: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html Source: Status: Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999 Authors; weighting part not compatible with ISO 14042 comparative assertion requirements. EPS Table 4.3.2. Environmental Load Units (ELUs) for natural resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6516, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "EPS Table 4.3.2. Environmental Load Units (ELUs) for natural resources. Natural resource aluminium (Al) arsenic (As) bismuth (Bi) cadmium (Cd) chromium (Cr) cobalt (Co) copper (Cu) gold(Au) iron (Fe) lead (Pb) manganese (Mn) mercury (Hg) molybdenum (Mo) nickel (Ni) platinum (Pt) rhodium (Rh) silver (Ag) tin (Sn) titanium (Ti) tungsten (W); wolfraam uranium (U) vanadium (V) zinc (Zn) Zirconium (Zr) coal hard coal soft coal total oil crude Code 7429\u201390\u20135 7440\u201338\u20132 7440\u201369\u20139 7440\u201343\u20139 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 7440\u201357\u20135 7439\u201389\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 16397\u201391\u20134 14302\u201387\u20135 7439\u201398\u20137 7440\u201302\u20130 7440\u201306\u20134 7440\u201316\u20136 7440\u201322\u20134 7440\u201331\u20135 7440\u201332\u20136 7440\u201333\u20137 7440\u201361\u20131 7440\u201362\u20132 23713\u201349\u20137 7440\u201367\u20137 nvt nvt nvl 8012\u201395\u20131 Value (in ELU/kg) 0. 42 4E5 23000 8.5E5 0.68 3.6 40000 6 8E5 3.4E6 45000 0.602 28.3 20.6 0.05 0 05 0 05 0.5 Source: Status: Equation: Steen, 1996 not compatible with ISO 14042, because the characterisation and weighting steps have been combined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6517, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The total environmental burden is expressed in Environmental Load Units, is the valuation weighting factor for the EPS method for resource i, while (kg) is the quantity of resource i used.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6518, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 164, "book_page": 49, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.3: Environmental Load Units (ELUs) for emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6519, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 8800, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance anthracene arsenic benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene cadmium Carbon dioxide Carbon Monoxide CFC\u201311 chromium (unspecified) chromium III chromium VI chrysene Dinitrogen oxide dust (PM10)1 Ethylene fluoranthrene hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene lead mercury Methane Naphtalene nitrogen dioxide nitrogen oxides phenanthrene Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) (unspecified) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) sulphur dioxide TSP Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical oxigen demand (COD) Nitrate Nitrogen Phosphate Phosphorus Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical oxigen demand (COD) Nitrate Nitrogen Phosphate Phosphorus Compartment air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water CAS number 120\u201312\u20137", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6520, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 8800, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water CAS number 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201338\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 7440\u201343\u20139 124\u201338\u20139 630\u201308\u20130 75\u201369\u20134 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201347\u20133 218\u201301\u20139 10024\u201397\u20132 74\u201385\u20131 206\u201344\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 14280\u201350\u20133 14302\u201387\u20135 74\u201382\u20138 91\u201320\u20133 10102\u201344\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 85\u201301\u20138 - - 7446\u201309\u20135 ??? - -? 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 alg??? alg??? 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 Value (in ELU/kg) 21.2 0.0636 0.191 0.8 0.8 0.8 20.3 0.0071 3.4 0.142 1.56 0.395 0.395 0.0545 0.0071 0.0075 0.006 0.00226 0.01 0.0245 0.075 0.0075 0.006 0.00226 0.01 0.0245 0.075 Source: Status: Equation: Steen, 1996 not compatible with ISO 14042, because the characterisation and weighting steps have been combined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6521, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 8800, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The total environmental burden is expressed in Environmental Load Units, is the valuation weighting factor for the EPS method for emitted substance i, while (kg) is the quantity of i emitted. 1 Including dust besides individual chemicals may imply some double-counting according to recent WHO findings.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6522, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 165, "book_page": 8800, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex REQUIREMENTS FOR DOCUMENTING AND JUSTIFYING NEW IMPACT CATEGORIES If another category indicator, model or characterisation factor is used than those recommended as best available practice in this Guide, the following requirements shall be comprehensively and transparently documented and justified. Table 4.3.4: Requirements for documenting and justifying new impact categories. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ISO starting points the category indicator should (shall for comparative assertions) be modeled in a scientifically and technically valid way in relation to the environmental interventions, i.e., using a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism and/or reproducible empirical observation the category indicators and models shall be environmentally relevant, i.e. shall be sufficiently clearly related to the category endpoints, at least qualitatively the category indicators and models should be internationally accepted, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6523, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 165, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body value-choices and assumptions should be minimised category indicators can be chosen anywhere in the environmental mechanism of an impact category, from environmental interventions to category endpoints (focal point in environmental mechanism) not included not included not included not included WIA\u20132 starting points included included not explicitly included included included it should be possible to multiply characterisation factors by mass or other units indicating the magnitude of the environmental interventions the preferred time span for fate and effects is eternity, with 100 years as a second option; all effects of the emission/ extraction occurring now and in the future should be taken into account the category indicators and models should include the modeling of fate, exposure and effects, as relevant the category indicators and models should include effects below thresholds (\u201cless is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6524, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 165, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "account the category indicators and models should include the modeling of fate, exposure and effects, as relevant the category indicators and models should include effects below thresholds (\u201cless is better\u201dapproach) selection criteria for baseline method recommended in this Guide included included included included included modified: the baseline category indicators should be linear (linearity) included included included", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6525, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 166, "book_page": 165, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 10. not included 11. 12. ISO starting points not included not included WIA\u20132 selection criteria for baseline starting points method recommended in this Guide it should be possible to perform Impact assessment without information on time or location (time-and location-independent) the method should be operational for a sufficient number of environmental interventions the uncertainty margins of the indicator result should be as small as possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6526, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 167, "book_page": 166, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.1 Depletion of abiotic resources Table 4.3.1 .1 : ADP factors for characterising abiotic resources based on ultimate reserves and extraction rates", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6527, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Natural resource actinium (Ac) aluminium (Al) antimony (Sb) argon (Ar) arsenic (As) barium (Ba) beryllium (Be) bismuth (Bi) boron (B) bromine (Br) cadmium (Cd) calcium (Ca) cerium (Ce) cesium (Cs) chlorine (Cl) chromium (Cr) cobalt (Co) copper (Cu) dysprosium (Dy) erbium (Er) europium (Eu) fluorine (F) gadolinium (Gd) gallium (Ga) germanium (Ge) gold (Au) hafnium (Hf) helium (He) holmium (Ho) indium (In) iodine (I) iridium (Ir) iron (Fe) kalium (K;potassium) krypton (Kr) lanthanum (La) lead (Pb) lithium (Li) lutetium (Lu) magnesium (Mg) manganese (Mn) mercury (Hg) molybdenum (Mo) neodymium (Nd) neon (Ne) nickel (Ni) niobium (Nb) osmium (Os) palladium (Pd) phosphorus (P) platinum (Pt) polonium (Po) praseodymium (Pr) protactinium (Pa) Cas-number 7440\u201334\u20138 7429\u201390\u20135 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201337\u20131 7440\u201338\u20132 7440\u201339\u20133 7440\u201341\u20137 7440\u201369\u20139 7440\u201342\u20138 7726\u201395\u20136 7440\u201343\u20139 7440\u201370\u20132 7440\u201345\u20131 7440\u201346\u20132 7782\u201350\u20135 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201348\u20134 7440\u201350\u20138 7429\u201391\u20136 7440\u201352\u20130 7440\u201353\u20131 7782\u201341\u20134 7440\u201354\u20132 7440\u201355\u20133", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6528, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201338\u20132 7440\u201339\u20133 7440\u201341\u20137 7440\u201369\u20139 7440\u201342\u20138 7726\u201395\u20136 7440\u201343\u20139 7440\u201370\u20132 7440\u201345\u20131 7440\u201346\u20132 7782\u201350\u20135 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201348\u20134 7440\u201350\u20138 7429\u201391\u20136 7440\u201352\u20130 7440\u201353\u20131 7782\u201341\u20134 7440\u201354\u20132 7440\u201355\u20133 7440\u201356\u20134 7440\u201357\u20135 7440\u201358\u20136 7440\u201359\u20137 7440\u201360\u20130 7440\u201374\u20136 7553\u201356\u20132 7439\u201388\u20135 7439\u201389\u20136 7440\u201309\u20137 7439\u201390\u20139 7439\u201391\u20130 7439\u201392\u20131 7439\u201393\u20132 7439\u201394\u20133 7439\u201395\u20134 7439\u201396\u20135 7439\u201397\u20136 7439\u201398\u20137 7440\u201300\u20138 7440\u201301\u20139 7440\u201302\u20130 7440\u201303\u20131 7440\u201304\u20132 7440\u201305\u20133 7723\u201314\u20130 7440\u201306\u20134 7440\u201308\u20136 7440\u201310\u20130 ?????? ADP (in kg antimony eq./ 6.33E13 1E\u20138 4.71E\u20137 0.00917 1.06E\u201310 3.19E\u20135 0.0731 0.00467 0.00667 0.33 7.08E\u201310 5.32E\u20139 1.91E\u20135 4.86E\u20138 0.000858 2.62E\u20135 0.00194 2.13E\u20136 2.44E\u20136 1.33E\u20135 2.96E\u20136 6.57E\u20137 1.03E\u20137 1.47E\u20136 89.5 8.67E\u20137 1 .33E\u20135 0.00903 0.0427 32.3 8.43E\u20138 3.13E\u20138 20.9 2.13E\u20138 0.0135 9.23E\u20136 7.66E\u20135 3.73E\u20139 1 .38E\u20135 0.495 0.0317 1.94E\u201317 0.325 0.000108 2.31E\u20135 14.4 0.323 8.44E\u20135 1.29 4.79E14 2.85E\u20137 9.77E6 kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6529, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 168, "book_page": 148, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Natural resource radium (Ra) radon (Rn) rhenium (Re) rhodium (Rh) rubidium (Rb) ruthenium(Ru) samarium (Sm) scandium (Sc) selenium (Se) silicium (Si; silicon) silver (Ag) Sodium (Na) strontium (Sr) sulfur tantalum (Ta) tellurium (Te) terbium (Tb) thallium (Tl) thorium (Th) thulium (Tm) tin (Sn) titanium (Ti) tungsten (W); wolfraam uranium (U) vanadium (V) xenon (Xe) ytterbium (Yb) yttrium (Y) zinc (Zn) Zirconium (Zr) crude oil natural gas* hard coal soft coal fossil energy** * In kg natural gas ! ** In kg antimony/MJ fossil energy ! Cas-number 7440\u201314\u20134 ??? 7440\u201315\u20135 7440\u201316\u20136 7440\u201317\u20137 7440\u201318\u20138 7440\u201319\u20139 7440\u201320\u20132 7782\u201349\u20132 7440\u201321\u20133 7440\u201322\u20134 7440\u201323\u20135 7440\u201324\u20136 7704\u201334\u20139 7440\u201325\u20137 13494\u201380\u20139 7440\u201327\u20139 7440\u201328\u20130 7440\u201329\u20131 7440\u201330\u20134 7440\u201331\u20135 7440\u201332\u20136 7440\u201333\u20137 7440\u201361\u20131 7440\u201362\u20132 7440\u201363\u20133 7440\u201364\u20134 7440\u201365\u20135 7440\u201366\u20136 7440\u201367\u20137 8012\u201395\u20131 nvt nvt nvt nvt ADP (in kg antimony eq./kg) 2.36E7 1.2E20 0.766 32.3 2.36E\u20139 32.3 5.32E\u20137 3.96E\u20138 0.475 2.99E\u201311 1.84", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6530, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 168, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201361\u20131 7440\u201362\u20132 7440\u201363\u20133 7440\u201364\u20134 7440\u201365\u20135 7440\u201366\u20136 7440\u201367\u20137 8012\u201395\u20131 nvt nvt nvt nvt ADP (in kg antimony eq./kg) 2.36E7 1.2E20 0.766 32.3 2.36E\u20139 32.3 5.32E\u20137 3.96E\u20138 0.475 2.99E\u201311 1.84 8.24E\u201311 1.12E\u20136 0.000358 6.77E\u20135 52.8 2.36E\u20135 5.05E\u20135 2.08E\u20137 8.31E\u20135 0.033 4.4E\u20138 0.0117 0.00287 1.16E\u20136 17500 2.13E\u20136 3.34E\u20137 0.000992 1 .86E\u20135 0.0201 0.0187 0.0134 0.00671 4.81e\u20134 Source: Status: Equation: Guin\u00e9e, 1995, with modifications for crude oil, natural gas, hard coal and soft coal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6531, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 168, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "author. The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference resource antimony. is the Abiotic Depletion Potential of resource i, while (kg, except for natural gas and fossil energy) is the quantity of resource i used. Remark: For fossil energy carriers, new ADPs have been calculated to replace those given in Guin\u00e9e (1995). The reason is that, contrary to what was stated in Guin\u00e9e (1995), fossil fuels may be assumed to be full substitutes (both as energy carriers and as materials) which means that the ADPs should not be different, at least in terms of total energy reserve. Hence, an overall fossil energy ADP has first been calculated, using the equation: (S) ADP = Abiotic Depletion Potential Of fossil energy in kg antimony eq./MJ fossil energy;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6532, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 169, "book_page": 168, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex reserve of fossil fuels in MJ; de\u2013accumulation, or fossil energy production, in reserve of antimony, the reference resource, in kg (according to the data in Table 4.3.1.2); de-accumulation of antimony, the reference resource, in (according to the data in Table 4.3.1.2). However, the ultimate reserve of fossil energy has first been derived from the proven reserve (WRI, 1994; Table.9.2, p. 167). A rough estimate of the ultimate reserve of fossil energy can be made on the basis of the fossil carbon content of the earth's crust, which has been estimated by Berner & Lasaga (1989)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6533, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 169, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "167). A rough estimate of the ultimate reserve of fossil energy can be made on the basis of the fossil carbon content of the earth's crust, which has been estimated by Berner & Lasaga (1989). This C-content can be converted to ultimate reserves for fossil energy (natural gas, crude oil and coal) by calculating C (the total C-content in kg of the proven reserves of fossil energy fuels), for which data are available (WRI, 1994), and multiplying the proven reserves of fossil energy by the ratio of C (the total C-content in kg as estimated by Berner & Lasaga) to C This ratio equals Based on the figures for DR and R given in Table 4.3.1.2 for antimony and fossil energy and the ratio given above (fossil fuel DR data based on WRI, 1994; Table 21.1, p", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6534, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 169, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "332), the ADP of the use of 1 MJ of fossil energy equals: The ADPs for the individual fossil fuel per kg of fossil fuel extracted (as a result of the inventory analysis) can now be calculated as follows: For consistency reasons the same heating values have been used as in WRI (1994). Note, however, that these values may differ from those provided by other sources (see e.g. Table 4.3.1.5). Note also that the ADPs for most of these four fossil fuel types have changed considerably compared to the values published in Guin\u00e9e (1995), due to the assumption of full substitutability. 1 For an explanation of these calculations we refer to appendix 2, page 106, of Guin\u00e9e (1995). Note that in Guin\u00e9e (1995), the ratio of the total C-content as estimated by Berner & Lasaga to the total C-content of the proven fossil fuel reserves was multiplied by proven reserves in kg. Here it is multiplied by the total proven reserve of fossil fuels in MJ.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6535, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 170, "book_page": 169, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3. 1.2: Values for reserve and de-accumulation Natural resource actinium (Ac) aluminium (Al) antimony (Sb) argon (Ar) arsenic (As) barium (Ba) beryllium (Be) bismuth (Bi) boron (B) bromine (Br) cadmium (Cd) calcium (Ca) cerium (Ce) cesium (Cs) chlorine (Cl) chromium (Cr) cobalt (Co) copper (Cu) dysprosium (Dy) erbium (Er) europium (Eu) fluorine (F) gadolinium (Gd) gallium (Ga) germanium (Ge) gold (Au) hafnium (Hf) helium (He) holmium (Ho) indium (In) iodine (I) iridium (Ir) iron (Fe) kalium (K;potassium) krypton (Kr) lanthanum (La) lead (Pb) lithium (Li) lutetium (Lu) magnesium (Mg) manganese (Mn) mercury (Hg) molybdenum (Mo) neodymium (Nd) neon (Ne) nickel (Ni) niobium (Nb) osmium (Os) palladium (Pd) phosphorus (P) platinum (Pt) polonium (Po) praseodymium (Pr) protactinium (Pa) reserve and de-accumulation rates that can rate based ADPs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6536, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 170, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cas-number 7440\u201334\u20138 7429\u201390\u20135 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201337\u20131 7440\u201338\u20132 7440\u201339\u20133 7440\u201341\u20137 7440\u201369\u20139 7440\u201342\u20138 7726\u201395\u20136 7440\u201343\u20139 7440\u201370\u20132 7440\u201345\u20131 7440\u201346\u20132 7782\u201350\u20135 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201348\u20134 7440\u201350\u20138 7429\u201391\u20136 7440\u201352\u20130 7440\u201353\u20131 7782\u201341\u20134 7440\u201354\u20132 7440\u201355\u20133 7440\u201356\u20134 7440\u201357\u20135 7440\u201358\u20136 7440\u201359\u20137 7440\u201360\u20130 7440\u201374\u20136 7553\u201356\u20132 7439\u201388\u20135 7439\u201389\u20136 7440\u201309\u20137 7439\u201390\u20139 7439\u201391\u20130 7439\u201392\u20131 7439\u201393\u20132 7439\u201394\u20133 7439\u201395\u20134 7439\u201396\u20135 7439\u201397\u20136 7439\u201398\u20137 7440\u201300\u20138 7440\u201301\u20139 7440\u201302\u20130 7440\u201303\u20131 7440\u201304\u20132 7440\u201305\u20133 7723\u201314\u20130 7440\u201306\u20134 7440\u201308\u20136 7440\u201310\u20130 ??? deaccumulation (kg/yr) 2.90E4 1.05E11 6.06E7 2.90E4 4.50E7 2.90E4 3.79E5 3.20E6 7.45E8 4.00E8 2.00E7 1.85E9 2.90E4 2.90E4 1.13E8 2.48E7 8.90E9 1.30E10 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 1.75E9 2.90E4 3.50E4 6.50E4 2.17E6 2.90E4 1.49E7 2.90E4 1.40E5 1.64E7 4.90E4 4.05E11 2.08E10 2.90E4 2.90E4 5.60E6 3.20E9 2.90E4 3.09E9 1.88E10 4.80E6 1.08E8 2.30E\u20135 2.90E4 9.16E8 1.40E7 4.90E4 4.90E4 1.41E11 4.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 be used to calculate alternative 1.27E7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6537, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 170, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.05E11 2.08E10 2.90E4 2.90E4 5.60E6 3.20E9 2.90E4 3.09E9 1.88E10 4.80E6 1.08E8 2.30E\u20135 2.90E4 9.16E8 1.40E7 4.90E4 4.90E4 1.41E11 4.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 be used to calculate alternative 1.27E7 1.93E21 4.63E15 1.48E17 4.17E16 9.84E18 6.48E16 3.94E15 2.38E17 1.46E17 4.63E15 9.61 E20 1.39E18 2.31E16 2.87E19 5.79E17 1.27E18 2.31E18 6.94E16 6.48E16 2.78E16 1.45E19 1.25E17 3.47E17 1.25E17 9.26E13 1.09E17 1.89E14 2.78E16 2.34E15 1.17E16 2.31E13 1.30E21 4.84E20 2.21E13 6.94E17 4.63E17 2.89E17 1.16E16 5.41 E20 2.20E19 1.85E15 3.47E16 6.48E17 1.78E14 1.74E18 4.63E17 3.47E13 2.31E14 2.43E19 1.16E14 4.63E6 1.90E17 3.24E10 reserveultimate (kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6538, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 171, "book_page": 170, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Natural resource radium (Ra) radon (Rn) rhenium (Re) rhodium (Rh) rubidium (Rb) ruthenium (Ru) samarium (Sm) scandium (Sc) selenium (Se) silicium (Si; silicon) silver (Ag) Sodium (Na) strontium (Sr) sulfur (S) tantalum (Ta) tellurium (Te) terbium (Tb) thallium (Tl) thorium (Th) thulium (Tm) tin (Sn) titanium (Ti) tungsten (W); wolfraam uranium (U) vanadium (V) xenon (Xe) ytterbium (Yb) yttrium (Y) zinc (Zn) Zirconium (Zr) fossil energy * In MJ/yr ** In MJ Cas\u2013number 7440\u201314\u20134 ??? 7440\u201315\u20135 7440\u201316\u20136 7440\u201317\u20137 7440\u201318\u20138 7440\u201319\u20139 7440\u201320\u20132 7782\u201349\u20132 7440\u201321\u20133 7440\u201322\u20134 7440\u201323\u20135 7440\u201324\u20136 7704\u201334\u20139 7440\u201325\u20137 13494\u201380\u20139 7440\u201327\u20139 7440\u201328\u20130 7440\u201329\u20131 7440\u201330\u20134 7440\u201331\u20135 7440\u201332\u20136 7440\u201333\u20137 7440\u201361\u20131 7440\u201362\u20132 7440\u201363\u20133 7440\u201364\u20134 7440\u201365\u20135 7440\u201366\u20136 7440\u201367\u20137 nvt deaccumulation (kg/yr) 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 4.90E4 2.90E4 4.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 1.80E6 3.60E9 1 .37E7 7.32E7 2.38E8 5.27E10 4.10E5 8.00E4 2.90E4 1.55E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.00E8 2.16E9 3.98E7 3.17E7 3.21E7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6539, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 171, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "deaccumulation (kg/yr) 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 4.90E4 2.90E4 4.90E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 1.80E6 3.60E9 1 .37E7 7.32E7 2.38E8 5.27E10 4.10E5 8.00E4 2.90E4 1.55E4 2.90E4 2.90E4 2.00E8 2.16E9 3.98E7 3.17E7 3.21E7 2.90E4 2.90E4 5.51E5 7.37E9 7.65E8 3.03E14* (kg) 2.08E10 9.26E3 1.16E14 2.31E13 2.08E18 2.31E13 1.39E17 5.09E17 1.16E15 6.53E21 1.62E15 5.60E20 8.69E18 7.21E18 4.63E16 2.31E13 2.08E16 1.04E16 2.22E17 1.11E16 4.63E16 1 .32E20 3.47E16 6.25E16 3.13E18 7.65E11 6.94E16 7.64E17 1.62E18 3.82E18 4.72E20** Source: Status: Equation: Guin\u00e9e, 1995;WRI, 1994; Berner & Lasaga, 1989 Author or any combination of and The unit of the indicator result depends on that of the ADP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6540, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 171, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is the Abiotic Depletion Factor of resource i, while is the quantity of resource i used, is the reserve of resource i, and is the de\u2013accumulation of resourcei. is the reserve of antimony, the reference resource, and is the deaccumulation of that reference resource Economic reserves For data on economic reserves, see: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/ For energy data, see: http://www.wri.org/facts/data-tables-enerqy.html and/or http://www.iea.org/ NOTE: If practitioners would like to apply economic reserve data in the ADP approach, they will have to calculate such new ADP factors themselves, including the associated new normalisation factors. reserveultimate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6541, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 172, "book_page": 171, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.1 .3: Factors for characterising abiotic resources based 1996b). Material/mineral Iron Core Copper ore, type 1 Copper ore, type 2 Lead ore Zinc ore Nickel ore Gold ore Aluminium ore Chronium ore Platinum ore Phosphorus ore Lime Rock Sand Acantite Adularine Anortite Aragonite Barite Boehmite Chalcopyrite Chromite Covellite Diopside Dolomite Fayalite Fluorite Fluoroapatite Forsterite Galena Goethite Gold Haematite Hydroxyapatite Low albite Magnetite Microcline Millerite Chemical composition - - - - - - - - - - - - - - AIOOH CuS PbS FeOOH Au on exergy content (Finnveden, Factor (MJ/kg ) 0.42 0.63 7.9 0.56 1.9 8.8 8.3 1.1 0.51 0.58 0.28 0.034 0.32 0.032 2.863 0.359 0.983 0.01 0.015 1.607 11.19 0.557 7.221 0.037 0.082 1.159 0.146 0.013 0.532 23.11 0.111 0.078 0.103 0.126 0.402 0.525 0.361 8.404 Source: Status: Equation: Finnveden, 1996b author. The indicator result is expressed in MJ exergy content", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6542, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 172, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The indicator result is expressed in MJ exergy content. is the characterisation factor for abiotic depletion of resource i based on the exergy content, while is the quantity of resource i used. (kg) Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6543, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 173, "book_page": 172, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.1.4: 1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6544, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 675, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Alpha elements Ag CI AgF Factors for characterising abiotic resources Name INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Silver chloride Silver fluoride Silver nitrate Silver carbonate Silver oxide Silver dioxide Silver sulfate Silver sulfide Aluminum chloride Analcime Potassium aluminosilicate Sodium aluminate Sodium aluminosilicate (albite) Calcium aluminate Calcium aluminosilicate (anortite) Calcium trialuminate Boermite Kaolinite Gibbsite Magnesium aluminate Aluminum oxide (corundum) Aluminum silicate (andalusite) Aluminum silicate (kyanite) Aluminum silicate (sillimanite) Aluminum sulfate Aluminum sulfide Aluminum carbide Calcium trialuminate Aluminum silicate (mullite) Calcium aluminate Arsenic pentoxide Aurous chloride Auric chloride Auric fluoride Auric trioxide Boron trichloride Boron fluoride Boric acid Diborane Boron oxide Barium carbonate (witherite) Barium chloride Barium fluoride Barium hydroxide Barium oxide Barium peroxide Barium sulfate Barium sulfide Bismuth trioxide Bismuth sulfide Hydrogen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6545, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 675, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Diborane Boron oxide Barium carbonate (witherite) Barium chloride Barium fluoride Barium hydroxide Barium oxide Barium peroxide Barium sulfate Barium sulfide Bismuth trioxide Bismuth sulfide Hydrogen bromide (aq,400) Potassium bromide (aq, 400) Sodium bromide (aq, 400) Sodium bromate Calcium bromide Tribromomethane based on exergy content (Ayres et al., Mole weight 143.321 126.866 169.873 275.745 231.735 247.735 311.798 247.800 133.341 220.155 278.337 81.970 262.225 158.041 278.210 270.199 119.977 258.161 156.007 142.273 101.961 162.046 162.046 162.046 342.148 150.155 143.959 260.002 426.053 1386.681 229.840 232.420 303.326 253.962 441.932 117.170 67.806 61.833 26.670 69.620 197.349 208.246 175.337 171.355 153.339 169.339 233.402 169.404 465.958 514.152 80.912 119.006 102.894 150.892 199.888 252.731 exergy (in kJ/mol) 22.2 118.5 43.1 115.0 57.6 172.1 139.6 709.5 444.9 104.2 99.9 151.7 105.5 275.4 218.3 500.6 195.3 197.8 209.5 230.3 200.4 45.1 43.9 15.4 529.7 2980.7 4588.2 460.4 618.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6546, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 675, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "252.731 exergy (in kJ/mol) 22.2 118.5 43.1 115.0 57.6 172.1 139.6 709.5 444.9 104.2 99.9 151.7 105.5 275.4 218.3 500.6 195.3 197.8 209.5 230.3 200.4 45.1 43.9 15.4 529.7 2980.7 4588.2 460.4 618.8 2526.8 216.9 62.2 155.5 437.3 114.7 69.4 26.3 61.3 57.2 132.9 224.6 169.3 3.4 901.9 61.4 2237.3 Au Cl Ba O Ba S Br H Br K Br Na", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6547, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 174, "book_page": 675, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements C Si C Ti CV C W Ca O Ca S Name Calcium carbonate Cadmium carbonate Cyanogen chloride Dichlorodifluoromethane Methylene chloride Carbonyl chloride Trichlorofluoromethane Carbon tetrachloride Cobalt carbonate (spherocobaltite) Cupric carbonate Ferrous carbonate (siderite) Cementite Mercurous carbonate Potassium carbonate Lithium carbonate Magnesium carbonate Manganese carbonate Manganese carbide Molybdenum carbide Cyano Sodium cyanide (aq,200) Sodium carbonate Nickel nitrate Nickel carbide Carbon monoxide Carbonyl sulfide Carbon dioxide Lead carbonite (cerussite) Rubidium carbonate Strontium carbonate (strontianite) Zinc carbonate Carbon disulfide Silicon carbide (cubic) Titanium carbide Vanadium carbide Tungsten carbide Calcium carbonide Dolomite 1 -chloro\u20132,2-difluoroethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Perchloroethylene 1,1,1,2-tetrachoro\u20132,2-difluoroethane Trichloroacetyl chloride Chromium dicarbide Cyanogen Chromium", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6548, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 861, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 -chloro\u20132,2-difluoroethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Perchloroethylene 1,1,1,2-tetrachoro\u20132,2-difluoroethane Trichloroacetyl chloride Chromium dicarbide Cyanogen Chromium thricarbide Calcium chloride Calcium fluoride Calcium hydroxide Calcium sulfate (gypsum) Calcium nitrate Calcium oxide Calcium silicate (volastonite) Calcium solphate (anhydrite) Calcium sulfide (oldhamite) Tremolite Mole weight 100.089 172.409 61.471 120.914 84.933 98.917 137.369 153.823 118.943 123.555 115.856 179.552 461.189 138.213 73.887 84.321 114.947 176.825 203.891 26.018 49.008 105.989 118.719 188.141 28.011 60.075 44.010 267.199 230.949 147.629 125.379 76.139 40.097 59.911 62.953 195.861 64.102 184.411 98.480 116.471 165.834 165.834 203.831 181.834 180.010 52.036 400.005 110.986 78.077 215.772 74.095 172.172 164.090 56.079 116.164 136.142 72.144 255.852 812.410 exergy (in kJ/mol) 40.6 473.1 45.8 31.5 125.9 1560.2 179.8 85.1 70.1 37.9 81.8 1862.3 1824.6 845.0 41.5 36.4 1142.9 275.0 19.9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6549, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 861, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "74.095 172.172 164.090 56.079 116.164 136.142 72.144 255.852 812.410 exergy (in kJ/mol) 40.6 473.1 45.8 31.5 125.9 1560.2 179.8 85.1 70.1 37.9 81.8 1862.3 1824.6 845.0 41.5 36.4 1142.9 275.0 19.9 23.5 152.4 6.2 23.9 1694.7 1136.7 1032.6 1199.5 1468.3 15.1 2372.0 1118.9 4874.2 87.9 11.4 104.0 53.7 8.6 \u201318.1 110.2 23.6 8.2 844.6 194.7 81.6 C Cl N C N C N Na C O C O S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6550, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 175, "book_page": 861, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Cd O Cd S CI Cs CI Cu Cl H CI HO CI K Cl Li Cl Na CI Na CI Rb Name Calcium di-orthosilicate Calcium trisilicate Calcium phosphate Cadmium hydroxide Cadmium sulfate Cadmium oxide Cadmium sulfate Cadmium sulfide Cesium chlorine Cuprous chlorine Perchloryl fluoride Hydrogen chloride Hydrochlorous acid (aq,400) Perchloric acid (aq, 660) Ammonium chloride Ammonium chloride Potassium chloride Potassium perchlorate Lithium chloride Nitrosyl chloride Sodium chloride Sodium chlorate (aq,400) Sodium perchlorate (aq,476) Chlorine dioxide Rubidium chloride Cadmium chloride Cobaltic chloride Chromous chloride Cupric chloride Ferrous chloride (lawrencite) Mercuric chloride Mercurous chloride Magnesium chloride Manganese chlorine Nickel choride Thionyl chloride Sulfuryl chloride Lead chloride (cotunnite) Sulfur monochloride Stannous chloride Strontium chloride Zinc chlorine Chromic chloride Ferric chloride (molysite) Trichlorosilane Phosphorus oxychloride", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6551, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 880, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Sulfuryl chloride Lead chloride (cotunnite) Sulfur monochloride Stannous chloride Strontium chloride Zinc chlorine Chromic chloride Ferric chloride (molysite) Trichlorosilane Phosphorus oxychloride Phosphorus trichloride Uranium trichlorine Silicon tetrachloride Uranium tetrachlorine Phosphorus pentachloride Uranium pentachlorine Cobaltous hydroxide Cobaltous oxide Cobaltic sulfate Cobaltous sulfide (syeporite) Cobaltic oxide Ferrous chromate Chromium oxide Mole weight 172.244 228.323 278.184 146.415 226.477 128.399 208.462 144.464 168.358 98.999 102.450 36.461 52.460 100.459 53.492 53.492 74.555 138.553 42.392 65.459 58.443 106.441 122.440 67.452 120.923 183.306 129.839 122.902 134.452 126.753 271.496 472.086 95.218 125.844 129.616 118.969 134.969 278.096 135.034 189.596 158.526 136.276 158.355 162.206 135.453 153.332 137.333 344.389 169.898 379.842 208.239 415.295 92.948 74.933 154.995 90.997 240.797 223.837 151.990 exergy (in kJ/mol) 95.7 219.8 19.4 59.5 80.6 67.3 88.6 746.9 51.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6552, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 880, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "158.355 162.206 135.453 153.332 137.333 344.389 169.898 379.842 208.239 415.295 92.948 74.933 154.995 90.997 240.797 223.837 151.990 exergy (in kJ/mol) 95.7 219.8 19.4 59.5 80.6 67.3 88.6 746.9 51.5 76.2 84.6 331.3 331.3 19.6 136.0 70.7 14.3 48.6 73.4 118.8 311.9 82.1 197.6 60.8 144.5 165.9 165.4 97.2 42.3 386.4 72.6 93.4 261.6 230.2 550.1 475.2 513.6 50.7 52.8 99.8 792.2 38.2 129.1 36.5 Co O Co S", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6553, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 176, "book_page": 880, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Cu S F H F K FeO Fe O-a FeS FeSi HI HKO HLiO H Na O Hg O Name Cesium nitrate Cesium oxide Cesium sulfate Cupric hydroxide Cuprix oxide Cupric sulfate Cupric sulfide (covellite) Cuprous oxide Cuprous sulfate Cuprous sulfide Hydrogen fluoride Potassium fluoride Fluorine Silicon tetrafluoride Sulfur hexafluoride Ferric hydroxide Ferrous oxide Ferrous silicate Ferric titanate Ferrous sultate Wustite Ferrous sulfide Pyrites Iron silicide Magnesium ferrate Manganese ferrate Ferric oxide Ferrous silicate (fayalite) Zince ferrate Ferrous oxide (magnetite) Hydrogen iodide (aq,400) Potassium hydroxide Lithium hydroxide Nitric Acid Sodium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide Talc Manganeous hydroxide Nickel hydroxide Nickel sulfate Water Water Hydrogen peroxide (aq,200) Lead hydroxide Zinc hydroxide Sulfuric acid Hydrogen sulfide Ammonia Phosphoric acid Phosphine Chrysolite Hydrazine Ammonium nitrate Silane Disilane Ammonium sulfate Mercuric oxide (montroydite)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6554, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 2545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lead hydroxide Zinc hydroxide Sulfuric acid Hydrogen sulfide Ammonia Phosphoric acid Phosphine Chrysolite Hydrazine Ammonium nitrate Silane Disilane Ammonium sulfate Mercuric oxide (montroydite) Mercuric sulfate Mole weight 194.910 281.809 361.872 239.238 97.561 79.545 159.608 95.610 143.091 223.154 159.156 20.006 58.100 37.997 104.080 146.054 106.869 71.846 131.931 151.745 151.909 68.887 87,911 119.975 83.933 200.004 230.630 159.692 203.778 241.062 231.539 127.912 56.109 23.146 63.013 39.997 58.327 379.289 88.953 92.725 262.864 18.015 18.015 34.015 241.205 99.385 98.078 34.080 17.031 97.995 33.998 277.134 32.045 80.043 32.118 62.220 132.139 216.589 296.652 exergy (in kJ/mol) 18.2 521.8 127.0 36.1 15.3 6.5 89.8 690.3 253.6 791.8 80.0 62.2 466.3 39.6 127.0 161.7 131.4 173.0 113.3 885.6 1157.3 77.9 121.4 236.2 36.4 121.6 107.6 74.1 43.5 74.9 40.9 36.5 107.3 25.5 53.6 9.5 0.9 20.6 25.7 163.4 812.0 337.9 104.0 61.3 294.8 660.6 57.3 146.0 Cu O", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6555, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 177, "book_page": 2545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Hg S I K I Na Mg O Mg S Mn O Mn S NO Ni O Ni S O Pb O Pb O Pb O Sn O Sr O Ti O V O Zn Name Mercuric sulfide Mercurous sulfate Potassium iodide (aq,500) Sodium iodide Potassium nitrate Potassium oxide Potassium sulfite Potassium silicate Potassium sulfate Potassium sulfide Lithium oxide Lithium sulfate Magnesium nitrate Magnesium oxide Magnesium silicate Magnesium sulfate Magnesium sulfide Magnesium orthosilicate Magnesium titanate Magnesium phosphate Manganeseous oxide Manganese oxide Manganeous silicate Manganeous sulfate Manganese sulfide Manganesic oxide Manganese oxide (hausmannite) Molybdenum dioxide Molybdenum trioxide Molybdenum disulfide (molybdenite) Molybdenum sulfide Sodium nitrate Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Nitrous oxide Nitrogen trioxide Nitrogen tetroxide Nitrogen pentoxide Sodium oxide Sodium sulfite Sodium metasilicate Sodium sulfate Sodium silicate Sodium sulfide Sodium orthosilicate Nickel monoxide (bunsenite) Nickel", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6556, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "trioxide Nitrogen tetroxide Nitrogen pentoxide Sodium oxide Sodium sulfite Sodium metasilicate Sodium sulfate Sodium silicate Sodium sulfide Sodium orthosilicate Nickel monoxide (bunsenite) Nickel sulfate Nickel sulfide Nickel sulfide Lead monoxide Yellow lead oxide Litharge Rubidium oxide Stannous oxide Strontium oxide (strontia) Titanium oxide Vanadium oxide Zinc oxide Lead dioxide (plattnerite) Mole weight 232.654 497.242 166.006 149.894 101.107 94.203 158.266 154.288 174.266 110.268 29.877 109.940 148.322 40.311 100.396 120.374 56.376 140.708 160.522 262.879 70.937 86.937 131.022 151.000 87.002 157.874 228.812 127.939 143.938 160.068 288.072 84.995 30.006 46.006 44.013 76.012 92.011 108.010 61.979 126.042 122.064 142.041 182.149 78.044 184.043 74.709 154.772 90.774 240.258 223.189 223.189 223.189 186.939 134.689 103.619 63.899 66.941 81.369 239.189 exergy (in kJ/mol) 674.8 223.4 136.1 \u201319.4 413.1 302.6 137.9 35.0 943.0 225.7 204.3 57.4 22.0 80.7 901.6 74.9 134.3 130.0 119.4 102.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6557, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "223.189 186.939 134.689 103.619 63.899 66.941 81.369 239.189 exergy (in kJ/mol) 674.8 223.4 136.1 \u201319.4 413.1 302.6 137.9 35.0 943.0 225.7 204.3 57.4 22.0 80.7 901.6 74.9 134.3 130.0 119.4 102.3 142.4 873.5 89.4 171.6 201.2 68.2 1723.1 2891.2 \u201322.7 88.9 55.6 106.9 106.6 125.7 296.2 287.5 66.1 21.4 67.6 921.4 256.6 23.0 90.4 762.8 1720.2 491.3 289.9 170.2 418.5 318.9 19.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6558, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 178, "book_page": 21, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements S Sn S Sr S Zn Name Sulfur dioxide Silicon dioxide Silicon dioxide (amorphous) Silicon dioxide (cristobalite) Silicon dioxide (quartz) Stannic oxide Strontium peroxide Titanium dioxide Titanium dioxide (rutile) Uranium dioxide (uraninite) Vanadium dioxide Tungsten dioxide Ozone Lead silicate Sulfur trioxide Antimony trioxide Titanium trioxide Uranium trioxide Vanadium trioxide Tungsten trioxide Lead red oxide (minium) Lead sulfate Lead silicate Strontium sulfate (celestite) Zinc sulfate Antimony tetroxide Zinc silicate Antimony pentoxide Titanium pentoxide Vanadium pentoxide Uranium oxide (pitchblende) Phosphorus decaoxide Lead sulfide Silicon sulfide Stannous sulfide Strontium sulfide Zinc sulfide (sphalerite) Stannic sulfide Titanium sulfide Tungsten sulfide HYDROCARBONS Methylene Methyl Methane Acetylene Ethylene Ethane Methyl acetylene Propadiene Propylene Cyclopropane Propane 1,3-butadiene 1 -butyne 2-butyne Cyclobutane 2-methyl\u20132-propene", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6559, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 2652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "sulfide HYDROCARBONS Methylene Methyl Methane Acetylene Ethylene Ethane Methyl acetylene Propadiene Propylene Cyclopropane Propane 1,3-butadiene 1 -butyne 2-butyne Cyclobutane 2-methyl\u20132-propene cis\u20132-butene 1-butylene Mole weight 64.063 60.085 60.085 60.085 60.085 150.689 119.619 79.899 79.899 270.029 82.941 215.849 47.998 283.274 80.062 291.498 143.798 286.028 149.882 231.848 685.568 303.252 506.464 183.682 161.432 307.498 222.824 323.497 223.697 181.881 842.085 283.889 239.254 88.236 150.754 119.684 97.434 182.818 112.028 247.978 14.027 15.035 16.043 26.038 28.054 30.070 40.065 40.065 42.081 42.081 44.097 54.092 54.092 54.092 56.108 56.108 56.108 56.108 exergy (in kJ/mol) 313.5 7.9 2.8 1.9 29.1 140.4 21.4 162.9 61.9 297.5 169.2 31.2 249.1 251.2 385.5 43.9 299.7 69.3 105.2 37.2 75.5 7.1 82.3 83.7 17.8 52.3 413.2 32.5 218.5 825.3 743.7 1866.3 1056.1 891.8 1604.6 1875.9 1796.6 1030.5 900.5 831.7 1265.8 1361.1 1495.8 1899.5 1523.8 2003.9 2043.2 2154.0 2552.3 2516.2 2659.7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6560, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 179, "book_page": 2652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Name trans\u20132-butene 1-butene Isobutane n-butane 3-methyl\u20131-butyne 1-pentyne Pentadiene 2-pentyne cis\u20132-pentene trans\u20132-pentene 3-methyl\u20131-butene Cyclopentane 2-methyl\u20131-butene 2-methyl\u20132-butene 1-pentene n-pentane 2,2-dimethyl propane 2-methyl butane Benzol Benzene 1-hexyne 1-hexylene Methyl cyclopentane Cyclohexane Hexahydrobenzene 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane 2,3-dimethylbutane n-hexane 2,2-demethylbutane Toluene Methylbenzene 1-heptyne Methyl cyclohexane 1-heptene Ethylcyclopentane 2,2-dimethylpentane 2,3-dimethylpentane 2,4-dimethylpentane 3-methlyhexane 3-ethylpentane 2,2,3-trimethylbutane 3,3-diemthylpentane n-heptane 2-methylhexane p-xylene Xylene Ethylbenzene m-xylene o-xylene 1-octyne Ethylcyclohexane 2,2,4-trimethylpentane 4-methylpheptane 3,3-dimethlyhexane 3,4-dimethlyhexane 2,2-dimethlyhexane 3-ethylhexane 2,3,4-trimethylpentane Mole weight 56.108 56.108 58.124 58.124 68.120 68.120 68.120 68.120 70.135 70.135 70.135 70.135", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6561, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 5417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3,3-dimethlyhexane 3,4-dimethlyhexane 2,2-dimethlyhexane 3-ethylhexane 2,3,4-trimethylpentane Mole weight 56.108 56.108 58.124 58.124 68.120 68.120 68.120 68.120 70.135 70.135 70.135 70.135 70.135 70.135 70.135 72.151 72.151 72.151 78.115 78.115 82.147 84.163 84.163 84.163 84.163 86.178 86.178 86.178 86.178 86.178 92.142 92.142 96.174 98.190 98.190 98.190 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 100.206 106.169 106.169 106.169 106.169 106.169 110.201 112.217 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 exergy (in kJ/mol) 2805.8 2914.8 3461.8 3303.6 3865.1 3967.9 3910.8 3909.2 4114.5 3931.0 4520.5 4556.9 4604.6 4761 .7 4587.9 4573.1 5170.3 5205.9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6562, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 180, "book_page": 5417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements CHN Name 3-methylpheptane 2,4-dimethlyhexane 3-methyl\u20133-ethylpentane 2-methylpheptane 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane 2,3,3-trimethylpentane 2,2,3-trimethylpentane n-octane 2,5-dimethlyhexane 2,3-dimethlyhexane 2-methyl\u20133-ethylpentane Cumene 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene n-propylbenzene 1 -methyl\u20132-ethylbenzene 1,2,3-trimethylbenzene 1-methyl\u20134-ethylbenzene Isopropylbenzene 1 ,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1 -methyl\u20133-ethylbenzene 1-nonyne n-propylcyclohexane n-nonane Naphthalene 1 ,2,4,5-tetramethylbenzene n-butylbenzene n-butylcyclohexane n-decane 2-methylnaphtalene Pentamethylbenzene n-undecane Hexamethylbenzene n-dodecane n-tridecane Phenanthrene Anthracene 1,1-diphenylethane n-tetradecane n-pentadecane n-decylbenzene n-hexadecane n-octadecane Triphenylmethane OTHER ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Methyl bromide (bromoethane) Vinyl bromide Ethyl bromide (bromoethane) Monochloromethane Chloroform (trichloromethane) Potassium bicarbonate Hydrogen cyanide Sodium bicarbonate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6563, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Methyl bromide (bromoethane) Vinyl bromide Ethyl bromide (bromoethane) Monochloromethane Chloroform (trichloromethane) Potassium bicarbonate Hydrogen cyanide Sodium bicarbonate Diiodomethane Cyanamide Formaldehyde Formic acid Formamide Nitromethane Urea Mole weight 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 114.233 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 120.196 124.228 126.244 128.260 128.175 134.223 134.223 140.271 142.287 142.202 148.250 156.314 162.277 170.341 184.368 178.236 178.236 182.268 198.395 212.422 218.386 226.449 254.504 244.339 94.93 106.950 108.966 50.488 119.378 100.119 27.026 84.007 267.836 42.040 30.026 46.026 45.041 61.041 60.056 exergy (in kJ/mol) 5413.1 5249.1 5825.1 5857.7 6064.9 5255.0 5880.0 5892.0 6511.5 6716.8 5881.4 6516.0 7376.9 7171.0 8029.4 8682.0 7201.8 7218.1 7665.9 9334.5 9984.8 9700.8 10639.7 11937.4 10109.2 21.6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6564, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 181, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Name Thiourea [aq] Methanol Methanethiol (methyl mercaptan) Methylamine Ammonium bicarbonate Methyl hydrazine Chloroethylene Vinyl chloride monomer Acetyl chloride Chloroacetaldehyde Ethyl chloride (chloroethane) cis\u20131,2-dichloroethylene trans\u20131 ,2-dichloroethylene 1,1-dichloroethylene Vinylidene chloride 1,1-dichloroethane 1 ,2-dichloroethane Trichloroethylene Trichloroethane Dichloroacetyl chloride 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane Ketene Oxalic acid Potassium acetate [aq.400] Isocyanomethane (ethanenitrile) Acetonitrile Sodium acetate Acetaldehyde Ethylene oxide Acetic acid Methyl formate Glycolic (hydroxacetic) acid Ethyl iodide (iodoethane) Dimethyl ether Ethanol Ethylene glycol Dimethyl sulfoxide Ethanethiol (ethyl mercaptan) Dimethyl sulfide Dimethylamine Ethylamine Ethanolamine Ammonium acetate [aq.400] Ethylenediamine 1,1-dimethylhydrazine Ammonium oxalate [aq] Acrylonitrile Acrolein Melamine Propionaldehyde Acetone Propylene oxide Propionic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6565, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 1704, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Ethylamine Ethanolamine Ammonium acetate [aq.400] Ethylenediamine 1,1-dimethylhydrazine Ammonium oxalate [aq] Acrylonitrile Acrolein Melamine Propionaldehyde Acetone Propylene oxide Propionic acid Isopropanol n-propanol Propanol\u20132 Propylene glycol Glycerol Glycerine Mole weight 76.120 32.042 48.107 31.058 79.056 46.072 62.499 62.499 78.499 78.499 64.515 96.944 96.944 96.944 96.944 98.960 98.960 131.389 133.405 147.389 167.850 42.038 90.036 98.147 41.053 41.053 82.035 44.054 44.054 60.053 60.053 76.052 155.967 46.070 46.070 62.069 78.134 62.134 62.134 45.085 45.085 61.084 77.084 60.099 60.099 124.097 53.064 56.065 126.121 58.081 58.081 58.081 74.080 60.097 60.097 60.097 76.096 92.095 92.095 exergy (in kJ/mol) 368.7 1163.3 1284.4 919.0 1419.5 1357.7 1207.3 2134.0 2145.4 2120.5 1788.5 1998.6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6566, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 182, "book_page": 1704, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Name Propyl mercaptan Isopropylmercaptan (methylethylsulfide) Propylamine Maleic anhydride Furan Diketene Maleic acid Fumaric acid Thiophene Methyl acrylate Acetic anhydride Succinic acid Methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone) Butyraldehyde (butanal) Isobutryaldehyde Ethyl acetate Butyric acid n-butanol Isobutanol Ether 2-butanol Diethyl ether Butyl mercaptan 2-methylpropyl mercaptan Diethyl sulfide Methylpropyl sulfide Ethylbutyl disulfide Butylamine Tetramethylsilane Furfuryl alcohol Cyclopentanol Ethyl propionate 3-methyl\u20131 -butanol (amyl alcohol) 2-methyl\u20131-butanol 2-methyl\u20132-butanol 1 -pentanethiol (amyl mercaptan) Chlorobenzene m-dichlorobenzene o-dichlorobenzene p-dichlorobenzene 1 ,2,4-trichlorobenzene Nitrobenzene Phenol Carbolic acid Thiophenol (mercaptobenzene) Aniline Adiponitrile Propionic anhydride Adipic acid Cyclohexanol Methyl isobutyl ketone l-sorbose alpha-d-galactose Hexamethyleneimine l-hexanol Sorbitol Hexamethylenediamine", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6567, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 3901, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(mercaptobenzene) Aniline Adiponitrile Propionic anhydride Adipic acid Cyclohexanol Methyl isobutyl ketone l-sorbose alpha-d-galactose Hexamethyleneimine l-hexanol Sorbitol Hexamethylenediamine alpha-chlorotoluene Benzyl chloride Mole weight 76.161 76.161 59.112 98.059 68.076 84.075 116.074 116.074 84.140 86.091 102.091 118.090 72.108 72.108 72.108 88.107 88.107 74.124 74.124 74.124 74.124 74.124 90.188 90.188 90.188 90.188 122.252 73.139 88.226 98.102 86.135 102.134 88.151 88.151 88.151 104.215 112.560 147.005 147.005 147.005 181.450 123.112 14.114 94.114 110.179 93.129 108.144 130.145 146.144 100.162 100.162 180.159 180.159 99.177 102.178 182.175 116.208 126.587 126.587 exergy (in kJ/mol) 2794.7 2795.0 2118.2 1495.7 1471.5 2847.0 1609.4 2432.6 2463.3 2269.6 2215.8 3438.7 3434.3 3446.3 3442.6 4055.4 2687.7 3109.7 3311.7 3275.7 4091.3 3128.5 3916.1 3750.8 2939.0 2928.8 3961.1 3204.8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6568, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 183, "book_page": 3901, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Alpha elements Name Benzaldehyde Benzoic acid Salicylic acid Benzyl alcohol Cresol p-toluidine (methyl aniline) m-toluidine (methyl aniline) o-toluidine (methyl aniline) Toluenediamine l-heptanol Phthalic anhydride Phthalic acid p-toluic aldehyde 2-ethylhexanol Mole weight 106.125 122.125 138.124 108.141 108.141 107.156 107.156 107.156 122.171 116.205 148.119 166.135 120.152 130.232 exergy (in kJ/mol) 3343.5 3151.2 3795.8 4619.2 3434.8 3412.6 Table 4.3.1.5: Upper (and middle) heating values. Upper heating value raw material hard coal 28.9 MJ/kg* soft coal natural gas (acid) natural gas (sweet) crude oil 45.6 MJ/kg Middle heating value** 16.8\u201332.4 MJ/kg 8.4 MJ/kg - - - *: This is a value for a mixture of industrial coal used as a calculation value in the scenarios of ETH. **: ETH did not give upper heating values for raw coal but middle heating values. The range is caused by the wide variety of coal types", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6569, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 5304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "**: ETH did not give upper heating values for raw coal but middle heating values. The range is caused by the wide variety of coal types. Source: Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996 Source: Status: Equation: Ayres et al., 1996. authors. The indicator result is expressed in MJ exergy content. is the characterisation factor for abiotic depletion of resource i based on the exergy content, while (kg) is the quantity of resource i used, is the exergy content of one mole of resource i and the mole weight of resource i. is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6570, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 184, "book_page": 5304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.2 Depletion of biotic resources To be inserted 4.3.3 Impacts of land use 4.3.3.1 Land competition Aggregation of inventory data by multiplying the surface area used by the occupation time; characterisation factor equals 1 for all land-use types. Status: - Equation: increase of land competition = a \u00d7 t\u00d7 1 (4.3.3.1.1) a is the area used and t the occupation time. The indicator result is expressed in 4.3.3.2 Loss of biodiversity and life support function See Lindeijer et al. and K\u00f6llner (2000) for examples of existing methods for this impact category. 4.3.4 Desiccation To be inserted (1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6571, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 185, "book_page": 184, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.5 Climate change Table 4.3.5.1: factors for characterising climate gases. Substance 1,1,1 -trichloroethane* Carbon dioxide CFC\u201311* CFC\u2013113* CFC\u2013114* CFC\u2013115* CFC\u201312* CFC\u201313* Dichloromethane Dinitrogen oxide HALON\u20131301* HCFC\u2013123* HCFC\u2013124* HCFC\u2013141b* HCFC\u2013142b* HCFC\u201322* HCFC\u2013225ca* HCFC\u2013225cb* HFC\u2013125 HFC\u2013134 HFC\u2013134a HFC\u2013143 HFC\u2013143a HFC\u2013152a HFC\u2013227ea HFC\u201323 HFC\u2013236fa HFC\u2013245ca HFC\u201332 HFC\u201341 HFC\u201343\u201310mee Methane Perfluorobutane Perfluorocyclobutane Perfluoroethane Perfluorohexane Perfluoromethane Perfluoropentane Perfluoropropane Sulphur hexafluoride Tetrachloromethane* Trichloromethane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6572, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 4, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 124\u201338\u20139 75\u201369\u20134 26523\u201364\u20138 1320\u201337\u20132 76\u201315\u20133 75\u201371\u20138 75\u201372\u20139 75\u201309\u20132 10024\u201397\u20132 75\u201363\u20138 306\u201383\u20132 63938\u201310\u20133 27156\u201303\u20132 75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 422\u201356\u20130 507\u201355\u20131 354\u201333\u20136 811\u201397\u20132 811\u201397\u20132 430\u201366\u20130 420\u201346\u20132 75\u201337\u20136 431\u201389\u20130 75\u201346\u20137 690\u201339\u20131 679\u201386\u20137 75\u201310\u20135 593\u201353\u20133 138495\u201342 74\u201382\u20138 355\u201325\u20139 115\u201325\u20133 76\u201316\u20134 355\u201342\u20130 75\u201373\u20130 678\u201326\u20132 76\u201319\u20137 2551\u201362\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 67\u201366\u20133 (in kg CO2 eq./kg) 11700 11700 23900 Source: Status: Equation: Remark: Houghton et al., 1994 & 1996; GWP values for the substances marked with * are from 1994. IPCC The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, is the Global Warming Potential for substance i integrated over a years, while is the quantity of substance i emitted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6573, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 4, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IPCC The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, is the Global Warming Potential for substance i integrated over a years, while is the quantity of substance i emitted. has a conjectured negative influence on the enhanced climate forcing effect, but no (negative) GWP value is as yet known for this chemical.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6574, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 186, "book_page": 4, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table4.3.5.2: and factors for characterising climate gases. Substance 1,1,1\u2013trichloroethane* Carbon dioxide CFC\u201311* CFC\u2013113* CFC\u2013114* CFC\u2013115* CFC\u201312* CFC\u201313* Dichloromethane Dinitrogen oxide HALON\u20131301* HCFC\u2013123* HCFC\u2013124* HCFC\u2013141b* HCFC\u2013142b* HCFC\u201322* HCFC\u2013225ca* HCFC\u2013225cb* HFC\u2013125 HFC\u2013134 HFC\u2013134a HFC\u2013143 HFC\u2013143a HFC\u2013152a HFC\u2013227ea HFC\u201323 HFC\u2013236fa HFC\u2013245ca HFC\u201332 HFC\u201341 HFC\u201343\u201310mee Methane Perfluorobutane Perfluorocyclobutane Perfluoroethane Perfluorohexane Perfluoromethane Perfluoropentane Perfluoropropane Sulphur hexafluoride Tetrachloromethane* Trichloromethane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6575, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 124\u201338\u20139 75\u201369\u20134 26523\u201364\u20138 1320\u201337\u20132 76\u201315\u20133 75\u201371\u20138 75\u201372\u20139 75\u201309\u20132 10024\u201397\u20132 75\u201363\u20138 306\u201383\u20132 63938\u201310\u20133 27156\u201303\u20132 75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 422\u201356\u20130 507\u201355\u20131 354\u201333\u20136 811\u201397\u20132 811\u201397\u20132 430\u201366\u20130 420\u201346\u20132 75\u201337\u20136 431\u201389\u20130 75\u201346\u20137 690\u201339\u20131 679\u201386\u20137 75\u201310\u20135 593\u201353\u20133 138495\u201342 74\u201382\u20138 355\u201325\u20139 115\u201325\u20133 76\u201316\u20134 355\u201342\u20130 75\u201373\u20130 678\u201326\u20132 76\u201319\u20137 2551\u201362\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 67\u201366\u20133 (inkgCO2 eq./kg ) 16300 (in kg CO2 eq./kg) 13000 13600 6.5 10100 12700 14000 10700 10000 11000 10100 34900 Source: Status: Equation: Remark: Houghton et al., 1994 & 1996; GWP values for the substances marked with * are from 1994. IPCC The indicator result is expressed in kg of the referencesubstance, is the Global Warming Potential for substance i integrated over a years, while m, is the quantity of substance i emitted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6576, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IPCC The indicator result is expressed in kg of the referencesubstance, is the Global Warming Potential for substance i integrated over a years, while m, is the quantity of substance i emitted. has a conjectured negative influence on the enhanced climate forcing effect, but no (negative) GWP value is as yet known for this chemical. air air air air air air air air air (kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6577, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 187, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.5.3: Upper and lower limits of the uncertainty range of net GWPs for a few ozone depleting gases. Substance 1,1,1\u2013trichloroethane CFC\u201311 CFC\u2013113 CFC\u201312 HALON\u20131301 HCFC\u2013123 HCFC\u2013124 HCFC\u2013141b HCFC\u2013142b HCFC\u201322 Tetrachloromethane Comp. air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 75\u201369\u20134 26523\u201364\u20138 75\u201371\u20138 75\u201363\u20138 306\u201383\u20132 63938\u201310\u20133 27156\u201303\u20132 75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 56\u201323\u20135 min kg CO2 eq./kg \u2013320 \u2013854000 \u20132400 net max kg CO2 eq./kg \u2013130 \u2013141000 \u2013650 Source: Status: Equation: Houghton et al., 1996 IPCC The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, net is the net Global Warming Potential for substance i integrated over 100 years, with minimum and maximum values are given; while is the quantity of substance i emitted.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6578, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 188, "book_page": 1400, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.6 Stratospheric ozone depletion Table 4.3.6.1: Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane CFC\u201311 CFC\u2013113 CFC\u2013114 CFC\u2013115 CFC\u201312 HBFC\u20132401* HBFC\u20131201* HALON\u20131202* HALON\u20131211 HALON\u20131301 HBFC\u20132311* HALON\u20132402* HCFC\u2013123 HCFC\u2013124 HCFC\u2013141b HCFC\u2013142b HCFC\u201322 HCFC\u2013225ca HCFC\u2013225cb Methyl Bromide Methyl Chloride Tetrachloromethane factors for characterising Compartment air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air ozone depleting gases. CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 75\u201369\u20134 26523-64-8 1320-37-2 76-15-3 75-71-8 - - 75\u201361\u20136 353-59-3 75-63-8 - 25497\u201330\u20137 306-83-2 63938\u201310\u20133 27156-03-2 75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 422\u201356\u20130 507\u201355\u20131 74\u201383\u20139 74\u201387\u20133 56\u201323\u20135 ODP (in kg CFC\u201311 eq./kg) 0.11 1.0 0.90 0.85 0.40 0.82 0.25 1.4 1.25 5.1 0.14 0.012 0.026 0.086 0.043 0.034 0.017 0.017 0.37 0.02 1.2 Source: Status: Equation: WMO, 1999; WMO The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, CFC\u201311", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6579, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is the steady-state Ozone Depletion Potential for substance i, while (kg) is the quantity of substance i emitted. 1 Emissions and concentrations of Halon 2402 and Halon 1202 are much lower than those of the other halons (although the air concentration of Halon 1202 is growing exponentially, see figures in WMO, 1999). Therefore they are not included in the 1999 update of model-derived ODPs. The same is probably true for the three HBFCs (HBFC 2401, HBFC 1201 and HBFC 2311). This table includes the ODP values from WMO (1992) published for these substances. These values are still valid. Although in most cases their emission and therefore their contribution to ozone depletion will very low, they might be important in individual cases.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6580, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 189, "book_page": 7, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.6.2: Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane CFC\u2013113 HALON\u20131211 HALON\u20131301 HALON\u20132402 HCFC\u2013123 HCFC\u2013124 HCFC\u2013141b HCFC\u2013142b HCFC\u201322 HCFC\u2013225ca HCFC\u2013225cb Methyl Bromide Tetrachloromethane Time-dependent ODP factors for characterising ozone depleting gases. Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6581, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Comp. air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS-number 71\u201355\u20136 26523\u201364\u20138 353\u201359\u20133 75\u201363\u20138 25497\u201330\u20137 306\u201383\u20132 63938\u201310\u20133 27156\u201303\u20132 75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 422\u201356\u20130 507\u201355\u20131 74\u201383\u20139 56\u201323\u20135 time dependant ODPs 5 years 1.03 0.55 11.3 10.3 12.8 0.51 0.17 0.54 0.17 0.19 0.42 0.21 15.3 1.26 years 0.75 0.56 10.5 10.4 12.2 0.19 0.12 0.45 0.16 0.17 0.21 0.17 5.4 1.25 years 0.57 0.58 9.7 10.5 11.6 0.11 0.10 0.38 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 3.1 1.23 years 0.45 0.59 9.0 10.5 11.0 0.08 0.08 0.33 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.11 2.3 1.22 years 0.38 0.60 8.5 10.6 10.6 0.07 0.07 0.30 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.10 1.8 1.22 years 0.32 0.62 8.0 10.7 10.1 0.06 0.06 0.26 0.13 0.12 0.07 0.09 1.5 1.20 years 0.26 0.64 7.1 10.8 9.4 0.04 0.05 0.22 0.12 0.10 0.05 0.07 1.2 1.14 Source: Status: Equation: Solomon & Albritton, 1992 authors. The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, CFC\u201311", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6582, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, CFC\u201311. Timedependent is the time-dependent Ozone Depletion Potential for substance i, while is the quantity of substance i emitted. (kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6583, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 190, "book_page": 40, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.7 Human toxicity Table 4.3.7.1 : HTP factors for characterising human toxic releases, for infinite and 100-year time horizons and global scale. Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1 ,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1 ,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1 ,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6584, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 190, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 HTP (inf) (kg1,4\u2013DCSeq./kg) 1.6E+011 5.0E+01 4.6E+01 1 .3E+02 3.5E+01 1 .2E+02 9.1E+00 6.8E+00 1 .2E+02 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 1.0E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 1 .9E+09 8.9E\u201301 8.3E+00 1.4E+04 6.6E+00 9.5E+01 2.2E+01 2.2E+02 1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.7E+01 3.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201301 6.7E+03 3.5E+05 4.5E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 7.6E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.9E+03 X X X X 3.5E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6585, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 190, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.2E+02 1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.7E+01 3.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201301 6.7E+03 3.5E+05 4.5E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 7.6E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.9E+03 X X X X 3.5E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1 ,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 5.0E+01 4.6E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 1.2E+02 9.1E+00 6.8E+00 1.2E+02 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 1.0E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 1.9E+09 8.9E\u201301 8.3E+00 1.4E+04 6.6E+00 9.5E+01 2.2E+01 2.2E+02 1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.7E+01 3.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201301 2.5E+02 3.5E+05 4.5E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 1.7E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.9E+03 X X X X 3.5E+03 1 Means air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6586, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 191, "book_page": 190, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2\u2013ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6587, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 191, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+05 1 .9E+01 1 .0E+01 1.5E+05 8.7E+01 5.9E\u201301 3.2E+00 1.9E+01 2.0E+02 2.4E+00 5.7E+05 6.7E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.2E+00 8.4E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+01 6.5E+02 3.4E+06 X 1.7E+04 4.3E+03 7.8E+02 3.5E+00 1 .7E+02 3.8E+01 1.1E+02 1 .6E+00 7.1E+01 9.5E+01 2.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6588, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 191, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.9E+01 2.0E+02 2.4E+00 5.7E+05 6.7E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.2E+00 8.4E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+01 6.5E+02 3.4E+06 X 1.7E+04 4.3E+03 7.8E+02 3.5E+00 1 .7E+02 3.8E+01 1.1E+02 1 .6E+00 7.1E+01 9.5E+01 2.6E+00 5.9E+01 2.5E+01 2.0E+00 1.1E+00 1 .0E+02 1.3E+04 3.2E\u201301 7.0E+03 4.6E+01 3.1E+02 4.4E+01 2.1E+02 3.6E+03 1 .7E+02 1 .9E+01 2.9E+02 2.1E+02 1.6E+02 6.7E+00 1.2E+03 1.1E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+05 1.9E+01 1.0E+01 1.5E+05 8.7E+01 5.9E\u201301 3.2E+00 1.9E+01 2.0E+02 2.4E+00 5.7E+05 6.7E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.2E+00 8.4E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+01 3.7E+01 3.4E+06 X 1.7E+04 4.3E+03 7.8E+02 3.5E+00 1.7E+02 3.8E+01 1.1E+02 1.6E+00 7.1E+01 9.5E+01 2.6E+00 5.9E+01 2.5E+01 2.0E+00 1.1E+00 1.0E+02 1 .3E+04 3.2E\u201301 7.0E+03 4.6E+01 3.1E+02 4.4E+01 2.1E+02 3.6E+03 1 .7E+02 1.9E+01 2.9E+02 2.1E+02 1 .6E+02 6.7E+00 1 .2E+03 1.1E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6589, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 192, "book_page": 191, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6590, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 192, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CASnumber 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 HTP (inf) (kg 1 ,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.7E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 5.9E+00 6.3E+01 2.2E+03 8.4E+02 8.5E+02 X 2.0E+00 8.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 4.0E+01 2.3E+01 7.9E+04 3.2E+06 5.0E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 X 2.8E\u201301 1.3E+02 4.7E+02 6.1E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 6.0E+03 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 3.5E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6591, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 192, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.5E+02 X 2.0E+00 8.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 4.0E+01 2.3E+01 7.9E+04 3.2E+06 5.0E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 X 2.8E\u201301 1.3E+02 4.7E+02 6.1E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 6.0E+03 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 3.5E+02 5.8E+04 5.5E+01 2.6E+00 1.0E+00 5.4E+03 2.7E\u201302 8.1E+00 3.5E+04 1.2E+00 1 .4E+00 1.2E+02 1.2E\u201301 3.3E+00 5.3E+01 4.1E+02 1 .9E+02 5.1E+00 8.5E\u201301 X 5.2E\u201301 9.7E\u201301 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.7E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 5.9E+00 6.3E+01 2.2E+03 8.4E+02 8.5E+02 X 2.0E+00 8.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 4.0E+01 2.3E+01 7.9E+04 3.2E+06 5.0E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 X 2.8E\u201301 1 .3E+02 2.9E+01 6.1E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 2.6E+02 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 3.5E+02 3.9E+03 5.5E+01 2.6E+00 1 .0E+00 1.9E+01 2.7E\u201302 8.1E+00 3.5E+04 1.2E+00 1.4E+00 1 .2E+02 1.2E\u201301 3.3E+00 5.3E+01 4.1E+02 1.9E+02 5.1E+00 8.5E\u201301 X 5.2E\u201301 9.7E\u201301 air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6592, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 193, "book_page": 192, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10)1 propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6593, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 193, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water CAS number 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 8.2E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 1.3E+03 4.3E\u201302 2.5E+01 4.8E+04 3.3E+01 4.7E\u201302 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 2.2E+02 4.3E+05 1 .9E+01 1.7E+00 6.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201301 9.7E+00 2.1E+02 7.5E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6594, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 193, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 8.2E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 1.3E+03 4.3E\u201302 2.5E+01 4.8E+04 3.3E+01 4.7E\u201302 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 2.2E+02 4.3E+05 1 .9E+01 1.7E+00 6.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201301 9.7E+00 2.1E+02 7.5E+03 4.4E+00 3.4E+01 1.3E+01 1 .7E+00 6.2E+03 8.4E+01 1.0E+02 4.8E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+01 1 .4E+04 2.9E+03 1.6E+01 1.6E+02 9.2E+01 1 .3E+02 1 .8E+02 1 .2E402 8.9E+00 2.8E+01 1 .2E+02 7.0E+03 7.4E+01 1.1E+00 1.7E+03 3.5E+01 8.6E+08 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 8.2E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 1.3E+03 4.3E\u201302 2.5E+01 1.2E+03 3.3E+01 4.7E\u201302 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 2.2E+02 1 .6E+04 1.9E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201301 9.7E+00 2.1E+02 7.5E+03 4.4E+00 3.4E+01 1 .3E+01 1 .7E+00 2.6E+02 8.4E+01 9.6E+01 4.8E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+01 1.4E+04 9.4E+01 1.6E+01 1 .6E+02 9.2E+01 1 .3E+02 1 .8E+02 1.2E+02 8.9E+00 2.8E+01 1 .2E+02 7.0E+03 7.4E+01 1.1E+00 1.7E+03 3.5E+01 8.6E+08 1 Including dust besides individual chemicals may imply some double\u2013counting according to recent WHO findings.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6595, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 194, "book_page": 193, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6596, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 194, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6597, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 194, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+00 4.5E+01 9.1E+03 3.5E+00 1.6E+01 7.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+03 2.9E+03 2.1E+00 5.9E+01 7.1E+03 6.1E+01 6.0E+03 X 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 5.1E+03 9.5E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+02 2.5E+00 6.3E+02 1.4E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 1.8E+03 X X X X 2.4E+03 1.4E+04 9.8E+01 8.6E\u201302 2.3E+01 5.0E+02 5.3E\u201303 4.7E+00 2.5E+00 5.6E+01 2.4E+00 2.8E+05 7.4E+02 8.1E+02 1.4E\u201301 9.1E+00 6.7E+00 1.0E+00 4.4E+01 2.1E+00 3.4E+00 X 9.7E+01 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+00 4.5E+01 9.1E+03 3.5E+00 1.6E+01 7.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+03 2.9E+03 2.1E+00 5.9E+01 7.1E+03 6.1E+01 6.0E+03 X 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.6E+02 1.3E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+02 2.5E+00 1.5E+01 1.4E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 1.8E+03 X X X X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6598, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 194, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.1E+03 3.5E+00 1.6E+01 7.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+03 2.9E+03 2.1E+00 5.9E+01 7.1E+03 6.1E+01 6.0E+03 X 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.6E+02 1.3E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+02 2.5E+00 1.5E+01 1.4E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 1.8E+03 X X X X 2.4E+03 4.3E+02 9.8E+01 8.6E\u201302 1.1E+01 5.0E+02 5.3E\u201303 4.7E+00 2.5E+00 5.6E+01 2.4E+00 2.8E+05 7.4E+02 8.1E+02 1.4E\u201301 9.1E+00 6.7E+00 1.0E+00 4.4E+01 1.1E+00 1.8E+00 X 6.4E+01 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6599, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 195, "book_page": 194, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6600, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 195, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water CAS number 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6601, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 195, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 1 .0E+04 6.0E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+00 3.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.2E+02 5.0E+01 9.1E\u201301 6.6E+01 5.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.4E+01 3.4E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.9E+01 1.8E+01 1.8E+01 7.2E+00 1.6E+02 2.5E+00 6.3E+00 3.4E+02 5.3E+01 5.9E+01 1.7E+01 6.0E+03 1.8E+03 8.3E\u201301 6.5E\u201301 2.2E+01 9.3E+01 8.8E+02 8.6E+02 8.7E+02 X 8.6E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.6E\u201302 3.4E+03 1.3E+00 8.0E+04 5.6E+06 X X X 1.8E\u201301 1 .3E+01 1.2E+01 8.3E+02 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.5E\u201301 1 .0E+04 6.0E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+00 3.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.2E+02 5.0E+01 9.1E\u201301 6.6E+01 5.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.4E+01 3.4E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.9E+01 1.8E+01 1.8E+01 7.2E+00 1.6E+02 2.5E+00 6.3E+00 3.4E+02 5.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6602, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 195, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.0E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+00 3.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.2E+02 5.0E+01 9.1E\u201301 6.6E+01 5.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.4E+01 3.4E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.9E+01 1.8E+01 1.8E+01 7.2E+00 1.6E+02 2.5E+00 6.3E+00 3.4E+02 5.3E+01 5.9E+01 1.7E+01 6.0E+03 1.8E+03 8.3E\u201301 6.5E\u201301 2.2E+01 9.3E+01 8.8E+02 8.6E+02 8.7E+02 X 8.6E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.6E\u201302 3.4E+03 1.3E+00 8.0E+04 5.6E+06 X X X 1.8E\u201301 1.3E+01 5.2E+00 8.3E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6603, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 196, "book_page": 195, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6604, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 196, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater CAS number 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6605, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 196, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.0E+02 1.4E+03 1.6E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 3.3E+00 3.0E+02 1 .5E+04 8.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 5.5E+03 3.4E\u201301 5.6E+00 3.3E+02 X 3.6E\u201301 7.4E+01 4.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 1 .0E+02 1.2E+03 9.1E+01 7.2E+00 2.3E+01 X 4.9E\u201302 1.2E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 X 1.6E+00 1.3E+00 2.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+01 5.6E+04 9.7E+00 8.5E\u201302 X 5.7E+00 2.2E+02 2.3E+05 3.3E+00 1.7E\u201302 1.0E+00 3.0E\u201301 8.3E+01 3.2E+02 3.4E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.0E+02 1 .0E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 3.3E+00 3.0E+02 6.0E+03 8.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.1E+02 3.4E\u201301 5.6E+00 4.3E+01 X 3.6E\u201301 7.4E+01 4.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 1 .0E+02 1.2E+03 9.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6606, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 196, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.0E+02 1 .0E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 3.3E+00 3.0E+02 6.0E+03 8.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.1E+02 3.4E\u201301 5.6E+00 4.3E+01 X 3.6E\u201301 7.4E+01 4.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 1 .0E+02 1.2E+03 9.1E+01 7.2E+00 2.3E+01 X 4.9E\u201302 1.2E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 X 1.6E+00 1.3E+00 2.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+01 5.3E+02 9.7E+00 8.5E\u201302 X 5.7E+00 2.2E+02 5.7E+03 3.3E+00 7.4E\u201303 1.0E+00 3.0E\u201301 8.3E+01 3.2E+02 3.4E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6607, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 197, "book_page": 196, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6608, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 197, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater seawater sea water seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6609, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 197, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.7E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.3E+01 9.7E+01 3.2E+03 1.4E+02 5.8E\u201301 1.7E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1 .0E+02 1.1E+04 3.6E+03 9.6E+00 3.0E+01 2.5E+01 6.2E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+01 4.1E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+01 4.5E+02 3.0E+01 4.7E\u201301 2.2E+02 2.6E\u201301 4.2E+08 5.4E\u201303 6.1E\u201301 4.7E+01 6.7E\u201305 6.5E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 1.5E+00 2.1E+00 4.0E+00 5.1E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 5.1E+01 2.4E\u201301 7.8E+02 X 8.2E\u201304 1 .6E\u201301 8.6E+03 2.4E+03 1 .8E\u201302 1 .6E+00 5.7E\u201303 8.0E+02 2.4E\u201304 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.7E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.3E+01 9.7E+01 2.7E+02 1.4E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.0E+02 1.1E+04 9.4E+00 9.6E+00 3.0E+01 2.5E+01 6.2E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+01 4.1E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+01 4.5E+02 3.0E+01 4.7E\u201301 2.2E+02 2.6E\u201301 4.2E+08 5.4E\u201303 6.1E\u201301 4.7E+01 6.7E\u201305 6.5E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 1.5E+00 2.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6610, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 197, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+04 9.4E+00 9.6E+00 3.0E+01 2.5E+01 6.2E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+01 4.1E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+01 4.5E+02 3.0E+01 4.7E\u201301 2.2E+02 2.6E\u201301 4.2E+08 5.4E\u201303 6.1E\u201301 4.7E+01 6.7E\u201305 6.5E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 1.5E+00 2.1E+00 4.0E+00 5.1E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 5.1E+01 2.4E\u201301 7.8E+02 X 8.2E\u201304 1.6E\u201301 4.4E+01 3.1E+01 1.8E\u201302 1.6E+00 5.7E\u201303 1.5E+00 2.4E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6611, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 198, "book_page": 197, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6612, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 198, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6613, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 198, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201303 2.1E+02 X X X X 5.5E+01 1.6E+04 7.5E\u201301 8.5E\u201304 1.0E+02 9.7E+00 5.4E\u201306 1.9E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 2.9E+04 1.2E+03 3.8E+00 2.1E\u201303 5.2E+00 4.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 3.8E\u201302 1.0E+01 1.7E+01 X 6.0E+01 5.9E+00 2.2E+02 9.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 3.3E\u201302 3.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 2.7E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 2.3E\u201303 5.5E+03 5.7E\u201304 3.7E+02 3.2E+00 9.7E+00 3.3E\u201303 8.4E\u201303 6.3E\u201301 2.9E\u201303 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201303 2.1E+02 X X X X 5.5E+01 1.9E+01 7.5E\u201301 8.5E\u201304 6.9E+00 9.7E+00 5.4E\u201306 1.9E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 2.9E+04 1.2E+03 3.8E+00 2.1E\u201303 5.2E+00 4.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 3.8E\u201302 8.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 X 3.3E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 2.2E+02 9.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 3.3E\u201302 3.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 2.7E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 2.3E\u201303 5.5E+03 5.7E\u201304 3.7E+02 3.2E+00 9.7E+00 3.3E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6614, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 198, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 X 3.3E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 2.2E+02 9.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 3.3E\u201302 3.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 2.7E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 2.3E\u201303 5.5E+03 5.7E\u201304 3.7E+02 3.2E+00 9.7E+00 3.3E\u201303 8.4E\u201303 6.3E\u201301 2.9E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6615, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 199, "book_page": 198, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6616, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 199, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 HTP (inf)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6617, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 199, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4\u2013 DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 4.2E\u201302 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 7.0E\u201302 4.7E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 4.1E+00 1.2E+01 4.1E+00 X 3.1E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 1.5E\u201305 4.3E+01 2.3E\u201303 3.9E+04 3.4E+06 X X X 1.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201302 7.9E+01 6.1E+00 6.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201304 3.7E\u201302 8.4E\u201301 8.2E+03 3.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+01 8.8E+04 7.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201304 1.8E\u201303 6.8E+03 1.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201301 7.5E+02 X 1.4E\u201305 1.0E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 5.4E\u201301 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 4.2E\u201302 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 7.0E\u201302 4.7E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 4.1E+00 1.2E+01 4.1E+00 X 3.1E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 1.5E\u201305 4.3E+01 2.3E\u201303 3.9E+04 3.4E+06 X X X 1.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201302 7.1E+00 6.1E+00 6.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201304 3.7E\u201302 8.4E\u201301 1.2E+02 3.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+01 6.9E+03 7.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201304 1.8E\u201303 1.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201301 7.8E+00 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6618, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 199, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.9E+04 3.4E+06 X X X 1.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201302 7.1E+00 6.1E+00 6.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201304 3.7E\u201302 8.4E\u201301 1.2E+02 3.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+01 6.9E+03 7.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201304 1.8E\u201303 1.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201301 7.8E+00 X 1.4E\u201305 1.0E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 5.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6619, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 200, "book_page": 199, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6620, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 200, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6621, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 200, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 X 8.0E\u201305 2.9E\u201301 1.0E\u201307 1.3E\u201303 X 2.6E\u201303 3.9E\u201304 1.6E+01 1.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 6.3E+04 1.6E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 X 2.8E+00 1.7E+02 2.9E+05 6.6E\u201304 1.1E\u201301 6.5E\u201302 3.9E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.6E+00 5.5E+01 3.1E\u201305 1.4E+01 6.0E+00 6.0E+00 6.2E+03 4.3E+01 3.2E+00 8.2E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.3E+00 5.4E+02 3.6E+03 1.6E+01 8.0E+01 1.8E+02 5.6E+01 8.4E+01 4.2E+01 7.3E+00 1.3E+03 6.9E+01 3.1E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.6E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6622, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 200, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.3E+00 5.4E+02 3.6E+03 1.6E+01 8.0E+01 1.8E+02 5.6E+01 8.4E+01 4.2E+01 7.3E+00 1.3E+03 6.9E+01 3.1E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 X 8.0E\u201305 2.9E\u201301 1.0E\u201307 1.3E\u201303 X 2.6E\u201303 3.9E\u201304 1.6E+01 1.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 5.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 X 2.8E+00 1.7E+02 6.1E+02 6.6E\u201304 9.0E\u201303 6.5E\u201302 3.9E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.6E+00 5.5E+01 3.1E\u201305 1.4E+01 6.0E+00 6.0E+00 4.6E+01 4.3E+01 2.0E\u201301 8.2E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.3E+00 5.4E+02 8.7E\u201303 1.6E+01 8.0E+01 1.8E+02 5.6E+01 8.4E+01 4.2E+01 7.3E+00 1.3E+03 6.9E+01 3.1E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6623, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 201, "book_page": 200, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,3\u2013dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6624, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 201, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6625, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 201, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 HTP (inf) (kg1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.5E+02 2.9E+00 2.2E+04 3.1E+01 1.3E+09 5.8E+00 5.3E+00 1.8E+03 4.7E+01 7.4E+02 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 3.0E+04 3.5E+04 2.2E+01 2.3E+02 4.9E+05 5.1E+02 4.7E+03 X 8.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 8.9E+03 3.2E+04 2.1E+01 7.6E+02 3.9E+01 3.6E+02 4.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.5E+04 X X X X 5.5E+03 1.3E+04 2.9E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.0E+04 9.6E+02 9.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.4E+02 1.4E+03 3.6E+00 7.1E+04 2.8E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+00 7.1E+00 9.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.5E+02 2.9E+00 2.2E+04 3.1E+01 1.3E+09 5.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6626, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 201, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+04 9.6E+02 9.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.4E+02 1.4E+03 3.6E+00 7.1E+04 2.8E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+00 7.1E+00 9.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.5E+02 2.9E+00 2.2E+04 3.1E+01 1.3E+09 5.8E+00 5.3E+00 1.8E+03 4.7E+01 7.4E+02 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 3.0E+04 3.5E+04 2.2E+01 2.3E+02 4.9E+05 5.1E+02 4.7E+03 X 8.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.1E+02 2.1E+01 7.6E+02 3.9E+01 1.7E+01 4.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.5E+04 X X X X 5.5E+03 2.7E+03 2.9E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.8E+03 9.6E+02 9.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.4E+02 1.4E+03 3.6E+00 7.1E+04 2.8E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+00 7.1E+00 9.4E\u201301 2.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6627, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 202, "book_page": 201, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2\u2013ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6628, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 202, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6629, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 202, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 HTP (inf) (kg1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+01 5.1E+03 8.5E+03 X 2.4E+03 9.4E+01 1.1E+04 2.4E+01 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 2.7E+02 1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 2.4E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02 3.2E+01 3.2E+02 2.8E+01 5.6E+02 3.6E\u201301 8.6E+00 1.7E+02 1.3E+03 2.8E+02 2.6E\u201301 8.4E+03 5.7E+03 7.5E\u201301 7.8E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 7.2E+01 1.3E+02 8.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.3E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.7E+02 3.4E+00 3.0E+04 3.3E+07 X X HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+01 3.0E+01 4.9E+01 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6630, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 202, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.4E+03 5.7E+03 7.5E\u201301 7.8E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 7.2E+01 1.3E+02 8.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.3E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.7E+02 3.4E+00 3.0E+04 3.3E+07 X X HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+01 3.0E+01 4.9E+01 X 1.1E+03 9.6E+00 1.1E+04 2.4E+01 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 2.7E+02 1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 2.4E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02 3.2E+01 3.2E+02 2.8E+01 5.6E+02 3.6E\u201301 8.6E+00 1.7E+02 1.3E+03 2.8E+02 2.6E\u201301 8.4E+03 5.7E+03 7.5E\u201301 7.8E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 7.2E+01 1.3E+02 8.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.3E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.7E+02 3.4E+00 3.0E+04 3.3E+07 X X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6631, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 203, "book_page": 202, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance indeno[1,2,3\u2013cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6632, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 203, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6633, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 203, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CASnumber 193-39\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1 .8E+00 9.6E+02 3.3E+03 4.9E+02 1.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 1.0E+02 7.4E+02 5.9E+03 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 2.6E+02 2.0E+04 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 6.2E+03 3.8E+00 4.8E+00 2.7E+03 X 1.0E+01 6.1E+02 5.0E+00 2.9E+00 2.4E+01 4.5E+03 7.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 X 1.9E+00 2.5E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.6E+01 X 1.5E+01 2.7E+02 2.2E+05 3.0E+00 5.1E+01 2.9E+04 2.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 X 6.4E+00 2.2E+02 2.0E+06 7.9E+00 1.3E+01 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1.8E+00 9.6E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6634, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 203, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 1.9E+00 2.5E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.6E+01 X 1.5E+01 2.7E+02 2.2E+05 3.0E+00 5.1E+01 2.9E+04 2.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 X 6.4E+00 2.2E+02 2.0E+06 7.9E+00 1.3E+01 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1.8E+00 9.6E+02 2.7E+01 4.9E+02 1.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 1.0E+02 7.4E+02 1.3E+02 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 2.6E+02 1.7E+03 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 9.4E+01 3.8E+00 4.8E+00 1.7E+02 X 1.0E+01 6.1E+02 5.0E+00 2.9E+00 2.4E+01 4.5E+03 7.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 X 1.9E+00 2.5E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.6E+01 X 1.5E+01 2.7E+02 2.2E+05 3.0E+00 5.1E+01 7.2E+02 2.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 X 6.4E+00 2.2E+02 1.3E+05 7.9E+00 1.1E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6635, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 204, "book_page": 203, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6636, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 204, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6637, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 204, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 57018-04\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+01 3.5E\u201301 5.8E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 3.3E+01 3.2E+01 1.4E+01 1.2E+02 1.9E+04 5.2E+02 6.4E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 1.8E+03 1.6E+01 5.2E+00 1.4E+01 5.4E+01 5.4E+00 4.3E+01 6.9E+00 5.7E+00 5.2E+01 2.2E+03 5.0E+01 7.4E\u201301 4.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.0E+07 1.8E\u201301 2.9E+00 1.7E+02 7.2E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.4E+00 3.1E+01 4.6E+02 5.1E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.5E+03 1.3E+01 1.6E+02 X 3.0E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 2.6E+03 1.0E+03 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+01 3.5E\u201301 5.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6638, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 204, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.9E+00 1.7E+02 7.2E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.4E+00 3.1E+01 4.6E+02 5.1E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.5E+03 1.3E+01 1.6E+02 X 3.0E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 2.6E+03 1.0E+03 HTP (100yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+01 3.5E\u201301 5.8E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 3.3E+01 3.2E+01 1.4E+01 1.2E+02 1.3E+03 5.2E+02 4.5E+00 2.0E+01 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 3.2E+01 1.6E+01 5.2E+00 1.4E+01 5.4E+01 5.4E+00 4.3E+01 6.9E+00 5.7E+00 5.2E+01 2.2E+03 5.0E+01 7.4E\u201301 4.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.0E+07 1.8E\u201301 2.9E+00 1.7E+02 7.2E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.4E+00 3.1E+01 4.6E+02 5.1E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.5E+03 1.3E+01 1.6E+02 X 3.0E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 5.0E+01 4.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6639, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 205, "book_page": 204, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6640, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 205, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6641, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 205, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.8E\u201301 6.9E+00 9.9E\u201302 3.2E+02 1.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201301 1.6E+03 X X X X 4.9E+02 7.0E+03 3.0E\u201301 1.8E\u201303 6.7E+01 7.9E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 8.0E+00 2.2E+00 2.7E+03 2.7E+01 4.4E+01 2.0E\u201302 6.8E+00 1.0E+00 8.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201301 3.0E+02 5.0E+02 X 5.9E+01 1.3E+00 1.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 1.8E+00 1.3E+00 1.8E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.3E\u201303 1.4E+01 3.8E\u201302 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.8E\u201301 6.9E+00 9.9E\u201302 2.4E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6642, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 205, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.8E+00 1.3E+00 1.8E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.3E\u201303 1.4E+01 3.8E\u201302 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.8E\u201301 6.9E+00 9.9E\u201302 2.4E+00 1.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201301 1.6E+03 X X X X 4.9E+02 1.1E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.8E\u201303 8.7E+00 7.9E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 8.0E+00 2.2E+00 2.7E+03 2.7E+01 4.4E+01 2.0E\u201302 6.8E+00 1.0E+00 8.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.9E+00 X 1.8E+01 7.9E\u201302 1.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 1.8E+00 1.3E+00 1.8E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.3E\u201303 1.4E+01 3.8E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6643, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 206, "book_page": 205, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6644, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 206, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6645, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 206, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201301 9.7E+01 1 .2E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 2.0E+00 7.2E+00 2.8E+00 1.6E\u201302 7.5E+02 3.8E+02 5.0E\u201301 6.2E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 1.5E+00 9.2E+00 1.3E+01 8.5E+00 X 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 6.5E\u201304 4.4E+00 2.0E\u201302 3.5E+04 1.3E+06 X X X 3.2E\u201303 2.8E+00 2.9E+02 5.2E+01 9.4E+00 9.5E\u201304 9.7E\u201301 4.2E+01 1.1E+03 1.2E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 1.1E+04 1.9E+00 1.1E\u201301 5.5E\u201302 3.1E+03 1.9E\u201302 1.6E+00 2.0E+02 X HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.2E\u201302 3.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6646, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 206, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.4E+00 9.5E\u201304 9.7E\u201301 4.2E+01 1.1E+03 1.2E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 1.1E+04 1.9E+00 1.1E\u201301 5.5E\u201302 3.1E+03 1.9E\u201302 1.6E+00 2.0E+02 X HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201301 9.7E+01 1.2E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 2.0E+00 7.2E+00 2.8E+00 1.6E\u201302 7.5E+02 3.8E+02 5.0E\u201301 6.2E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 1.5E+00 9.2E+00 1.3E+01 8.5E+00 X 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 6.5E\u201304 4.4E+00 2.0E\u201302 3.5E+04 1.3E+06 X X X 3.2E\u201303 2.8E+00 2.4E+00 5.2E+01 9.4E+00 9.5E\u201304 9.7E\u201301 4.2E+01 9.5E+00 1.2E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 3.8E+02 1.9E+00 1.1E\u201301 5.5E\u201302 2.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.6E+00 3.0E+00 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6647, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 207, "book_page": 206, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance oxamyl oxydemethon\u2013methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6648, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 207, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6649, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 207, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 HTP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.6E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.4E+02 4.3E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 6.0E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 6.6E\u201307 2.9E\u201301 X 1.4E\u201301 2.7E\u201301 5.9E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.2E+00 2.8E+04 2.2E+00 1.8E\u201302 X 5.2E+00 2.2E+02 1.2E+05 2.5E\u201301 5.2E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 2.1E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+01 4.3E+01 2.0E\u201302 3.2E+01 1.0E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.7E+03 8.3E+01 4.2E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 1.8E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.6E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.4E+02 4.3E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 6.0E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 6.6E\u201307 2.9E\u201301 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6650, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 207, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 1.8E+03 HTP (100 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.6E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.4E+02 4.3E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 6.0E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 6.6E\u201307 2.9E\u201301 X 1.4E\u201301 2.7E\u201301 5.9E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.8E+02 2.2E+00 1.8E\u201302 X 5.2E+00 2.2E+02 2.4E+02 2.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201302 2.1E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+01 4.3E+01 2.0E\u201302 3.2E+01 1.0E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.4E+01 8.3E+01 1.5E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1 .0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 4.7E+00 x = not calculated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6651, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 208, "book_page": 207, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Source: Status: Equations: Remark: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Author(s). The indicator result is expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the Human Toxicity Potential (the characterisation factor) for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6652, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 209, "book_page": 208, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.7.2: Alternative HTP factors for characterising human toxic releases, for 20- and 500-year time horizons and global scale, and for infinite time horizon and continental scale. Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6653, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 209, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+011 5.0E+01 4.6E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 1.2E+02 9.1E+00 6.8E+00 1.2E+02 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 1.0E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 1.9E+09 8.9E\u201301 8.3E+00 1.4E+04 6.6E+00 9.5E+01 2.2E+01 2.2E+02 1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.7E+01 3.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201301 8.4E+01 3.5E+05 4.5E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 1.7E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.9E+03 X X X X HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6654, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 209, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.7E+01 3.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201301 8.4E+01 3.5E+05 4.5E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 1.7E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.9E+03 X X X X HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1 .64E+01 5.00E+01 4.63E+01 1.31 E+02 3.45E+01 1.23E+02 9.06E+00 6.81E+00 1.20E+02 2.22E+03 6.21 E+01 1.00E+00 1.18E+03 2.88E+02 1.93E+09 8.87E\u201301 8.32E+00 1.39E+04 6.64E+00 9.53E+01 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6655, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 209, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "21 E+01 2.15E+02 1.70E+04 2.62E+02 3.06E+00 5.69E+01 3.35E+03 7.16E+01 1.93E+01 1.00E\u201301 7.16E\u201302 5.20E\u201301 7.26E+02 3.48E+05 4.45E+00 2.03E+02 1.43E+01 1.81E+02 2.10E\u201302 2.14E+00 1.90E+03 X X X X HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+00 2.4E+01 1.8E+01 5.9E+01 1.5E+01 5.7E+01 4.0E+00 2.5E+00 5.7E+01 2.2E+03 3.1 E+01 3.9E\u201301 7.1 E+02 2.4E+02 1.6E+09 8.9E\u201301 6.6E+00 1.3E+04 6.6E+00 7.4E+01 2.0E+01 2.1E+02 1.7E+04 2.6E+02 3.1E+00 5.4E+01 2.6E+03 7.2E+01 1.9E+01 9.9E\u201302 7.1E\u201302 4.8E\u201301 1.1E+03 2.9E+05 4.4E+00 2.0E+02 1.4E+01 1.9E+02 2.1E\u201302 2.1E+00 1.1E+03 X X X X 1 Means", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6656, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 210, "book_page": 209, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2\u2013ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate air Diisooctylphtalate air dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6657, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 210, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.5E+03 2.3E+05 1.9E+01 1.0E+01 1.5E+05 8.7E+01 5.9E\u201301 3.2E+00 1.9E+01 2.0E+02 2.4E+00 5.7E+05 6.7E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.2E+00 8.4E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+01 3.4E+01 3.4E+06 X 1.7E+04 4.3E+03 7.8E+02 3.5E+00 1.7E+02 3.8E+01 1.1E+02 1.6E+00 7.1E+01 9.5E+01 2.6E+00 5.9E+01 2.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6658, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 210, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E+00 5.7E+05 6.7E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.2E+00 8.4E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+01 3.4E+01 3.4E+06 X 1.7E+04 4.3E+03 7.8E+02 3.5E+00 1.7E+02 3.8E+01 1.1E+02 1.6E+00 7.1E+01 9.5E+01 2.6E+00 5.9E+01 2.5E+01 2.0E+00 1.1E+00 1.0E+02 1.3E+04 3.2E\u201301 7.0E+03 4.6E+01 3.1E+02 4.4E+01 2.1E+02 3.6E+03 1.7E+02 1.9E+01 2.9E+02 2.1E+02 1.6E+02 6.7E+00 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.52E+03 2.27E+05 1.94E+01 1.02E+01 1.45E+05 8.70E+01 5.89E\u201301 3.21E+00 1.92E+01 1.98E+02 2.41E+00 5.72E+05 6.74E+03 2.71E+02 1.30E\u201302 9.23E+00 8.39E+00 3.35E\u201301 2.12E+01 5.27E+01 3.43E+06 X 1.74E+04 4.29E+03 7.77E+02 3.50E+00 1.66E+02 3.82E+01 1.12E+02 1.62E+00 7.14E+01 9.45E+01 2.61E+00 5.95E+01 2.53E+01 1.98E+00 1.12E+00 1.04E+02 1.29E+04 3.16E\u201301 7.02E+03 4.56E+01 3.07E+02 4.35E+01 2.08E+02 3.59E+03 1.69E+02 1.87E+01 2.87E+02 2.14E+02 1.60E+02 6.68E+00 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.7E+03 1.8E+05 1.9E+01 9.4E+00 1.2E+05 8.5E+01 5.9E\u201301 3.2E+00 1.9E+01 2.0E+02 1.6E+00 5.6E+05 6.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 4.8E+00 3.7E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6659, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 210, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.14E+02 1.60E+02 6.68E+00 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.7E+03 1.8E+05 1.9E+01 9.4E+00 1.2E+05 8.5E+01 5.9E\u201301 3.2E+00 1.9E+01 2.0E+02 1.6E+00 5.6E+05 6.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.3E\u201302 4.8E+00 3.7E+00 3.3E\u201301 2.1E+01 5.4E+02 2.9E+06 X 1.5E+04 3.6E+03 7.6E+02 3.5E+00 1.5E+02 3.8E+01 9.5E+01 1.6E+00 7.0E+01 9.4E+01 2.5E+00 5.9E+01 2.3E+01 6.3E\u201301 1.1E+00 9.4E+01 1.2E+04 2.8E\u201301 6.4E+03 4.1E+01 2.9E+02 4.3E+01 2.0E+02 3.2E+03 1.4E+02 1.8E+01 2.8E+02 2.1E+02 1.6E+02 6.4E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6660, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 211, "book_page": 210, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1 ,2,3\u2013cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6661, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 211, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CASnumber 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+03 1.1E+03 9.7E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 5.9E+00 6.3E+01 2.2E+03 8.4E+02 8.5E+02 X 2.0E+00 8.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 4.0E+01 2.3E+01 7.9E+04 2.8E+06 5.0E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 X 2.8E\u201301 1.3E+02 2.4E+01 6.1E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 2.1E+02 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 3.5E+02 1.3E+03 5.5E+01 2.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6662, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 211, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.1E\u201303 4.0E+01 2.3E+01 7.9E+04 2.8E+06 5.0E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 X 2.8E\u201301 1.3E+02 2.4E+01 6.1E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 2.1E+02 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 3.5E+02 1.3E+03 5.5E+01 2.6E+00 1.0E+00 6.9E+00 2.7E\u201302 8.1E+00 3.5E+04 1.2E+00 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 1.2E\u201301 3.3E+00 5.3E+01 4.1E+02 1.9E+02 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.18E+03 1.09E+03 9.73E\u201301 6.37E\u201301 5.94E+00 6.28E+01 2.23E+03 8.37E+02 8.49E+02 X 1.97E+00 8.31E\u201301 3.10E\u201303 4.00E+01 2.30E+01 7.90E+04 3.16E+06 5.00E\u201301 2.20E\u201301 X 2.76E\u201301 1.31E+02 4.82E+01 6.10E+02 1.38E+01 3.53E\u201302 1.47E+01 1.19E+02 4.16E+02 8.79E\u201301 6.82E+00 7.13E+00 6.16E+00 3.51E+02 1.09E+04 5.55E+01 2.58E+00 1.04E+00 7.32E+01 2.71E\u201302 8.11E+00 3.50E+04 1.20E+00 1.40E+00 1.22E+02 1.25E\u201301 3.34E+00 5.27E+01 4.10E+02 1.86E+02 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+03 1.1E+03 8.4E\u201301 5.6E\u201301 5.9E+00 6.2E+01 2.1E+03 5.1E+02 8.1E+02 X 1.8E+00 7.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 3.9E+01 2.2E+01 1.1E+04 8.0E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 X 2.7E\u201301 1.3E+02 3.6E+02 5.4E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6663, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 211, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+03 1.1E+03 8.4E\u201301 5.6E\u201301 5.9E+00 6.2E+01 2.1E+03 5.1E+02 8.1E+02 X 1.8E+00 7.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201303 3.9E+01 2.2E+01 1.1E+04 8.0E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 X 2.7E\u201301 1.3E+02 3.6E+02 5.4E+02 1.4E+01 3.5E\u201302 1.5E+01 1.2E+02 1.3E+03 8.8E\u201301 6.8E+00 7.1E+00 6.2E+00 7.2E+01 8.3E+03 5.5E+01 2.5E+00 1.0E+00 6.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 7.7E+00 2.9E+04 1.1E+00 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 1.1E\u201301 3.3E+00 5.2E+01 1.7E+02 1.1E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6664, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 212, "book_page": 211, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10)1 propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para\u2013Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos\u2013methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6665, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 212, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.1E+00 8.5E\u201301 X 5.2E\u201301 9.7E\u201301 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 8.2E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 1.3E+03 4.3E\u201302 2.5E+01 1.1E+03 3.3E+01 4.7E\u201302 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 2.2E+02 3.4E+03 1.9E+01 1.3E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201301 9.7E+00 2.1E+02 7.5E+03 4.4E+00 3.4E+01 1.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.3E+02 8.4E+01 9.5E+01 4.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6666, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 212, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E+03 4.3E\u201302 2.5E+01 1.1E+03 3.3E+01 4.7E\u201302 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 2.2E+02 3.4E+03 1.9E+01 1.3E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201301 9.7E+00 2.1E+02 7.5E+03 4.4E+00 3.4E+01 1.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.3E+02 8.4E+01 9.5E+01 4.8E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+01 1.4E+04 9.4E+01 1.6E+01 1.6E+02 9.2E+01 1.3E+02 1.8E+02 1.2E+02 8.9E+00 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.08E+00 8.50E\u201301 X 5.18E\u201301 9.68E\u201301 4.12E\u201301 3.44E+00 8.20E\u201301 1.25E+01 3.67E+01 1.26E+03 4.32E\u201302 2.45E+01 1.36E+03 3.33E+01 4.74E\u201302 9.60E\u201302 5.53E+00 2.20E+02 6.91E+04 1.89E+01 2.01E\u201301 5.96E\u201302 3.27E\u201301 9.69E+00 2.10E+02 7.50E+03 4.45E+00 3.44E+01 1.27E+01 1.74E+00 8.17E+02 8.43E+01 9.77E+01 4.76E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+01 1.4E+04 9.4E+01 1.62E+01 1.56E+02 9.18E+01 1.35E+02 1.80E+02 1.23E+02 8.85E+00 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.9E+00 8.1 E\u201301 X 4.9E\u201301 9.5E\u201301 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 7.6E+02 4.0E\u201302 2.4E+01 4.2E+03 3.3E+01 4.6E\u201302 8.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+05 1.8E+01 1.4E+00 5.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+00 2.1E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6667, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 212, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.1 E\u201301 X 4.9E\u201301 9.5E\u201301 4.1E\u201301 3.4E+00 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+01 7.6E+02 4.0E\u201302 2.4E+01 4.2E+03 3.3E+01 4.6E\u201302 8.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+05 1.8E+01 1.4E+00 5.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+00 2.1E+02 7.0E+03 4.4E+00 2.4E+01 3.2E+00 1.7E+00 2.1E+03 7.2E+01 8.7E+01 4.7E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.5E+01 1.1E\u201301 2.7E+01 8.1E+03 2.8E+02 1.3E+02 6.5E+01 6.4E+01 1.6E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 2.4E+01 1Including dust besides individual chemicals may imply some double\u2013counting according to recent WHO findings", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6668, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 212, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6669, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 213, "book_page": 212, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6670, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 213, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water CAS number 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6671, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 213, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+01 1.2E+02 7.0E+03 7.4E+01 1.1E+00 1.7E+03 3.5E+01 8.3E+08 1.9E+00 4.5E+01 9.1E+03 3.5E+00 1.6E+01 7.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+03 2.9E+03 2.1E+00 5.9E+01 7.1E+03 6.1E+01 6.0E+03 X 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.4E+02 1.2E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+02 2.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 1.8E+03 X X X X 2.4E+03 4.2E+02 9.8E+01 8.6E\u201302 9.4E+00 5.0E+02 5.3E\u201303 4.7E+00 2.5E+00 5.6E+01 2.4E+00 2.8E+05 7.4E+02 HTP (500yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.79E+01 1.25E+02 6.99E+03 7.44E+01 1.06E+00 1.71E+03 3.52E+01 8.59E+08 1.93E+00 4.52E+01 9.15E+03 3.47E+00 1.61E+01 6.96E+01 1.34E+02 3.52E+03 2.85E+03 2.11E+00 5.86E+01 7.07E+03 6.07E+01 5.98E+03 X 2.35E\u201301 2.06E+00 4.13E+02 1.53E+02 4.56E+00 4.56E+02 2.50E+00 1.71E+01 1.42E\u201301 7.33E\u201301 1.83E+03 X X X X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6672, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 213, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.61E+01 6.96E+01 1.34E+02 3.52E+03 2.85E+03 2.11E+00 5.86E+01 7.07E+03 6.07E+01 5.98E+03 X 2.35E\u201301 2.06E+00 4.13E+02 1.53E+02 4.56E+00 4.56E+02 2.50E+00 1.71E+01 1.42E\u201301 7.33E\u201301 1.83E+03 X X X X 2.38E+03 4.64E+02 9.82E+01 8.61E\u201302 1.26E+01 4.96E+02 5.29E\u201303 4.69E+00 2.51E+00 5.64E+01 2.43E+00 2.81E+05 7.41E+02 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.4E+01 7.0E+03 4.4E+01 4.6E\u201301 1.3E+03 3.5E+01 8.4E+08 1.9E+00 4.5E+01 9.1E+03 3.5E+00 1.5E+01 7.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+03 2.9E+03 2.1E+00 5.7E+01 6.7E+03 6.1E+01 6.0E+03 2.4E\u201301 2.0E+00 6.7E+02 1.8E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+02 2.5E+00 5.6E+01 1.4E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 X X X X 2.0E+03 1.3E+03 9.8E+01 8.2E\u201302 1.2E+01 5.0E+02 5.3E\u201303 4.7E+00 2.5E+00 5.6E+01 1.6E+00 2.8E+05 7.2E+02 8.1E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6673, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 214, "book_page": 213, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2\u2013ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6674, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 214, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6675, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 214, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.1E+02 1.4E\u201301 9.1E+00 6.7E+00 1.0E+00 4.4E+01 8.9E\u201301 1.5E+00 X 6.2E+01 3.7E\u201301 1.0E+04 6.0E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+00 3.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.2E+02 5.0E+01 9.1E\u201301 6.6E+01 5.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.4E+01 3.4E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.9E+01 1.8E+01 1.8E+01 7.2E+00 1.6E+02 2.5E+00 6.3E+00 3.4E+02 5.3E+01 5.9E+01 1.7E+01 6.0E+03 1.8E+03 8.3E\u201301 6.5E\u201301 2.2E+01 9.3E+01 8.8E+02 8.6E+02 8.7E+02 X 8.6E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.6E\u201302 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.15E+02 1.43E\u201301 9.10E+00 6.69E+00 1.02E+00 4.43E+01 1.22E+00 2.03E+00 X 6.44E+01 5.15E\u201301 1.04E+04 5.95E+00 5.55E+00 5.38E+00 3.67E+01 2.85E+00 7.21E+02 4.99E+01 9.13E\u201301 6.57E+01 5.37E\u201301 1.84E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6676, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 214, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.15E+02 1.43E\u201301 9.10E+00 6.69E+00 1.02E+00 4.43E+01 1.22E+00 2.03E+00 X 6.44E+01 5.15E\u201301 1.04E+04 5.95E+00 5.55E+00 5.38E+00 3.67E+01 2.85E+00 7.21E+02 4.99E+01 9.13E\u201301 6.57E+01 5.37E\u201301 1.84E+00 2.40E+01 3.43E\u201301 4.49E+04 1.36E\u201301 1.43E+04 1.87E+01 1.77E+01 1.80E+01 7.15E+00 1.57E+02 2.47E+00 6.34E+00 3.45E+02 5.31 E+01 5.87E+01 1.73E+01 6.04E+03 1.77E+03 8.27E\u201301 6.54E\u201301 2.22E+01 9.29E+01 8.75E+02 8.61 E+02 8.74E+02 X 8.63E+00 3.71 E\u201302 6.62E\u201302 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E\u201301 4.8E+00 3.1E+00 1 .0E+00 4.4E+01 1.1E+00 1 .9E+00 X 6.6E+01 4.9E\u201301 1 .0E+04 6.0E+00 5.5E+00 5.4E+00 3.6E+01 2.8E+00 7.2E+02 5.0E+01 9.1E\u201301 6.6E+01 5.3E\u201301 6.1E\u201301 2.4E+01 3.3E\u201301 4.5E+04 1 .4E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.7E+01 1.6E+01 1.8E+01 7.1E+00 1.6E+02 2.4E+00 6.3E+00 3.4E+02 5.3E+01 5.9E+01 1.7E+01 6.0E+03 1 .8E+03 7.2E\u201301 5.9E\u201301 2.2E+01 9.3E+01 8.7E+02 7.5E+02 8.7E+02 X 8.6E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.6E\u201302 3.4E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6677, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 215, "book_page": 214, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6678, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 215, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6679, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 215, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+03 1.3E+00 8.0E+04 5.3E+06 x x x 1.8E\u201301 1.3E+01 4.1E+00 8.3E+02 1.1E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.0E+02 8.0E+01 1.6E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 3.3E+00 3.0E+02 4.8E+03 8.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.0E+02 3.4E\u201301 5.6E+00 3.9E+01 x 3.6E\u201301 7.4E+01 4.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 1.0E+02 1.2E+03 9.1E+01 7.2E+00 2.3E+01 x 4.9E\u201302 1.2E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 x 1.6E+00 1.3E+00 2.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.44E+03 1.28E+00 7.95E+04 5.65E+06 x x x 1.84E\u201301 1.32E+01 6.29E+00 8.26E+02 1.15E+02 2.45E\u201301 1.51E+01 2.05E+02 1.22E+02 1.61E\u201301 1.69E+00 2.62E+00 3.27E+00 2.98E+02 7.27E+03 7.97E+00 5.54E\u201301 1.06E+01 1.26E+02 3.37E\u201301 5.55E+00 4.89E+01 x 3.55E\u201301 7.42E+01 4.25E\u201301 3.10E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6680, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 215, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.15E+02 2.45E\u201301 1.51E+01 2.05E+02 1.22E+02 1.61E\u201301 1.69E+00 2.62E+00 3.27E+00 2.98E+02 7.27E+03 7.97E+00 5.54E\u201301 1.06E+01 1.26E+02 3.37E\u201301 5.55E+00 4.89E+01 x 3.55E\u201301 7.42E+01 4.25E\u201301 3.10E+01 1.03E+02 1.20E+03 9.06E+01 7.24E+00 2.25E+01 x 4.92E\u201302 1.19E+01 1.15E\u201304 1.66E+00 x 1.61E+00 1.26E+00 2.64E+03 3.51E\u201301 5.28E+01 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 1.4E+04 3.3E+06 x 1.8E\u201301 1.3E+01 5.7E+00 8.2E+02 1.1E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.0E+02 6.1E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 3.3E+00 6.1E+01 6.6E+03 8.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 4.7E+02 3.4E\u201301 5.3E+00 6.1E+01 3.6E\u201301 7.4E+01 4.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 1.0E+02 9.6E+02 5.9E+01 7.2E+00 2.3E+01 x 4.9E\u201302 1.2E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 1.6E+00 1.3E+00 2.4E+03 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+01 4.3E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6681, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 216, "book_page": 215, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos\u2013methyl Toluene tri\u2013allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6682, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 216, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6683, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 216, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.0E+02 9.7E+00 8.5E\u201302 X 5.7E+00 2.2E+02 5.5E+03 3.3E+00 5.9E\u201303 1 .0E+00 3.0E\u201301 8.3E+01 3.2E+02 3.4E+03 3.7E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.3E+01 9.7E+01 2.4E+02 1.4E+02 1.7E\u201301 1.7E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.0E+02 1.1E+04 9.4E+00 9.6E+00 3.0E+01 2.5E+01 6.2E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+01 4.1E+00 5.4E+00 5.4E+01 4.5E+02 3.0E+01 4.7E\u201301 2.2E+02 2.6E\u201301 3.9E+08 5.4E\u201303 6.1E\u201301 4.7E+01 6.7E\u201305 6.5E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.19E+02 9.74E+00 8.51E\u201302 X 5.72E+00 2.20E+02 6.68E+03 3.31E+00 8.87E\u201303 1.05E+00 3.03E\u201301 8.34E+01 3.18E+02 3.38E+03 3.72E\u201301 3.35E+01 1.25E+01 9.70E+01 3.12E+02 1.45E+02 2.51E\u201301 1.73E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.0E+02 1.1E+04 9.4E+00 9.65E+00 2.99E+01 2.46E+01 6.19E+01 3.02E+01 5.56E+01 4.09E+00 5.45E+00 5.37E+01 4.45E+02 3.04E+01 4.74E\u201301 2.25E+02 2.63E\u201301 4.22E+08 5.40E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6684, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 216, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.0E+02 1.1E+04 9.4E+00 9.65E+00 2.99E+01 2.46E+01 6.19E+01 3.02E+01 5.56E+01 4.09E+00 5.45E+00 5.37E+01 4.45E+02 3.04E+01 4.74E\u201301 2.25E+02 2.63E\u201301 4.22E+08 5.40E\u201303 6.07E\u201301 4.68E+01 6.68E\u201305 6.50E\u201302 3.55E\u201301 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.7E+00 8.4E\u201302 1.6E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+04 3.3E+00 8.1E\u201303 1.0E+00 2.6E\u201301 8.3E+01 3.2E+02 3.4E+03 3.7E\u201301 2.4E+01 3.3E+00 9.7E+01 4.5E+02 1.3E+02 2.3E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.8E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 5.0E\u201302 1 .0E+02 7.3E+03 2.6E+02 1.1E+00 2.0E+01 1.3E+01 2.8E+01 2.2E+01 2.6E+01 1.8E+00 2.1 E+00 2.6E+01 4.4E+02 1.6E+01 1.9E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.6E\u201301 3.8E+08 5.4E\u201303 5.9E\u201301 4.7E+01 6.7E\u201305 6.1E\u201302 3.5E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6685, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 217, "book_page": 216, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 3,4\u2013dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6686, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 217, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6687, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 217, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+00 2.1E+00 4.0E+00 5.1E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 5.1E+01 2.4E\u201301 7.8E+02 X 8.2E\u201304 1.6E\u201301 2.4E+01 1.6E+01 1.8E\u201302 1.6E+00 5.7E\u201303 8.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201304 2.2E\u201303 2.1E+02 X X X X 5.5E+01 1.0E+01 7.5E\u201301 8.5E\u201304 2.4E+00 9.7E+00 5.4E\u201306 1.9E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 2.8E+04 1.2E+03 3.8E+00 2.1E\u201303 5.2E+00 4.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 3.8E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 4.4E\u201301 X 1.8E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.2E+02 9.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.51E+00 2.06E+00 4.03E+00 5.10E\u201304 8.03E\u201301 5.09E+01 2.39E\u201301 7.79E+02 X 8.18E\u201304 1 .57E\u201301 1.36E+02 9.20E+01 1.76E\u201302 1.60E+00 5.70E\u201303 4.74E+00 2.42E\u201304 2.20E\u201303 2.10E+02 X X X X 5.50E+01 5.89E+01 7.48E\u201301 8.52E\u201304 1.77E+01 9.69E+00 5.42E\u201306 1.87E\u201303 2.01E\u201303 2.09E\u201301 4.82E\u201301 2.88E+04 1.16E+03 3.85E+00 2.13E\u201303 5.16E+00 4.55E\u201301 4.32E\u201303 3.80E\u201302 2.08E+00 3.46E+00 X 1.02E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6688, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 217, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.50E+01 5.89E+01 7.48E\u201301 8.52E\u201304 1.77E+01 9.69E+00 5.42E\u201306 1.87E\u201303 2.01E\u201303 2.09E\u201301 4.82E\u201301 2.88E+04 1.16E+03 3.85E+00 2.13E\u201303 5.16E+00 4.55E\u201301 4.32E\u201303 3.80E\u201302 2.08E+00 3.46E+00 X 1.02E+00 6.86E\u201301 2.23E+02 9.63E\u201303 2.58E\u201302 2.57E\u201303 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 2.1E+00 4.0E+00 5.1E\u201304 7.7E\u201301 4.0E+01 2.4E\u201301 7.7E+02 8.2E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 6.1E+02 1.8E+02 1.7E\u201302 1.6E+00 5.7E\u201303 5.5E+01 2.4E\u201304 2.2E\u201303 1.2E+02 X X X X 4.3E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 7.9E\u201304 1.2E+01 9.1E+00 5.4E\u201306 1.9E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 2.7E+04 1.0E+03 3.8E+00 2.0E\u201303 2.7E+00 2.0E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 3.8E\u201302 1.4E+00 2.3E+00 X 4.2E+00 5.5E\u201301 2.1E+02 9.6E\u201303 2.5E\u201302 2.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6689, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 218, "book_page": 217, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2\u2013ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6690, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 218, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.3E+01 3.3E\u201302 3.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6691, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 218, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.3E+01 3.3E\u201302 3.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 2.7E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 2.3E\u201303 5.5E+03 5.7E\u201304 3.7E+02 3.2E+00 9.7E+00 3.3E\u201303 8.4E\u201303 6.3E\u201301 2.9E\u201303 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 4.2E\u201302 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 7.0E\u201302 4.7E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 4.1E+00 1.2E+01 4.1E+00 X 3.1E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 1.5E\u201305 4.3E+01 2.3E\u201303 3.9E+04 3.1E+06 X X X 1.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201302 2.1E+00 6.1E+00 6.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201304 3.7E\u201302 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.36E+01 3.29E\u201302 2.95E\u201301 1.16E\u201301 3.98E\u201302 2.73E\u201301 3.01E\u201303 2.98E\u201301 9.68E\u201302 2.31E\u201303 5.50E+03 5.70E\u201304 3.69E+02 3.16E+00 9.68E+00 3.29E\u201303 8.39E\u201303 6.32E\u201301 2.93E\u201303 1.29E+00 1.54E+00 1.85E\u201301 1.49E\u201303 4.23E\u201302 1.64E+03 1.34E+01 7.02E\u201302 4.71E\u201302 8.96E\u201302 4.65E\u201301 4.14E+00 1.21E+01 4.11E+00 X 3.14E\u201301 2.82E\u201305 1.51E\u201305 4.28E+01 2.29E\u201303 3.95E+04 3.42E+06 X X X 1.19E\u201304 2.90E\u201302 1.82E+01 6.15E+00 6.54E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6692, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 218, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.64E+03 1.34E+01 7.02E\u201302 4.71E\u201302 8.96E\u201302 4.65E\u201301 4.14E+00 1.21E+01 4.11E+00 X 3.14E\u201301 2.82E\u201305 1.51E\u201305 4.28E+01 2.29E\u201303 3.95E+04 3.42E+06 X X X 1.19E\u201304 2.90E\u201302 1.82E+01 6.15E+00 6.54E\u201301 8.41E\u201304 3.69E\u201302 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.0E+01 3.3E\u201302 2.9E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 3.9E\u201302 2.7E\u201301 2.9E\u201303 9.5E\u201302 9.7E\u201302 2.1E\u201303 5.2E+03 5.6E\u201304 3.5E+02 2.9E+00 9.0E+00 3.3E\u201303 8.3E\u201303 6.2E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 1.6E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 4.2E\u201302 1.4E+03 1.3E+01 6.1E\u201302 4.1E\u201302 8.9E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 4.1E+00 9.0E+00 4.1E+00 X 2.9E\u201301 2.6E\u201305 1.5E\u201305 4.3E+01 2.3E\u201303 5.7E+03 1.3E+06 X 1.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201302 1.2E+01 6.0E+00 6.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201304 3.7E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6693, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 219, "book_page": 218, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium +Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6694, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 219, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CASnumber 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4- DCB eg./kg) 8.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6695, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 219, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4- DCB eg./kg) 8.4E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+01 2.4E+03 7.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201304 1.8E\u201303 5.9E+00 1.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201301 4.1E+00 X 1.4E\u201305 1 .0E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 5.4E\u201301 4.1E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 X 8.0E\u201305 2.9E\u201301 1 .0E\u201307 1.3E\u201303 X 2.6E\u201303 3.9E\u201304 1.6E+01 1.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 2.7E+01 1.6E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 X 2.8E+00 1.7E+02 3.4E+02 6.6E\u201304 2.8E\u201303 6.5E\u201302 3.9E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.6E+00 5.5E+01 3.1E\u201305 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.43E\u201301 2.96E+02 3.18E\u201305 2.42E\u201303 8.24E\u201303 1.40E\u201303 2.49E+01 1.74E+04 7.63E\u201302 8.52E\u201304 1.85E\u201303 3.33E+01 1.03E\u201302 1.94E\u201301 2.36E+01 X 1.43E\u201305 1.02E\u201302 2.58E\u201302 1.85E\u201301 5.38E\u201301 4.12E+02 4.61E+01 1.39E\u201301 2.55E\u201301 X 7.96E\u201305 2.94E\u201301 1.01E\u201307 1.28E\u201303 X 2.60E\u201303 3.90E\u201304 1.58E+01 1.30E\u201302 2.28E\u201301 1.56E+02 1.60E\u201302 1.02E\u201302 X 2.75E+00 1.68E+02 1.91E+03 6.60E\u201304 2.27E\u201302 6.53E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6696, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 219, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.61E+01 1.39E\u201301 2.55E\u201301 X 7.96E\u201305 2.94E\u201301 1.01E\u201307 1.28E\u201303 X 2.60E\u201303 3.90E\u201304 1.58E+01 1.30E\u201302 2.28E\u201301 1.56E+02 1.60E\u201302 1.02E\u201302 X 2.75E+00 1.68E+02 1.91E+03 6.60E\u201304 2.27E\u201302 6.53E\u201302 3.85E\u201302 1.21E+00 1.56E+00 5.46E+01 3.09E\u201305 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.4E\u201301 1.0E+03 3.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201303 8.1E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 5.1E+00 1.1E+04 7.2E\u201302 8.4E\u201304 1.8E\u201303 4.7E+02 1.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201301 5.4E+01 1.4E\u201305 1.0E\u201302 2.4E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 5.4E\u201301 2.5E+02 2.8E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 X 7.9E\u201305 2.9E\u201301 1.0E\u201307 1.3E\u201303 2.6E\u201303 3.9E\u201304 9.8E+00 1.2E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 4.3E+03 1.6E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 6.7E\u201301 1.6E+01 2.0E+04 6.5E\u201304 1.5E\u201302 6.5E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.6E+00 5.4E+01 3.1E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6697, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 220, "book_page": 219, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl Comp. seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6698, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 220, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6699, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 220, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CASnumber 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+01 6.0E+00 6.0E+00 2.5E+01 4.3E+01 7.3E\u201302 8.2E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.3E+00 5.4E+02 4.8E\u201303 1.6E+01 8.0E+01 1.8E+02 5.6E+01 8.4E+01 4.2E+01 7.3E+00 1.3E+03 6.9E+01 3.1E+03 2.5E+02 2.9E+00 2.2E+04 3.1E+01 1.3E+09 5.8E+00 5.3E+00 1.8E+03 4.7E+01 7.4E+02 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 3.0E+04 3.5E+04 2.2E+01 2.3E+02 4.9E+05 5.1E+02 4.7E+03 X 8.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 3.5E+02 6.2E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E+02 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.41E+01 6.02E+00 6.05E+00 1.42E+02 4.26E+01 5.18E\u201301 8.21 E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6700, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 220, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.9E+05 5.1E+02 4.7E+03 X 8.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 3.5E+02 6.2E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E+02 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.41E+01 6.02E+00 6.05E+00 1.42E+02 4.26E+01 5.18E\u201301 8.21 E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.3E+00 5.4E+02 2.7E\u201302 1.60E+01 7.97E+01 1.81E+02 5.64E+01 8.40E+01 4.20E+01 7.32E+00 1.29E+03 6.91E+01 3.07E+03 2.47E+02 2.88E+00 2.22E+04 3.06E+01 1.30E+09 5.84E+00 5.28E+00 1.80E+03 4.70E+01 7.41E+02 8.33E+00 1.68E+03 2.99E+04 3.47E+04 2.16E+01 2.34E+02 4.88E+05 5.07E+02 4.67E+03 X 8.01E\u201302 5.15E\u201301 4.86E+03 1.53E+03 2.13E+01 7.65E+02 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.9E+00 1.5E+00 6.0E+00 4.4E+02 3.6E+01 3.6E\u201301 8.2E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 6.0E+00 1.6E\u201305 2.1E+00 3.1E+02 2.5E+02 2.1E+00 7.9E+01 1.8E+02 3.4E+01 8.3E+01 2.8E+01 3.4E+00 1.3E+03 4.7E+01 3.0E+03 2.2E+02 2.4E+00 2.2E+04 3.1E+01 1.3E+09 5.8E+00 5.3E+00 1.8E+03 4.7E+01 7.4E+02 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 3.0E+04 3.5E+04 2.2E+01 2.3E+02 4.9E+05 5.1E+02 4.7E+03 8.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 6.6E+03 3.1E+04 2.1E+01 7.6E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6701, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 221, "book_page": 220, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6702, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 221, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6703, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 221, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.9E+01 3.8E+00 4.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.5E+04 X X X X 5.5E+03 6.9E+02 2.9E+01 3.1E\u201301 6.1E+02 9.5E+02 9.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.4E+02 1.4E+03 3.6E+00 7.0E+04 2.8E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+00 7.1E+00 9.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 1.4E+01 5.9E+00 9.9E+00 X 2.6E+02 2.0E+00 1.1E+04 2.4E+01 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 2.0E+02 1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 2.4E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.5E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02 3.2E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.90E+01 4.56E+01 4.28E\u201301 1.51E+01 1.48E+04 X X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6704, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 221, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 2.4E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.5E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02 3.2E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.90E+01 4.56E+01 4.28E\u201301 1.51E+01 1.48E+04 X X X X 5.53E+03 5.69E+03 2.86E+01 3.10E\u201301 1.07E+04 9.58E+02 9.75E\u201302 2.10E+01 1.41E+02 1.42E+03 3.61E+00 7.10E+04 2.78E+03 1.22E+03 2.18E+00 7.06E+00 9.40E\u201301 2.12E+00 1.45E+01 1.46E+02 2.43E+02 X 2.25E+03 3.92E+01 1.10E+04 2.45E+01 5.20E+03 2.79E+02 2.67E+02 1.60E\u201301 5.72E+03 6.48E+02 1.78E+00 1.17E+02 1.31E+00 2.45E+00 4.52E+00 9.68E\u201301 7.56E+03 5.73E\u201302 1.19E+03 1.12E+02 3.21E+01 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.9E+01 7.3E+01 4.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.4E+04 X X X X 5.5E+03 6.4E+03 2.9E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.0E+04 9.6E+02 9.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.4E+02 1.4E+03 2.8E+00 7.1E+04 2.8E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+00 3.8E+00 7.9E\u201301 2.1E+00 1.4E+01 5.1E+03 8.5E+03 X 2.4E+03 9.3E+01 1.1E+04 2.4E+01 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 2.7E+02 1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 1.6E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6705, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 221, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.1E+00 1.4E+01 5.1E+03 8.5E+03 X 2.4E+03 9.3E+01 1.1E+04 2.4E+01 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 2.7E+02 1.6E\u201301 5.7E+03 6.5E+02 1.8E+00 1.2E+02 1.3E+00 1.6E+00 4.5E+00 9.7E\u201301 7.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+03 1.1E+02 3.2E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6706, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 222, "book_page": 221, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6707, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 222, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6708, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 222, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108-38-3 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.2E+02 2.8E+01 5.6E+02 3.6E\u201301 8.6E+00 1 .7E+02 1 .3E+03 2.8E+02 2.6E\u201301 8.4E+03 5.7E+03 7.5E\u201301 7.8E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 7.2E+01 1.3E+02 8.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.3E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.7E+02 3.4E+00 3.0E+04 3.1E+07 X X X 1.8E+00 9.6E+02 5.5E+00 4.9E+02 1.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 1.0E+02 7.4E+02 2.7E+01 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 2.6E+02 3.4E+02 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 1.9E+01 3.8E+00 4.8E+00 3.4E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.18E+02 2.85E+01 5.62E+02 3.56E\u201301 8.56E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6709, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 222, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.4E+02 2.7E+01 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 2.6E+02 3.4E+02 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 1.9E+01 3.8E+00 4.8E+00 3.4E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.18E+02 2.85E+01 5.62E+02 3.56E\u201301 8.56E+00 1.68E+02 1.27E+03 2.76E+02 2.63E-01 8.44E+03 5.68E+03 7.53E\u201301 7.80E\u201301 1.20E+01 3.05E+01 7.17E+01 1.31E+02 8.80E+01 X 1.28E+01 2.27E+00 1.49E\u201302 6.69E+02 3.38E+00 3.00E+04 3.26E+07 X X X 1.84E+00 9.61E+02 1 .35E+02 4.89E+02 1.69E+02 2.57E\u201302 1.04E+02 7.44E+02 5.00E+02 6.46E+00 4.91E+01 5.08E+01 4.33E+01 2.62E+02 7.06E+03 4.13E+02 1.14E+01 5.72E+00 4.43E+02 3.80E+00 4.81E+00 7.29E+02 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eg./kg) 3.2E+02 2.8E+01 5.6E+02 3.5E\u201301 8.6E+00 1.7E+02 1.3E+03 2.8E+02 2.6E\u201301 8.4E+03 5.7E+03 6.9E\u201301 7.1E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 7.2E+01 1.3E+02 8.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.3E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.7E+02 3.4E+00 4.9E+03 3.2E+07 X 1.8E+00 9.6E+02 3.3E+03 4.9E+02 1.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 1.0E+02 7.4E+02 5.3E+03 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 5.4E+01 1.4E+04 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 3.4E+03 3.8E+00 4.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6710, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 222, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.4E+00 4.9E+03 3.2E+07 X 1.8E+00 9.6E+02 3.3E+03 4.9E+02 1.7E+02 2.6E\u201302 1.0E+02 7.4E+02 5.3E+03 6.5E+00 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 4.3E+01 5.4E+01 1.4E+04 4.1E+02 1.1E+01 5.7E+00 3.4E+03 3.8E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6711, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 223, "book_page": 222, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6712, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 223, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6713, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 223, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82-68-8 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108-95-2 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 71\u201355\u20136 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1.0E+01 6.1E+02 5.0E+00 2.9E+00 2.4E+01 4.5E+03 7.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 X 1.9E+00 2.5E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.6E+01 X 1.5E+01 2.7E+02 2.2E+05 3.0E+00 5.1E+01 2.1E+02 2.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 X 6.4E+00 2.2E+02 2.8E+04 7.9E+00 2.2E\u201302 1.1E+01 3.5E\u201301 5.8E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 3.3E+01 3.2E+01 1.4E+01 1.2E+02 2.6E+02 5.2E+02 9.2E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 3.2E+01 1.6E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1.01E+01 6.11E+02 5.02E+00 2.92E+00 2.36E+01 4.46E+03 7.25E+01 1.49E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6714, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 223, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.6E+02 5.2E+02 9.2E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 3.2E+01 1.6E+01 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) X 1.01E+01 6.11E+02 5.02E+00 2.92E+00 2.36E+01 4.46E+03 7.25E+01 1.49E\u201301 1.13E+01 X 1.86E+00 2.53E+01 1.01 E\u201302 2.61E+01 X 1.53E+01 2.72E+02 2.20E+05 3.03E+00 5.15E+01 1.09E+03 2.06E+02 4.77E\u201301 X 6.42E+00 2.22E+02 5.83E+05 7.91E+00 5.43E\u201301 1.09E+01 3.47E\u201301 5.75E+00 1.19E+03 2.92E+02 3.26E+01 3.16E+01 1.41E+01 1.25E+02 5.52E+03 5.17E+02 1.94E+01 2.04E+01 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 3.2E+01 1.57E+01 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E+01 6.1E+02 5.0E+00 2.9E+00 2.4E+01 4.4E+03 7.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+01 X 1.9E+00 2.5E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.6E+01 1.5E+01 2.7E+02 2.2E+05 3.0E+00 5.1E+01 2.9E+03 2.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 2.5E+00 2.4E+01 1.9E+06 7.9E+00 1.3E+01 1.1E+01 3.1E\u201301 5.8E+00 1.2E+03 2.9E+02 3.3E+01 2.2E+01 6.6E+00 1.2E+02 1.7E+04 5.0E+02 6.4E+01 2.0E+01 1.9E+00 1.4E+00 4.7E+02 8.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 1.1E+05 1.6E+02 1.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6715, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 224, "book_page": 223, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6716, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 224, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6717, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 224, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.2E+00 1.4E+01 5.4E+01 5.4E+00 4.3E+01 6.9E+00 5.7E+00 5.2E+01 2.2E+03 5.0E+01 7.4E\u201301 4.6E+02 1.6E+00 9.8E+06 1.8E\u201301 2.9E+00 1.7E+02 7.2E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.4E+00 3.1E+01 4.6E+02 5.1E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.5E+03 1.3E+01 1.6E+02 X 3.0E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 9.1E+00 9.1E\u201301 8.8E\u201301 6.9E+00 9.9E\u201302 4.8E\u201301 1.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201301 1.6E+03 X X X X 4.9E+02 2.5E+01 3.0E\u201301 1.8E\u201303 1.8E+00 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.18E+00 1.38E+01 5.42E+01 5.35E+00 4.32E+01 6.89E+00 5.67E+00 5.17E+01 2.19E+03 4.96E+01 7.38E\u201301 4.62E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6718, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 224, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.6E+03 X X X X 4.9E+02 2.5E+01 3.0E\u201301 1.8E\u201303 1.8E+00 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.18E+00 1.38E+01 5.42E+01 5.35E+00 4.32E+01 6.89E+00 5.67E+00 5.17E+01 2.19E+03 4.96E+01 7.38E\u201301 4.62E+02 1.60E+00 1.01 E+07 1.77E\u201301 2.93E+00 1.70E+02 7.22E\u201301 1.88E+00 1.37E+00 3.06E+01 4.63E+02 5.10E+02 3.07E\u201301 1.66E+01 1.52E+03 1.34E+01 1.58E+02 X 3.01 E\u201304 1.98E\u201302 1.73E+02 2.40E+01 8.76E\u201301 6.90E+00 9.92E\u201302 7.19E+00 1.13E\u201303 1.60E\u201301 1.61E+03 X X X X 4.87E+02 2.43E+02 2.97E\u201301 1.83E\u201303 3.31E+01 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.9E+00 5.9E+00 2.4E+01 3.0E+00 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 2.6E+00 2.5E+01 2.1E+03 2.5E+01 2.9E\u201301 3.3E+02 1.5E+00 1 .0E+07 1.8E\u201301 2.9E+00 1.7E+02 7.2E\u201301 1.6E+00 1.4E+00 3.1E+01 4.6E+02 5.1E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.6E+01 1.3E+03 1.3E+01 1.6E+02 3.0E\u201304 1.9E\u201302 3.8E+02 5.2E+02 8.8E\u201301 6.9E+00 9.9E\u201302 2.8E+01 1.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201301 9.3E+02 X X X X 3.8E+02 7.0E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 6.1E+01 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6719, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 225, "book_page": 224, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6720, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 225, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6721, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 225, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16056\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 122\u201314\u20135 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 8.0E+00 2.2E+00 2.5E+03 2.7E+01 4.4E+01 2.0E\u201302 6.8E+00 1.0E+00 8.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201301 3.4E\u201301 5.7E\u201301 X 3.9E+00 1.5E\u201302 1.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 1.8E+00 1.3E+00 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.3E\u201303 1.4E+01 3.8E\u201302 5.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201301 9.7E+01 1.2E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 2.0E+00 7.2E+00 2.8E+00 1.6E\u201302 7.5E+02 3.8E+02 5.0E\u201301 6.2E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.88E+01 1.14E\u201304 1.55E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6722, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 225, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.4E+01 3.8E\u201302 5.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201301 9.7E+01 1.2E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 2.0E+00 7.2E+00 2.8E+00 1.6E\u201302 7.5E+02 3.8E+02 5.0E\u201301 6.2E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.88E+01 1.14E\u201304 1.55E\u201301 4.32E\u201301 8.03E+00 2.24E+00 2.74E+03 2.71E+01 4.44E+01 2.05E\u201302 6.83E+00 9.99E\u201301 8.15E\u201302 1.39E\u201301 8.51E+00 1.42E+01 X 4.04E+01 3.38E\u201301 1.61E+03 3.49E\u201301 1.85E+00 1.32E+00 1.78E+00 3.01E\u201302 8.88E+01 2.91E+00 5.19E\u201303 3.19E+00 1.32E\u201302 1.30E+00 2.60E\u201301 3.58E\u201302 1.47E+03 3.31E\u201303 1.36E+01 3.84E\u201302 5.17E\u201302 2.99E+00 2.69E\u201301 9.67E+01 1.21E\u201301 8.79E\u201303 2.04E+00 7.24E+00 2.77E+00 1.62E\u201302 7.54E+02 3.77E+02 5.02E\u201301 6.17E\u201301 3.24E\u201301 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 8.0E+00 1.4E+00 2.7E+03 2.6E+01 4.4E+01 2.0E\u201302 3.6E+00 4.5E\u201301 8.1 E\u201302 1.4E\u201301 3.0E+02 5.0E+02 X 4.4E+01 8.2E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.3E+00 1.8E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.2E\u201302 4.1E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.2E\u201303 1.3E+01 3.5E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.6E\u201301 9.0E+01 1.0E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6723, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 225, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E+01 8.2E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.5E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.3E+00 1.8E+00 3.0E\u201302 8.9E+01 2.9E+00 5.2E\u201303 3.2E+00 1.2E\u201302 4.1E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 1.5E+03 3.2E\u201303 1.3E+01 3.5E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.6E\u201301 9.0E+01 1.0E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 2.0E+00 7.2E+00 2.8E+00 1.6E\u201302 7.5E+02 3.8E+02 4.3E\u201301 5.4E\u201301 3.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6724, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 226, "book_page": 225, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Comp. indus. soil Indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6725, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 226, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6726, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 226, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7647\u201301\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 108\u201338\u20133 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 10102\u201344\u20130 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 95\u201347\u20136 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14816\u201318\u20133 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+00 9.2E+00 1.3E+01 8.5E+00 X 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 6.5E\u201304 4.4E+00 2.0E\u201302 3.5E+04 1.1E+06 X X X 3.2E\u201303 2.8E+00 4.8E\u201301 5.2E+01 9.4E+00 9.5E\u201304 9.7E\u201301 4.2E+01 1.5E+00 1.2E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 5.0E+01 1.9E+00 1.1E\u201301 5.5E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 1.6E+00 5.4E\u201301 X 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.6E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.4E+02 4.3E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 6.0E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.53E+00 9.20E+00 1.29E+01 8.50E+00 X 1.50E+00 1.90E\u201302 6.49E\u201304 4.44E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6727, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 226, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.6E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 1.4E+02 4.3E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 6.0E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.53E+00 9.20E+00 1.29E+01 8.50E+00 X 1.50E+00 1.90E\u201302 6.49E\u201304 4.44E+00 2.03E\u201302 3.52E+04 1.32E+06 X X X 3.18E\u201303 2.80E+00 1.19E+01 5.20E+01 9.43E+00 9.48E\u201304 9.72E\u201301 4.24E+01 4.43E+01 1.17E\u201302 1.55E\u201301 3.59E\u201301 6.93E\u201301 2.63E+02 1.91E+03 1.93E+00 1.10E\u201301 5.54E\u201302 1.27E+01 1.89E\u201302 1.63E+00 1.40E+01 X 6.76E\u201302 3.84E+00 7.65E\u201302 1.11E\u201301 1.74E+00 1.44E+02 4.34E+00 3.92E\u201302 2.11E\u201302 X 6.04E\u201303 3.84E\u201301 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+00 9.1E+00 1.0E+01 8.5E+00 X 1.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 6.5E\u201304 4.4E+00 2.0E\u201302 4.8E+03 3.9E+05 X 3.2E\u201303 2.8E+00 2.9E+02 5.1E+01 9.4E+00 9.5E\u201304 9.7E\u201301 4.2E+01 4.4E+02 1.2E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201301 5.4E+01 3.7E+03 1.9E+00 1.1E\u201301 5.5E\u201302 2.9E+02 1.8E\u201302 1.5E+00 5.7E+01 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+00 7.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 1.7E+00 7.0E+01 2.9E+00 3.9E\u201302 2.1E\u201302 X 5.9E\u201303 3.8E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6728, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 227, "book_page": 226, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust(PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride x = not calculated Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6729, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 227, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PM10 1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 106\u201342\u20133 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 999\u201381\u20135 67306\u201303\u20130 69377\u201381\u20137 ?? 75\u201321\u20138 7664\u201339\u20133 HTP (20 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.6E\u201307 2.9E\u201301 X 1.4E\u201301 2.7E\u201301 5.9E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.2E+00 4.8E+01 2.2E+00 1.8E\u201302 X 5.2E+00 2.2E+02 4.3E+01 2.5E\u201301 8.6E\u201304 4.0E\u201302 2.1E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+01 4.3E+01 2.0E\u201302 3.2E+01 1.0E+01 6.8E\u201301 2.3E+00 8.3E+01 2.6E\u201303 1.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 4.7E+00 HTP (500 yr) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.58E\u201307 2.89E\u201301 X 1.42E\u201301 2.66E\u201301 5.87E+02 2.53E\u201302 1.20E+00 3.01 E+02 2.19E+00 1.75E\u201302 X 5.16E+00 2.19E+02 1.15E+03 2.53E\u201301 2.13E\u201302 3.97E\u201302 2.08E\u201301 3.57E\u201301 3.74E+01 4.28E+01 1.96E\u201302 3.16E+01 1.01E+01 6.82E\u201301 6.55E+01 8.26E+01 7.18E\u201302 1.00E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 4.7E+00 HTP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6730, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 227, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.15E+03 2.53E\u201301 2.13E\u201302 3.97E\u201302 2.08E\u201301 3.57E\u201301 3.74E+01 4.28E+01 1.96E\u201302 3.16E+01 1.01E+01 6.82E\u201301 6.55E+01 8.26E+01 7.18E\u201302 1.00E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 4.6E+03 4.7E+00 HTP (inf-cont) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.6E\u201307 2.9E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 2.7E\u201301 4.5E+02 2.4E\u201302 1.2E+00 2.1E+03 2.2E+00 1.7E\u201302 1.2E+00 2.0E+01 1.1E+04 2.5E\u201301 5.2E\u201301 3.9E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+01 4.2E+01 2.0E\u201302 2.2E+01 2.6E+00 6.8E\u201301 2.9E+02 7.0E+01 2.4E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 2.7E+03 1.3E+02 Source: Status: Equations: Remark: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts etal., 2000a Author(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6731, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 227, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The indicator result is expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the Human Toxicity Potential (the characterisation factor) for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6732, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 228, "book_page": 227, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.8 Ecotoxicity 1 Means Table 4.3.8.1 : FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for infinite time horizon and global scale. Substance Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6733, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 228, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CAS FAETP MAETP FSETP MSETP TETP number (inf) (inf) (inf) (inf) (inf) (kg 1,4- (kg 1,4- (kg 1,4- (kg 1,4- (kg 1,4DCB DCB DCB DCB DCB eq./kg) eq./kg) eq./kg) eq./kg) eq./kg) 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1 ,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6734, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 228, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 1.2E\u2013041 1.0E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 8.5E\u201303 7.3E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.2E\u201304 1.6E\u201302 3.3E\u201307 2.4E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.1E+01 8.0E+01 2.1E+06 8.5E\u201301 1.5E+01 5.9E+00 3.9E+01 1.4E+00 1.3E+01 1.7E+03 1 .0E+02 2.0E+00 7.9E+01 5.2E+02 4.1E\u201301 5.1E+04 2.7E+00 X 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 3.7E+00 5.0E+01 3.6E+02 2.9E+02 4.2E+02 4.3E+01 3.0E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.8E+01 2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201306 4.6E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.9E+02 1.3E+02 3.0E+08 2.0E\u201301 5.3E+01 3.9E+00 5.3E+00 1.3E+00 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.9E+01 5.7E+02 9.1E\u201301 8.2E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6735, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 228, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201306 4.6E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.9E+02 1.3E+02 3.0E+08 2.0E\u201301 5.3E+01 3.9E+00 5.3E+00 1.3E+00 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.9E+01 5.7E+02 9.1E\u201301 8.2E+03 6.1E+01 X 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 3.3E+04 2.3E+05 2.8E+02 1.6E+02 2.0E+02 7.8E+05 1 .0E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 9.3E\u201303 8.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 2.7E\u201303 1.0E\u201304 1.7E\u201302 2.2E\u201307 2.2E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 8.7E+01 6.8E+06 6.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 5.7E+00 2.9E+01 5.5E\u201301 1.0E+01 2.1E+03 9.3E+01 1.8E+00 4.0E+01 3.9E+02 2.7E\u201301 4.1E+04 2.4E\u201301 X 8.8E\u201301 1.9E+02 9.1E+00 1.3E+02 3.1E+02 2.1E+02 2.2E+02 9.7E+01 1.0E\u201301 6.9E+00 7.0E+00 8.5E\u201301 6.1E+00 8.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201306 2.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.1E+02 8.1E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.8E+01 4.3E+00 7.3E+00 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.1E+03 3.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.8E+01 7.5E+02 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+04 5.4E+00 X 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+03 3.1E+04 2.3E+05 3.1E+02 1.3E+02 5.7E+01 6.7E+05 1.8E\u201304 9.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 7.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201308 4.4E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 5.4E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 1.2E+04 3.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6736, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 228, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+03 3.1E+04 2.3E+05 3.1E+02 1.3E+02 5.7E+01 6.7E+05 1.8E\u201304 9.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 7.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201308 4.4E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 5.4E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 1.2E+04 3.2E\u201301 2.4E-01 3.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.6E\u201302 6.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 8.0E\u201303 2.0E+03 1.4E\u201302 X 9.2E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 6.1E\u201301 1.6E+03 2.0E+00 2.4E+00 1.9E\u201301 4.9E+00 air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6737, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 229, "book_page": 228, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6738, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 229, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E+01 5.6E+00 8.4E\u201305 4.2E+01 8.8E+01 4.4E+01 3.9E+03 7.6E\u201301 1.7E+04 8.2E+02 4.0E\u201301 2.9E+02 2.0E+04 1.6E+01 1.1E+02 3.0E+03 9.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 1.9E+00 7.7E+00 3.9E+01 6.4E+02 2.2E+02 2.4E+05 1.9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.2E+02 1.8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6739, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 229, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+02 3.0E+03 9.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 1.9E+00 7.7E+00 3.9E+01 6.4E+02 2.2E+02 2.4E+05 1.9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.2E+02 1.8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.3E+02 5.6E\u201301 3.3E\u201305 9.9E\u201302 5.1E+02 2.0E+02 4.2E\u201301 5.0E\u201301 5.6E\u201301 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E+01 6.2E\u201301 2.8E\u201303 1.0E+03 1.4E+03 1.7E+03 1.2E+05 2.1E+00 4.7E+08 1.0E+03 3.2E\u201301 1.1E+06 2.7E+04 1 .0E+01 1.2E+01 7.2E+02 1.5E+02 1.5E+00 4.3E+03 6.1E+04 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 5.1E+01 6.4E\u201301 6.2E+01 5.2E+03 2.1E+04 4.1E+02 5.4E+06 8.9E+05 3.4E+05 6.3E+02 1.9E+04 9.2E+02 8.6E+04 3.5E+03 9.1E+00 2.6E+00 2.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.4E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 4.1E+02 5.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 1.7E+00 4.7E+00 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.9E+00 4.5E+00 6.4E\u201305 1.3E+02 2.5E+02 1.4E+02 1.3E+04 1.1E\u201301 2.0E+04 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201301 7.4E+02 3.0E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.2E+01 3.0E+03 5.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 5.6E+02 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 2.0E\u201302 4.4E\u201304 1.8E+00 2.0E+00 3.3E+02 4.9E+00 2.0E+01 1.3E+02 1.1E+03 5.6E+02 3.5E+05 1.5E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6740, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 229, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+04 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201301 7.4E+02 3.0E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.2E+01 3.0E+03 5.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 5.6E+02 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 2.0E\u201302 4.4E\u201304 1.8E+00 2.0E+00 3.3E+02 4.9E+00 2.0E+01 1.3E+02 1.1E+03 5.6E+02 3.5E+05 1.5E+03 1.5E+05 2.8E+03 3.5E+02 2.7E+03 1.6E+01 4.1E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.6E+02 7.3E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 5.3E\u201302 2.3E+01 2.0E+01 2.8E\u201301 1.2E+00 1.2E+00 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E+00 9.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201303 3.4E+03 4.1E+03 5.7E+03 3.5E+05 3.3E\u201301 2.0E+08 3.7E+03 7.1E\u201302 1.1E+06 3.9E+04 1.2E\u201301 1.0E+00 1.1E+03 1.6E+02 8.6E\u201301 1.4E+04 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 2.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+01 8.1E\u201301 6.0E+00 5.3E+03 2.1E+04 1.4E+03 3.5E+06 8.8E+05 4.8E+05 8.1E+02 4.9E+04 1.3E+03 2.5E+04 6.8E+03 1.1E+01 2.6E+00 1.7E+00 1.1E+02 3.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 2.7E+01 1.7E+02 2.3E\u201301 3.2E+00 7.5E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.6E\u201305 2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.7E\u201303 1.8E+03 8.8E+00 1.3E\u201303 8.1E+01 5.9E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 5.1E\u201303 1 .0E+00 2.2E+00 4.9E\u201301 4.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 7.1E\u201303 3.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 3.0E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6741, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 229, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.7E\u201303 1.8E+03 8.8E+00 1.3E\u201303 8.1E+01 5.9E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 5.1E\u201303 1 .0E+00 2.2E+00 4.9E\u201301 4.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 7.1E\u201303 3.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 3.0E+03 3.0E+03 2.2E\u201301 1.1E+02 7.0E+00 1 .0E+03 3.1E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+02 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201303 4.3E\u201306 6.8E\u201304 9.8E+00 1.1E+00 5.3E\u201301 7.8E\u201304 9.2E\u201304 e air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6742, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 230, "book_page": 229, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6743, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 230, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 5.2E\u201302 1.0E+04 2.9E+03 1.6E\u201302 2.7E+01 5.3E+02 3.4E+00 4.5E+01 1.1E+03 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201304 1.4E\u201311 2.5E+03 2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 2.4E+00 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6744, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 230, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E\u201304 1.4E\u201311 2.5E+03 2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 2.4E+00 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01 3.2E+02 9.3E\u201301 7.4E+00 7.0E+01 1.4E+04 3.3E\u201302 7.3E+03 4.9E+01 1.5E+03 9.3E+03 9.7E+01 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.6E+00 1.6E+00 2.7E\u201302 4.6E+03 7.3E+03 5.4E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.1E+02 1.3E+00 1.9E+01 4.9E+04 7.1E+02 8.0E\u201304 7.9E\u201311 1.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.1E+04 4.7E+04 2.0E+04 2.0E+02 2.3E+03 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 2.9E+00 7.8E+01 7.7E+04 2.4E+03 X X 7.3E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.2E+01 7.0E+03 5.2E+01 2.7E+01 1.4E+03 2.8E\u201301 4.1E+00 1.2E+06 2.5E\u201301 2.2E+00 2.5E+01 3.9E+03 4.1E+00 2.8E+07 4.2E+01 3.8E+02 5.4E+03 1.9E+06 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+00 1.3E\u201302 2.9E+03 1.3E+03 2.7E\u201302 9.2E+00 5.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 9.8E+00 3.4E+02 1.9E+03 8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 5.3E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 6.2E+00 1.4E+01 3.9E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6745, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 230, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.8E+00 3.4E+02 1.9E+03 8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 5.3E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 6.2E+00 1.4E+01 3.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+01 8.1E+02 4.9E\u201301 5.3E+00 7.6E+01 1.0E+04 1.7E\u201302 1.9E+04 4.8E+01 1.3E+03 1.2E+03 2.1E+02 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.6E+00 2.0E+00 6.2E\u201303 1.5E+03 2.1E+03 5.2E\u201301 5.7E+00 1.6E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 3.5E+03 9.3E+02 6.1E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 7.5E+02 1.1E+03 5.3E+04 5.7E+04 5.1E+04 6.1E+02 2.7E+03 1.5E+00 1.5E+01 2.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.9E+04 2.8E+03 X X 2.5E+04 5.2E\u201303 2.0E+01 7.2E+03 9.2E+00 3.5E+01 7.8E+02 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+00 1.2E+06 1.9E\u201301 2.6E+00 3.7E+01 5.0E+03 1.1E+00 2.8E+07 4.7E+01 5.2E+02 6.0E+02 1.6E+06 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201304 3.0E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 9.7E+01 3.4E+00 9.8E\u201306 4.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 2.4E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 4.9E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 2.6E\u201301 X X 8.0E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6746, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 230, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 2.4E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 4.9E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 2.6E\u201301 X X 8.0E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 1.6E+01 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 1.8E+00 2.8E+04 1.9E\u201302 7.4E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 1.3E\u201302 2.8E+04 9.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 4.3E+01 1.8E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6747, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 231, "book_page": 230, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6748, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 231, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.4E\u201305 5.0E\u201301 6.3E+02 X 5.6E+01 2.4E+03 9.3E\u201305 2.8E+03 9.9E+02 3.7E\u201301 4.7E+01 1.1E+01 1.6E+04 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 5.5E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.6E+03 2.7E+03 2.5E+00 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6749, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 231, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E+00 1.5E+00 4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 5.5E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.6E+03 2.7E+03 2.5E+00 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04 3.8E\u201305 9.5E\u201305 9.9E+00 1.7E+03 2.9E\u201306 1.8E+01 9.4E+02 6.2E+00 9.4E\u201301 8.2E+02 1.4E+02 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.9E\u201304 9.1E\u201301 3.8E+06 X 1.4E+00 5.0E+02 9.1E\u201304 3.1E+03 7.2E+02 1.7E+02 6.0E+03 4.0E+01 3.1E+04 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.6E+00 8.5E\u201303 4.1E+02 X 7.1E+00 1.8E+03 1.2E\u201301 6.1E\u201304 9.4E+01 2.1E+07 2.8E+02 5.1E\u201304 X 3.4E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.6E+07 2.2E+02 7.5E+03 1.4E+00 7.0E\u201304 1.5E+02 8.5E+02 3.1E+05 1.8E+03 2.7E\u201303 5.9E\u201302 1.0E+02 1.2E+07 1.3E\u201304 6.7E+04 4.1E+02 3.8E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.2E+02 2.1E+02 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E\u201305 1.9E\u201301 1.6E+03 X 2.5E+01 5.3E+02 7.4E\u201305 1.9E+03 6.0E+01 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 6.4E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 3.9E+03 9.8E+02 1.3E+00 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6750, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 231, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E+01 2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 6.4E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 3.9E+03 9.8E+02 1.3E+00 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01 3.0E+03 1.0E+04 2.4E+03 3.2E\u201305 4.9E\u201305 8.1E+00 4.1E+03 2.3E\u201306 4.6E+01 7.4E+02 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 6.4E+02 1.9E+02 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.5E\u201304 3.2E\u201301 3.7E+06 X 4.0E\u201301 2.1E+02 9.9E\u201304 1.3E+03 3.0E+01 8.7E+01 4.4E+02 6.9E+01 2.3E+04 5.4E+00 3.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 4.9E\u201305 6.2E+02 X 6.5E+00 1.8E+03 6.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201304 8.9E+01 9.0E+06 4.1E+02 3.6E\u201304 X 1.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 2.4E+07 1.8E+01 1.5E+03 1.6E+00 5.8E\u201304 3.9E+01 1.2E+03 3.9E+05 2.7E+02 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 4.4E+01 1.1E+07 1.2E\u201304 6.8E+04 4.5E+02 2.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.7E+02 2.5E+02 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.5E\u201307 8.2E\u201304 1.2E+02 X 2.9E+00 4.1E+01 1.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.9E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 5.3E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 3.4E+02 3.2E+01 1.4E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6751, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 231, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.9E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 5.3E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 3.4E+02 3.2E+01 1.4E+01 3.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 6.9E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.7E+01 1.2E+03 4.7E\u201306 4.0E\u201305 1.7E\u201302 6.7E+02 2.6E\u201307 1.2E+01 7.2E+00 3.3E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.3E+01 6.9E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6752, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 232, "book_page": 231, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chlora\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6753, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 232, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 FAETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.1E\u201301 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6754, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 232, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 FAETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.1E\u201301 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 1.0E+00 2.3E\u201302 5.0E+00 3.0E+00 1.2E+00 1 .0E+00 8.6E+02 5.2E+03 1.7E+08 1.7E+01 1.6E+03 2.9E+02 4.0E+02 1.7E+02 1.6E+03 1.9E+04 2.5E+03 3.1E+03 1.1E+03 2.5E+05 7.9E+01 4.4E+05 1.2E+04 X 1.1E+03 5.7E+04 2.0E+01 2.1E+02 5.0E+03 2.7E+05 5.2E+04 2.3E+02 6.8E+03 5.1E+01 9.1E\u201302 1.1E+05 MAETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.5E\u201301 4.1E+07 3.0E\u201301 1.6E+01 1.7E+01 2.1E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.6E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 3.7E+02 9.1E+01 4.5E+07 6.1E\u201302 6.4E+01 1.6E+00 2.3E+00 2.5E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.8E+03 1.1E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+01 1.1E+03 5.4E\u201301 7.4E+03 2.1E+02 X 2.5E\u201301 3.0E+03 2.7E+04 1.2E+05 4.8E+02 1.0E+03 3.5E+01 8.3E+05 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.3E+03 FSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6755, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 232, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+05 4.8E+02 1.0E+03 3.5E+01 8.3E+05 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.3E+03 FSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.0E\u201302 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00 1 .2E+00 1.0E+00 7.7E+02 5.7E+03 5.6E+08 1.2E+01 1.9E+03 2.9E+02 3.0E+02 6.8E+01 1 .3E+03 2.4E+04 2.3E+03 2.7E+03 5.6E+02 1.9E+05 5.2E+01 3.5E+05 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6756, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 232, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0E+03 X 7.0E+01 8.0E+04 4.8E+01 5.3E+02 4.3E+03 2.0E+05 2.7E+04 5.1E+02 8.8E+02 4.1E+01 7.0E\u201302 3.5E+05 MSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.3E\u201301 1.3E+07 1.0E\u201301 6.7E+00 7.0E+00 8.7E\u201301 5.9E+00 8.6E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 9.9E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 1.0E+02 1.5E+08 7.6E\u201302 8.1E+01 1.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.5E+03 1.5E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+01 1.6E+03 5.1E\u201301 1.1E+04 1.9E+01 X 1.0E\u201302 4.1E+03 2.5E+04 1.2E+05 5.4E+02 7.9E+02 1.0E+01 7.1E+05 7.5E\u201301 3.3E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.8E+04 TETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201304 9.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 8.5E\u201303 5.2E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 4.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.9E+02 3.6E\u201308 6.1E\u201302 6.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201310 9.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201303 7.6E\u201304 9.4E\u201306 3.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201308 5.8E+00 3.9E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1.4E\u201302 X 5.0E\u201308 2.0E\u201302 1.7E\u201320 1.0E\u201317 7.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201306 5.1E\u201319 8.2E\u201308 1.8E\u201307 1.4E\u201305 1.4E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6757, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 233, "book_page": 232, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6758, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 233, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater CAS number 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6759, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 233, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E+05 5.2E+04 1.2E+06 2.0E+02 9.1E+04 2.4E+05 7.6E+01 1.5E+03 5.4E+05 2.1E+03 4.5E+03 3.8E+04 1.3E+04 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 9.0E+04 1.1E+03 3.1E+01 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+02 8.3E+01 6.4E+05 6.9E+00 2.8E+01 1.9E+04 3.4E+03 1.2E+03 2.0E+07 5.4E+04 7.9E+06 2.6E+04 2.9E+04 6.5E+05 2.2E+04 1.9E+02 7.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.9E+01 1.2E\u201302 5.3E+00 1.2E+05 7.9E+04 3.4E+01 1.1E+02 8.6E+01 2.1E+01 1.7E+02 3.1E+00 3.2E+05 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+04 9.1E+03 4.4E+05 1.2E+00 5.4E+08 2.1E+02 5.3E\u201302 2.2E+05 8.0E+04 1.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.8E+02 4.4E+01 1.8E+00 5.5E+03 8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1.2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 8.6E+02 3.4E+03 3.0E+03 4.4E+06 2.3E+05 3.0E+06 1.9E+02 1.0E+04 1 .0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02 7.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6760, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 233, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1.2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 8.6E+02 3.4E+03 3.0E+03 4.4E+06 2.3E+05 3.0E+06 1.9E+02 1.0E+04 1 .0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02 7.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 9.0E+03 1.1E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.3E+00 4.3E\u201301 7.5E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.9E+03 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.2E+05 1.7E+05 3.9E+06 2.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.2E+05 2.5E+01 3.9E+03 7.7E+05 1.8E+01 1.3E+03 3.9E+04 7.6E+03 8.6E+01 8.9E+04 9.1E+03 9.4E+02 2.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 2.6E+02 7.1E+01 4.1E+05 1.8E+01 7.1E+01 5.9E+04 5.6E+03 2.9E+03 2.9E+07 4.3E+04 1.4E+07 2.1E+04 3.1E+04 9.8E+05 1.6E+04 1.2E+02 1 .0E+02 7.7E+04 1.0E+01 8.8E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.5E+03 8.2E+03 2.2E+01 2.6E+02 1.9E+02 4.7E+01 1.3E+02 7.9E\u201301 8.8E+04 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.6E+04 3.2E+04 1.3E+06 1.9E\u201301 2.3E+08 8.1E+02 1.3E\u201302 2.2E+05 1.2E+05 1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 8.6E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.8E+04 2.7E+02 6.7E+00 1.5E+00 5.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 8.8E+02 3.5E+03 1.0E+04 2.8E+06 2.3E+05 4.4E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.6E+03 2.0E+03 1.2E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6761, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 233, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 8.6E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.8E+04 2.7E+02 6.7E+00 1.5E+00 5.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 8.8E+02 3.5E+03 1.0E+04 2.8E+06 2.3E+05 4.4E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.6E+03 2.0E+03 1.2E+02 1.6E+00 2.7E\u201301 6.1E+02 7.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 7.7E\u201303 9.1E\u201301 3.2E+02 9.4E\u201302 2.3E+00 3.8E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201304 2.2E+03 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201303 4.3E\u201304 2.1E\u201301 8.3E\u201304 3.3E\u201316 2.1E\u201302 6.6E\u201306 1 .4E\u201320 1.9E\u201307 6.2E\u201308 2.6E\u201307 6.3E\u201308 3.5E\u201305 4.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201302 4.6E\u201305 3.8E\u201304 7.2E\u201304 5.5E\u201303 2.5E\u201305 2.1E\u201302 2.3E\u201319 2.3E\u201319 8.4E\u201303 2.7E\u201318 4.1E\u201321 6.0E+00 2.2E\u201306 1.6E+01 1.9E\u201306 3.1E\u201301 3.2E\u201302 1.2E\u201302 3.6E\u201305 6.6E\u201306 4.1E\u201303 1.3E\u201305 3.9E\u201306 6.1E\u201312 1.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 5.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 6.4E\u201306 1.2E\u201305 3.7E\u201304 3.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6762, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 234, "book_page": 233, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6763, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 234, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6764, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 234, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+05 2.8E+00 6.4E+04 9.4E+03 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 7.0E+05 1.5E+05 5.5E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 2.4E+05 9.1E+05 2.7E+05 1.7E+05 2.7E+05 1 .3E+04 8.2E+04 2.8E+02 1 .4E+03 1.8E+04 2.2E+04 4.5E+04 1 .5E+02 X X 7.7E+04 1 .6E+02 1.9E+03 9.6E+00 6.5E+03 3.1E+04 2.1E+05 2.7E+01 3.8E+02 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.5E+02 1.1E+03 1.4E+05 1.9E+01 3.9E+04 4.3E+02 3.8E+04 5.9E+05 4.8E+02 6.0E\u201301 6.6E+02 3.2E+03 X MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.4E+03 3.5E\u201302 1.2E+02 5.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 3.4E+05 3.5E+03 1.4E\u201303 2.8E\u201305 6.7E+02 3.6E+03 3.2E+03 1.9E+04 3.1E+03 8.7E+02 1.2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.5E+04 1.5E\u201302 2.0E+01 1.1E+03 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.1E+05 6.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6765, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 234, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.2E+03 1.9E+04 3.1E+03 8.7E+02 1.2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.5E+04 1.5E\u201302 2.0E+01 1.1E+03 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.1E+05 6.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+01 4.2E+03 3.5E+00 4.9E+06 6.4E+01 5.8E+02 5.7E+02 2.1E+06 2.1E\u201303 1.1E+00 2.2E+06 X FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E+05 4.7E+00 2.2E+04 8.9E+03 1.9E+01 6.0E+03 2.1E+05 1.2E+05 3.6E\u201301 1.4E\u201302 1 .4E+05 6.6E+05 4.3E+05 2.8E+05 4.3E+05 3.9E+04 1.1E+05 1.5E+02 1.3E+03 2.6E+04 2.8E+03 5.2E+04 4.9E+02 X X 2.5E+05 1.3E+01 7.1E+02 2.5E+01 1.7E+03 3.1E+04 1.2E+05 1.8E+01 2.5E+02 4.4E+03 1.2E+01 1.1E+02 1 .2E+03 1 .0E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+05 4.2E+02 3.4E+04 7.4E+04 1.1E+03 3.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 8.3E+03 X MSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E+03 3.6E\u201302 3.5E+01 7.8E+01 8.0E\u201302 7.7E\u201301 2.5E+04 4.8E+03 1.3E\u201303 3.4E\u201305 3.4E+02 2.5E+03 8.7E+03 2.6E+04 8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1.6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1 .0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.7E+03 X X 5.0E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 1.1E+03 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 2.2E+05 5.0E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6766, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 234, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.4E+02 2.5E+03 8.7E+03 2.6E+04 8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1.6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1 .0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.7E+03 X X 5.0E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 1.1E+03 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 2.2E+05 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 3.7E+01 5.4E+03 9.6E\u201301 5.1E+06 7.2E+01 8.1E+02 6.3E+01 1.7E+06 2.1E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 2.2E+06 X TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E\u201302 1.3E\u201307 1.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 8.5E\u201307 1.8E\u201303 3.5E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1 .2E\u201306 1.1E\u201312 4.7E\u201303 8.8E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 9.2E\u201302 2.1E\u201303 4.9E\u201303 6.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201311 5.3E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 4.0E+00 2.6E\u201301 X X 6.2E\u201306 4.4E\u201308 1.6E\u201305 4.8E\u201322 1.6E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201311 1.1E\u201308 9.3E+02 8.5E\u201310 1 .4E\u201306 2.0E\u201305 2.2E\u201303 1.1E\u201302 9.3E+02 4.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 2.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201318 6.0E\u201307 4.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201318 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6767, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 235, "book_page": 234, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6768, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 235, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater seawater seawater CAS number 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6769, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 235, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.5E+02 7.0E+04 5.6E\u201301 1.2E+06 2.9E+05 5.1E+01 4.0E+03 7.1E+02 5.0E+06 5.2E+02 2.4E+02 2.6E+03 5.5E\u201301 3.6E+04 X 1.2E+03 2.6E+05 4.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 4.9E+04 2.9E+03 2.7E+04 4.4E\u201301 X 7.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 8.0E+03 9.8E+04 1 .0E+01 5.0E+02 2.9E\u201301 4.9E+04 1.7E+05 4.5E+05 4.1E+05 9.7E\u201302 4.2E\u201302 2.7E+04 9.0E+03 2.8E\u201302 9.2E+01 2.8E+04 2.7E+02 1.6E+03 8.7E+03 6.0E+03 9.8E+00 1.9E+01 7.1E\u201305 3.8E\u201302 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.5E\u201303 5.3E+03 1.5E+03 1.7E+02 2.8E+03 1.2E+01 2.7E+04 1.0E+01 5.6E\u201302 5.0E+00 4.1E\u201306 1.6E+02 X 2.4E+00 5.0E+02 5.8E\u201302 2.2E\u201303 1.2E+02 2.5E+07 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 2.7E+07 7.4E+01 1.2E+03 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 8.6E+06", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6770, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 235, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.6E+02 X 2.4E+00 5.0E+02 5.8E\u201302 2.2E\u201303 1.2E+02 2.5E+07 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 2.7E+07 7.4E+01 1.2E+03 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 8.6E+06 3.8E\u201304 1.4E+04 2.5E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01 9.0E+02 6.3E\u201301 5.4E+07 2.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E+02 1.6E+04 4.5E\u201301 8.0E+05 1.8E+04 7.2E+01 1.1E+03 1.6E+03 6.7E+06 5.6E+02 8.8E+01 4.3E+02 1.1E\u201303 3.6E+04 X 6.7E+02 1.8E+05 2.1E+00 3.3E\u201301 4.5E+04 3.4E+03 2.3E+04 3.0E\u201301 X 6.7E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 2.0E+04 3.5E+04 5.2E+00 5.3E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.7E+04 1.6E+05 6.1E+05 7.6E+04 8.2E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 2.2E+04 2.1E+04 2.3E\u201302 2.4E+02 2.2E+04 1.1E+02 1.6E+03 6.8E+03 8.1E+03 6.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.9E\u201305 4.5E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E\u201302 5.8E+01 3.1E\u201303 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 8.7E+01 2.2E+02 2.2E+01 2.0E+04 8.6E+00 3.8E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201308 2.4E+02 X 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.1E+07 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 2.5E+07 6.6E+00 2.5E+02 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6771, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 235, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+04 8.6E+00 3.8E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201308 2.4E+02 X 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.1E+07 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 2.5E+07 6.6E+00 2.5E+02 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 1.8E+02 7.9E+06 4.9E\u201304 1.4E+04 2.7E+02 1.2E+00 9.2E+00 7.7E+01 1.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 1.8E+07 1.9E\u201301 1.2E+01 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.1E\u201306 4.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201306 3.1E\u201303 3.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 3.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201305 2.5E\u201306 1 .5E\u201302 1.2E\u201310 9.3E\u201304 X 8.1E\u201304 3.1E\u201304 6.5E\u201304 4.9E\u201307 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201317 1 .OE\u201303 1.3E\u201307 X 7.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 3.1E\u201317 9.3E\u201302 7.9E\u201322 3.2E\u201304 1.4E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 3.9E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 4.6E\u201306 3.9E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201317 2.6E\u201307 2.5E\u201321 1.3E\u201303 3.0E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.8E\u201312 5.7E\u201302 1.8E\u201303 4.5E\u201305 1.0E\u201304 3.7E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6772, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 236, "book_page": 235, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chlora\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6773, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 236, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.3E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 3.7E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.0E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6774, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 236, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.3E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 3.7E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.0E\u201308 5.0E+00 6.0E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 X 1.1E\u201307 1.7E+01 7.6E\u201321 3.8E\u201320 8.3E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.4E\u201319 8.9E\u201308 7.4E\u201309 9.2E\u201306 1.1E+00 2.8E\u201301 4.9E\u201302 9.1E+00 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 3.1E+00 9.5E\u201301 9.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.0E+00 1 .0E+00 3.7E+02 2.2E+02 5.0E+08 4.0E\u201301 1.2E+02 7.6E+00 1.0E+01 3.7E+00 4.6E+01 3.3E+03 5.9E+01 9.6E+01 3.7E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+00 1.5E+04 8.0E+03 X 2.0E+01 1.8E+04 4.9E+04 3.4E+05 6.0E+02 5.9E+03 1.0E+03 1.1E+06 1.5E+02 1.2E+00 1.5E\u201302 8.5E+04 1.2E+05 6.5E+04 1.5E+06 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201302 4.3E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 7.4E\u201305 7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 4.3E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201308 3.7E+00 3.9E\u201303 9.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 X 6.8E\u201309 2.3E+01 1.8E\u201320", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6775, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 236, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 4.3E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201308 3.7E+00 3.9E\u201303 9.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 X 6.8E\u201309 2.3E+01 1.8E\u201320 9.8E\u201320 7.2E\u201303 3.0E\u201302 5.6E\u201305 5.4E\u201319 1.1E\u201308 6.0E\u201309 7.0E\u201306 3.2E+00 8.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201301 3.0E+01 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 1.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.0E+00 6.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 4.4E+02 2.5E+02 1.9E+09 4.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 8.9E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.1E+01 4.1E+03 8.2E+01 1.4E+02 3.5E+01 1.3E+04 4.0E+00 2.2E+04 7.4E+02 X 8.3E\u201301 2.5E+04 4.6E+04 3.4E+05 6.6E+02 4.7E+03 2.9E+02 9.3E+05 1.3E+01 1.8E+00 2.1E\u201302 2.8E+05 3.7E+05 2.3E+05 4.4E+06 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./Kg) 7.4E\u201302 3.5E\u201302 9.5E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 2.0E\u201305 8.3E\u201304 4.0E\u201309 2.0E\u201304 5.7E\u201303 9.6E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 8.3E+02 6.4E\u201311 9.1E\u201304 1.3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.7E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 4.8E\u201303 6.7E\u201303 X 7.0E\u201310 4.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201320 3.0E\u201317 5.0E\u201305 3.4E\u201304 4.9E\u201308 6.6E\u201319 1.4E\u201309 3.3E\u201310 1.7E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6776, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 236, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.1E\u201304 1.3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.7E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 4.8E\u201303 6.7E\u201303 X 7.0E\u201310 4.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201320 3.0E\u201317 5.0E\u201305 3.4E\u201304 4.9E\u201308 6.6E\u201319 1.4E\u201309 3.3E\u201310 1.7E\u201306 6.2E\u201303 8.0E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 8.8E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6777, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 237, "book_page": 236, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6778, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 237, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201302 1.6E\u201316 5.5E\u201302 3.2E\u201305 2.5E\u201320", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6779, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 237, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201302 1.6E\u201316 5.5E\u201302 3.2E\u201305 2.5E\u201320 5.0E\u201305 6.5E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 2.4E\u201308 1.8E\u201304 6.5E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 5.6E\u201305 3.5E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 2.3E\u201301 8.8E\u201323 3.5E\u201322 2.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201318 4.1E\u201320 1.1E+02 2.5E\u201306 2.4E+00 8.1E\u201307 1.5E+01 3.2E+00 1.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201306 1.6E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 2.9E\u201305 5.0E\u201306 1.6E\u201312 1.1E\u201302 1.6E+01 7.9E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 7.4E\u201306 3.8E\u201307 1.1E\u201301 4.2E\u201302 1.4E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 1.9E\u201303 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.8E+00 6.4E+08 8.9E+03 1.6E+00 1.8E+06 9.4E+04 4.0E+01 2.4E+01 1.3E+03 3.0E+02 3.0E+01 2.4E+04 4.7E+05 2.8E+01 8.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 3.6E+01 2.0E+00 2.2E+03 8.2E+03 3.3E+04 7.6E+03 8.0E+06 1.5E+06 3.6E+06 1.3E+03 1.6E+05 1.6E+03 1.9E+05 3.6E+04 5.5E+02 5.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1.7E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 5.9E+04 8.0E\u201301 9.7E+00 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 3.4E+00 5.2E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.2E+04 2.5E+00 1.5E+03 2.4E+02 FSETP (inf)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6780, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 237, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.6E+03 1.9E+05 3.6E+04 5.5E+02 5.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1.7E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 5.9E+04 8.0E\u201301 9.7E+00 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 3.4E+00 5.2E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.2E+04 2.5E+00 1.5E+03 2.4E+02 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201316 1.6E\u201301 1.0E\u201305 6.5E\u201320 7.3E\u201305 5.7E\u201309 5.5E\u201307 2.4E\u201308 1.1E\u201304 5.4E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 3.2E+00 4.8E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 9.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 1.5E\u201301 2.3E\u201322 9.1E\u201322 8.3E\u201301 2.0E\u201318 1.0E\u201319 1.5E+02 1.9E\u201306 4.3E+00 6.5E\u201307 1.6E+01 4.8E+00 1.2E\u201302 2.4E\u201306 2.1E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201306 3.6E\u201306 8.3E\u201313 5.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 5.2E\u201305 2.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201302 8.7E\u201303 5.5E\u201306 9.8E\u201308 2.9E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 4.6E\u201303 1.8E\u201303 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+00 2.8E+08 3.4E+04 4.0E\u201301 1.9E+06 1.4E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.0E+03 3.1E+02 4.5E+01 8.0E+04 1.5E+04 3.3E+01 1.0E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.5E+00 2.2E+02 8.4E+03 3.4E+04 2.6E+04 5.2E+06 1.5E+06 5.2E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.2E+03 7.1E+04 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1.6E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 2.1E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6781, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 237, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.4E+03 3.4E+04 2.6E+04 5.2E+06 1.5E+06 5.2E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.2E+03 7.1E+04 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1.6E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 2.1E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E+00 1.3E\u201302 5.0E+03 4.5E+03 2.6E+00 4.2E+02 3.4E+02 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201316 5.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201307 1.1E\u201319 1.6E\u201308 9.4E\u201310 1.1E\u201309 1.6E\u201310 6.1E\u201307 1 .0E\u201303 8.1E\u201304 2.8E\u201301 8.6E\u201307 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 4.5E\u201307 5.7E\u201305 2.0E\u201318 2.0E\u201318 1.6E\u201303 4.9E\u201318 2.5E\u201320 5.0E\u201301 4.0E\u201308 2.5E\u201301 7.3E\u201308 9.6E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.3E\u201304 7.5E\u201307 9.6E\u201307 8.2E\u201305 2.1E\u201307 6.5E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 2.2E\u201304 1.0E\u201301 1.0E\u201304 1.7E\u201305 6.4E\u201305 3.5E\u201306 1.8E\u201307 4.7E\u201306 1.0E\u201303 5.1E\u201305 8.8E\u201308 2.1E\u201305 3.2E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6782, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 238, "book_page": 237, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6783, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 238, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201308 2.1E\u201302 6.1E+00 1.0E+00 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6784, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 238, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201308 2.1E\u201302 6.1E+00 1.0E+00 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 9.9E\u201303 2.6E\u201301 8.7E\u201302 1.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 1.6E+01 2.1E\u201304 2.1E\u201311 3.9E\u201302 1.3E\u201303 2.3E+01 1.1E+00 X X 7.4E\u201304 3.8E\u201309 2.9E\u201305 5.6E\u201323 1.1E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 5.3E\u201313 3.8E\u201310 6.8E+00 6.8E\u201310 3.0E\u201306 9.2E\u201305 8.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201303 1.6E+02 1.6E\u201303 7.0E\u201302 6.9E\u201305 6.6E\u201319 7.2E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.1E\u201319 X 4.5E\u201307 3.0E\u201304 1.5E\u201305 2.0E\u201301 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.6E+00 3.2E+02 2.7E+06 6.6E+03 6.2E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 5.6E+03 2.3E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.2E+03 2.1E+04 5.6E+00 3.3E+01 1.1E+03 4.5E+02 7.0E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.1E+05 7.2E\u201301 5.9E+01 1.1E+04 2.3E+02 1.3E+03 5.1E+03 5.6E\u201301 8.0E+00 1.9E+06 4.9E\u201301 4.4E+00 4.8E+01 6.9E+03 2.4E+00 4.3E+07 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 2.6E+06 1.4E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.8E+06 X 2.8E+00 1.0E+03 1.3E\u201301 4.1E+04 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.6E\u201309 4.5E\u201303 1.9E+00 7.9E\u201301 6.3E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6785, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 238, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.8E+01 6.9E+03 2.4E+00 4.3E+07 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 2.6E+06 1.4E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.8E+06 X 2.8E+00 1.0E+03 1.3E\u201301 4.1E+04 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.6E\u201309 4.5E\u201303 1.9E+00 7.9E\u201301 6.3E\u201306 6.6E\u201313 5.5E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 2.9E+01 4.7E\u201302 2.6E+00 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201304 2.0E\u201311 5.5E\u201302 1.7E\u201304 2.6E+01 3.6E+00 X X 2.4E\u201303 3.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201322 3.0E\u201302 6.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 3.6E\u201313 2.5E\u201310 1.7E+01 3.5E\u201310 2.2E\u201306 1.0E\u201304 6.3E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 4.0E+02 1.6E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 8.8E\u201306 1.5E\u201318 4.7E\u201306 4.5E\u201303 1.6E\u201318 X 2.1E\u201307 6.8E\u201305 1.2E\u201305 1.4E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E\u201301 2.2E+01 2.0E+05 8.9E+03 6.7E\u201302 3.2E\u201303 2.9E+03 1.5E+04 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.4E+04 2.8E+04 6.0E+00 3.0E+01 9.2E+02 9.1E+01 4.7E+04 3.4E+03 X X 3.8E+05 1.2E\u201302 3.7E+01 1.2E+04 4.8E+01 1.7E+03 2.8E+03 6.9E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.9E+06 3.8E\u201301 5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 4.4E+07 8.2E+01 1.9E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+06 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 5.7E+06 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1.7E\u201301 1.7E+04 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kq) 1.5E\u201309 1.6E\u201305 3.8E\u201301 7.2E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6786, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 238, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.8E\u201301 5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 4.4E+07 8.2E+01 1.9E+03 1.2E+03 2.2E+06 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 5.7E+06 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1.7E\u201301 1.7E+04 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kq) 1.5E\u201309 1.6E\u201305 3.8E\u201301 7.2E\u201303 1.0E\u201307 9.9E\u201314 8.4E\u201305 1.7E\u201303 1.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.8E\u201305 9.6E\u201304 7.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 4.4E\u201314 2.4E\u201305 2.4E\u201305 2.1E+00 2.4E\u201301 X X 4.1E\u201306 1.5E\u201310 3.8E\u201307 4.6E\u201321 3.9E\u201303 3.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201307 2.2E\u201314 1.8E\u201311 7.6E+03 1.4E\u201311 3.0E\u201308 6.0E\u201307 7.5E\u201305 9.1E\u201304 7.6E+03 3.8E\u201305 5.4E\u201306 3.2E\u201307 2.9E\u201318 1.1E\u201307 1.9E\u201305 2.6E\u201318 X 2.3E\u201308 5.2E\u201306 2.1E\u201307 8.2E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6787, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 239, "book_page": 238, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6788, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 239, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6789, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 239, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.2E\u201305 1.0E+01 5.8E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 3.3E\u201302 4.6E\u201311 8.9E\u201304 X 5.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201304 4.4E\u201304 1.0E\u201305 2.3E\u201303 7.4E\u201318 4.5E\u201303 1.0E\u201305 X 2.0E\u201304 1.9E\u201304 7.9E\u201318 2.6E\u201302 9.5E\u201323 2.9E\u201302 8.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 7.9E\u201302 3.0E+00 5.3E\u201306 1.6E\u201305 4.5E\u201305 1.8E+00 2.4E\u201318 1.4E\u201306 1.8E\u201321 3.6E\u201303 1.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201304 7.3E\u201313 9.1E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 2.2E\u201303 3.7E\u201304 2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.1E+03 1.7E+02 5.6E+03 7.8E+01 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6790, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 239, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.1E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 2.2E\u201303 3.7E\u201304 2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.1E+03 1.7E+02 5.6E+03 7.8E+01 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 2.9E+07 6.7E+02 1.2E\u201301 X 6.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.6E+07 4.2E+02 1.2E+04 1.4E+02 5.1E\u201302 3.3E+03 4.9E+03 5.7E+05 3.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 5.6E\u201302 8.3E+03 1.8E+07 2.0E\u201302 1.1E+05 8.1E+02 7.5E+00 4.4E+01 2.2E+02 1.1E+03 7.4E\u201301 5.4E+07 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201301 2.3E+00 6.5E\u201301 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.4E\u201303 3.3E\u201301 3.1E+00 2.7E\u201305 1.3E+01 6.3E\u201302 6.4E\u201306 5.4E\u201303 9.4E\u201314 9.0E\u201304 X 2.7E\u201304 8.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201304 6.1E\u201306 2.0E\u201303 8.6E\u201318 3.8E\u201303 7.0E\u201306 X 1.9E\u201304 1.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201317 9.5E\u201303 4.8E\u201323 3.1E\u201302 5.9E\u201306 4.1E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 4.1E+00 9.9E\u201307 1.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201305 1.4E+00 5.7E\u201318 1.1E\u201306 4.5E\u201321 2.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.7E\u201313 1.2E+00 2.3E\u201303 1.8E\u201303 3.1E\u201304 3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+02 1.4E+02 5.5E+02 1.4E+02 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6791, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 239, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+00 2.3E\u201303 1.8E\u201303 3.1E\u201304 3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+02 1.4E+02 5.5E+02 1.4E+02 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 1.2E+07 1.0E+03 9.3E\u201302 X 7.8E\u201301 4.6E\u201301 3.4E+07 3.7E+01 2.5E+03 1.6E+02 6.3E\u201302 9.2E+02 6.8E+03 7.9E+05 5.4E+02 8.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 3.6E+03 1.7E+07 2.9E\u201302 1.1E+05 8.9E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+01 3.2E+02 1.5E+03 8.4E\u201301 1.8E+07 9.6E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 9.0E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.1E\u201304 2.6E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.6E\u201306 1.7E\u201302 6.3E\u201306 3.8E\u201308 1.3E\u201303 2.8E\u201312 1.7E\u201305 X 1.3E\u201305 3.2E\u201306 1.8E\u201305 8.9E\u201308 2.9E\u201305 1.8E\u201317 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201308 X 4.0E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 4.2E\u201317 3.1E\u201304 7.2E\u201321 6.7E\u201305 1.9E\u201306 1.3E\u201304 8.4E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 4.8E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 1.9E\u201305 3.0E\u201303 2.2E\u201317 1.3E\u201307 1.9E\u201320 2.8E\u201305 6.1E\u201313 4.2E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 5.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201305 4.5E\u201305 1.5E\u201303 8.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 9.3E+00 trichlorobenzene", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6792, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 240, "book_page": 239, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1 ,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6793, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 240, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6794, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 240, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB 2.5E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 7.5E\u201304 5.4E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.5E+02 3.2E+01 1.2E+05 4.4E\u201301 2.8E+01 1.2E+00 2.9E+01 2.5E+00 7.9E+00 1.8E+03 7.4E+01 1.7E+02 5.1E+01 4.5E+04 6.5E+00 9.6E+04 2.8E+02 X 2.1E\u201301 8.2E+01 1.0E+01 1.3E+02 3.4E+02 2.8E+03 1.9E+02 1.1E+02 4.6E+00 8.3E+00 7.2E\u201304 6.2E+01 1.3E+02 6.1E+01 5.2E+03 9.2E\u201301 4.6E+04 1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 7.8E+02 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB 5.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 5.9E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.0E\u201303 6.8E\u201302 2.7E+02 3.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6795, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 240, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 7.8E+02 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB 5.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 5.9E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.0E\u201303 6.8E\u201302 2.7E+02 3.2E\u201301 7.7E\u201301 6.7E\u201301 2.5E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.2E+01 X 5.0E\u201305 6.2E+00 1.4E+04 7.7E+04 3.4E+01 1.1E+01 1.4E\u201301 4.2E+05 5.8E\u201303 3.6E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 4.5E+00 6.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.0E+03 8.2E\u201302 2.7E+08 1.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201305 1.1E+05 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 6.3E\u201304 5.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 4.0E+05 3.2E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.2E+00 2.2E+01 1.0E+00 6.3E+00 2.3E+03 6.8E+01 1.5E+02 2.6E+01 3.4E+04 4.2E+00 7.6E+04 2.4E+01 X 1.4E\u201302 1.1E+02 2.4E+01 3.4E+02 3.0E+02 2.0E+03 1.0E+02 2.6E+02 5.9E\u201301 6.7E+00 5.4E\u201304 1.9E+02 3.8E+02 2.0E+02 1.7E+04 1.3E\u201301 5.4E+04 3.1E+02 8.2E\u201303 2.0E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.4E+05 2.0E\u201303 1.6E+00 9.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201301 3.2E\u201303 9.0E\u201302 3.3E+02 4.5E\u201301 1.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6796, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 240, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.4E+05 2.0E\u201303 1.6E+00 9.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201301 3.2E\u201303 9.0E\u201302 3.3E+02 4.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 6.4E\u201301 3.6E+02 1.9E\u201301 2.4E+03 2.9E+00 X 2.1E\u201306 8.2E+00 1.3E+04 7.7E+04 3.8E+01 8.4E+00 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+05 5.0E\u201304 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 1.5E+01 1.9E+01 3.7E+01 5.9E+03 1.3E\u201302 1.2E+08 4.3E\u201301 7.1E\u201306 1.1E+05 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+01 1.2E+00 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303 2.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1.0E+00 1.7E+01 1.0E+00 2.7E+04 7.4E\u201301 4.4E+00 7.0E\u201301 1.6E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.6E+01 1.7E+00 7.0E+03 2.5E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.9E+00 1.3E+00 3.3E+03 6.6E+00 2.2E+02 9.7E\u201301 1.0E+01 3.5E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 8.0E\u201301 3.6E+03 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.7E+02 eq./kg) eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6797, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 241, "book_page": 240, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri.soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6798, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6799, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51 -5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.7E+04 4.0E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.0E+03 5.8E+02 3.4E\u201301 5.8E+01 9.4E+01 1.6E+01 1.8E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.0E+00 1.8E+00 3.6E+02 5.3E+00 2.1E+01 7.4E+01 1.7E+03 5.9E+02 1.0E+06 8.1E+02 2.0E+05 6.5E+03 8.7E+01 2.4E+01 8.0E+02 3.0E+00 1.5E\u201303 1.3E+03 7.9E\u201302 1.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 7.4E+01 6.0E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.8E\u201302 4.6E\u201303 6.2E\u201304 8.9E+00 7.4E\u201303 2.0E+04 3.3E+02 4.2E\u201305 7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.0E+03 6.9E\u201305 7.4E\u201303 3.0E+01 2.0E+00 1.4E+00 1.2E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6800, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.6E\u201303 6.2E\u201304 8.9E+00 7.4E\u201303 2.0E+04 3.3E+02 4.2E\u201305 7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.0E+03 6.9E\u201305 7.4E\u201303 3.0E+01 2.0E+00 1.4E+00 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 8.5E\u201302 8.1E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 1.7E+00 8.4E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 6.5E+02 2.6E+03 1.2E+01 2.2E+06 1.2E+05 1.5E+05 2.8E+00 3.0E+02 2.5E+02 4.3E+01 6.0E\u201302 3.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.6E\u201305 7.8E+00 1.2E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.6E\u201305 4.1E\u201302 8.1E+01 7.1E\u201304 4.3E\u201304 8.6E\u201304 6.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201302 9.7E\u201306 3.9E+02 8.7E+00 1.3E\u201306 1.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.6E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+04 2.6E+02 4.1E\u201304 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.9E+04 3.5E\u201303 6.7E+00 2.0E+03 3.4E+02 2.8E\u201301 1.9E+02 9.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+00 3.0E\u201303 7.3E\u201301 1.6E+00 2.3E+02 1.3E+01 5.4E+01 2.4E+02 2.8E+03 1.5E+03 1.5E+06 6.3E+02 3.6E+05 5.2E+03 9.4E+01 3.6E+01 5.7E+02 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201303 9.3E+02 1.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 3.3E+00 6.3E+01 1.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 6.4E+03 8.8E+03 1.2E\u201303 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6801, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.3E+02 1.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 3.3E+00 6.3E+01 1.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 6.4E+03 8.8E+03 1.2E\u201303 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.8E+03 8.4E\u201307 6.5E\u201304 4.5E+01 2.1E+00 7.9E\u201301 4.1E+01 8.4E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 4.7E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 6.7E+02 2.7E+03 4.0E+01 1.4E+06 1.2E+05 2.2E+05 3.7E+00 8.0E+02 3.5E+02 1.4E+01 1.2E\u201301 4.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 7.5E+00 1.1E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.6E\u201304 8.0E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 1.0E\u201304 4.8E\u201302 2.3E\u201306 1.5E+02 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201306 4.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.5E\u201304 9.0E\u201305 7.5E+02 3.6E+02 3.2E\u201304 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+01 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 4.9E+01 7.5E+00 1.6E+00 6.3E+00 7.4E+01 1.3E+00 9.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.8E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 6.3E+03 6.3E+03 4.6E+00 2.2E+02 1.4E+01 1.6E+04 6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 6.0E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6802, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 6.0E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 4.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6803, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 242, "book_page": 241, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6804, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 242, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6805, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 242, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB 1.1E\u201309 7.6E+02 3.5E+03 3.8E+02 2.5E+02 3.8E+02 1.9E+01 4.5E+03 1.5E+01 9.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 3.1E+01 7.0E+01 3.2E+00 X X 9.0E+01 2.3E\u201301 1.7E+02 6.5E+00 9.7E+01 6.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.6E\u201301 3.0E+01 8.5E+02 4.1E\u201301 3.9E+00 4.4E+01 1.4E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.9E+04 9.5E+01 1.9E+03 3.5E+02 2.6E+02 1.9E\u201303 3.8E+00 1.7E+03 X 3.0E+01 9.7E+02 2.5E\u201303 5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1.5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.8E\u201311 2.3E+00 1.5E+01 6.8E+00 9.5E+01 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 7.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6806, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 242, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 3.0E+01 9.7E+02 2.5E\u201303 5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1.5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.8E\u201311 2.3E+00 1.5E+01 6.8E+00 9.5E+01 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 7.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.8E+04 7.2E+02 X X 1.7E+01 2.2E\u201305 1.8E+00 7.5E+02 1.4E+00 1.2E+01 6.6E\u201301 6.2E\u201304 5.3E\u201302 1.7E+05 1.1E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 1.0E+00 4.4E+02 3.1E+00 3.8E+06 1.4E+01 3.0E+01 3.4E\u201301 1.2E+06 2.5E\u201304 5.7E\u201302 1.2E+06 X 8.4E\u201303 2.0E+00 5.5E\u201304 2.3E+00 5.9E+00 2.8E+01 3.0E+01 5.9E\u201303 5.5E+00 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.1E\u201310 4.2E+02 2.5E+03 6.2E+02 4.1E+02 6.2E+02 5.7E+01 6.2E+03 7.9E+00 90.E\u201301 3.2E+00 3.8E+00 8.0E+01 1.0E+01 X X 2.9E+02 1.9E\u201302 6.3E+01 1.7E+01 2.5E+01 6.9E+02 9.5E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.0E+01 2.2E+03 2.2E\u201301 2.8E+00 4.8E+01 1.1E+04 7.2E\u201302 5.0E+04 9.2E+01 1.7E+03 4.4E+01 5.8E+02 1.2E\u201303 1.5E+00 4.3E+03 X 1.3E+01 2.2E+02 2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.2E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.1E\u201311 1.1E+00 9.9E+00 1.8E+01 1.2E+02 1.6E+01 4.3E+00 9.3E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6807, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 242, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3E+03 X 1.3E+01 2.2E+02 2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.2E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.1E\u201311 1.1E+00 9.9E+00 1.8E+01 1.2E+02 1.6E+01 4.3E+00 9.3E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201303 1.1E+04 8.3E+02 X X 5.9E+01 3.5E\u201307 1.1E+00 7.8E+02 2.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 3.7E\u201301 7.6E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 1.7E+05 8.9E\u201304 3.9E\u201302 1.5E+00 5.7E+02 8.3E\u201301 3.9E+06 1.6E+01 4.1E+01 3.8E\u201302 9.6E+05 2.3E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 1.2E+06 X 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 9.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.4E+01 2.3E+00 1.1E\u201302 4.2E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201309 8.3E+01 2.9E+02 1.2E+01 1.2E+01 1.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.1E+02 5.8E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 1.6E+01 5.3E+01 3.5E+00 X X 1.3E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.4E+00 3.3E+01 2.3E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E\u201302 9.4E\u201302 4.7E+00 5.6E+04 4.2E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.0E+02 3.6E\u201301 5.6E+04 2.2E+00 5.4E\u201301 8.7E+01 3.6E+01 3.0E\u201303 3.1E+00 2.4E+02 X 5.9E+00 9.2E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 8.1E+01 2.1E+00 2.7E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6808, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 243, "book_page": 242, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6809, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 243, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6810, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 243, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.4E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.7E+03 X 1.7E+01 2.0E+04 4.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+02 1.5E+03 2.3E+03 1.5E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 4.2E+03 6.9E+02 6.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.1E\u201303 5.0E+01 5.8E+03 1.1E+03 3.3E+03 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 4.0E+01 4.7E+03 6.4E\u201305 4.8E+01 3.7E+02 1.4E+00 8.2E+00 6.2E+02 3.8E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.4E+00 3.7E\u201304 1.0E\u201301 1.9E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 7.5E\u201304 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.7E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201308 7.3E+00 X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 1.3E+07 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6811, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 243, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.0E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 7.5E\u201304 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.7E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201308 7.3E+00 X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 1.3E+07 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 1.4E+07 6.5E\u201301 8.3E+02 1.3E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 8.4E\u201301 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 6.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 1.2E+00 4.5E+06 1.3E\u201304 7.2E+03 3.5E+00 9.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.9E+00 5.8E+01 2.2E\u201301 2.7E+07 2.9E\u201301 1.5E+00 5.1E+00 8.6E\u201301 1.8E+00 7.1E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 5.9E\u201302 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.8E\u201308 1.7E+03 X 9.4E+00 1.4E+04 2.3E\u201301 8.6E\u201304 2.3E+02 1.7E+03 2.0E+03 1.1E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 1.1E+04 2.5E+02 3.5E+00 3.3E+00 7.5E\u201304 1.8E+01 5.4E+03 1.5E+03 6.1E+02 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 3.3E+01 1.1E+04 5.2E\u201305 1.2E+02 3.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 8.1E+00 4.8E+02 5.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 7.6E+00 3.1E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 6.3E\u201304 MSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201310 1.1E+01 X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 5.4E+06 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.3E+07 5.7E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6812, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 243, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 6.3E\u201304 MSETP (inf) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201310 1.1E+01 X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 5.4E+06 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.3E+07 5.7E\u201302 1.7E+02 1.5E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.7E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 4.9E\u201301 4.1E+06 1.2E\u201304 7.3E+03 3.8E+00 6.0E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 5.5E+00 7.5E+01 1.1E\u201301 8.9E+06 9.6E\u201302 6.0E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.7E\u201302 4.5E\u201302 4.7E+00 2.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 X 2.5E+00 1.8E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 3.0E+01 1.1E+02 2.9E+01 1.4E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 7.0E+02 5.1E+01 3.0E+01 1.8E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E+01 1.9E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.5E+01 1.4E+03 3.1E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.6E+01 7.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+01 8.0E+00 1.7E+01 9.9E\u201301 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6813, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 244, "book_page": 243, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6814, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 244, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6815, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 244, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.6E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.5E+02 1.2E+02 4.9E+05 1.5E+00 9.9E+01 4.8E+00 8.2E+01 9.2E+00 3.1E+01 4.0E+03 2.5E+02 4.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.5E+04 8.1E+00 9.6E+04 2.9E+02 X 8.6E\u201301 3.2E+02 1.0E+01 1.3E+02 9.3E+02 3.7E+03 8.0E+02 1.1E+02 1.8E+01 1.1E+01 7.2E\u201304 2.5E+02 5.3E+02 2.4E+02 2.0E+04 3.2E+00 4.6E+04 4.1E+02 1.0E\u201301 7.8E+02 8.3E+04 4.7E+00 1.2E+02 6.1E+03 1.8E+03 3.4E\u201301 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.8E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6816, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 244, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.1E+02 1.0E\u201301 7.8E+02 8.3E+04 4.7E+00 1.2E+02 6.1E+03 1.8E+03 3.4E\u201301 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.8E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 6.0E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+00 2.5E+02 2.7E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.3E+01 X 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.4E+04 7.7E+04 9.1E+01 1.4E+01 5.8E\u201301 4.2E+05 2.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 1.8E+01 2.6E+01 4.3E+01 7.8E+03 2.9E\u201301 2.7E+08 4.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 1.1E+05 1.2E+04 8.1E\u201304 4.0E\u201302 9.3E+01 6.2E+00 1.4E+00 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.9E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.3E+02 1.3E+02 1.6E+06 1.1E+00 1.2E+02 4.7E+00 6.1E+01 3.6E+00 2.4E+01 5.0E+03 2.3E+02 4.2E+02 8.1E+01 3.4E+04 5.3E+00 7.6E+04 2.5E+01 X 5.5E\u201302 4.5E+02 2.4E+01 3.4E+02 8.0E+02 2.7E+03 4.1E+02 2.6E+02 2.4E+00 8.8E+00 5.4E\u201304 7.4E+02 1.5E+03 7.8E+02 6.8E+04 4.7E\u201301 5.4E+04 1.2E+03 3.3E\u201302 2.0E+03 1.2E+05 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+01 6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 5.7E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6817, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 244, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.8E+04 4.7E\u201301 5.4E+04 1.2E+03 3.3E\u201302 2.0E+03 1.2E+05 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+01 6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 5.7E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.4E\u201301 1.2E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 7.4E+02 1.6E+00 3.3E+00 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.3E\u201301 2.4E+03 3.0E+00 X 8.5E\u201306 3.2E+01 1.3E+04 7.7E+04 1.0E+02 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 3.6E+05 2.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 6.0E+01 7.7E+01 1.5E+02 2.3E+04 4.5E\u201302 1.2E+08 1.7E+00 2.8E\u201305 1.1E+05 1.8E+04 9.9E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 1.4E+02 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201301 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1 .0E+00 1.7E+01 9.7E\u201301 2.7E+04 6.4E\u201301 3.9E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201301 1.8E+01 1.2E+00 1.1E+01 1.3E+00 7.0E+03 2.1E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.8E+00 1.3E+00 3.3E+03 4.4E+00 7.2E+01 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 3.5E+00 5.0E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 7.1E\u201301 3.6E+03 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 3.8E+01 5.9E+00 1.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6818, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 245, "book_page": 244, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6819, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6820, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+02 3.7E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 3.2E\u201303 3.7E+00 6.4E+00 1.4E+03 5.3E+00 2.1E+01 2.9E+02 1.7E+03 5.9E+02 3.1E+06 3.0E+03 6.9E+05 6.5E+03 3.4E+02 9.6E+01 2.6E+03 1.1E+01 6.0E\u201303 4.6E+03 3.1E\u201301 1.6E\u201304 5.1E\u201302 3.0E+02 2.3E+03 6.3E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 5.8E+04 1.3E+03 1.7E\u201304 2.9E+02 1.1E+03 4.5E+00 9.0E+00 7.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.8E+01 1.2E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 8.3E\u201302 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6821, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.9E+02 1.1E+03 4.5E+00 9.0E+00 7.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.8E+01 1.2E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 8.3E\u201302 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 6.5E+02 2.6E+03 4.7E+01 2.2E+06 1.2E+05 4.6E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+03 2.5E+02 1.7E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 8.8E\u201302 6.2E\u201305 2.7E+01 4.8E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 1.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201301 3.1E+02 2.8E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.4E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 3.8E\u201305 1.1E+03 3.6E+01 5.2E\u201306 5.6E\u201301 6.8E+00 1.4E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 3.5E+04 7.2E+02 4.1E\u201304 7.8E\u201311 8.9E+00 5.7E+01 2.7E+01 3.7E+02 2.4E+01 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.5E+02 3.8E+01 5.0E+01 3.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 2.6E+00 5.5E+00 9.3E+02 1.3E+01 5.4E+01 9.3E+02 2.8E+03 1.5E+03 4.4E+06 2.3E+03 1.3E+06 5.2E+03 3.7E+02 1.5E+02 1.8E+03 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201303 3.3E+03 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.7E\u201302 1.3E+01 2.4E+02 4.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 4.1E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 2.0E+01 7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 2.2E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6822, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.8E\u201301 4.1E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 2.0E+01 7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 2.2E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+02 3.3E+00 3.7E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 1.7E+00 3.8E\u201302 5.8E\u201302 6.7E+02 2.7E+03 1.6E+02 1.4E+06 1.2E+05 6.7E+05 1.4E+01 2.8E+03 3.5E+02 5.3E+01 4.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 8.8E\u201302 4.4E\u201305 2.6E+01 4.5E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 7.4E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201303 3.2E\u201303 5.4E\u201303 4.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 9.1E\u201306 4.3E+02 1.3E+01 5.1E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 9.8E+00 3.3E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 2.5E+03 9.7E+02 3.2E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 4.5E+00 3.9E+01 7.2E+01 4.7E+02 6.5E+01 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E+00 7.3E+01 1.2E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.1E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.7E+01 6.3E+03 6.3E+03 4.5E+00 2.2E+02 1.4E+01 1.2E+04 6.3E+01 7.8E+04 6.3E+02 5.9E+01 8.5E+00 4.9E+01 2.6E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6823, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 1.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6824, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 246, "book_page": 245, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6825, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 246, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6826, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 246, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.6E+01 1.3E+04 4.4E+01 3.7E+00 8.9E+00 1.2E+02 8.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 3.6E+02 1.9E+00 4.0E+02 6.5E+00 3.7E+02 2.4E+03 6.5E+02 1.7E+00 7.8E+01 8.5E+02 1.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 2.8E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.9E+04 9.5E+01 5.8E+03 1.5E+03 2.6E+02 1.9E\u201303 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 X 1.2E+02 3.6E+03 2.5E\u201303 1.9E+03 4.4E+03 1.1E+00 5.8E+01 1.3E+00 3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E+00 2.1E+03 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 9.5E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 9.6E+02 X X 6.8E+01 1.8E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6827, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 246, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E+03 1.1E+00 5.8E+01 1.3E+00 3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E+00 2.1E+03 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 9.5E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 9.6E+02 X X 6.8E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.2E+00 7.5E+02 5.3E+00 4.4E+01 2.6E+00 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 1.7E+05 4.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 3.2E+00 8.9E+02 3.1E+00 3.8E+06 1.4E+01 9.1E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+06 2.5E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 1.2E+06 X 3.4E\u201302 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201304 9.2E+00 2.3E+01 5.4E+01 1.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 2.2E+01 3.5E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 5.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201308 2.3E+01 X FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+02 1.8E+04 2.4E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 1.5E+01 9.7E+01 1.4E+01 X X 1.2E+03 1.6E\u201301 1.5E+02 1.7E+01 9.7E+01 2.4E+03 3.8E+02 1.1E+00 5.3E+01 2.2E+03 7.9E\u201301 9.8E+00 1.5E+02 2.1E+04 7.3E\u201302 5.0E+04 9.2E+01 5.2E+03 1.8E+02 5.8E+02 1.2E\u201303 4.9E+00 4.3E+03 X 5.5E+01 8.1E+02 2.0E\u201303 1.3E+03 2.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+01 2.7E+03 5.5E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.9E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.1E+03 X X 2.4E+02 2.9E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6828, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 246, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+01 2.7E+03 5.5E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.9E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.1E+03 X X 2.4E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.7E+00 7.8E+02 1.1E+00 5.7E+01 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 1.7E+05 3.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 4.7E+00 1.1E+03 8.3E\u201301 3.9E+06 1.6E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 9.6E+05 2.3E\u201304 6.7E\u201302 1.2E+06 X 9.9E\u201303 3.0E+00 6.0E\u201304 3.8E+00 9.8E\u201301 2.7E+01 8.8E+00 4.9E\u201302 1.7E+01 2.8E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 6.8E\u201311 3.5E+01 X TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+00 7.8E+01 4.4E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.3E+00 1.6E+01 4.7E+01 3.0E+00 X X 1.3E+01 3.0E\u201301 4.6E+00 3.3E+01 2.2E+01 1.8E+01 7.5E\u201302 8.6E\u201302 3.3E+00 5.6E+04 3.8E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 8.8E\u201301 2.2E+02 3.7E\u201301 5.6E+04 2.2E+00 4.1E\u201301 9.0E+01 3.6E+01 3.0E\u201303 2.6E+00 2.4E+02 X 6.0E+00 8.5E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 7.9E+01 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201302 3.8E+00 4.2E\u201304 9.4E+01 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6829, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 247, "book_page": 246, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6830, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 247, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 FAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.4E+01 5.4E+04 4.8E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 5.6E+03 2.6E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 4.2E+03 4.4E+03 6.9E+00 9.2E+00 1.1E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.9E+04 4.2E+03 1.8E+04 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 1.6E+02 4.7E+03 6.4E\u201305 4.8E+01 1.4E+03 5.4E+00 3.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+03 9.8E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E\u201301 1.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 2.6E+00 1.3E+07 3.1E+01 1.8E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 1.4E+07 4.2E+00 8.3E+02 3.9E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 3.4E+00 1.7E+02 2.2E+03 3.7E+00 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 4.5E+00 4.5E+06 1.3E\u201304 7.2E+03 1.3E+01 3.8E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+02 2.7E\u201301 2.7E+07 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 1.7E+03 4.8E+03 1.8E\u201303 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6831, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 247, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.7E\u201302 4.5E+00 4.5E+06 1.3E\u201304 7.2E+03 1.3E+01 3.8E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+02 2.7E\u201301 2.7E+07 FSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 1.7E+03 4.8E+03 1.8E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 1.1E+04 1.6E+03 3.5E+00 9.9E+00 7.5E\u201304 7.0E+01 1.8E+04 5.7E+03 3.4E+03 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+02 1.1E+04 5.2E\u201305 1.2E+02 1.1E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01 1.3E+03 1.5E+03 6.0E\u201301 7.6E+00 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+00 5.4E+06 4.6E+01 1.3E\u201304 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.3E+07 3.6E\u201301 1.7E+02 4.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201301 2.4E+02 3.0E+03 5.6E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 1.9E+00 4.1E+06 1.2E\u201304 7.3E+03 1.4E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 8.9E+06 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+00 1.3E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 2.9E+01 1.1E+02 2.1E+01 1.2E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 7.0E+02 8.1E+01 3.0E+01 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.0E+02 3.7E+01 2.6E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.4E+03 3.1E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.5E+01 6.8E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 2.3E+01 4.6E+00 1.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 x = not calculated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6832, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 248, "book_page": 247, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Source: Status: Equations: Remark: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Author(s). The five indicator results are expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while FAETP is the Fresh water Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, MAETP the Marine Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, FSETP is the Fresh water Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, MSETP is the Marine Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, TETP is the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, and is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The five indicator scores can only be added after weighting (see Part 2a, Section 4.3.8). The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6833, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 248, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr. is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6834, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 249, "book_page": 248, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.8.2: Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 100-year time horizon and global scale. Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6835, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 249, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 FAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u2013041 1.0E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 8.5E\u201303 7.3E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.2E\u201304 1.6E\u201302 3.3E\u201307 2.4E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.1E+01 8.0E+01 2.1E+06 8.5E\u201301 1.5E+01 5.9E+00 3.9E+01 1.4E+00 1.3E+01 1.7E+03 1.0E+02 2.0E+00 7.9E+01 5.2E+02 4.1E\u201301 5.1E+04 2.7E+00 X 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 1.0E+00 2.6E+00 3.6E+02 2.9E+02 4.2E+02 1.5E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+00 8.4E\u201305 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.8E+01 2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.2E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6836, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 249, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.7E+00 X 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 1.0E+00 2.6E+00 3.6E+02 2.9E+02 4.2E+02 1.5E+01 3.0E+01 5.6E+00 8.4E\u201305 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.8E+01 2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.2E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201306 4.6E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.9E+02 1.3E+02 3.0E+08 2.0E\u201301 5.3E+01 3.9E+00 5.3E+00 1.3E+00 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.9E+01 5.7E+02 9.1E\u201301 8.2E+03 6.1E+01 X 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 6.9E+01 1.1E+03 2.8E+02 1.6E+02 2.0E+02 5.9E+02 2.1E+01 6.2E\u201301 2.8E\u201303 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 9.3E\u201303 8.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 2.7E\u201303 1.0E\u201304 1.7E\u201302 2.2E\u201307 2.2E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 8.7E+01 6.8E+06 6.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 5.7E+00 2.9E+01 5.5E\u201301 1.0E+01 2.1E+03 9.3E+01 1.8E+00 4.0E+01 3.9E+02 2.7E\u201301 4.1E+04 2.4E\u201301 X 8.8E\u201301 1.9E+02 2.5E+00 6.6E+00 3.1E+02 2.1E+02 2.2E+02 3.4E+01 3.9E+00 4.5E+00 6.4E\u201305 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 6.9E+00 7.0E+00 8.5E\u201301 6.1E+00 8.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201306 2.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.1E+02 8.1E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.8E+01 4.3E+00 7.3E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6837, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 249, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.4E\u201305 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 6.9E+00 7.0E+00 8.5E\u201301 6.1E+00 8.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201306 2.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.1E+02 8.1E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.8E+01 4.3E+00 7.3E+00 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.1E+03 3.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.8E+01 7.5E+02 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+04 5.4E+00 X 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+03 7.5E+01 1.3E+03 3.1E+02 1.3E+02 5.7E+01 5.9E+02 1.8E+00 9.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201303 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E\u201304 9.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 7.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201308 4.4E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 5.4E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 1.2E+04 3.2E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.6E\u201302 6.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 8.0E\u201303 2.0E+03 1.4E\u201302 X 9.2E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 1.7E+01 2.0E+00 2.4E+00 1.9E\u201301 1.5E+00 4.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.6E\u201305 1 Means", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6838, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 250, "book_page": 249, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6839, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 250, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 FAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.2E+01 8.8E+01 4.4E+01 3.9E+03 7.6E\u201301 8.2E+03 8.2E+02 4.0E\u201301 5.2E+01 2.0E+04 1.6E+01 1.1E+02 3.0E+03 9.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 8.1E\u201302 3.2E\u201301 3.9E+01 2.9E+02 3.1E+01 2.4E+05 1 .9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.2E+02 1 .8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.3E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6840, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 250, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 8.1E\u201302 3.2E\u201301 3.9E+01 2.9E+02 3.1E+01 2.4E+05 1 .9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.2E+02 1 .8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.3E+02 5.6E\u201301 3.3E\u201305 9.9E\u201302 5.1E+02 2.0E+02 4.2E\u201301 5.0E\u201301 5.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 5.2E\u201302 MAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E+03 1 .4E+03 1.7E+03 1.2E+05 2.1E+00 2.3E+05 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6841, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 250, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0E+03 3.2E\u201301 2.3E+04 2.7E+04 1.0E+01 1.2E+01 7.2E+02 1.5E+02 1.5E+00 4.3E+03 6.1E+04 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 5.1E+01 6.4E\u201301 6.2E+01 1.1E+02 4.2E+02 4.1E+02 1.3E+04 1.4E+04 3.4E+05 6.3E+02 1 .9E+04 9.2E+02 8.6E+04 3.5E+03 9.1E+00 2.6E+00 2.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.4E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 4.1E+02 5.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 1.7E+00 4.7E+00 3.6E+00 1 .6E+00 2.7E\u201302 FSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .3E+02 2.5E+02 1.4E+02 1 .3E+04 1.1E\u201301 9.6E+03 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201301 1.3E+02 3.0E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.2E+01 3.0E+03 5.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 5.6E+02 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 2.0E\u201302 4.4E\u201304 1.8E+00 2.0E+00 3.3E+02 2.1E\u201301 8.3E\u201301 1.3E+02 4.8E+02 7.9E+01 3.5E+05 1.5E+03 1.5E+05 2.8E+03 3.5E+02 2.7E+03 1.6E+01 4.1E+00 4.7E\u201301 1 .6E+02 7.3E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 5.3E\u201302 2.3E+01 2.0E+01 2.8E\u201301 1.2E+00 1.2E+00 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+00 1.3E\u201302 MSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+03 4.1E+03 5.7E+03 3.5E+05 3.3E\u201301 1.1E+05 3.7E+03 7.1E\u201302 3.1E+04 3.9E+04 1 .2E\u201301 1 .0E+00 1.1E+03 1 .6E+02 8.6E\u201301 1 .4E+04 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 2.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+01 8.1E\u201301 6.0E+00 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6842, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 250, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 3.4E+03 4.1E+03 5.7E+03 3.5E+05 3.3E\u201301 1.1E+05 3.7E+03 7.1E\u201302 3.1E+04 3.9E+04 1 .2E\u201301 1 .0E+00 1.1E+03 1 .6E+02 8.6E\u201301 1 .4E+04 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 2.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+01 8.1E\u201301 6.0E+00 1 .5E+02 6.2E+02 1 .4E+03 9.4E+03 1.7E+04 4.8E+05 8.1E+02 4.9E+04 1.3E+03 2.5E+04 6.8E+03 1.1E+01 2.6E+00 1.7E+00 1.1E+02 3.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 2.7E+01 1 .7E+02 2.3E\u201301 3.2E+00 7.5E+00 5.6E+00 2.0E+00 6.2E\u201303 TETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.7E\u201303 8.0E+02 8.8E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.2E+01 5.9E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 5.1E\u201303 1 .0E+00 2.2E+00 4.9E\u201301 4.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 7.1E\u201303 3.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 2.0E+01 2.0E+01 2.2E\u201301 4.8E+01 7.1E\u201301 1 .0E+03 3.1E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+02 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201303 4.3E\u201306 6.8E\u201304 9.8E+00 1.1E+00 5.3E\u201301 7.8E\u201304 9.2E\u201304 1.1E\u201304 3.0E\u201301 6.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6843, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 251, "book_page": 250, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentinacetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6844, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 251, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+04 2.9E+03 1.6E\u201302 2.7E+01 5.3E+02 3.4E+00 4.5E+01 1.1E+03 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201304 1.4E\u201311 2.5E+03 2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 1.2E\u201301 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01 5.9E+01 9.3E\u201301 7.4E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6845, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 251, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 1.2E\u201301 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01 5.9E+01 9.3E\u201301 7.4E+00 7.0E+01 1.4E+04 3.3E\u201302 1.3E+03 4.9E+01 1.5E+03 9.3E+03 7.5E+00 4.4E\u201305 5.0E\u201301 7.0E+01 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.6E+03 7.3E+03 5.4E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.1E+02 1.3E+00 1.9E+01 4.9E+04 7.1E+02 8.0E\u201304 7.9E\u201311 1.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.1E+04 4.7E+04 2.0E+04 2.0E+02 2.3E+03 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 2.9E+00 7.8E+01 7.7E+04 2.4E+03 X X 7.3E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.2E+01 1.5E+02 5.2E+01 2.7E+01 1.4E+03 2.8E\u201301 4.1E+00 2.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 2.2E+00 2.5E+01 3.9E+03 4.1E+00 6.5E+05 4.2E+01 3.8E+02 5.4E+03 1.1E+03 3.9E\u201304 9.1E\u201301 1.6E+04 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E+03 1.3E+03 2.7E\u201302 9.2E+00 5.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 9.8E+00 3.4E+02 1.9E+03 8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 5.3E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 3.0E\u201301 1.4E+01 3.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6846, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 251, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 5.3E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 3.0E\u201301 1.4E+01 3.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+01 1.5E+02 4.9E\u201301 5.3E+00 7.6E+01 1.0E+04 1.7E\u201302 3.5E+03 4.8E+01 1.3E+03 1.2E+03 1.7E+01 2.8E\u201305 1.9E\u201301 1.8E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+03 2.1E+03 5.2E\u201301 5.7E+00 1.6E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 3.5E+03 9.3E+02 6.1E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 7.5E+02 1.1E+03 5.3E+04 5.7E+04 5.1E+04 6.1E+02 2.7E+03 1.5E+00 1.5E+01 2.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.9E+04 2.8E+03 X X 2.5E+04 5.2E\u201303 2.0E+01 2.3E+02 9.2E+00 3.5E+01 7.8E+02 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+00 4.1E+04 1.9E\u201301 2.6E+00 3.7E+01 5.0E+03 1.1E+00 9.4E+05 4.7E+01 5.2E+02 6.0E+02 1.1E+03 3.5E\u201304 3.2E\u201301 1.8E+04 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.7E+01 3.4E+00 9.8E\u201306 4.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 2.4E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 4.9E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 2.6E\u201301 X X 8.0E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 1.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6847, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 251, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.6E\u201302 4.9E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 2.6E\u201301 X X 8.0E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 1.4E\u201301 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 1.8E+00 3.2E+03 1.9E\u201302 7.4E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 1.3E\u201302 3.2E+03 9.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 4.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 6.5E\u201307 8.2E\u201304 7.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6848, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 252, "book_page": 251, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust(PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6849, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 252, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water CAS number 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 5.6E+01 2.4E+03 9.3E\u201305 2.8E+03 9.9E+02 3.7E\u201301 4.7E+01 1.1E+01 1.6E+04 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 3.8E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.8E+02 2.7E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04 3.8E\u201305 9.5E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6850, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 252, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 3.8E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.8E+02 2.7E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04 3.8E\u201305 9.5E\u201305 9.9E+00 2.1E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.0E+00 9.4E+02 6.2E+00 9.4E\u201301 8.2E+02 1.4E+02 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.1E\u201301 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 1.4E+00 5.0E+02 9.1E\u201304 3.1E+03 7.2E+02 1.7E+02 6.0E+03 4.0E+01 3.1E+04 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.6E+00 8.5E\u201303 4.1E+02 X 7.1E+00 1.8E+03 1.2E\u201301 6.1E\u201304 9.4E+01 7.3E+03 2.8E+02 5.1E\u201304 X 3.4E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.0E+04 2.2E+02 1.6E+02 1.4E+00 7.0E\u201304 1.5E+02 8.5E+02 3.1E+05 1.8E+03 2.7E\u201303 5.9E\u201302 1.0E+02 3.6E+04 1.3E\u201304 1.3E+03 4.1E+02 3.8E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.2E+02 2.1E+02 8.5E\u201301 5.2E+01 3.0E\u201301 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.5E+01 5.3E+02 7.4E\u201305 1.9E+03 6.0E+01 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 4.4E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 4.6E+02 9.8E+02 6.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01 3.0E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6851, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 252, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 4.4E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 4.6E+02 9.8E+02 6.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01 3.0E+03 1.0E+04 2.4E+03 3.2E\u201305 4.9E\u201305 8.1E+00 5.0E+02 2.3E\u201306 5.2E+00 7.4E+02 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 6.4E+02 1.9E+02 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.0E\u201302 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201301 2.1E+02 9.9E\u201304 1.3E+03 3.0E+01 8.7E+01 4.4E+02 6.9E+01 2.3E+04 5.4E+00 3.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 4.9E\u201305 6.2E+02 X 6.5E+00 1.8E+03 6.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201304 8.9E+01 3.6E+03 4.1E+02 3.6E\u201304 X 1.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 2.2E+04 1.8E+01 4.7E+01 1.6E+00 5.8E\u201304 3.9E+01 1.2E+03 3.9E+05 2.7E+02 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 4.4E+01 3.9E+04 1.2E\u201304 1.8E+03 4.5E+02 2.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.7E+02 2.5E+02 4.3E\u201301 2.1E+01 1.0E\u201301 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.9E+00 4.1E+01 1.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.9E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 3.6E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 2.4E+01 3.2E+01 1.3E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6852, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 252, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.9E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 3.6E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 2.4E+01 3.2E+01 1.3E\u201301 3.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 6.9E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.7E+01 1.2E+03 4.7E\u201306 4.0E\u201305 1.7E\u201302 5.0E+01 2.6E\u201307 8.4E\u201301 7.2E+00 3.3E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.3E+01 6.9E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6853, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 253, "book_page": 252, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6854, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 253, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6855, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 253, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 1.0E+00 2.3E\u201302 5.0E+00 3.0E+00 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 8.6E+02 5.2E+03 1.7E+08 1.7E+01 1.6E+ 03 2.9E+02 4.0E+02 1.7E+02 1.6E+03 1.9E+04 2.5E+03 3.1E+03 1.1E+03 2.5E+05 7.9E+01 4.4E+05 1.2E+04 X 1.1E+03 5.7E+04 2.0E+01 2.1E+02 5.0E+03 2.7E+05 5.2E+04 2.3E+02 6.8E+03 5.1E+01 9.1E\u201302 1.1E+05 2.5E+05 5.2E+04 1.2E+06 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.7E+01 2.1E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.6E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 3.7E+02 9.1E+01 4.5E+07 6.1E\u201302 6.4E+01 1.6E+00 2.3E+00 2.5E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.8E+03 1.1E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+01 1.1E+03 5.4E\u201301 7.4E+03 2.1E+02 X 2.5E\u201301 3.0E+03 6.9E+01 7.0E+02 4.8E+02 1.0E+03 3.5E+01 8.1E+02 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.3E+03 1.2E+04 9.1E+03 4.4E+05 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6856, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 253, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.8E+02 1.0E+03 3.5E+01 8.1E+02 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.3E+03 1.2E+04 9.1E+03 4.4E+05 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 7.7E+02 5.7E+03 5.6E+08 1.2E+01 1.9E+03 2.9E+02 3.0E+02 6.8E+01 1.3E+03 2.4E+04 2.3E+03 2.7E+03 5.6E+02 1.9E+05 5.2E+01 3.5E+05 1.0E+03 X 7.0E+01 8.0E+04 4.8E+01 5.3E+02 4.3E+03 2.0E+05 2.7E+04 5.1E+02 8.8E+02 4.1E+01 7.0E\u201302 3.5E+05 7.2E+05 1.7E+05 3.9E+06 MSETP (100 yr) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.7E+00 7.0E+00 8.7E\u201301 5.9E+00 8.6E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 9.9E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 1.0E+02 1.5E+08 7.6E\u201302 8.1E+01 1.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.5E+03 1.5E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+01 1.6E+03 5.1E\u201301 1.1E+04 1.9E+01 X 1.0E\u201302 4.1E+03 8.0E+01 8.8E+02 5.4E+02 7.9E+02 1.0E+01 8.5E+02 7.5E\u201301 3.3E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.8E+04 3.6E+04 3.2E+04 1.3E+06 TETP (100 yr) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 8.5E\u201303 5.2E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 4.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.9E+02 3.6E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6857, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 253, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.3E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.8E+04 3.6E+04 3.2E+04 1.3E+06 TETP (100 yr) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 8.5E\u201303 5.2E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 4.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.9E+02 3.6E\u201308 6.1E\u201302 6.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201310 9.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201303 7.6E\u201304 9.4E\u201306 3.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201308 5.8E+00 3.9E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1.4E\u201302 X 5.0E\u201308 2.0E\u201302 1.7E\u201320 1.0E\u201317 7.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201306 5.1E\u201319 8.2E\u201308 1.8E\u201307 1.4E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 4.3E\u201304 2.1E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6858, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 254, "book_page": 253, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6859, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 254, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6860, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 254, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E+02 9.1E+04 2.4E+05 2.1E+02 7.6E+01 1.5E+03 5.4E+05 2.1E+03 4.5E+03 3.8E+04 1.3E+04 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 9.0E+04 1.1E+03 3.1E+01 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+02 8.3E+01 6.4E+05 6.9E+00 2.8E+01 1.9E+04 3.4E+03 1.1E+03 2.0E+07 5.4E+04 7.9E+06 2.6E+04 2.9E+04 6.5E+05 2.2E+04 1.9E+02 7.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.9E+01 1.2E\u201302 5.3E+00 1.2E+05 7.9E+04 3.4E+01 1.1E+02 8.6E+01 2.1E+01 1.7E+02 3.1E+00 3.2E+05 2.3E+05 2.8E+00 6.4E+04 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+00 3.3E+05 5.3E\u201302 4.2E+03 8.0E+04 1.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.8E+02 4.4E+01 1.8E+00 5.5E+03 8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1.2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.7E+01 6.9E+01 3.0E+03 1.2E+04 3.6E+03 3.0E+06 1.9E+02 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02 7.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6861, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 254, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.5E+03 8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1.2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.7E+01 6.9E+01 3.0E+03 1.2E+04 3.6E+03 3.0E+06 1.9E+02 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02 7.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 9.0E+03 1.1E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.3E+00 4.3E\u201301 7.5E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.9E+03 5.4E+03 3.5E\u201302 1.2E+02 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.2E+05 2.5E+01 3.9E+03 7.7E+05 1.8E+01 1.3E+03 3.9E+04 7.6E+03 8.6E+01 8.9E+04 9.1E+03 9.4E+02 2.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 2.6E+02 7.1E+01 4.1E+05 1.8E+01 7.1E+01 5.9E+04 5.6E+03 2.9E+03 2.9E+07 4.3E+04 1.4E+07 2.1E+04 3.1E+04 9.8E+05 1.6E+04 1.2E+02 1.0E+02 7.7E+04 1.0E+01 8.8E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.5E+03 8.2E+03 2.2E+01 2.6E+02 1.9E+02 4.7E+01 1.3E+02 7.9E\u201301 8.8E+04 1.0E+05 4.7E+00 2.2E+04 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E\u201301 1.7E+05 8.1E+02 1.3E\u201302 6.9E+03 1.2E+05 1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 8.6E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.8E+04 2.7E+02 6.7E+00 1.5E+00 5.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 3.1E+01 1.2E+02 1.0E+04 9.5E+03 5.0E+03 4.4E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.6E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6862, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 254, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.9E+03 1.2E+05 1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 8.6E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.8E+04 2.7E+02 6.7E+00 1.5E+00 5.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 3.1E+01 1.2E+02 1.0E+04 9.5E+03 5.0E+03 4.4E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.6E+03 2.0E+03 1.2E+02 1.6E+00 2.7E\u201301 6.1E+02 7.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 7.7E\u201303 9.1E\u201301 3.2E+02 9.4E\u201302 2.3E+00 3.8E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201304 2.2E+03 2.0E+03 3.6E\u201302 3.5E+01 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.3E\u201304 3.3E\u201316 2.1E\u201302 6.6E\u201306 1.4E\u201320 1.9E\u201307 6.2E\u201308 2.6E\u201307 6.3E\u201308 3.5E\u201305 4.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201302 4.6E\u201305 3.8E\u201304 7.2E\u201304 5.5E\u201303 2.5E\u201305 2.1E\u201302 2.3E\u201319 2.3E\u201319 8.4E\u201303 2.7E\u201318 4.1E\u201321 6.0E+00 2.2E\u201306 1.6E+01 1.9E\u201306 3.1E\u201301 3.2E\u201302 1.2E\u201302 3.6E\u201305 6.6E\u201306 4.1E\u201303 1.3E\u201305 3.9E\u201306 6.1E\u201312 1.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 5.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 6.4E\u201306 1.2E\u201305 3.7E\u201304 3.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201302 1.3E\u201307 1.2E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6863, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 255, "book_page": 254, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6864, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 255, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129\u201308-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6865, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 255, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129\u201308-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E+03 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 7.0E+05 1.5E+05 5.5E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 2.4E+05 9.1E+05 2.7E+05 1.7E+05 2.7E+05 1.3E+04 8.2E+04 2.8E+02 1.4E+03 1.8E+04 2.2E+04 4.5E+04 1.5E+02 X X 7.7E+04 1.6E+02 1.9E+03 9.6E+00 6.5E+03 3.1E+04 2.1E+05 2.7E+01 3.8E+02 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.5E+02 1.1E+03 1.4E+05 1.9E+01 3.9E+04 4.3E+02 3.8E+04 5.9E+05 4.7E+02 6.0E\u201301 6.6E+02 3.2E+03 X 6.5E+02 7.0E+04 5.6E\u201301 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 3.4E+05 3.5E+03 1.4E\u201303 2.8E\u201305 6.7E+02 3.6E+03 3.2E+03 1.9E+04 3.1E+03 8.7E+02 1.2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.5E+04 1.5E\u201302 2.0E+01 2.2E+01 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 4.6E+03 6.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+01 4.2E+03 3.5E+00 1.1E+05 6.4E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6866, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 255, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.5E+04 1.5E\u201302 2.0E+01 2.2E+01 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 4.6E+03 6.3E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+01 4.2E+03 3.5E+00 1.1E+05 6.4E+01 5.8E+02 5.7E+02 1.7E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.1E+00 1.1E+04 X 1.8E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.5E\u201303 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.9E+03 1.9E+01 6.0E+03 2.1E+05 1.2E+05 3.6E\u201301 1.4E\u201302 1.4E+05 6.6E+05 4.3E+05 2.8E+05 4.3E+05 3.9E+04 1.1E+05 1.5E+02 1.3E+03 2.6E+04 2.8E+03 5.2E+04 4.9E+02 X X 2.5E+05 1.3E+01 7.1E+02 2.5E+01 1.7E+03 3.1E+04 1.2E+05 1.8E+01 2.5E+02 4.4E+03 1.2E+01 1.1E+02 1.2E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+05 4.2E+02 3.4E+04 7.4E+04 1.0E+03 3.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 8.2E+03 X 3.0E+02 1.6E+04 4.5E\u201301 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.8E+01 8.0E\u201302 7.7E\u201301 2.5E+04 4.8E+03 1.3E\u201303 3.4E\u201305 3.4E+02 2.5E+03 8.7E+03 2.6E+04 8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1.6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1.0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.7E+03 X X 5.0E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 4.3E+01 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 7.8E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 3.7E+01 5.4E+03 9.6E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6867, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 255, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1.6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1.0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.7E+03 X X 5.0E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 4.3E+01 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 7.8E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 3.7E+01 5.4E+03 9.6E\u201301 1.8E+05 7.2E+01 8.1E+02 6.3E+01 1.7E+03 2.1E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 1.4E+04 X 5.3E\u201302 5.8E+01 3.1E\u201303 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201303 8.5E\u201307 1.8E\u201303 3.5E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1.2E\u201306 1.1E\u201312 4.7E\u201303 8.8E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 9.2E\u201302 2.1E\u201303 4.9E\u201303 6.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201311 5.3E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 4.0E+00 2.5E\u201301 X X 6.2E\u201306 4.4E\u201308 1.6E\u201305 4.8E\u201322 1.6E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201311 1.1E\u201308 9.9E+00 8.5E\u201310 1.4E\u201306 2.0E\u201305 2.2E\u201303 1.1E\u201302 9.9E+00 4.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 2.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201318 6.0E\u201307 4.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201318 X 7.1E\u201306 4.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6868, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 256, "book_page": 255, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6869, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 256, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6870, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 256, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+06 2.9E+05 5.1E+01 4.0E+03 7.1E+02 5.0E+06 5.2E+02 2.4E+02 2.6E+03 5.5E\u201301 3.6E+04 X 1.2E+03 2.6E+05 4.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 4.9E+04 2.9E+03 2.7E+04 4.4E\u201301 X 7.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 8.0E+03 9.8E+04 1.0E+01 5.0E+02 2.9E\u201301 4.9E+04 1.7E+05 4.5E+05 4.1E+05 9.7E\u201302 4.2E\u201302 2.7E+04 8.9E+03 2.8E\u201302 9.1E+01 2.8E+04 2.7E+02 1.6E+03 8.7E+03 6.0E+03 9.8E+00 1.9E+01 7.1E\u201305 3.8E\u201302 3.0E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E+03 1.5E+03 1.7E+02 2.8E+03 1.2E+01 2.7E+04 1.0E+01 5.6E\u201302 5.0E+00 4.1E\u201306 1.6E+02 X 2.4E+00 5.0E+02 5.8E\u201302 2.2E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.1E+04 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 2.8E+04 7.4E+01 2.5E+01 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 3.1E+04 3.8E\u201304 2.6E+02 2.5E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6871, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 256, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+04 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 2.8E+04 7.4E+01 2.5E+01 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 3.1E+04 3.8E\u201304 2.6E+02 2.5E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01 9.0E+02 6.3E\u201301 6.8E+01 2.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.6E+01 3.6E+00 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.0E+05 1.8E+04 7.2E+01 1.1E+03 1.6E+03 6.7E+06 5.6E+02 8.8E+01 4.3E+02 1.1E\u201303 3.6E+04 X 6.7E+02 1.8E+05 2.1E+00 3.3E\u201301 4.5E+04 3.4E+03 2.3E+04 3.0E\u201301 X 6.7E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 2.0E+04 3.5E+04 5.2E+00 5.3E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.7E+04 1.6E+05 6.1E+05 7.6E+04 8.2E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 2.2E+04 2.1E+04 2.3E\u201302 2.3E+02 2.2E+04 1.1E+02 1.6E+03 6.8E+03 8.1E+03 6.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.9E\u201305 4.5E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 4.3E\u201303 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 8.7E+01 2.2E+02 2.2E+01 2.0E+04 8.6E+00 3.8E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201308 2.4E+02 X 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 5.5E+03 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 3.3E+04 6.6E+00 9.1E+00 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 1.8E+02 3.5E+04 4.9E\u201304 4.1E+02 2.7E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6872, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 256, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 5.5E+03 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 3.3E+04 6.6E+00 9.1E+00 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 1.8E+02 3.5E+04 4.9E\u201304 4.1E+02 2.7E+02 1.2E+00 9.2E+00 7.7E+01 1.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 2.8E+01 1.9E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.1E\u201303 3.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 3.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201305 2.5E\u201306 1.5E\u201302 1.2E\u201310 9.3E\u201304 X 8.1E\u201304 3.1E\u201304 6.5E\u201304 4.9E\u201307 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201317 1.0E\u201303 1.3E\u201307 X 7.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 3.1E\u201317 9.3E\u201302 7.9E\u201322 3.2E\u201304 1.4E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 3.9E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 4.6E\u201306 3.9E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201317 2.6E\u201307 2.5E\u201321 1.3E\u201303 3.0E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.8E\u201312 5.7E\u201302 1.8E\u201303 2.3E\u201310 1.0E\u201304 3.7E\u201303 7.4E\u201302 3.5E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6873, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 257, "book_page": 256, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6874, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 257, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.3E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6875, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 257, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.3E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 3.7E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.0E\u201308 5.0E+00 6.0E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 X 1.1E\u201307 1.7E+01 7.6E\u201321 3.8E\u201320 8.3E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.4E\u201319 8.9E\u201308 7.4E\u201309 9.2E\u201306 1.1E+00 2.8E\u201301 4.9E\u201302 9.1E+00 1.1E\u201302 1.6E\u201316 5.5E\u201302 3.2E\u201305 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+01 3.1E+00 9.5E\u201301 9.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.0E+00 1.0E+00 3.7E+02 2.2E+02 5.0E+08 4.0E\u201301 1.2E+02 7.6E+00 1.0E+01 3.7E+00 4.6E+01 3.3E+03 5.9E+01 9.6E+01 3.7E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+00 1.5E+04 8.0E+03 X 2.0E+01 1.8E+04 1.3E+02 2.2E+03 6.0E+02 5.9E+03 1.0E+03 1.1E+03 1.5E+02 1.2E+00 1.5E\u201302 8.5E+04 1.2E+05 6.5E+04 1.5E+06 7.8E+00 4.0E+05 8.9E+03 1.6E+00 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 7.4E\u201305 7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 4.3E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6876, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 257, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 7.4E\u201305 7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 4.3E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201308 3.7E+00 3.9E\u201303 9.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 X 6.8E\u201309 2.3E+01 1.8E\u201320 9.8E\u201320 7.2E\u201303 3.0E\u201302 5.6E\u201305 5.4E\u201319 1.1E\u201308 6.0E\u201309 7.0E\u201306 3.2E+00 8.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201316 1.6E\u201301 1.0E\u201305 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.0E+00 6.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 4.4E+02 2.5E+02 1.9E+09 4.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 8.9E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.1E+01 4.1E+03 8.2E+01 1.4E+02 3.5E+01 1.3E+04 4.0E+00 2.2E+04 7.4E+02 X 8.3E\u201301 2.5E+04 1.5E+02 2.7E+03 6.6E+02 4.7E+03 2.9E+02 1.1E+03 1.3E+01 1.8E+00 2.1E\u201302 2.8E+05 3.7E+05 2.3E+05 4.4E+06 1.9E+00 2.1E+05 3.4E+04 4.0E\u201301 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.5E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 2.0E\u201305 8.3E\u201304 4.0E\u201309 2.0E\u201304 5.7E\u201303 9.6E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 8.3E+02 6.4E\u201311 9.1E\u201304 1.3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.7E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6877, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 257, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.5E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 2.0E\u201305 8.3E\u201304 4.0E\u201309 2.0E\u201304 5.7E\u201303 9.6E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 8.3E+02 6.4E\u201311 9.1E\u201304 1.3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.7E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 4.8E\u201303 6.7E\u201303 X 7.0E\u201310 4.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201320 3.0E\u201317 5.0E\u201305 3.4E\u201304 4.9E\u201308 6.6E\u201319 1.4E\u201309 3.3E\u201310 1.7E\u201306 6.2E\u201303 8.0E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 8.7E\u201302 2.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201316 5.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201307", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6878, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 258, "book_page": 257, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6879, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 258, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201320 5.0E\u201305 6.5E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 2.4E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6880, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 258, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201320 5.0E\u201305 6.5E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 2.4E\u201308 1.8E\u201304 6.5E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 3.1E+01 5.6E\u201305 3.5E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 2.3E\u201301 8.8E\u201323 3.5E\u201322 2.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201318 4.1E\u201320 1.1E+02 2.5E\u201306 2.4E+00 8.1E\u201307 1.5E+01 3.2E+00 1.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201306 1.6E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 2.9E\u201305 5.0E\u201306 1.6E\u201312 1.1E\u201302 1.6E+01 7.9E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 7.4E\u201306 3.8E\u201307 1.1E\u201301 4.2E\u201302 1.4E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 1.9E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 2.1E\u201302 6.1E+00 1.0E+00 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.0E+04 9.4E+04 4.0E+01 2.4E+01 1.3E+03 3.0E+02 3.0E+01 2.4E+04 4.7E+05 2.8E+01 8.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 3.6E+01 2.0E+00 2.2E+03 1.9E+02 7.5E+02 7.6E+03 2.3E+04 2.5E+04 3.6E+06 1.3E+03 1.6E+05 1.6E+03 1.9E+05 3.6E+04 5.5E+02 5.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1.7E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 5.9E+04 8.0E\u201301 9.7E+00 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 3.4E+00 5.2E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.2E+04 2.5E+00 1.5E+03 2.4E+02 2.6E+00 3.2E+02 2.7E+06 6.6E+03 FSETP (100", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6881, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 258, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1.7E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 5.9E+04 8.0E\u201301 9.7E+00 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 3.4E+00 5.2E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.2E+04 2.5E+00 1.5E+03 2.4E+02 2.6E+00 3.2E+02 2.7E+06 6.6E+03 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.5E\u201320 7.3E\u201305 5.7E\u201309 5.5E\u201307 2.4E\u201308 1.1E\u201304 5.4E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 3.2E+00 4.8E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 9.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 1.5E\u201301 2.3E\u201322 9.1E\u201322 8.3E\u201301 2.0E\u201318 1.0E\u201319 1.5E+02 1.9E\u201306 4.3E+00 6.5E\u201307 1.6E+01 4.8E+00 1.2E\u201302 2.4E\u201306 2.1E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201306 3.6E\u201306 8.3E\u201313 5.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 5.2E\u201305 2.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201302 8.7E\u201303 5.5E\u201306 9.8E\u201308 2.9E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 4.6E\u201303 1.8E\u201303 3.6E\u201309 4.5E\u201303 1.9E+00 7.9E\u201301 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E+04 1.4E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.0E+03 3.1E+02 4.5E+01 8.0E+04 1.5E+04 3.3E+01 1.0E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.5E+00 2.2E+02 3.3E+02 1.3E+03 2.6E+04 1.8E+04 3.5E+04 5.2E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.2E+03 7.1E+04 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1.6E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 2.1E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E+00 1.3E\u201302 5.0E+03 4.5E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6882, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 258, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.8E+04 3.5E+04 5.2E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.2E+03 7.1E+04 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1.6E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 2.1E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E+00 1.3E\u201302 5.0E+03 4.5E+03 2.6E+00 4.2E+02 3.4E+02 6.1E\u201301 2.2E+01 2.0E+05 8.9E+03 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201319 1.6E\u201308 9.4E\u201310 1.1E\u201309 1.6E\u201310 6.1E\u201307 1.0E\u201303 8.1E\u201304 2.8E\u201301 8.6E\u201307 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 4.5E\u201307 5.7E\u201305 2.0E\u201318 2.0E\u201318 1.6E\u201303 4.9E\u201318 2.5E\u201320 5.0E\u201301 4.0E\u201308 2.5E\u201301 7.3E\u201308 9.5E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.3E\u201304 7.5E\u201307 9.6E\u201307 8.2E\u201305 2.1E\u201307 6.5E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 2.2E\u201304 1 .0E\u201301 1.0E\u201304 1.7E\u201305 6.4E\u201305 3.5E\u201306 1.8E\u201307 4.7E\u201306 1.0E\u201303 5.1E\u201305 8.8E\u201308 2.1E\u201305 3.2E\u201305 1.5E\u201309 1.6E\u201305 3.7E\u201301 7.2E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6883, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 259, "book_page": 258, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6884, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 259, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 FAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 9.9E\u201303 2.6E\u201301 8.7E\u201302 1.8E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6885, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 259, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 FAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 9.9E\u201303 2.6E\u201301 8.7E\u201302 1.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 1.6E+01 2.1E\u201304 2.1E\u201311 3.9E\u201302 1.3E\u201303 2.3E+01 1.1E+00 X X 7.4E\u201304 3.8E\u201309 2.9E\u201305 5.6E\u201323 1.1E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 5.3E\u201313 3.8E\u201310 4.0E\u201301 6.8E\u201310 3.0E\u201306 9.2E\u201305 8.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201303 9.2E+00 1.6E\u201303 7.0E\u201302 6.9E\u201305 6.6E\u201319 7.2E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.1E\u201319 X 4.5E\u201307 3.0E\u201304 1 .5E\u201305 2.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.2E\u201305 MAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.2E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 5.6E+03 2.3E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.2E+03 2.1E+04 5.6E+00 3.3E+01 1.1E+03 4.5E+02 7.0E+04 2.4E+03 X X 1.1E+05 7.2E\u201301 5.9E+01 2.6E+02 2.3E+02 1 .3E+03 5.1E+03 5.6E\u201301 8.0E+00 4.6E+04 4.9E\u201301 4.4E+00 4.8E+01 6.9E+03 2.4E+00 1.1E+06 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 2.2E+03 1 .4E\u201301 3.3E+01 3.0E+04 X 2.8E+00 1 .0E+03 1 .3E\u201301 4.1E+04 8.1E+03 1 .7E+02 5.6E+03 7.8E+01 FSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201306 6.6E\u201313 5.5E\u201303 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6886, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 259, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+06 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 2.2E+03 1 .4E\u201301 3.3E+01 3.0E+04 X 2.8E+00 1 .0E+03 1 .3E\u201301 4.1E+04 8.1E+03 1 .7E+02 5.6E+03 7.8E+01 FSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201306 6.6E\u201313 5.5E\u201303 1 .9E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 2.9E+01 4.7E\u201302 2.6E+00 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201304 2.0E\u201311 5.5E\u201302 1 .7E\u201304 2.6E+01 3.6E+00 X X 2.4E\u201303 3.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201305 1 .4E\u201322 3.0E\u201302 6.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 3.6E\u201313 2.5E\u201310 1.0E+00 3.5E\u201310 2.2E\u201306 1.0E\u201304 6.3E\u201303 1 .2E\u201303 2.3E+01 1 .6E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 8.8E\u201306 1.5E\u201318 4.7E\u201306 4.5E\u201303 1.6E\u201318 X 2.1E\u201307 6.8E\u201305 1 .2E\u201305 1 .4E\u201301 7.4E\u201303 3.3E\u201301 3.1E+00 2.7E\u201305 MSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kq) 6.7E\u201302 3.2E\u201303 2.9E+03 1 .5E+04 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1 .4E+04 2.8E+04 6.0E+00 3.0E+01 9.2E+02 9.1E+01 4.7E+04 3.4E+03 X X 3.8E+05 1 .2E\u201302 3.7E+01 4.8E+02 4.8E+01 1 .7E+03 2.8E+03 6.9E\u201301 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 3.8E\u201301 5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 1.7E+06 8.2E+01 1.9E+03 1 .2E+03 2.2E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+04 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1.7E\u201301 1 .7E+04 3.4E+02 1.4E+02 5.5E+02 1 .4E+02 TETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6887, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 259, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 1.7E+06 8.2E+01 1.9E+03 1 .2E+03 2.2E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 3.7E+04 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1.7E\u201301 1 .7E+04 3.4E+02 1.4E+02 5.5E+02 1 .4E+02 TETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E\u201307 9.9E\u201314 8.4E\u201305 1.7E\u201303 1.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.8E\u201305 9.6E\u201304 7.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 4.4E\u201314 2.4E\u201305 2.4E\u201305 2.1E+00 2.3E\u201301 X X 4.1E\u201306 1.5E\u201310 3.8E\u201307 4.6E\u201321 3.9E\u201303 3.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201307 2.2E\u201314 1.8E\u201311 3.0E+01 1.4E\u201311 3.0E\u201308 6.0E\u201307 7.5E\u201305 9.1E\u201304 3.0E+01 3.8E\u201305 5.4E\u201306 3.2E\u201307 2.9E\u201318 1.1E\u201307 1 .9E\u201305 2.6E\u201318 X 2.3E\u201308 5.2E\u201306 2.1E\u201307 8.2E\u201305 7.1E\u201304 2.6E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.6E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6888, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 260, "book_page": 259, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6889, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 260, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6890, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 260, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+01 5.8E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 3.3E\u201302 4.6E\u201311 8.9E\u201304 X 5.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201304 4.4E\u201304 1.0E\u201305 2.3E\u201303 7.4E\u201318 4.5E\u201303 1.0E\u201305 X 2.0E\u201304 1.9E\u201304 7.9E\u201318 2.6E\u201302 9.5E\u201323 2.9E\u201302 8.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 7.9E\u201302 3.0E+00 5.3E\u201306 1.6E\u201305 4.5E\u201305 1.8E+00 2.4E\u201318 1.4E\u201306 1.8E\u201321 3.6E\u201303 1.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201304 7.3E\u201313 9.1E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 4.1E\u201308 3.7E\u201304 2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 1.2E+04 6.7E+02 1.2E\u201301 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6891, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 260, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 1.2E+04 6.7E+02 1.2E\u201301 X 6.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.9E+04 4.2E+02 2.7E+02 1.4E+02 5.1E\u201302 3.3E+03 4.9E+03 5.7E+05 3.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 5.6E\u201302 8.3E+03 7.0E+04 2.0E\u201302 2.4E+03 8.1E+02 7.5E+00 4.4E+01 2.2E+02 1.1E+03 7.4E\u201301 6.9E+01 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201301 2.3E+00 6.5E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+01 6.3E\u201302 6.4E\u201306 5.4E\u201303 9.4E\u201314 9.0E\u201304 X 2.7E\u201304 8.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201304 6.1E\u201306 2.0E\u201303 8.6E\u201318 3.8E\u201303 7.0E\u201306 X 1.9E\u201304 1.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201317 9.5E\u201303 4.8E\u201323 3.1E\u201302 5.9E\u201306 4.1E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 4.1E+00 9.9E\u201307 1.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201305 1.4E+00 5.7E\u201318 1.1E\u201306 4.5E\u201321 2.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.7E\u201313 1.2E+00 2.3E\u201303 3.4E\u201308 3.1E\u201304 3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 6.3E+03 1.0E+03 9.3E\u201302 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6892, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 260, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 6.3E+03 1.0E+03 9.3E\u201302 X 7.8E\u201301 4.6E\u201301 4.5E+04 3.7E+01 9.8E+01 1.6E+02 6.3E\u201302 9.2E+02 6.8E+03 7.9E+05 5.4E+02 8.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 3.6E+03 8.0E+04 2.9E\u201302 3.6E+03 8.9E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+01 3.2E+02 1.5E+03 8.4E\u201301 2.8E+01 9.6E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 9.0E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201302 6.3E\u201306 3.8E\u201308 1.3E\u201303 2.8E\u201312 1.7E\u201305 X 1.3E\u201305 3.2E\u201306 1.8E\u201305 8.9E\u201308 2.9E\u201305 1.8E\u201317 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201308 X 4.0E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 4.2E\u201317 3.1E\u201304 7.2E\u201321 6.7E\u201305 1.9E\u201306 1.3E\u201304 8.4E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 4.8E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 1.9E\u201305 3.0E\u201303 2.2E\u201317 1.3E\u201307 1.9E\u201320 2.8E\u201305 6.1E\u201313 4.2E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 5.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201305 8.4E\u201311 1.5E\u201303 8.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 9.3E+00 1.9E+01 1.2E+00 5.4E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6893, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 261, "book_page": 260, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6894, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 261, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6895, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 261, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41 -7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.5E\u201304 5.4E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.5E+02 3.2E+01 1.2E+05 4.4E\u201301 2.8E+01 1.2E+00 2.9E+01 2.5E+00 7.9E+00 1.8E+03 7.4E+01 1.7E+02 5.1E+01 4.5E+04 6.5E+00 9.6E+04 2.8E+02 X 2.1E\u201301 8.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.2E+00 3.4E+02 2.8E+03 1.9E+02 3.6E+01 4.6E+00 8.3E+00 7.2E\u201304 6.2E+01 1.3E+02 6.1E+01 5.2E+03 9.2E\u201301 2.1E+04 1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.0E+02 2.7E+04 4.0E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.0E+03 5.8E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.9E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6896, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 261, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.1E+04 1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.0E+02 2.7E+04 4.0E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.0E+03 5.8E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.9E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 4.5E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.0E\u201303 6.8E\u201302 2.7E+02 3.2E\u201301 7.7E\u201301 6.7E\u201301 2.5E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.2E+01 X 5.0E\u201305 6.2E+00 4.2E+00 2.1E+00 3.4E+01 1.1E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.8E+01 5.8E\u201303 3.6E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 4.5E+00 6.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.0E+03 8.2E\u201302 4.1E+04 1.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201305 1.3E+02 4.0E+03 6.9E\u201305 7.4E\u201303 3.0E+01 2.0E+00 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201304 5.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 4.0E+05 3.2E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.2E+00 2.2E+01 1.0E+00 6.3E+00 2.3E+03 6.8E+01 1.5E+02 2.6E+01 3.4E+04 4.2E+00 7.6E+04 2.4E+01 X 1.4E\u201302 1.1E+02 5.6E+00 3.1E+00 3.0E+02 2.0E+03 1.0E+02 8.1E+01 5.9E\u201301 6.7E+00 5.4E\u201304 1.9E+02 3.8E+02 2.0E+02 1.7E+04 1.3E\u201301 2.4E+04 3.1E+02 8.2E\u201303 2.6E+02 3.9E+04 3.5E\u201303 6.7E+00 2.0E+03 3.4E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.4E+05", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6897, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 261, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+02 1.7E+04 1.3E\u201301 2.4E+04 3.1E+02 8.2E\u201303 2.6E+02 3.9E+04 3.5E\u201303 6.7E+00 2.0E+03 3.4E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 1.4E+05 2.0E\u201303 1.6E+00 9.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201301 3.2E\u201303 9.0E\u201302 3.3E+02 4.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 6.4E\u201301 3.6E+02 1.9E\u201301 2.4E+03 2.9E+00 X 2.1E\u201306 8.2E+00 5.5E+00 3.0E+00 3.8E+01 8.4E+00 4.1E\u201302 8.1E+01 5.0E\u201304 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 1.5E+01 1.9E+01 3.7E+01 5.9E+03 1.3E\u201302 2.4E+04 4.3E\u201301 7.1E\u201306 2.5E+02 5.8E+03 8.4E\u201307 6.5E\u201304 4.5E+01 2.1E+00 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201303 2.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1.0E+00 1.7E+01 1.0E+00 2.7E+04 7.4E\u201301 4.4E+00 7.0E\u201301 1.6E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.6E+01 1.7E+00 7.0E+03 2.5E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.9E+00 3.0E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.6E+00 2.2E+02 9.7E\u201301 3.2E+00 3.5E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 8.0E\u201301 1.7E+03 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 4.9E+01 7.5E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6898, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 262, "book_page": 261, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6899, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6900, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E\u201301 5.8E+01 9.4E+01 1.6E+01 1.8E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.0E+00 1.8E+00 3.6E+02 2.7E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 7.4E+01 7.3E+02 5.5E+01 1.0E+06 8.1E+02 2.0E+05 6.5E+03 8.7E+01 2.4E+01 8.0E+02 3.0E+00 1.5E\u201303 1.3E+03 7.9E\u201302 1.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 7.4E+01 6.0E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.8E\u201302 4.6E\u201303 6.2E\u201304 8.9E+00 7.4E\u201303 2.0E+04 3.3E+02 4.2E\u201305 7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 7.6E+02 3.5E+03 3.8E+02 2.5E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 8.5E\u201302 8.1E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 1.7E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6901, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.2E\u201305 7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 7.6E+02 3.5E+03 3.8E+02 2.5E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 1.2E+01 3.0E+01 8.5E\u201302 8.1E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 1.7E+00 8.4E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.4E+03 8.3E+01 1.5E+05 2.8E+00 3.0E+02 2.5E+02 4.3E+01 6.0E\u201302 3.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.6E\u201305 7.8E+00 1.2E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.6E\u201305 4.1E\u201302 8.1E+01 7.1E\u201304 4.3E\u201304 8.6E\u201304 6.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201302 9.7E\u201306 3.9E+02 8.7E+00 1.3E\u201306 1.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.6E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+04 2.6E+02 4.1E\u201304 7.8E\u201311 2.3E+00 1.5E+01 6.8E+00 9.5E+01 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E\u201301 1.9E+02 9.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+00 3.0E\u201303 7.3E\u201301 1.6E+00 2.3E+02 6.9E\u201302 2.8E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.2E+03 1.4E+02 1.5E+06 6.3E+02 3.6E+05 5.2E+03 9.3E+01 3.6E+01 5.7E+02 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201303 9.3E+02 1 .0E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 3.3E+00 6.3E+01 1.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 6.3E+03 8.8E+03 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 4.2E+02 2.5E+03 6.2E+02 4.1E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6902, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 1.0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 6.3E+03 8.8E+03 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 4.2E+02 2.5E+03 6.2E+02 4.1E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E\u201301 4.1E+01 8.4E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 4.7E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 6.5E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 4.0E+01 1.2E+03 1.4E+02 2.2E+05 3.7E+00 8.0E+02 3.5E+02 1.4E+01 1.2E\u201301 4.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 7.5E+00 1.1E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.6E\u201304 8.0E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 1.0E\u201304 4.8E\u201302 2.3E\u201306 1.5E+02 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201306 4.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.5E\u201304 9.0E\u201305 7.4E+02 3.6E+02 3.2E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 1.1E+00 9.9E+00 1.8E+01 1.2E+02 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+00 6.3E+00 7.4E+01 1.3E+00 9.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.8E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.6E+01 3.6E+01 4.6E+00 9.9E+01 1.5E+00 1.6E+04 6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 6.0E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 4.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6903, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 4.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.3E+01 2.9E+02 1.2E+01 1.2E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6904, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 263, "book_page": 262, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron melazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6905, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 263, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6906, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 263, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 FAETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.8E+02 1.9E+01 4.5E+03 1.5E+01 9.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 3.1E+01 7.0E+01 3.2E+00 X X 9.0E+01 2.3E\u201301 1 .7E+02 4.9E\u201302 9.7E+01 6.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.6E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.0E+02 4.1E\u201301 3.9E+00 4.4E+01 1 .4E+04 1 .4E\u201301 2.4E+03 9.5E+01 1 .9E+03 3.5E+02 7.4E+00 1.9E\u201303 3.8E+00 1 .0E+02 X 3.0E+01 9.7E+02 2.5E\u201303 5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1 .5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 2.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.4E+00 4.8E\u201305 1 .7E+03 MAETP (100yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 7.1 E+02 1 .8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.8E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6907, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 263, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.5E\u201303 5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1 .5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 2.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.4E+00 4.8E\u201305 1 .7E+03 MAETP (100yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 7.1 E+02 1 .8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.8E+04 7.2E+02 X X 1.7E+01 2.2E\u201305 1 .8E+00 5.2E\u201302 1 .4E+00 1.2E+01 6.6E\u201301 6.2E\u201304 5.3E\u201302 2.3E+02 1.1E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 1.0E+00 4.4E+02 3.1E+00 5.2E+03 1 .4E+01 3.0E+01 3.4E\u201301 1 .3E+01 2.5E\u201304 5.7E\u201302 1 .8E+02 X 8.4E\u201303 2.0E+00 5.5E\u201304 2.3E+00 5.9E+00 2.8E+01 3.0E+01 5.9E\u201303 5.5E+00 8.7E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201308 7.3E+00 FSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.2E+02 5.7E+01 6.2E+03 7.9E+00 9.0E\u201301 3.2E+00 3.8E+00 8.0E+01 1.0E+01 X X 2.9E+02 1 .9E\u201302 6.3E+01 1.3E\u201301 2.5E+01 6.9E+02 9.5E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.0E+01 2.6E+02 2.2E\u201301 2.8E+00 4.8E+01 1.1E+04 7.2E\u201302 6.1E+03 9.2E+01 1 .7E+03 4.4E+01 1 .6E+01 1.2E\u201303 1 .5E+00 2.6E+02 X 1.3E+01 2.2E+02 2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1 .2E+03 3.2E\u201301 1 .3E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.8E\u201308 1 .7E+03 MSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .6E+01 4.3E+00 9.3E+02 1 .8E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6908, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 263, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5E+00 2.6E+02 X 1.3E+01 2.2E+02 2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1 .2E+03 3.2E\u201301 1 .3E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.8E\u201308 1 .7E+03 MSETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .6E+01 4.3E+00 9.3E+02 1 .8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201303 1.1E+04 8.3E+02 X X 5.9E+01 3.5E\u201307 1.1E+00 1 .2E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 3.7E\u201301 7.6E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 4.1 E+02 8.9E\u201304 3.9E\u201302 1 .5E+00 5.7E+02 8.3E\u201301 9.5E+03 1.6E+01 4.1E+01 3.8E\u201302 1 .6E+01 2.3E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 2.5E+02 X 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 9.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.4E+01 2.3E+00 1.1E\u201302 4.2E+00 7.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201310 1.1E+01 TETP (100yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kq) 1.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.1 E+02 5.8E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 1.6E+01 5.3E+01 3.5E+00 X X 1.3E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.4E+00 2.7E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E\u201302 9.4E\u201302 4.7E+00 7.4E+03 4.2E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.0E+02 3.6E\u201301 7.5E+03 2.2E+00 5.4E\u201301 8.7E+01 1.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 3.1E+00 1.6E+01 X 5.9E+00 9.2E+01 3.4E\u201303 1 .7E+01 8.1E+01 2.1E+00 2.7E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.5E\u201302 4.7E+00 2.6E\u201303 1.2E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6909, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 264, "book_page": 263, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6910, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 264, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6911, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 264, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 1.7E+01 2.0E+04 4.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+02 9.9E+02 2.3E+03 1.5E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 2.8E+02 6.9E+02 5.2E\u201302 3.1E+00 1.1E\u201303 5.0E+01 5.8E+03 1.1E+03 3.3E+03 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 4.0E+01 3.3E+02 6.4E\u201305 3.0E+00 3.7E+02 1.4E+00 8.2E+00 6.2E+02 3.8E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.4E+00 3.7E\u201304 1.0E\u201301 1.9E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 7.5E\u201304 6.6E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 2.1E+03 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.1E+02 6.5E\u201301 5.8E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 8.4E\u201301 5.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6912, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 264, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 2.1E+03 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.1E+02 6.5E\u201301 5.8E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 8.4E\u201301 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 6.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 1.2E+00 5.7E+02 1.3E\u201304 4.0E+00 3.5E+00 9.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.9E+00 5.8E+01 2.2E\u201301 3.4E+01 2.9E\u201301 1.5E+00 5.1E+00 8.6E\u201301 1.8E+00 7.1E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 5.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 9.4E+00 1.4E+04 2.3E\u201301 8.6E\u201304 2.3E+02 1.2E+03 2.0E+03 1.1E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 7.1E+02 2.5E+02 2.6E\u201302 3.3E+00 7.5E\u201304 1.8E+01 5.4E+03 1.5E+03 6.1E+02 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 3.3E+01 7.8E+02 5.2E\u201305 7.7E+00 3.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 8.1E+00 4.8E+02 5.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 7.6E+00 3.1E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 6.3E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 1.2E+03 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 6.7E+02 5.7E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.7E+02 1.0E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6913, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 264, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.4E\u201302 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 1.2E+03 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 6.7E+02 5.7E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.7E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 4.9E\u201301 7.5E+02 1.2E\u201304 7.4E+00 3.8E+00 6.0E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 5.5E+00 7.5E+01 1.1E\u201301 1.4E+01 9.6E\u201302 6.0E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 5.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.5E+00 1.8E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 3.0E+01 7.5E+01 2.9E+01 1.4E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 4.9E+01 5.1E+01 2.5E\u201301 1.8E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E+01 1.9E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.5E+01 1.0E+02 3.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 1.6E+01 7.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+01 8.0E+00 1.7E+01 9.9E\u201301 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303 2.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6914, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 265, "book_page": 264, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1 -chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6915, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 265, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6916, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 265, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+02 1.2E+02 4.9E+05 1.5E+00 9.9E+01 4.8E+00 8.2E+01 9.2E+00 3.1E+01 4.0E+03 2.5E+02 4.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.5E+04 8.1E+00 9.6E+04 2.9E+02 X 8.6E\u201301 3.2E+02 2.3E+00 1.2E+00 9.3E+02 3.7E+03 8.0E+02 3.6E+01 1.8E+01 1.1E+01 7.2E\u201304 2.5E+02 5.3E+02 2.4E+02 2.0E+04 3.2E+00 2.1E+04 4.1E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.0E+02 8.3E+04 4.7E+00 1.2E+02 6.1E+03 1.8E+03 3.4E\u201301 2.3E+02 3.7E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 3.2E\u201303 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.8E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 6.0E+02 1.2E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6917, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 265, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+02 6.1E+03 1.8E+03 3.4E\u201301 2.3E+02 3.7E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 3.2E\u201303 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.8E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 6.0E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+00 2.5E+02 2.7E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.3E+01 X 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+01 4.2E+00 2.1E+00 9.1E+01 1.4E+01 5.8E\u201301 6.8E+01 2.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 1.8E+01 2.6E+01 4.3E+01 7.7E+03 2.9E\u201301 4.1E+04 4.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 1.3E+02 1.2E+04 8.1E\u201304 4.0E\u201302 9.3E+01 6.2E+00 1.4E+00 4.8E+01 1.2E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 8.3E\u201302 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+02 1.3E+02 1.6E+06 1.1E+00 1.2E+02 4.7E+00 6.1E+01 3.6E+00 2.4E+01 5.0E+03 2.3E+02 4.2E+02 8.1E+01 3.4E+04 5.3E+00 7.6E+04 2.5E+01 X 5.5E\u201302 4.5E+02 5.6E+00 3.1E+00 8.0E+02 2.7E+03 4.1E+02 8.1E+01 2.4E+00 8.8E+00 5.4E\u201304 7.4E+02 1.5E+03 7.8E+02 6.8E+04 4.7E\u201301 2.4E+04 1.2E+03 3.3E\u201302 2.6E+02 1.2E+05 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+01 6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 7.5E+02 3.8E+01 5.0E+01 3.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 5.7E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00 3.7E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6918, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 265, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+03 3.3E\u201302 2.6E+02 1.2E+05 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+01 6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 7.5E+02 3.8E+01 5.0E+01 3.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 5.7E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.4E\u201301 1.2E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 7.4E+02 1.6E+00 3.3E+00 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.3E\u201301 2.4E+03 3.0E+00 X 8.5E\u201306 3.2E+01 5.5E+00 3.0E+00 1.0E+02 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 8.1E+01 2.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 6.0E+01 7.7E+01 1.5E+02 2.3E+04 4.5E\u201302 2.4E+04 1.7E+00 2.8E\u201305 2.5E+02 1.8E+04 9.9E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 1.4E+02 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 3.3E+00 3.7E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+01 9.7E\u201301 2.7E+04 6.4E\u201301 3.9E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201301 1.8E+01 1.2E+00 1.1E+01 1.3E+00 7.0E+03 2.1E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.8E+00 3.0E\u201301 3.3E+01 4.4E+00 7.2E+01 1.0E+00 3.2E+00 3.5E+00 5.0E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 7.1E\u201301 1.7E+03 8.3E+01 1 .0E\u201302 2.4E+01 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 3.8E+01 5.9E+00 1.6E+00 6.3E+00 7.3E+01 1.2E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6919, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 266, "book_page": 265, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus.soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil Indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6920, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6921, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 FAETP (100 yr) (kg1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.7E+00 6.4E+00 1.4E+03 2.7E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+02 7.3E+02 5.5E+01 3.1E+06 3.0E+03 6.9E+05 6.5E+03 3.4E+02 9.6E+01 2.6E+03 1.1E+01 6.0E\u201303 4.6E+03 3.1E\u201301 1.6E\u201304 5.1E\u201302 3.0E+02 2.3E+03 6.3E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 5.8E+04 1.3E+03 1.7E\u201304 2.9E+02 1.1E+03 4.5E+00 9.0E+00 7.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 7.6E+01 1.3E+04 4.4E+01 3.7E+00 8.9E+00 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 4.7E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6922, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 7.6E+01 1.3E+04 4.4E+01 3.7E+00 8.9E+00 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 4.7E+01 1.4E+03 8.3E+01 4.6E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+03 2.5E+02 1.7E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 8.8E\u201302 6.2E\u201305 2.7E+01 4.8E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 1.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201301 3.1E+02 2.8E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.4E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 3.8E\u201305 1.1E+03 3.6E+01 5.2E\u201306 5.6E\u201301 6.8E+00 1.4E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 3.5E+04 7.2E+02 4.1E\u201304 7.8E\u201311 8.9E+00 5.7E+01 2.7E+01 3.7E+02 2.4E+01 5.3E+00 2.1E+03 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 9.5E\u201302 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.6E+00 5.5E+00 9.3E+02 6.9E\u201302 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+02 1.2E+03 1.4E+02 4.4E+06 2.3E+03 1.3E+06 5.2E+03 3.7E+02 1.5E+02 1.8E+03 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201303 3.3E+03 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.7E\u201302 1.3E+01 2.4E+02 4.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 4.1E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 2.0E+01 7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 2.2E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 2.3E+02 1.8E+04 2.4E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 MSETP (100 yr) (kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6923, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 2.2E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 2.3E+02 1.8E+04 2.4E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+00 3.8E\u201302 5.8E\u201302 6.5E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 1.6E+02 1.2E+03 1.4E+02 6.7E+05 1.4E+01 2.8E+03 3.5E+02 5.3E+01 4.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 8.8E\u201302 4.4E\u201305 2.6E+01 4.5E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 7.4E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201303 3.2E\u201303 5.4E\u201303 4.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 9.1E\u201306 4.3E+02 1.3E+01 5.1E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 9.8E+00 3.3E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 2.5E+03 9.7E+02 3.2E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 4.5E+00 3.9E+01 7.2E+01 4.7E+02 6.5E+01 1.7E+01 2.7E+03 5.5E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.9E\u201302 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.6E+01 3.6E+01 4.5E+00 9.9E+01 1.5E+00 1.2E+04 6.3E+01 7.8E+04 6.3E+02 5.9E+01 8.5E+00 4.9E+01 2.6E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6924, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 2.3E+00 7.8E+01 4.4E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.3E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6925, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 267, "book_page": 266, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6926, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 267, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6927, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 267, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 8.4E+01 4.3E+00 X X 3.6E+02 1.9E+00 4.0E+02 4.9E\u201302 3.7E+02 2.4E+03 6.5E+02 1.7E+00 7.8E+01 1.0E+02 1.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 2.8E+04 1.4E\u201301 2.4E+03 9.5E+01 5.8E+03 1.5E+03 7.4E+00 1.9E\u201303 1.2E+01 1.0E+02 X 1.2E+02 3.6E+03 2.5E\u201303 1.9E+03 4.4E+03 1.1E+00 5.8E+01 1.3E+00 3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X 6.4E+01 5.4E+04 4.8E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 9.9E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 9.6E+02 X X 6.8E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.2E+00 5.2E\u201302 5.3E+00 4.4E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6928, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 267, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X 6.4E+01 5.4E+04 4.8E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 9.9E+02 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 9.6E+02 X X 6.8E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.2E+00 5.2E\u201302 5.3E+00 4.4E+01 2.6E+00 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 2.3E+02 4.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 3.2E+00 8.9E+02 3.1E+00 5.2E+03 1.4E+01 9.1E+01 1.4E+00 1.3E+01 2.5E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 1.8E+02 X 3.4E\u201302 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201304 9.2E+00 2.3E+01 5.4E+01 1.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 2.2E+01 3.5E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 5.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201308 2.3E+01 X 1.6E\u201301 1.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 2.6E+00 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+01 9.7E+01 1.4E+01 X X 1.2E+03 1.6E\u201301 1.5E+02 1.3E\u201301 9.7E+01 2.4E+03 3.8E+02 1.1E+00 5.3E+01 2.6E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.8E+00 1.5E+02 2.1E+04 7.3E\u201302 6.1E+03 9.2E+01 5.2E+03 1.8E+02 1.6E+01 1.2E\u201303 4.9E+00 2.6E+02 X 5.5E+01 8.1E+02 2.0E\u201303 1.3E+03 2.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.1E+03 X X 2.4E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.7E+00 1.2E\u201301 1.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6929, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 267, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 1.1E+03 X X 2.4E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.7E+00 1.2E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.7E+01 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 4.1E+02 3.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 4.7E+00 1.1E+03 8.3E\u201301 9.5E+03 1.6E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.6E+01 2.3E\u201304 6.7E\u201302 2.5E+02 X 9.9E\u201303 3.0E+00 6.0E\u201304 3.8E+00 9.8E\u201301 2.7E+01 8.8E+00 4.9E\u201302 1.7E+01 2.8E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 6.8E\u201311 3.5E+01 X 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+00 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 4.7E+01 3.0E+00 X X 1.3E+01 3.0E\u201301 4.6E+00 2.7E\u201301 2.2E+01 1.8E+01 7.5E\u201302 8.6E\u201302 3.3E+00 7.4E+03 3.8E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 8.8E\u201301 2.2E+02 3.7E\u201301 7.4E+03 2.2E+00 4.1E\u201301 9.0E+01 1.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 2.6E+00 1.6E+01 X 6.0E+00 8.5E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 7.9E+01 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201302 3.8E+00 4.2E\u201304 9.4E+01 X 2.3E+00 1.3E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 2.9E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6930, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 268, "book_page": 267, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6931, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 268, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil CAS number 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 FAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.9E+02 5.6E+03 2.6E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 2.8E+02 4.4E+03 5.2E\u201302 9.2E+00 1.1E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.9E+04 4.2E+03 1.8E+04 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 1.6E+02 3.3E+02 6.4E\u201305 3.0E+00 1.4E+03 5.4E+00 3.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+03 9.8E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E+03 3.1E+01 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6932, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 268, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.1E+02 4.2E+00 5.8E\u201302 3.9E\u201301 3.4E+00 1.7E+02 2.2E+03 3.7E+00 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 4.5E+00 5.7E+02 1.3E\u201304 4.0E+00 1.3E+01 3.8E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+02 2.7E\u201301 3.4E+01 FSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+03 4.8E+03 1.8E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 7.1E+02 1.6E+03 2.6E\u201302 9.9E+00 7.5E\u201304 7.0E+01 1.8E+04 5.7E+03 3.4E+03 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+02 7.8E+02 5.2E\u201305 7.7E+00 1.1E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01 1.3E+03 1.5E+03 6.0E\u201301 7.6E+00 MSETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+03 4.6E+01 1.3E\u201304 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 6.7E+02 3.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201301 2.4E+02 3.0E+03 5.6E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 1.9E+00 7.5E+02 1.2E\u201304 7.4E+00 1..4E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 1.4E+01 TETP (100 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.5E+01 2.1E+01 1.2E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 4.9E+01 8.1E+01 2.5E\u201301 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.0E+02 3.7E+01 2.6E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.0E+02 3.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 1.5E+01 6.8E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 2.3E+01 4.6E+00 1.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 x = not calculated 4.5E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6933, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 269, "book_page": 268, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Source: Status: Equations: Remark: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Author(s). The five indicator results are expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while FAETP is the Fresh water Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, MAETP is the Marine Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, FSETP is the Fresh water Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, MSETP is the Marine Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, TETP is the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, and is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The five indicator scores can only be added after weighting (see Part 2a, Section 4.3.8). The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6934, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 269, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6935, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 270, "book_page": 269, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.8.3: Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 20-year time horizon and global scale. Substance 1,1,1 -trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chlora\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6936, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 270, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u2013041 1.0E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 8.5E\u201303 7.3E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.2E\u201304 1.6E\u201302 3.3E\u201307 2.4E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.1E+01 8.0E+01 2.1E+06 8.5E\u201301 1.5E+01 5.9E+00 3.9E+01 1.4E+00 1.3E+01 1.7E+03 1.0E+02 2.0E+00 7.9E+01 5.2E+02 4.1E\u201301 5.1E+04 2.7E+00 X 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 3.4E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.9E+02 4.2E+02 4.9E+00 3.0E+01 5.6E+00 8.4E\u201305 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.8E+01 2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 3.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6937, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 270, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 3.4E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.9E+02 4.2E+02 4.9E+00 3.0E+01 5.6E+00 8.4E\u201305 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.0E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.8E+01 2.1E+00 1.5E+01 2.0E+00 6.7E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 3.0E+00 2.7E\u201306 4.6E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.9E+02 1.3E+02 2.6E+08 2.0E\u201301 5.3E+01 3.9E+00 5.3E+00 1.3E+00 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 2.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.9E+01 5.7E+02 9.1E\u201301 8.2E+03 6.1E+01 X 8.3E+00 1.7E+03 1.3E+01 2.1E+02 2.8E+02 1.6E+02 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+01 6.2E\u201301 2.8E\u201303 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 9.3E\u201303 8.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 2.7E\u201303 1 .0E\u201304 1.7E\u201302 2.2E\u201307 2.2E\u201303 2.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 8.7E+01 6.6E+06 6.1E\u201301 1.7E+01 5.7E+00 2.9E+01 5.5E\u201301 1.0E+01 2.1E+03 9.3E+01 1.8E+00 4.0E+01 3.9E+02 2.7E\u201301 4.1E+04 2.4E\u201301 X 8.8E\u201301 1.9E+02 8.2E\u201301 5.2E+00 3.1E+02 2.1E+02 2.2E+02 1.1E+01 3.9E+00 4.5E+00 6.4E\u201305 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 6.9E+00 7.0E+00 8.5E\u201301 6.1E+00 8.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201306 2.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.1E+02 7.1E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.8E+01 4.3E+00 7.3E+00 5.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6938, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 270, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 6.9E+00 7.0E+00 8.5E\u201301 6.1E+00 8.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 3.0E\u201306 2.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.1E+02 7.1E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.8E+01 4.3E+00 7.3E+00 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.1E+03 3.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.8E+01 7.5E+02 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+04 5.4E+00 X 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+03 2.0E+01 3.4E+02 3.1E+02 1.3E+02 5.7E+01 1.6E+02 1.8E+00 9.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201303 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E\u201304 9.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 7.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201301 8.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201308 4.4E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 1.2E+04 3.2E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 3.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.6E\u201302 6.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 8.0E\u201303 2.0E+03 1.4E\u201302 X 9.2E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 3.5E+00 2.0E+00 2.4E+00 1.9E\u201301 3.6E\u201301 4.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.6E\u201305 1 Means air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6939, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 271, "book_page": 270, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6940, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 271, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761 -40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.2E+01 8.8E+01 4.2E+01 3.5E+03 7.6E+01 2.6E+03 8.2E+02 4.0E\u201301 1.9E+01 2.0E+04 1.6E+01 1.1E+02 3.0E+03 9.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 6.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201301 3.9E+01 8.4E+01 1.3E+01 2.4E+05 1.9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.1E+02 1.8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.3E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6941, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 271, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.7E+02 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 2.5E+00 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 6.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201301 3.9E+01 8.4E+01 1.3E+01 2.4E+05 1.9E+03 8.4E+04 3.5E+03 3.1E+02 1.8E+03 2.3E+01 6.8E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.3E+02 5.6E\u201301 3.3E\u201305 9.9E\u201302 5.1E+02 2.0E+02 4.2E\u201301 5.0E\u201301 5.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 5.2E\u201302 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+03 1.4E+03 1.5E+03 9.5E+04 2.1E+00 4.2E+04 1.0E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.8E+03 2.7E+04 1.0E+01 1.2E+01 7.2E+02 1.5E+02 1.5E+00 3.9E+03 6.1E+04 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 5.1E+01 6.4E\u201301 6.2E+01 1.8E+01 7.3E+01 4.0E+02 2.3E+03 2.3E+03 3.3E+05 6.3E+02 1.9E+04 9.2E+02 8.5E+04 3.5E+03 9.1E+00 2.6E+00 2.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.4E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 4.1E+02 5.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 1.7E+00 4.7E+00 3.6E+00 1.6E+00 2.7E\u201302 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+02 2.5E+02 1.4E+02 1.1E+04 1.1E\u201301 3.0E+03 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201301 4.7E+01 2.9E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.2E+01 3.0E+03 5.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 5.4E+02 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 2.0E\u201302 4.4E\u201304 1.8E+00 2.0E+00 3.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 1.3E+02 1.4E+02 3.3E+01 3.5E+05 1.5E+03 1.5E+05", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6942, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 271, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E+03 1.3E\u201301 4.7E+01 2.9E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.2E+01 3.0E+03 5.2E+02 2.7E\u201302 5.4E+02 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 2.0E\u201302 4.4E\u201304 1.8E+00 2.0E+00 3.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 6.4E\u201301 1.3E+02 1.4E+02 3.3E+01 3.5E+05 1.5E+03 1.5E+05 2.8E+03 3.3E+02 2.7E+03 1.6E+01 4.1E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.6E+02 7.3E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 5.3E\u201302 2.3E+01 2.0E+01 2.8E\u201301 1.2E+00 1.2E+00 2.8E\u201301 9.3E+00 1.3E\u201302 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+03 4.1E+03 5.4E+03 3.0E+05 3.3E\u201301 3.0E+04 3.7E+03 7.1E\u201302 6.7E+03 3.9E+04 1.2E\u201301 1.0E+00 1.1E+03 1.6E+02 8.6E\u201301 1.3E+04 1.6E+03 1.3E+01 2.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+01 8.1 E\u201301 6.0E+00 3.3E+01 1.3E+02 1.3E+03 2.5E+03 3.9E+03 4.8E+05 8.1E+02 4.9E+04 1.3E+03 2.5E+04 6.8E+03 1.1E+01 2.6E+00 1.7E+00 1.1E+02 3.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 2.7E+01 1.7E+02 2.3E\u201301 3.2E+00 7.5E+00 5.6E+00 2.0E+00 6.2E\u201303 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.7E\u201303 2.0E+02 8.8E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.5E+00 5.9E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 5.1E\u201303 1.0E+00 2.2E+00 4.9E\u201301 4.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 7.1E\u201303 3.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 4.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6943, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 271, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.7E\u201303 2.0E+02 8.8E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.5E+00 5.9E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 5.1E\u201303 1.0E+00 2.2E+00 4.9E\u201301 4.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 7.1E\u201303 3.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201301 4.1E+00 4.1E+00 2.1E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.0E+03 3.1E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+02 1.4E+01 7.6E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.2E\u201304 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201303 4.3E\u201306 6.8E\u201304 9.8E+00 1.1E+00 5.3E\u201301 7.8E\u201304 9.2E\u201304 1.1E\u201304 3.0E\u201301 6.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6944, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 272, "book_page": 271, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fertitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6945, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 272, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+04 2.9E+03 1.6E\u201302 2.7E+01 5.3E+02 3.4E+00 4.5E+01 9.0E+02 2.4E+03 1.3E\u201304 1.4E\u201311 2.5E+03 2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 8.8E\u201302 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01 2.5E+01 9.3E\u201301 7.4E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6946, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 272, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.5E+03 4.3E+03 1.8E+03 4.2E+03 1.8E+01 4.1E+02 8.3E+00 2.2E+01 1.4E+00 1.2E+02 4.6E+01 1.3E+00 X X 1.7E+02 2.8E+00 1.9E+02 8.8E\u201302 5.2E+01 4.0E+01 1.8E+03 1.1E+00 3.7E+01 2.5E+01 9.3E\u201301 7.4E+00 7.0E+01 1.4E+04 3.3E\u201302 5.8E+02 4.9E+01 1.5E+03 9.3E+03 5.4E+00 4.4E\u201305 5.0E\u201301 3.7E+01 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.6E+03 7.3E+03 5.4E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.1E+02 1.3E+00 1.9E+01 3.7E+04 7.1E+02 8.0E\u201304 7.9E\u201311 1.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.1E+04 4.7E+04 2.0E+04 2.0E+02 2.2E+03 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 2.9E+00 7.8E+01 7.7E+04 2.0E+03 X X 6.7E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.2E+01 2.6E+01 5.2E+01 2.7E+01 1.4E+03 2.8E\u201301 4.1E+00 4.6E+03 2.5E\u201301 2.2E+00 2.5E+01 3.9E+03 4.1E+00 1.1E+05 4.1E+01 3.8E+02 5.4E+03 2.2E+02 3.9E\u201304 9.1E\u201301 3.0E+03 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E+03 1.3E+03 2.7E\u201302 9.2E+00 5.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 9.8E+00 2.7E+02 1.9E+03 8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.1E+00 X X 5.1E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.4E+01 3.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6947, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 272, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.7E\u201305 9.0E\u201312 1.4E+03 1.8E+03 6.9E+03 3.0E+03 6.8E+03 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 4.5E+00 2.1E+01 2.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.4E+01 4.1E+00 X X 5.1E+02 2.3E\u201301 7.1E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.4E+01 3.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+01 6.3E+01 4.9E\u201301 5.3E+00 7.6E+01 1.0E+04 1.7E\u201302 1.5E+03 4.8E+01 1.3E+03 1.2E+03 1.2E+01 2.8E\u201305 1.9E\u201301 9.4E+01 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+03 2.1E+03 5.2E\u201301 5.7E+00 1.6E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.8E+03 9.3E+02 6.1E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 7.5E+02 1.1E+03 5.3E+04 5.7E+04 5.1E+04 6.1E+02 2.7E+03 1.5E+00 1.5E+01 2.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.9E+04 2.2E+03 X X 2.3E+04 5.2E\u201303 2.0E+01 4.9E+01 9.2E+00 3.5E+01 7.8E+02 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+00 9.1E+03 1.9E\u201301 2.6E+00 3.7E+01 5.0E+03 1.1E+00 2.1E+05 4.7E+01 5.2E+02 6.0E+02 3.1E+02 3.5E\u201304 3.2E\u201301 4.9E+03 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.7E+01 3.4E+00 9.8E\u201306 4.3E\u201302 8.7E+00 2.4E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 3.5E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 1.4E\u201301 X X 7.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 2.9E\u201302 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6948, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 272, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.6E\u201302 3.5E+01 1.7E+01 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.6E+01 5.3E+00 2.6E\u201301 5.5E+00 1.8E\u201302 1.7E+00 9.4E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.8E\u201304 2.2E+00 4.2E+00 1.4E\u201301 X X 7.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 2.9E\u201302 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 1.8E+00 6.7E+02 1.9E\u201302 7.4E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 1.3E\u201302 6.7E+02 9.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 4.3E+01 1.1E\u201301 6.5E\u201307 8.2E\u201304 1.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6949, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 273, "book_page": 272, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6950, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 273, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water CAS number 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 5.6E+01 2.4E+03 9.3E\u201305 2.8E+03 9.9E+02 3.7E\u201301 4.7E+01 1.1E+01 1.6E+04 1.3E+00 1.5E+00 4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 1.3E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.0E+02 2.7E+03 9.3E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04 3.8\u201305 9.5E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6951, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 273, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201303 2.4E+03 X 2.0E+01 2.5E+04 3.7E\u201302 6.1E\u201305 1.8E+02 1.3E+02 2.1E+03 5.1E\u201305 X 4.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 1.0E+02 2.7E+03 9.3E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 6.1E+01 3.3E+03 7.7E+03 1.3E+04 3.8\u201305 9.5E\u201305 9.9E+00 1.1E+02 2.9E\u201306 9.7E\u201301 9.4E+02 6.2E+00 9.4E\u201301 8.2E+02 1.4E+02 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.1E\u201301 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 1.4E+00 5.0E+02 9.1E\u201304 3.1E+03 7.2E+02 1.7E+02 5.8E+03 4.0E+01 3.1E+04 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201301 1.6E+00 8.5E\u201303 4.1E+02 X 7.1E+00 1.8E+03 1.2E\u201301 6.1E\u201304 9.4E+01 1.3E+03 2.8E+02 5.1E\u201304 X 3.4E\u201301 1.2E+00 4.0E+03 2.2E+02 2.7E+01 1.4E+00 7.0E\u201304 1.5E+02 8.5E+02 3.1E+05 1.8E+03 2.7E\u201303 5.9E\u201302 1.0E+02 6.9E+03 1.3E\u201304 2.2E+02 4.1E+02 3.8E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.2E+02 2.1E+02 8.5E\u201301 1.0E+01 3.0E\u201301 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.5E+01 5.3E+02 7.4E\u201305 1.9E+03 6.0E+01 5.2E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 1.5E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 2.5E+02 9.8E+02 4.7E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01 3.0E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6952, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 273, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E+01 2.1E+04 1.4E+00 5.6E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 2.4E+03 X 1.1E+01 1.8E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.7E\u201305 1.7E+02 1.5E+02 1.8E+03 3.5E\u201305 X 3.9E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 2.5E+02 9.8E+02 4.7E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.2E+01 3.0E+03 1.0E+04 2.4E+03 3.2E\u201305 4.9E\u201305 8.1E+00 2.5E+02 2.3E\u201306 2.5E+00 7.4E+02 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 6.4E+02 1.9E+02 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.0E\u201302 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201301 2.1E+02 9.9E\u201304 1.3E+03 3.0E+01 8.6E+01 4.2E+02 6.9E+01 2.3E+04 5.4E+00 3.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 4.9E\u201305 6.2E+02 X 6.5E+00 1.8E+03 6.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201304 8.9E+01 9.3E+02 4.1E+02 3.6E\u201304 X 1.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 6.3E+03 1.8E+01 1.0E+01 1.6E+00 5.8E\u201304 3.9E+01 1.2E+03 3.9E+05 2.7E+02 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 4.4E+01 1.1E+04 1.2E\u201304 3.9E+02 4.5E+02 2.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.7E+02 2.5E+02 4.3E\u201301 7.1E+00 1.0E\u201301 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.9E+00 4.1E+01 1.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 1.1E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 4.9E+00 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6953, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 273, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E+00 5.7E+00 3.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 2.3E+00 2.6E+01 1.4E\u201304 3.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.1E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.4E\u201301 7.0E+02 1.5E\u201303 5.3E\u201307 2.3E+00 1.1E+01 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 4.9E+00 3.2E+01 2.6E\u201302 3.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 6.9E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.7E+01 1.2E+03 4.7E\u201306 4.0E\u201305 1.7E\u201302 1.0E+01 2.6E\u201307 1.7E\u201301 7.2E+00 3.3E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.3E+01 6.9E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6954, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 274, "book_page": 273, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chlora\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6955, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 274, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater freshwater CAS number 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 1.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6956, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 274, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.4E+01 4.0E+00 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 1.0E+00 2.3E\u201302 5.0E+00 3.0E+00 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 8.6E+02 5.2E+03 1.7E+08 1.7E+01 1.6E+03 2.9E+02 4.0E+02 1.7E+02 1.6E+03 1.9E+04 2.5E+03 3.1E+03 1.1E+03 2.5E+05 7.9E+01 4.4E+05 1.2E+04 X 1.1E+03 5.7E+04 1.9E+01 1.9E+02 5.0E+03 2.7E+05 5.2E+04 2.3E+02 6.8E+03 5.1E+01 9.1E\u201302 1.1E+05 2.5E+05 5.0E+04 1.1E+06 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 1.7E+01 2.1E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.6E\u201301 8.1E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201301 7.3E\u201301 3.7E+02 9.1E+01 3.4E+07 6.1E\u201302 6.4E+01 1.6E+00 2.3E+00 2.5E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.7E+03 1.1E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+01 1.1E+03 5.4E\u201301 7.4E+03 2.1E+02 X 2.5E\u201301 3.0E+03 1.1E+01 9.2E+01 4.8E+02 1.0E+03 3.5E+01 1.4E+02 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.2E+03 1.2E+04 7.7E+03 2.9E+05 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 7.7E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6957, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 274, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.4E+02 8.6E+00 2.2E\u201301 2.7E\u201303 8.2E+03 1.2E+04 7.7E+03 2.9E+05 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+01 1.6E+01 4.4E+00 1.5E+01 3.8E+00 9.5E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 5.2E+00 2.0E+00 1.2E+00 1.0E+00 7.7E+02 5.7E+03 5.4E+08 1.2E+01 1.9E+03 2.9E+02 3.0E+02 6.8E+01 1.3E+03 2.4E+04 2.3E+03 2.7E+03 5.6E+02 1.9E+05 5.2E+01 3.5E+05 1.0E+03 X 7.0E+01 8.0E+04 4.7E+01 4.9E+02 4.3E+03 2.0E+05 2.7E+04 5.1E+02 8.8E+02 4.1E+01 7.0E\u201302 3.5E+05 7.2E+05 1.6E+05 3.7E+06 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.7E+00 7.0E+00 8.7E\u201301 5.9E+00 8.6E\u201301 2.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201302 1.3E+00 9.9E\u201303 2.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 1.0E+02 1.2E+08 7.6E\u201302 8.1E+01 1.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.5E+03 1.5E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+01 1.6E+03 5.1E\u201301 1.1E+04 1.9E+01 X 1 .OE\u201302 4.1E+03 2.0E+01 1.9E+02 5.4E+02 7.9E+02 1.0E+01 2.5E+02 7.5E\u201301 3.3E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.7E+04 3.6E+04 2.7E+04 9.4E+05 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 8.5E\u201303 5.2E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 4.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.2E+02 3.6E\u201308 6.1E\u201302 6.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201310", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6958, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 274, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.6E+04 2.7E+04 9.4E+05 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.3E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201301 8.5E\u201303 5.2E\u201304 2.6E\u201305 1.8E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 4.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.2E+02 3.6E\u201308 6.1E\u201302 6.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201310 9.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201303 7.6E\u201304 9.4E\u201306 3.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201308 5.8E+00 3.9E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1.4E\u201302 X 5.0E\u201308 2.0E\u201302 1.7E\u201320 1.0E\u201317 7.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201306 5.1E\u201319 8.2E\u201308 1.8E\u201307 1.4E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 4.0E\u201304 1.5E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6959, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 275, "book_page": 274, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6960, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 275, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6961, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 275, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E+02 9.1E+04 2.4E+05 7.6E+01 1 .3E+03 5.4E+05 2.1E+03 4.5E+03 3.8E+04 1.3E+04 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 9.0E+04 1.1E+03 3.1E+01 3.6E\u201301 3.7E+02 8.3E+01 6.4E+05 6.0E+00 2.4E+01 1 .9E+04 3.3E+03 1 .0E+03 2.0E+07 5.4E+04 7.9E+06 2.6E+04 2.9E+04 6.5E+05 2.2E+04 1 .9E+02 7.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.9E+01 1 .2E\u201302 5.3E+00 1 .2E+05 7.9E+04 3.4E+01 1.1E+02 8.6E+01 2.1E+01 1.7E+02 3.1E+00 3.2E+05 2.3E+05 2.8E+00 6.4E+04 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .2E+00 5.9E+04 2.1E+02 5.3E\u201302 4.1E+02 7.8E+04 1.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.8E+02 4.4E+01 1.8E+00 4.6E+03 8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1 .2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 1 .7E+00 6.6E+00 2.8E+03 1 .8E+03 3.7E+02 2.9E+06 1.9E+02 1 .0E+04 1 .0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6962, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 275, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.8E+00 4.6E+03 8.9E+03 5.7E+00 1 .2E+00 1.1E\u201301 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201301 2.4E+02 1 .7E+00 6.6E+00 2.8E+03 1 .8E+03 3.7E+02 2.9E+06 1.9E+02 1 .0E+04 1 .0E+03 4.4E+03 9.8E+02 9.6E+01 1.5E+00 3.7E\u201301 6.4E+02 7.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1 .5E\u201302 1.2E+01 8.9E+03 1.1E\u201301 1 .2E+00 2.3E+00 4.3E\u201301 7.5E\u201301 1 .7E\u201303 5.9E+03 5.4E+03 3.5E\u201302 1 .2E+02 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E+01 1.1E+05 7.2E+05 2.5E+01 3.4E+03 7.7E+05 1.8E+01 1 .3E+03 3.9E+04 7.6E+03 8.6E+01 8.7E+04 9.1E+03 9.4E+02 2.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 2.6E+02 7.1E+01 4.1E+05 1.5E+01 6.1E+01 5.9E+04 5.4E+03 2.5E+03 2.9E+07 4.3E+04 1 .4E+07 2.1E+04 3.1E+04 9.8E+05 1 .6E+04 1 .2E+02 1 .0E+02 7.7E+04 1.0E+01 8.8E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.5E+03 8.2E+03 2.2E+01 2.6E+02 1.9E+02 4.7E+01 1 .3E+02 7.9E\u201301 8.8E+04 1.0E+05 4.7E+00 2.2E+04 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .9E\u201301 5.3E+04 8.1E+02 1 .3E\u201302 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6963, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 275, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0E+03 1.2E+05 1 .3E\u201303 1 .3E\u201301 8.6E+02 4.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.6E+04 2.7E+02 6.7E+00 1 .5E+00 5.5E\u201302 1.2E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 4.5E+00 1.8E+01 9.4E+03 2.4E+03 8.5E+02 4.3E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1 .6E+03 2.0E+03 1 .2E+02 1 .6E+00 2.7E\u201301 6.1E+02 7.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 7.7E\u201303 9.1E\u201301 3.1E+02 9.4E\u201302 2.3E+00 3.8E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201304 2.2E+03 2.0E+03 3.6E\u201302 3.5E+01 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.3E\u201304 3.3E\u201316 2.1E\u201302 6.6E\u201306 1.4E\u201320 1.9E\u201307 6.2E\u201308 2.6E\u201307 6.3E\u201308 3.5E\u201305 4.8E\u201303 1 .9E\u201303 9.6E\u201302 4.6E\u201305 3.8E\u201304 7.2E\u201304 5.5E\u201303 2.5E\u201305 2.1E\u201302 2.3E\u201319 2.3E\u201319 8.1E\u201303 2.7E\u201318 4.1E\u201321 6.0E+00 2.2E\u201306 1.6E+01 1.9E\u201306 2.4E\u201301 3.2E\u201302 1.2E\u201302 3.6E\u201305 6.6E\u201306 4.1E\u201303 1.3E\u201305 3.9E\u201306 6.1E\u201312 1.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 5.6E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 6.4E\u201306 1.2E\u201305 3.7E\u201304 3.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201302 1.3E\u201307 1.2E\u201303 e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6964, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 276, "book_page": 275, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6965, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 276, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6966, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 276, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E+03 1.1E+02 2.8E+04 7.0E+05 1.5E+05 5.5E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 2.4E+05 9.1E+05 2.7E+05 1.7E+05 2.7E+05 1.3E+04 8.2E+04 2.8E+02 1.4E+03 1 .8E+04 2.2E+04 4.5E+04 1 .5E+02 X X 7.5E+04 1.6E+02 1.9E+03 8.3E+00 6.5E+03 3.1E+04 2.1E+05 2.7E+01 3.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.3E+01 1.5E+02 1.1E+03 1 .4E+05 1.9E+01 3.4E+04 4.3E+02 3.8E+04 5.9E+05 4.7E+02 6.0E\u201301 6.6E+02 3.0E+03 X 6.5E+02 7.0E+04 5.6E\u201301 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.5E+01 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 2.6E+05 3.5E+03 1.4E\u201303 2.8E\u201305 6.7E+02 3.6E+03 3.2E+03 1.9E+04 3.1E+03 8.7E+02 1 .2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 1.9E+03 X X 1.2E+04 1 .5E\u201302 2.0E+01 2.1E+00 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 4.5E+02 6.3E\u201302 1 .3E+00 2.5E+01 4.2E+03 3.5E+00 1.0E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6967, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 276, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.7E+02 1 .2E+04 1.9E\u201301 4.2E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 7.5E+04 1.9E+03 X X 1.2E+04 1 .5E\u201302 2.0E+01 2.1E+00 8.7E+01 5.6E+02 7.7E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 4.5E+02 6.3E\u201302 1 .3E+00 2.5E+01 4.2E+03 3.5E+00 1.0E+04 6.4E+01 5.8E+02 5.7E+02 3.0E+02 2.1E\u201303 1.1E+00 1 .5E+03 X 1 .8E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.5E\u201303 FSETP MSETP (20 yr) (20 yr) (kg 1,4- (kg 1,4DCB DCB eq./kg) eq./kg) 8.9E+03 1.9E+01 6.0E+03 2.1E+05 1.2E+05 3.6E\u201301 1 .4E\u201302 1.4E+05 6.6E+05 4.3E+05 2.8E+05 4.3E+05 3.9E+04 1.1E+05 1.5E+02 1.3E+03 2.6E+04 2.8E+03 5.2E+04 4.9E+02 X X 2.4E+05 1.3E+01 7.1E+02 2.1E+01 1.7E+03 3.1E+04 1 .2E+05 1.8E+01 2.5E+02 3.8E+03 1.2E+01 1.1E+02 1.2E+03 1.0E+05 1.0E+01 8.7E+04 4.2E+02 3.4E+04 7.4E+04 1.0E+03 3.9E\u201301 2.6E+02 7.7E+03 X 3.0E+02 1 .6E+04 4.5E\u201301 7.8E+01 8.0E\u201302 7.7E\u201301 2.0E+04 4.8E+03 1 .3E\u201303 3.4E\u201305 3.4E+02 2.5E+03 8.7E+03 2.6E+04 8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1 .6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1.0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.2E+03 X X 4.1E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 6.0E+00 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 1.2E+03 5.0E\u201302 1 .5E+00 3.7E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6968, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 276, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.7E+03 2.6E+04 8.6E+03 2.8E+03 1 .6E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1.0E+01 2.3E+00 2.8E+04 2.2E+03 X X 4.1E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 6.0E+00 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 1.2E+03 5.0E\u201302 1 .5E+00 3.7E+01 5.4E+03 9.6E\u201301 2.7E+04 7.1E+01 8.1E+02 6.3E+01 5.2E+02 2.1E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 3.1E+03 X 5.3E\u201302 5.8E+01 3.1E\u201303 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201303 8.5E\u201307 1 .8E\u201303 2.4E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1 .2E\u201306 1.1E\u201312 4.7E\u201303 8.8E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 9.2E\u201302 2.1E\u201303 4.9E\u201303 5.9E\u201301 1.6E\u201303 2.2E\u201311 5.3E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 4.0E+00 1.4E\u201301 X X 5.6E\u201306 4.4E\u201308 1 .6E\u201305 4.8E\u201322 1.6E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201311 1.1E\u201308 1.1E+00 8.5E\u201310 1.4E\u201306 2.0E\u201305 2.2E\u201303 1.1E\u201302 1.1E+00 4.6E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 2.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201318 6.0E\u201307 4.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201318 X 7.1E\u201306 4.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6969, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 277, "book_page": 276, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6970, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 277, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water sea water seawater seawater seawater CAS number 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6971, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 277, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+06 2.9E+05 5.1E+01 4.0E+03 7.1E+02 5.0E+06 5.2E+02 2.4E+02 2.6E+03 5.5E\u201301 3.6E+04 X 1.2E+03 2.6E+05 4.0E+00 5.5E\u201301 4.9E+04 2.9E+03 2.7E+04 4.4E\u201301 X 7.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+03 9.8E+04 8.8E+00 5.0E+02 2.9E\u201301 4.9E+04 1.7E+05 4.5E+05 4.1E+05 9.7E\u201302 4.2E\u201302 2.7E+04 8.5E+03 2.8E\u201302 8.0E+01 2.8E+04 2.7E+02 1.6E+03 8.7E+03 6.0E+03 9.8E+00 1.9E+01 7.1E\u201305 3.8E\u201302 3.0E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E+03 1.5E+03 1.7E+02 2.8E+03 1.2E+01 2.7E+04 1.0E+01 5.6E\u201302 5.0E+00 4.1E\u201306 1.6E+02 X 2.4E+00 5.0E\u20131\u201302 5.8E\u201302 2.2E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.9E+03 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 4.9E+03 7.4E+01 2.4E+00 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 4.5E+03 3.8E\u201304 2.5E+01 2.5E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6972, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 277, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.9E+03 1.4E+02 2.2E\u201303 X 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+00 4.9E+03 7.4E+01 2.4E+00 4.4E+00 1.2E\u201303 7.8E+02 1.5E+03 2.1E+05 8.3E+01 3.3E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 4.2E+02 4.5E+03 3.8E\u201304 2.5E+01 2.5E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01 9.0E+02 6.3E\u201301 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.6E+01 3.6E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 8.0E+05 1.8E+04 7.2E+01 1.1E+03 1.6E+03 6.7E+06 5.6E+02 8.8E+01 4.3E+02 1.1E\u201303 3.6E+04 X 6.7E+02 1.8E+05 2.1E+00 3.3E\u201301 4.5E+04 3.4E+03 2.3E+04 3.0E\u201301 X 6.7E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 2.0E+04 3.5E+04 4.4E+00 5.3E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.7E+04 1.6E+05 6.1E+05 7.6E+04 8.2E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 2.2E+04 2.0E+04 2.3E\u201302 2.0E+02 2.2E+04 1.1E+02 1.6E+03 6.8E+03 8.1E+03 6.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.9E\u201305 4.5E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 4.3E\u201303 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 8.6E+01 2.1E+02 2.2E+01 2.0E+04 8.6E+00 3.8E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201308 2.4E+02 X 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.7E+03 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 9.6E+03 6.6E+00 1.3E+00 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 1.8E+02 8.6E+03 4.9E\u201304 6.3E+01 2.7E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6973, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 277, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.7E+03 2.1E+02 1.6E\u201303 X 1.3E\u201301 3.1E\u201301 9.6E+03 6.6E+00 1.3E+00 5.1E+00 1.3E\u201303 2.2E+02 2.1E+03 2.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201302 1.8E+02 8.6E+03 4.9E\u201304 6.3E+01 2.7E+02 1.2E+00 9.2E+00 7.7E+01 1.2E+03 3.4E\u201301 9.5E+00 1.9E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.3E+01 3.5E+00 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kq) 3.1E\u201303 3.4E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 4.6E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 3.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201305 2.5E\u201306 1.5E\u201302 1.2E\u201310 9.3E\u201304 X 8.1E\u201304 3.1E\u201304 6.5E\u201304 4.9E\u201307 1.7E\u201303 1.6E\u201317 1.0E\u201303 1.3E\u201307 X 7.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201304 3.1E\u201317 9.3E\u201302 7.9E\u201322 3.2E\u201304 1.4E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 3.9E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 7.0E\u201305 4.6E\u201306 3.9E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201317 2.6E\u201307 2.5E\u201321 1.3E\u201303 3.0E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.8E\u201312 5.7E\u201302 1.8E\u201303 1.7E\u201310 1 .0E\u201304 3.7E\u201303 7.4E\u201302 3.5E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6974, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 278, "book_page": 277, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1 ,2-dichlorobenzene 1 ,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1 ,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6975, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 278, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1 .3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.1E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6976, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 278, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "82657-04-3 85-68-7 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1 .3E\u201303 8.8E\u201305 7.0E\u201303 5.6E\u201308 1.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+00 1.3E\u201303 1.1E+05 1.7E\u201310 5.4E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 1.1E\u201310 2.9E\u201304 6.7E\u201303 1 .2E\u201303 3.7E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.0E\u201308 5.0E+00 6.0E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 X 1.1E\u201307 1 .7E+01 7.6E\u201321 3.8E\u201320 8.3E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.4E\u201319 8.9E\u201308 7.4E\u201309 9.2E\u201306 1.1E+00 2.8E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 7.1E+00 1.1E\u201302 1.6E\u201316 5.5E\u201302 3.2E\u201305 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+01 3.1E+00 9.5E\u201301 9.0E\u201302 4.5E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.0E+00 1.0E+00 3.7E+02 2.2E+02 4.4E+08 4.0E\u201301 1.2E+02 7.6E+00 1.0E+01 3.7E+00 4.6E+01 3.2E+03 5.9E+01 9.6E+01 3.7E+01 8.9E+03 3.1E+00 1.5E+04 8.0E+03 X 2.0E+01 1 .8E+04 2.5E+01 4.0E+02 6.0E+02 5.9E+03 1 .0E+03 2.1E+02 1.5E+02 1.2E+00 1 .5E\u201302 8.5E+04 1.2E+05 6.0E+04 1.2E+06 7.8E+00 7.9E+04 8.9E+03 1.6E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201303 1 .2E\u201303 7.4E\u201305 7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1 .0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 3.6E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1 .5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6977, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 278, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201303 1 .2E\u201303 7.4E\u201305 7.2E\u201303 3.8E\u201308 1 .0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201303 3.6E+05 1.2E\u201310 6.4E\u201302 2.3E\u201304 8.5E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.3E\u201303 1 .5E\u201303 3.4E\u201306 9.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201308 3.7E+00 3.9E\u201303 9.8E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 X 6.8E\u201309 2.3E+01 1.8E\u201320 9.8E\u201320 7.2E\u201303 3.0E\u201302 5.6E\u201305 5.4E\u201319 1.1E\u201308 6.0E\u201309 7.0E\u201306 3.2E+00 8.0E\u201301 1 .4E\u201301 2.3E+01 1.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201316 1.6E\u201301 1.0E\u201305 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.0E+00 6.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 8.3E\u201301 1 .2E+00 1 .0E+00 4.4E+02 2.5E+02 1.6E+09 4.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 8.9E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.1E+01 4.1E+03 8.2E+01 1 .4E+02 3.5E+01 1 .3E+04 4.0E+00 2.2E+04 7.4E+02 X 8.3E\u201301 2.5E+04 4.7E+01 8.1E+02 6.6E+02 4.7E+03 2.9E+02 3.6E+02 1.3E+01 1.8E+00 2.1E\u201302 2.8E+05 3.7E+05 2.1E+05 3.8E+06 1.9E+00 6.9E+04 3.4E+04 4.0E\u201301 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.5E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 2.0E\u201305 8.3E\u201304 4.0E\u201309 2.0E\u201304 5.7E\u201303 9.5E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 6.8E+02 6.4E\u201311 9.1E\u201304 1 .3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.6E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6978, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 278, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.5E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 2.0E\u201305 8.3E\u201304 4.0E\u201309 2.0E\u201304 5.7E\u201303 9.5E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 6.8E+02 6.4E\u201311 9.1E\u201304 1 .3E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 6.2E\u201306 2.7E\u201305 6.6E\u201306 1.7E\u201308 8.6E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.6E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 4.8E\u201303 6.7E\u201303 X 7.0E\u201310 4.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201320 3.0E\u201317 5.0E\u201305 3.4E\u201304 4.9E\u201308 6.6E\u201319 1 .4E\u201309 3.3E\u201310 1 .7E\u201306 6.2E\u201303 8.0E\u201304 2.3E\u201304 6.1E\u201302 2.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201316 5.9E\u201304 1.0E\u201307", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6979, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 279, "book_page": 278, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6980, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CAS number FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6981, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 5.0E\u201305 6.5E\u201307 1.9E\u201306 2.4E\u201308 1 .8E\u201304 6.5E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 3.1E+01 5.6E\u201305 3.5E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 2.3E\u201301 8.8E\u201323 3.5E\u201322 2.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201318 4.1E\u201320 1.1E+02 2.5E\u201306 2.4E+00 8.1E\u201307 1.5E+01 3.2E+00 1 .7E\u201302 4.1E\u201306 1 .6E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 2.9E\u201305 5.0E\u201306 1.6E\u201312", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6982, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.6E\u201305 3.5E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.4E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 2.3E\u201301 8.8E\u201323 3.5E\u201322 2.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201318 4.1E\u201320 1.1E+02 2.5E\u201306 2.4E+00 8.1E\u201307 1.5E+01 3.2E+00 1 .7E\u201302 4.1E\u201306 1 .6E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 2.9E\u201305 5.0E\u201306 1.6E\u201312 1.1E\u201302 1.6E+01 7.9E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 3.8E\u201302 3.9E\u201303 7.4E\u201306 3.8E\u201307 1.1E\u201301 4.2E\u201302 1 .4E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 1 .9E\u201303 2.1E\u201308 2.1E\u201302 4.5E+00 1.0E+00 9.2E+04 4.0E+01 2.4E+01 1.3E+03 3.0E+02 3.0E+01 2.2E+04 4.7E+05 2.8E+01 8.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 3.6E+01 2.0E+00 2.2E+03 2.7E+01 1.1E+02 7.4E+03 4.4E+03 4.0E+03 3.5E+06 1 .3E+03 1.6E+05 1 .6E+03 1 .8E+05 3.6E+04 5.5E+02 5.4E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1 .7E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 5.8E+04 8.0E\u201301 9.7E+00 1 .9E+01 1.6E+01 3.4E+00 5.2E\u201302 1 .3E+04 1.2E+04 2.5E+00 1.5E+03 2.4E+02 2.6E+00 3.2E+02 2.1E+06 6.6E+03 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.5E\u201320 7.2E\u201305 5.7E\u201309 5.5E\u201307 2.4E\u201308 1.1E\u201304 5.4E\u201303 3.4E\u201301 3.1E+00 4.8E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 9.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 1.5E\u201301 2.3E\u201322 9.1E\u201322 8.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201318 1.0E\u201319 1.5E+02 1.9E\u201306 4.3E+00 6.5E\u201307 1.5E+01 4.8E+00 1 .2E\u201302 2.4E\u201306 2.1E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6983, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.1E\u201304 5.4E\u201303 3.4E\u201301 3.1E+00 4.8E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.4E\u201304 9.5E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 1.5E\u201301 2.3E\u201322 9.1E\u201322 8.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201318 1.0E\u201319 1.5E+02 1.9E\u201306 4.3E+00 6.5E\u201307 1.5E+01 4.8E+00 1 .2E\u201302 2.4E\u201306 2.1E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201306 3.6E\u201306 8.3E\u201313 5.1E\u201304 1 .7E+00 5.2E\u201305 2.6E\u201302 8.5E\u201302 8.7E\u201303 5.5E\u201306 9.8E\u201308 2.9E\u201302 1 .9E\u201302 2.4E\u201304 4.6E\u201303 1 .8E\u201303 3.6E\u201309 4.5E\u201303 1 .4E+00 7.9E\u201301 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+04 1 .4E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.0E+03 3.1E+02 4.5E+01 7.6E+04 1.5E+04 3.3E+01 1.0E+01 4.5E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.5E+00 2.2E+02 7.2E+01 2.9E+02 2.5E+04 5.7E+03 8.8E+03 5.2E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.2E+03 7.0E+04 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.5E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1 .6E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 2.1E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.8E+01 4.1E+00 1 .3E\u201302 5.0E+03 4.5E+03 2.6E+00 4.2E+02 3.4E+02 6.1E\u201301 2.2E+01 1 .6E+05 8.9E+03 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201319 1.6E\u201308 9.4E\u201310 1.1E\u201309 1.6E\u201310 6.1E\u201307 1.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201304 2.7E\u201301 8.6E\u201307 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 4.5E\u201307 5.7E\u201305 2.0E\u201318 2.0E\u201318 1 .5E\u201303 4.9E\u201318 2.5E\u201320", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6984, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.1E\u201319 1.6E\u201308 9.4E\u201310 1.1E\u201309 1.6E\u201310 6.1E\u201307 1.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201304 2.7E\u201301 8.6E\u201307 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201304 3.8E\u201304 4.5E\u201307 5.7E\u201305 2.0E\u201318 2.0E\u201318 1 .5E\u201303 4.9E\u201318 2.5E\u201320 4.9E\u201301 4.0E\u201308 2.5E\u201301 7.3E\u201308 6.8E\u201301 1 .4E\u201303 2.3E\u201304 7.5E\u201307 9.6E\u201307 8.2E\u201305 2.1E\u201307 6.5E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 2.2E\u201304 1 .0E\u201301 1.0E\u201304 1 .7E\u201305 6.4E\u201305 3.5E\u201306 1 .8E\u201307 4.7E\u201306 1.0E\u201303 5.1E\u201305 8.8E\u201308 2.1E\u201305 3.2E\u201305 1 .5E\u201309 1 .6E\u201305 2.0E\u201301 7.2E\u201303 eq./kg) eq./kg) cadmium seawater 22537-48-0 2.5E\u201320 5.8E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6985, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 280, "book_page": 279, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6986, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 280, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 9.9E\u201303 2.6E\u201301 8.7E\u201302 1.8E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6987, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 280, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.4E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 9.9E\u201303 2.6E\u201301 8.7E\u201302 1.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 1.6E+01 2.1E\u201304 2.1E\u201311 3.9E\u201302 1.3E\u201303 2.3E+01 1.1E+00 X X 6.6E\u201304 3.8E\u201309 2.9E\u201305 5.6E\u201323 1.1E\u201301 6.0E\u201302 1 .8E\u201302 5.3E\u201313 3.8E\u201310 6.5E\u201302 6.8E\u201310 3.0E\u201306 9.2E\u201305 8.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201303 1 .5E+00 1 .6E\u201303 7.0E\u201302 6.9E\u201305 6.6E\u201319 7.2E\u201306 1.1E\u201302 6.1E\u201319 x 4.5E\u201307 3.0E\u201304 1 .5E\u201305 2.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.2E\u201305 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.2E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 5.6E+03 2.3E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.0E+04 4.2E+03 2.1E+04 5.6E+00 3.3E+01 1.1E+03 4.5E+02 7.0E+04 2.0E+03 X X 1.0E+05 7.2E\u201301 5.9E+01 3.7E+01 2.3E+02 1.3E+03 5.1E+03 5.6E\u201301 8.0E+00 6.6E+03 4.9E\u201301 4.4E+00 4.8E+01 6.9E+03 2.4E+00 1.5E+05 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 4.3E+02 1 .4E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.7E+03 X 2.8E+00 1 .0E+03 1 .3E\u201301 4.1E+04 8.1E+03 1.7E+02 5.5E+03 7.8E+01 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201306 6.6E\u201313 5.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6988, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 280, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.4E+00 1.5E+05 7.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 4.3E+02 1 .4E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.7E+03 X 2.8E+00 1 .0E+03 1 .3E\u201301 4.1E+04 8.1E+03 1.7E+02 5.5E+03 7.8E+01 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201306 6.6E\u201313 5.5E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1 .4E\u201301 2.9E+01 4.7E\u201302 2.6E+00 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201304 2.0E\u201311 5.5E\u201302 1.7E\u201304 2.6E+01 3.5E+00 X X 2.1E\u201303 3.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201305 1 .4E\u201322 3.0E\u201302 6.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 3.6E\u201313 2.5E\u201310 1 .6E\u201301 3.5E\u201310 2.2E\u201306 1.0E\u201304 6.3E\u201303 1.2E\u201303 3.7E+00 1 .6E\u201303 6.2E\u201302 8.8E\u201306 1.5E\u201318 4.7E\u201306 4.5E\u201303 1.6E\u201318 X 2.1E\u201307 6.8E\u201305 1 .2E\u201305 1.4E\u201301 7.4E\u201303 3.3E\u201301 3.1E+00 2.7E\u201305 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 6.7E\u201302 3.2E\u201303 2.9E+03 1.5E+04 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1 .4E+04 2.8E+04 6.0E+00 3.0E+01 9.2E+02 9.1E+01 4.7E+04 2.9E+03 X X 3.6E+05 1 .2E\u201302 3.7E+01 1.0E+02 4.8E+01 1.7E+03 2.8E+03 6.9E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+04 3.8E\u201301 5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 3.9E+05 8.1E+01 1.9E+03 1.2E+03 7.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.1E+04 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1 .7E\u201301 1.7E+04 3.4E+02 1 .4E+02 5.4E+02 1.4E+02 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6989, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 280, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.2E+00 7.0E+01 8.9E+03 2.0E+00 3.9E+05 8.1E+01 1.9E+03 1.2E+03 7.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.1E+04 X 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1 .7E\u201301 1.7E+04 3.4E+02 1 .4E+02 5.4E+02 1.4E+02 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E\u201307 9.9E\u201314 8.4E\u201305 1.7E\u201303 1.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.8E\u201305 9.6E\u201304 7.2E\u201302 2.4E\u201305 4.4E\u201314 2.4E\u201305 2.4E\u201305 2.1E+00 1 .3E\u201301 X X 3.7E\u201306 1.5E\u201310 3.8E\u201307 4.6E\u201321 3.9E\u201303 3.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201307 2.2E\u201314 1.8E\u201311 1.7E+00 1.4E\u201311 3.0E\u201308 6.0E\u201307 7.5E\u201305 9.1E\u201304 1.7E+00 3.7E\u201305 5.4E\u201306 3.2E\u201307 2.9E\u201318 1.1E\u201307 1 .9E\u201305 2.6E\u201318 X 2.3E\u201308 5.2E\u201306 2.1E\u201307 8.2E\u201305 7.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.6E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6990, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 281, "book_page": 280, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6991, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 281, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater sea water seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6992, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 281, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .0E+01 5.8E\u201302 1.7E\u201305 3.3E\u201302 4.6E\u201311 8.9E\u201304 X 5.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201304 4.4E\u201304 1.0E\u201305 2.3E\u201303 7.4E\u201318 4.5E\u201303 1 .0E\u201305 X 2.0E\u201304 1 .9E\u201304 7.9E\u201318 2.6E\u201302 9.5E\u201323 2.9E\u201302 8.3E\u201306 1.1E+00 7.9E\u201302 3.0E+00 5.3E\u201306 1 .6E\u201305 4.5E\u201305 1.8E+00 2.4E\u201318 1 .4E\u201306 1 .8E\u201321 3.6E\u201303 1.1E\u201310 1.1E\u201304 7.3E\u201313 9.1E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 3.7E\u201308 3.7E\u201304 2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1 .7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 2.4E+03 6.7E+02 1.2E\u201301 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6993, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 281, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.8E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+05 7.4E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1 .7E\u201302 8.6E+02 X 2.7E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 2.4E+03 6.7E+02 1.2E\u201301 X 6.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 7.8E+03 4.2E+02 3.9E+01 1.4E+02 5.1E\u201302 3.3E+03 4.9E+03 5.7E+05 3.6E+03 5.7E\u201302 5.6E\u201302 8.3E+03 1 .3E+04 2.0E\u201302 3.5E+02 8.1E+02 7.5E+00 4.4E+01 2.2E+02 1.1E+03 7.4E\u201301 1.4E+01 2.9E\u201301 3.9E\u201301 2.3E+00 6.5E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .3E+01 6.3E\u201302 6.4E\u201306 5.4E\u201303 9.4E\u201314 9.0E\u201304 X 2.7E\u201304 8.2E\u201305 2.4E\u201304 6.1E\u201306 2.0E\u201303 8.6E\u201318 3.8E\u201303 7.0E\u201306 X 1.9E\u201304 1.1E\u201304 2.0E\u201317 9.5E\u201303 4.8E\u201323 3.1E\u201302 5.9E\u201306 4.1E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 4.1E+00 9.9E\u201307 1.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201305 1.4E+00 5.7E\u201318 1.1E\u201306 4.5E\u201321 2.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.7E\u201313 1.2E+00 2.3E\u201303 3.0E\u201308 3.1E\u201304 3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 1 .8E\u201302 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1 .3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 2.1E+03 1.0E+03 9.3E\u201302 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6994, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 281, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.2E\u201302 9.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 2.9E\u201302 2.2E\u201302 1 .8E\u201302 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+05 6.4E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1 .3E+03 X 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 2.1E+03 1.0E+03 9.3E\u201302 X 7.8E\u201301 4.6E\u201301 1.5E+04 3.7E+01 2.2E+01 1.6E+02 6.3E\u201302 9.2E+02 6.8E+03 7.9E+05 5.4E+02 8.1E\u201302 3.3E\u201302 3.6E+03 2.5E+04 2.9E\u201302 8.6E+02 8.9E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+01 3.2E+02 1.5E+03 8.4E\u201301 9.7E+00 9.6E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 9.0E\u201301 2.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201302 6.3E\u201306 3.8E\u201308 1.3E\u201303 2.8E\u201312 1.7E\u201305 X 1.3E\u201305 3.2E\u201306 1.8E\u201305 8.9E\u201308 2.9E\u201305 1.8E\u201317 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201308 X 4.0E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 4.2E\u201317 3.1E\u201304 7.2E\u201321 6.7E\u201305 1.9E\u201306 1.3E\u201304 8.4E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 4.8E\u201307 1 .9E\u201306 1 .9E\u201305 3.0E\u201303 2.2E\u201317 1.3E\u201307 1.9E\u201320 2.8E\u201305 6.1E\u201313 4.2E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 5.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201305 3.3E\u201311 1.5E\u201303 8.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 9.3E+00 1.9E+01 1.2E+00 5.4E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6995, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 282, "book_page": 281, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6996, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 282, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6997, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 282, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.5E\u201304 5.4E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.5E+02 3.2E+01 1.1E+05 4.4E\u201301 2.8E+01 1.2E+00 2.9E+01 2.5E+00 7.9E+00 1.8E+03 7.4E+01 1.7E+02 5.1E+01 4.5E+04 6.5E+00 9.6E+04 2.8E+02 X 2.1E\u201301 8.2E+01 4.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 3.4E+02 2.8E+03 1.9E+02 7.3E+00 4.6E+00 8.3E+00 7.2E\u201304 6.2E+01 1.3E+02 5.6E+01 3.9E+03 9.2E\u201301 4.7E+03 1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.4E+01 2.6E+04 4.0E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.0E+03 5.8E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB 5.8E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 3.1E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.0E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6998, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 282, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.0E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.4E+01 2.6E+04 4.0E\u201301 2.3E+01 2.0E+03 5.8E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB 5.8E\u201302 1.1E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 1.2E+02 6.2E\u201301 3.1E+04 1.6E\u201303 1.3E+00 8.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 7.0E\u201303 6.8E\u201302 2.6E+02 3.2E\u201301 7.7E\u201301 6.7E\u201301 2.5E+02 2.1E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.2E+01 X 5.0E\u201305 6.2E+00 1.2E\u201301 4.8E\u201302 3.4E+01 1.1E+01 1.4E\u201301 2.4E+00 5.8E\u201303 3.6E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 4.4E+00 6.5E+00 7.9E+00 8.1E+02 8.2E\u201302 1.6E+03 1.1E\u201301 2.9E\u201305 2.6E+00 3.7E+03 6.9E\u201305 7.4E\u201303 3.0E+01 2.0E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201304 5.6E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 3.6E+05 3.2E\u201301 3.3E+01 1.2E+00 2.2E+01 1 .0E+00 6.3E+00 2.3E+03 6.8E+01 1.5E+02 2.6E+01 3.4E+04 4.2E+00 7.6E+04 2.4E+01 X 1.4E\u201302 1.1E+02 9.5E\u201301 4.4E\u201301 3.0E+02 2.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.6E+01 5.9E\u201301 6.7E+00 5.4E\u201304 1.9E+02 3.8E+02 1.8E+02 1.3E+04 1.3E\u201301 5.4E+03 3.1E+02 8.2E\u201303 3.5E+01 3.8E+04 3.5E\u201303 6.7E+00 2.0E+03 3.4E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 9.5E+04 2.0E\u201303 1.6E+00 9.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 6999, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 282, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.4E+03 3.1E+02 8.2E\u201303 3.5E+01 3.8E+04 3.5E\u201303 6.7E+00 2.0E+03 3.4E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 7.9E+01 6.8E\u201301 9.5E+04 2.0E\u201303 1.6E+00 9.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201301 3.2E\u201303 9.0E\u201302 3.3E+02 4.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 6.4E\u201301 3.6E+02 1.9E\u201301 2.4E+03 2.9E+00 X 2.1E\u201306 8.2E+00 2.4E\u201301 1 .0E\u201301 3.8E+01 8.4E+00 4.1E\u201302 4.4E+00 5.0E\u201304 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 1.5E+01 1.9E+01 2.7E+01 2.5E+03 1.3E\u201302 1.5E+03 4.3E\u201301 7.1E\u201306 6.4E+00 5.6E+03 8.4E\u201307 6.5E\u201304 4.5E+01 2.1E+00 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201303 2.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1.0E+00 1.7E+01 1.0E+00 2.7E+04 7.4E\u201301 4.4E+00 7.0E\u201301 1.6E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.6E+01 1.7E+00 7.0E+03 2.5E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.9E+00 6.7E\u201302 6.7E+00 6.6E+00 2.2E+02 9.7E\u201301 7.5E\u201301 3.5E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.5E+02 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 5.1E+00 2.8E+01 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 4.9E+01 7.5E+00 eq./kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7000, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 283, "book_page": 282, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7001, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7002, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E\u201301 5.3E+01 9.3E+01 1.6E+01 1.8E+00 3.2E\u201303 1.0E+00 1.8E+00 3.6E+02 3.5E\u201303 1.4E\u201302 7.1E+01 1.4E+02 7.7E+00 9.9E+05 8.1E+02 2.0E+05 6.5E+03 6.6E+01 2.4E+01 8.0E+02 3.0E+00 1.5E\u201303 1.3E+03 7.9E\u201302 1.6E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 7.4E+01 6.0E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.8E\u201302 4.6E\u201303 6.2E\u201304 8.9E+00 7.4E\u201303 2.0E+04 3.3E+02 4.2E\u201305 7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 1.4E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 7.6E+02 3.5E+03 3.8E+02 2.5E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 8.6E+00 3.0E+01 8.5E\u201302 8.1E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 1.7E+00 8.4E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7003, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.2E+01 3.5E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 1.4E+04 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 7.6E+02 3.5E+03 3.8E+02 2.5E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 8.6E+00 3.0E+01 8.5E\u201302 8.1E\u201302 8.3E\u201302 1.7E+00 8.4E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 2.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 4.3E+01 1.7E+00 1.4E+05 2.8E+00 3.0E+02 2.5E+02 2.9E+01 6.0E\u201302 3.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.6E\u201305 7.8E+00 1.2E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 3.6E\u201305 4.1E\u201302 7.9E+01 7.1E\u201304 4.3E\u201304 8.6E\u201304 6.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201302 9.7E\u201306 3.9E+02 8.7E+00 1.3E\u201306 1.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 3.6E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 3.7E+03 2.6E+02 4.1E\u201304 7.8E\u201311 2.3E+00 1.5E+01 6.8E+00 9.5E+01 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E\u201301 1.7E+02 9.4E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+00 3.0E\u201303 7.3E\u201301 1.6E+00 2.3E+02 8.7E\u201303 3.5E\u201302 2.3E+02 2.3E+02 1.8E+01 1.4E+06 6.3E+02 3.6E+05 5.2E+03 7.1E+01 3.6E+01 5.7E+02 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201303 9.3E+02 1 .0E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 6.9E\u201303 3.3E+00 6.3E+01 1.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201302 1 .0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 4.2E+03 8.8E+03 1 .2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 4.2E+02 2.5E+03 6.2E+02 4.1E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7004, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E\u201302 1 .0E\u201302 1.4E\u201303 6.6E+00 1.9E\u201303 5.6E+03 1.5E+02 7.1E\u201305 2.5E+01 3.3E+02 2.0E\u201301 4.8E\u201301 4.2E+03 8.8E+03 1 .2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 4.2E+02 2.5E+03 6.2E+02 4.1E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E\u201301 2.8E+01 8.2E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1 .0E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 4.7E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 1.5E\u201303 6.1E\u201303 3.4E+01 5.8E+01 3.7E+00 2.1E+05 3.7E+00 8.0E+02 3.5E+02 9.4E+00 1.2E\u201301 4.5E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 7.5E+00 1.1E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 1.9E\u201305 2.7E\u201303 2.8E+00 5.6E\u201304 8.0E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 1 .0E\u201304 4.8E\u201302 2.3E\u201306 1.5E+02 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201306 4.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.5E\u201304 9.0E\u201305 3.1E+02 3.6E+02 3.2E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 1.1E+00 9.9E+00 1.8E+01 1.2E+02 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+00 6.2E+00 7.3E+01 1.3E+00 9.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.8E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 7.3E+00 7.3E+00 4.6E+00 2.5E+01 3.1E\u201301 1.6E+04 6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 4.6E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 2.8E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7005, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 2.8E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.3E+01 2.9E+02 1.2E+01 1.2E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7006, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 284, "book_page": 283, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7007, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 284, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7008, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 284, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.8E+02 1.9E+01 4.5E+03 1.5E+01 9.2E\u201301 2.3E+00 3.1E+01 7.0E+01 3.0E+00 X X 8.2E+01 2.3E\u201301 1.7E+02 6.4E\u201303 9.7E+01 6.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.6E\u201301 3.0E+01 1.4E+01 4.1E\u201301 3.9E+00 4.4E+01 1.4E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.3E+02 9.4E+01 1.9E+03 3.5E+02 1.3E+00 1.9E\u201303 3.8E+00 1.6E+01 X 3.0E+01 9.7E+02 2.5E\u201303 5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1.5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 2.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.4E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.7E+03 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 6.7E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.8E+04 4.7E+02 X X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7009, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 284, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.0E+02 1.1E+03 5.9E\u201301 1.5E+01 3.3E\u201301 9.2E+02 2.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.4E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.7E+03 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E+00 1.3E+00 6.7E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.4E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 2.8E+04 4.7E+02 X X 1.2E+01 2.2E\u201305 1.8E+00 1.0E\u201303 1.4E+00 1.2E+01 6.6E\u201301 6.2E\u201304 5.3E\u201302 6.2E+00 1.1E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 1.0E+00 4.4E+02 3.1E+00 1.4E+02 1.4E+01 3.0E+01 3.4E\u201301 4.4E\u201301 2.5E\u201304 5.7E\u201302 4.3E+00 X 8.4E\u201303 2.0E+00 5.5E\u201304 2.3E+00 5.9E+00 2.7E+01 2.9E+01 5.9E\u201303 5.5E+00 8.7E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201308 7.3E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.2E+02 5.7E+01 6.2E+03 7.9E+00 9.0E\u201301 3.2E+00 3.8E+00 8.0E+01 9.7E+00 X X 2.6E+02 1.9E\u201302 6.3E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.5E+01 6.9E+02 9.5E+01 3.1E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.5E+01 2.2E\u201301 2.8E+00 4.8E+01 1.1E+04 7.2E\u201302 8.1E+02 9.2E+01 1.7E+03 4.4E+01 2.9E+00 1.2E\u201303 1.5E+00 3.8E+01 X 1.3E+01 2.2E+02 2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.2E+03 3.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.8E\u201308 1.7E+03 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 4.3E+00 9.0E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201303 1.1E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7010, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 284, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E\u201303 3.4E+02 6.8E+01 8.3E\u201301 4.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.2E+03 3.2E\u201301 1.3E+00 7.2E\u201301 9.8E\u201308 1.7E+03 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 4.3E+00 9.0E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201303 1.1E+04 5.0E+02 X X 4.0E+01 3.5E\u201307 1.1E+00 2.7E\u201303 2.9E\u201301 1.6E+01 3.7E\u201301 7.6E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 1.3E+01 8.9E\u201304 3.9E\u201302 1.5E+00 5.7E+02 8.3E\u201301 3.0E+02 1.6E+01 4.1E+01 3.8E\u201302 8.0E\u201301 2.3E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 9.1E+00 X 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 9.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 1.4E+01 2.1E+00 1.1E\u201302 4.2E+00 7.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201310 1.1E+01 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.1E+02 5.8E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 1.6E+01 5.3E+01 3.3E+00 X X 1.3E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.4E+00 5.4E\u201302 2.3E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E\u201302 9.4E\u201302 4.7E+00 1.6E+03 4.2E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.0E+02 3.6E\u201301 1.6E+03 2.2E+00 5.4E\u201301 8.7E+01 2.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 3.1E+00 3.2E+00 X 5.9E+00 9.2E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 8.1E+01 2.1E+00 2.7E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.5E\u201302 4.7E+00 2.6E\u201303 1.2E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7011, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 285, "book_page": 284, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1 ,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7012, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 285, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7013, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 285, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 1.7E+01 2.0E+04 4.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.5E+02 2.8E+02 2.3E+03 1.5E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 5.1E+01 6.9E+02 6.8E\u201303 3.1E+00 1.1E\u201303 5.0E+01 5.8E+03 1.1E+03 3.3E+03 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 4.0E+01 5.2E+01 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201301 3.7E+02 1.4E+00 8.2E+00 6.2E+02 3.8E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.4E+00 3.7E\u201304 1.0E\u201301 1.9E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 9.0E\u201302 3.2E\u201302 1.9E\u201302 7.5E\u201304 6.6E\u201302 5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 9.8E+01 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 1.6E+01 6.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 8.4E\u201301 5.3E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7014, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 285, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.7E\u201305 1.8E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.2E\u201302 3.9E+01 2.9E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201301 9.8E+01 1.3E+01 1.1E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 1.6E+01 6.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 8.4E\u201301 5.3E+01 5.6E+02 6.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 1.2E+00 1.5E+01 1.3E\u201304 7.8E\u201302 3.5E+00 9.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.9E+00 5.8E+01 2.2E\u201301 6.5E+00 2.9E\u201301 1.5E+00 5.1E+00 8.6E\u201301 1.8E+00 7.1E\u201301 5.1E\u201301 5.8E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.9E\u201306 3.7E\u201301 5.5E\u201301 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 9.4E+00 1.4E+04 2.3E\u201301 8.6E\u201304 2.3E+02 3.2E+02 2.0E+03 1.1E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 1.2E+02 2.5E+02 3.3E\u201303 3.3E+00 7.5E\u201304 1.8E+01 5.4E+03 1.5E+03 6.1E+02 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 3.3E+01 1.2E+02 5.2E\u201305 1.0E+00 3.0E+02 5.7E\u201301 8.1E+00 4.8E+02 5.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 7.6E+00 3.1E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 1.0E\u201301 3.6E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 6.3E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 3.8E\u201305 1.6E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 9.3E+01 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.7E\u201302 5.7E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.7E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.5E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7015, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 285, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.6E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 9.3E+01 1.9E+01 7.6E\u201305 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 3.3E+01 5.7E\u201302 5.7E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.7E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 4.9E\u201301 2.9E+01 1.2E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 3.8E+00 6.0E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 5.5E+00 7.5E+01 1.1E\u201301 4.7E+00 9.6E\u201302 6.0E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.5E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 2.2E\u201302 5.5E\u201301 3.2E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.5E+00 1.8E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 3.0E+01 2.3E+01 2.9E+01 1.4E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 1.0E+01 5.1E+01 5.0E\u201302 1.8E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E+01 1.9E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.5E+01 2.1E+01 3.1E\u201304 3.6E\u201301 1.6E+01 7.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 7.7E\u201301 1.2E+01 8.0E+00 1.7E+01 9.9E\u201301 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303 2.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 1.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7016, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 286, "book_page": 285, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Comp. CAS number FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthren e benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7017, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 286, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7018, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 286, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41 -7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1.5E+02 1.2E+02 4.5E+05 1.5E+00 9.9E+01 4.8E+00 8.2E+01 9.2E+00 3.1E+01 4.0E+03 2.5E+02 4.9E+02 1.6E+02 4.5E+04 8.1E+00 9.6E+04 2.9E+02 X 8.6E\u201301 3.2E+02 4.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 9.3E+02 3.7E+03 8.0E+02 7.3E+00 1.8E+01 1.1E+01 7.2E\u201304 2.5E+02 5.3E+02 2.2E+02 1.5E+04 3.2E+00 4.7E+03 4.1E+02 1.0E\u201301 1.4E+01 8.3E+04 4.7E+00 1.2E+02 6.1E+03 1.8E+03 3.4E\u201301 2.1E+02 3.7E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 3.2E\u201303 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.2E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 5.7E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+00 2.5E+02 2.7E\u201301 1.6E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7019, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 286, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.7E+02 5.9E+01 3.9E+00 3.2E\u201303 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.2E+05 5.5E\u201303 4.6E+00 3.2E\u201302 4.6E\u201301 2.7E\u201302 2.6E\u201301 5.7E+02 1.2E+00 2.2E+00 2.1E+00 2.5E+02 2.7E\u201301 1.6E+03 3.3E+01 X 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.2E\u201301 4.8E\u201302 9.1E+01 1.4E+01 5.8E\u201301 2.4E+00 2.3E\u201302 4.8E\u201302 2.4E\u201303 1.8E+01 2.6E+01 3.1E+01 3.2E+03 2.9E\u201301 1.6E+03 4.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201304 2.6E+00 1.2E+04 8.1E\u201304 4.0E\u201302 9.3E+01 6.2E+00 1.4E+00 3.4E+01 1.2E+02 3.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 8.3E\u201302 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.3E+02 1.3E+02 1.4E+06 1.1E+00 1.2E+02 4.7E+00 6.1E+01 3.6E+00 2.4E+01 5.0E+03 2.3E+02 4.2E+02 8.1E+01 3.4E+04 5.3E+00 7.6E+04 2.5E+01 X 5.5E\u201302 4.5E+02 9.5E\u201301 4.4E\u201301 8.0E+02 2.7E+03 4.1E+02 1.6E+01 2.4E+00 8.8E+00 5.4E\u201304 7.4E+02 1.5E+03 7.2E+02 5.0E+04 4.7E\u201301 5.4E+03 1.2E+03 3.3E\u201302 3.5E+01 1.2E+05 4.1E\u201302 3.6E+01 6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 6.8E+02 3.7E+01 5.0E+01 3.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 3.8E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.4E\u201301 1.2E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 7.3E+02 1.6E+00 3.3E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7020, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 286, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.2E+03 1.1E+03 2.8E\u201301 6.8E+02 3.7E+01 5.0E+01 3.1E+00 3.0E\u201303 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.9E+01 2.7E+00 3.8E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.7E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.4E\u201301 1.2E\u201302 3.5E\u201301 7.3E+02 1.6E+00 3.3E+00 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.3E\u201301 2.4E+03 3.0E+00 X 8.5E\u201306 3.2E+01 2.4E\u201301 1.0E\u201301 1.0E+02 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 4.4E+00 2.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 1.1E\u201303 5.9E+01 7.7E+01 1.1E+02 1.0E+04 4.5E\u201302 1.5E+03 1.7E+00 2.8E\u201305 6.4E+00 1.8E+04 9.9E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 1.4E+02 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201301 1.1E+02 3.3E+00 3.7E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 3.7E\u201302 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+01 9.7E\u201301 2.7E+04 6.4E\u201301 3.9E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201301 1.8E+01 1.2E+00 1.1E+01 1.3E+00 7.0E+03 2.1E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 X 2.3E\u201301 8.8E+00 6.7E\u201302 6.7E+00 4.4E+00 7.2E+01 1.0E+00 7.5E\u201301 3.5E+00 5.0E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.2E+00 3.4E+02 7.1E\u201301 4.2E+02 8.3E+01 1 .0E\u201302 5.1E+00 2.2E+01 1.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 3.8E+01 5.9E+00 1.6E+00 6.2E+00 7.3E+01 1.2E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7021, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 287, "book_page": 286, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7022, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7023, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41 -5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.7E+00 6.4E+00 1.4E+03 3.5E\u201303 1.4E\u201302 2.8E+02 1.4E+02 7.7E+00 3.1E+06 3.0E+03 6.9E+05 6.5E+03 2.6E+02 9.6E+01 2.6E+03 1.1E+01 6.0E\u201303 4.6E+03 3.1E\u201301 1.6E\u201304 5.1E\u201302 3.0E+02 2.3E+03 6.3E\u201301 7.4E\u201302 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.8E+01 2.9E\u201302 5.8E+04 1.3E+03 1.7E\u201304 2.9E+02 1.1E+03 4.5E+00 9.0E+00 5.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 7.6E+01 1.3E+04 4.4E+01 3.7E+00 8.9E+00 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 2.4E\u201303 4.0E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7024, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.1E+04 3.0E+04 1.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201309 3.0E+03 1.4E+04 1.5E+03 9.9E+02 1.5E+03 7.6E+01 1.3E+04 4.4E+01 3.7E+00 8.9E+00 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 3.0E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 6.0E\u201304 2.4E\u201303 4.0E+01 4.3E+01 1.7E+00 4.4E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+03 2.5E+02 1.2E+02 2.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 8.8E\u201302 6.2E\u201305 2.7E+01 4.8E\u201304 2.5E\u201303 1.4E\u201304 1.6E\u201301 3.0E+02 2.8E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 3.4E\u201303 2.6E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 3.8E\u201305 1.1E+03 3.6E+01 5.2E\u201306 5.6E\u201301 6.8E+00 1.4E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 1.4E+04 7.2E+02 4.1E\u201304 7.8E\u201311 8.9E+00 5.7E+01 2.7E+01 3.7E+02 2.4E+01 5.3E+00 2.0E+03 5.5E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 9.5E\u201302 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.6E+00 5.5E+00 9.3E+02 8.7E\u201303 3.5E\u201302 8.9E+02 2.3E+02 1.8E+01 4.4E+06 2.3E+03 1.3E+06 5.2E+03 2.8E+02 1.5E+02 1.8E+03 6.6E+00 7.9E\u201303 3.3E+03 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201304 2.7E\u201302 1.3E+01 2.4E+02 4.1E\u201301 1.8E\u201301 4.1E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 2.0E+01 7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.6E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 2.3E+02 1.8E+04 2.4E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 MSETP (20 yr) (kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7025, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.5E\u201303 1.6E+04 5.9E+02 2.8E\u201304 9.9E+01 1.1E+03 7.5E\u201301 1.9E+00 1.6E+04 2.4E+04 1.2E\u201303 7.1E\u201310 1.7E+03 9.9E+03 2.5E+03 1.6E+03 2.5E+03 2.3E+02 1.8E+04 2.4E+01 3.6E+00 1.3E+01 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.7E+00 3.8E\u201302 5.8E\u201302 1.5E\u201303 6.1E\u201303 1.3E+02 5.8E+01 3.7E+00 6.6E+05 1.4E+01 2.8E+03 3.5E+02 3.7E+01 4.7E\u201301 1.5E+01 8.8E\u201302 4.4E\u201305 2.6E+01 4.5E\u201305 9.2E\u201304 7.4E\u201305 1.1E\u201302 1.1E+01 2.2E\u201303 3.2E\u201303 5.4E\u201303 4.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 9.1E\u201306 4.3E+02 1.3E+01 5.1E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 9.8E+00 3.3E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 1.2E+03 9.7E+02 3.2E\u201304 7.1E\u201311 4.5E+00 3.9E+01 7.2E+01 4.7E+02 6.5E+01 1.7E+01 2.7E+03 5.5E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.9E\u201302 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.1E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.7E+01 7.3E+00 7.3E+00 4.5E+00 2.5E+01 3.1E\u201301 1.2E+04 6.3E+01 7.8E+04 6.3E+02 4.5E+01 8.5E+00 4.9E+01 2.6E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1 .0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 2.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7026, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1 .0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 2.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 2.3E+00 7.8E+01 4.4E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.3E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7027, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 288, "book_page": 287, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenz ene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust(PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7028, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 288, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7029, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 288, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 8.4E+01 4.1E+00 X X 3.3E+02 1.9E+00 4.0E+02 6.4E\u201303 3.7E+02 2.4E+03 6.5E+02 1.7E+00 7.8E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+00 1.4E+01 1.4E+02 2.8E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.3E+02 9.4E+01 5.8E+03 1.5E+03 1.3E+00 1.9E\u201303 1.2E+01 1.6E+01 X 1.2E+02 3.6E+03 2.5E\u201303 1.9E+03 4.4E+03 1.1E+00 5.8E+01 1.3E+00 3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X 6.4E+01 5.4E+04 4.8E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 9.9E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 6.5E+02 X X 4.7E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.2E+00 1.0E\u201303 5.3E+00 4.4E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7030, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 288, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.7E+03 1.2E+00 1.3E+01 7.9E+00 3.1E\u201305 5.2E+03 X 6.4E+01 5.4E+04 4.8E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 9.9E+02 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.0E\u201301 3.4E+04 6.5E+02 X X 4.7E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.2E+00 1.0E\u201303 5.3E+00 4.4E+01 2.6E+00 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 6.2E+00 4.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 3.2E+00 8.9E+02 3.1E+00 1.4E+02 1.4E+01 9.1E+01 1.4E+00 4.4E\u201301 2.5E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 4.3E+00 X 3.4E\u201302 7.3E+00 5.5E\u201304 9.2E+00 2.3E+01 5.3E+01 1.1E+02 2.7E\u201302 2.2E+01 3.5E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 5.5E\u201301 1.2E\u201308 2.3E+01 X 1.6E\u201301 1.0E+02 3.3E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 2.6E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+01 9.7E+01 1.3E+01 X X 1.0E+03 1.6E\u201301 1.5E+02 1.6E\u201302 9.7E+01 2.4E+03 3.8E+02 1.1E+00 5.3E+01 3.5E+01 7.9E\u201301 9.8E+00 1.5E+02 2.1E+04 7.3E\u201302 8.1E+02 9.2E+01 5.2E+03 1.8E+02 2.9E+00 1.2E\u201303 4.9E+00 3.8E+01 X 5.5E+01 8.1E+02 2.0E\u201303 1.3E+03 2.6E+02 1.6E+00 1.7E+01 3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 6.9E+02 X X 1.6E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.7E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.1E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7031, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 288, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.0E+00 4.8E+03 1.3E+00 4.7E+00 1.3E+00 6.3E\u201308 5.3E+03 X 3.4E+01 3.8E+04 2.5E\u201301 8.7E\u201304 9.0E+02 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201302 1.3E+04 6.9E+02 X X 1.6E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.7E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.1E+00 5.7E+01 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 1.3E+01 3.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 4.7E+00 1.1E+03 8.3E\u201301 3.0E+02 1.6E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 8.0E\u201301 2.3E\u201304 6.7E\u201302 9.1E+00 X 9.9E\u201303 3.0E+00 6.0E\u201304 3.8E+00 9.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 8.3E+00 4.9E\u201302 1.7E+01 2.8E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 6.8E\u201311 3.5E+01 X 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.0E\u201304 2.5E+00 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.6E+01 4.7E+01 2.9E+00 X X 1.2E+01 3.0E\u201301 4.6E+00 5.4E\u201302 2.2E+01 1.8E+01 7.5E\u201302 8.6E\u201302 3.3E+00 1.6E+03 3.8E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 8.8E\u201301 2.2E+02 3.7E\u201301 1.6E+03 2.2E+00 4.1E\u201301 9.0E+01 2.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 2.6E+00 3.2E+00 X 6.0E+00 8.5E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 7.9E+01 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201302 3.8E+00 4.2E\u201304 9.4E+01 X 2.3E+00 1.3E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 2.9E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7032, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 289, "book_page": 288, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7033, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 289, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 FAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.8E+02 5.6E+03 2.6E\u201303 X 2.2E\u201303 5.6E\u201304 5.1E+01 4.4E+03 6.8E\u201303 9.2E+00 1.1E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.9E+04 4.2E+03 1.8E+04 4.6E\u201304 4.7E\u201304 1.6E+02 5.2E+01 6.4E\u201305 4.1E\u201301 1.4E+03 5.4E+00 3.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+03 9.8E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.8E+01 3.1E+01 1.8E\u201304 X 3.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 1.6E+01 4.2E+00 1.1E\u201303 3.9E\u201301 4.5E\u201304 3.4E+00 1.7E+02 2.2E+03 3.7E+00 2.5E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 4.5E+00 1.5E+01 1.3E\u201304 7.8E\u201302 1.3E+01 3.8E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+02 2.7E\u201301 6.5E+00 FSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.2E+02 4.8E+03 1.8E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 1.2E+02 1.6E+03 3.3E\u201303 9.9E+00 7.5E\u201304 7.0E+01 1.8E+04 5.7E+03 3.4E+03 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+02 1.2E+02 5.2E\u201305 1.0E+00 1.1E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7034, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 289, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 3.2E+02 4.8E+03 1.8E\u201303 X 2.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201304 1.2E+02 1.6E+03 3.3E\u201303 9.9E+00 7.5E\u201304 7.0E+01 1.8E+04 5.7E+03 3.4E+03 3.9E\u201304 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+02 1.2E+02 5.2E\u201305 1.0E+00 1.1E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01 1.3E+03 1.5E+03 6.0E\u201301 7.6E+00 MSETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.3E+01 4.6E+01 1.3E\u201304 X 1.1E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 3.3E+01 3.6E\u201301 5.7E\u201304 4.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201304 9.3E\u201301 2.4E+02 3.0E+03 5.6E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 1.3E\u201302 1.9E+00 2.9E+01 1.2E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 1.4E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 4.7E+00 TETP (20 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.3E+01 2.1E+01 1.2E\u201303 X 3.0E\u201301 2.1E\u201303 1.0E+01 8.1E+01 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.0E+02 3.7E+01 2.6E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.4E+01 2.1E+01 3.1E\u201304 3.6E\u201301 1.5E+01 6.8E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 2.3E+01 4.6E+00 1.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 x = not calculated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7035, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 290, "book_page": 289, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Source: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Status: Author(s). Equations: The five indicator results are expressed in kg 1,4\u2013dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while FAETP is the Fresh water Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, MAETP is the Marine Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, FSETP is the Fresh water Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, MSETP is the Marine Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, TETP is the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, and is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The five indicator scores can only be added after weighting (see Part 2a, Section 4.3.8). Remark: The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7036, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 290, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Remark: The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7037, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 291, "book_page": 290, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.8.4: Alternative FAETP, MAETP, FSETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for 500-year time horizon and global scale. Substance 1,1,1trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5trichlorophenol 2,4,6trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7038, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 291, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.22E\u2013041 1.04E\u201301 7.30E\u201302 8.47E\u201303 7.31 E\u201302 9.85E\u201303 2.88E\u201303 1.18E\u201304 1.60E\u201302 3.25E\u201307 2.37E\u201303 2.38E\u201303 1.10E+01 7.95E+01 2.11E+06 8.54E\u201301 1.46E+01 5.85E+00 3.87E+01 1.40E+00 1.30E+01 1.68E+03 1.02E+02 2.02E+00 7.92E+01 5.19E+02 4.14E\u201301 5.09E+04 2.74E+00 X 1.39E+01 1.37E+02 2.81E+00 4.39E+00 3.61E+02 2.88E+02 4.23E+02 3.67E+01 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.04E\u201301 1.68E+01 1.79E+01 2.10E+00 1.50E+01 2.04E+00 6.66E\u201301 8.18E\u201302 3.02E+00 2.74E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7039, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 291, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 1.39E+01 1.37E+02 2.81E+00 4.39E+00 3.61E+02 2.88E+02 4.23E+02 3.67E+01 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.04E\u201301 1.68E+01 1.79E+01 2.10E+00 1.50E+01 2.04E+00 6.66E\u201301 8.18E\u201302 3.02E+00 2.74E\u201306 4.62E\u201301 7.41E\u201301 3.92E+02 1.34E+02 2.97E+08 2.01E\u201301 5.30E+01 3.92E+00 5.28E+00 1.34E+00 1.16E+01 1.73E+03 2.30E+01 1.65E+00 1.94E+01 5.66E+02 9.06E\u201301 8.15E+03 6.12E+01 X 8.27E+00 1.70E+03 3.83E+02 5.56E+03 2.79E+02 1.61E+02 1.96E+02 3.41E+03 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1 .00E\u201304 1.22E\u201301 8.13E\u201302 9.26E\u201303 8.49E\u201302 1.09E\u201302 2.70E\u201303 9.95E\u201305 1.66E\u201302 2.20E\u201307 2.22E\u201303 2.38E\u201303 9.99E+00 8.70E+01 6.83E+06 6.09E\u201301 1.73E+01 5.72E+00 2.89E+01 5.53E\u201301 1.04E+01 2.13E+03 9.35E+01 1.76E+00 4.03E+01 3.88E+02 2.70E\u201301 4.06E+04 2.35E\u201301 X 8.83E\u201301 1.90E+02 6.87E+00 1.13E+01 3.11 E+02 2.08E+02 2.18E+02 8.33E+01 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.00E\u201301 6.94E+00 7.04E+00 8.48E\u201301 6.06E+00 8.40E\u201301 2.78E\u201301 3.11E\u201302 1.28E+00 3.02E\u201306 2.03E\u201301 2.89E\u201301 2.44E+02 1.10E+02 8.14E+08 2.51E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7040, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 291, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.18E+02 8.33E+01 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.00E\u201301 6.94E+00 7.04E+00 8.48E\u201301 6.06E+00 8.40E\u201301 2.78E\u201301 3.11E\u201302 1.28E+00 3.02E\u201306 2.03E\u201301 2.89E\u201301 2.44E+02 1.10E+02 8.14E+08 2.51E\u201301 4.84E+01 4.35E+00 7.27E+00 5.20E\u201301 1.33E+01 2.13E+03 3.16E+01 2.35E+00 1.84E+01 7.54E+02 7.74E\u201301 1.18E+04 5.42E+00 X 3.44E\u201301 2.08E+03 3.71E+02 5.72E+03 3.08E+02 1.26E+02 5.71E+01 3.02E+03 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.78E\u201304 9.94E\u201303 1.79E\u201301 7.50E\u201302 2.39E\u201301 8.81 E\u201303 5.29E\u201304 2.64E\u201305 1.87E\u201303 2.32E\u201308 4.35E\u201304 1.23E\u201302 5.35E\u201301 3.14E\u201301 1.20E+04 3.24E\u201301 2.40E\u201301 3.19E\u201301 5.97E\u201301 3.04E\u201302 5.34E\u201302 8.75E+00 4.70E\u201301 1.55E\u201302 6.90E\u201301 1.63E+01 8.00E\u201303 1.95E+03 1.42E\u201302 X 9.15E\u201302 3.17E\u201302 4.52E\u201301 8.45E+01 1.98E+00 2.39E+00 1.89E\u201301 4.12E+00 1 Means", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7041, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 292, "book_page": 291, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthre ne benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7042, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 292, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.04E+01 5.63E+00 8.37E\u201305 4.17E+01 8.78E+01 4.36E+01 3.85E+03 7.57E\u201301 1.63E+04 8.20E+02 4.01E\u201301 1.61E+02 2.03E+04 1.65E+01 1.11E+02 2.98E+03 9.02E+02 3.30E\u201302 1.71E+02 2.67E+02 3.17E+01 2.59E\u201302 4.68E\u201304 2.53E+00 2.30E+00 5.19E+02 1.23E\u201301 4.90E\u201301 3.89E+01 6.02E+02 9.79E+01 2.42E+05 1.94E+03 8.36E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7043, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 292, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.03E+04 1.65E+01 1.11E+02 2.98E+03 9.02E+02 3.30E\u201302 1.71E+02 2.67E+02 3.17E+01 2.59E\u201302 4.68E\u201304 2.53E+00 2.30E+00 5.19E+02 1.23E\u201301 4.90E\u201301 3.89E+01 6.02E+02 9.79E+01 2.42E+05 1.94E+03 8.36E+04 3.52E+03 3.23E+02 1.81E+03 2.27E+01 6.79E+00 3.53E\u201301 2.26E+02 5.60E\u201301 3.33E\u201305 9.93E\u201302 5.13E+02 1.95E+02 4.22E\u201301 5.01E\u201301 5.56E\u201301 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.08E+01 6.20E\u201301 2.80E\u201303 1.02E+03 1.37E+03 1.66E+03 1.19E+05 2.15E+00 1.32E+06 1.02E+03 3.16E\u201301 1.27E+05 2.74E+04 1.02E+01 1.18E+01 7.19E+02 1.48E+02 1.53E+00 4.27E+03 6.14E+04 1.14E+01 2.16E\u201301 1.12E\u201301 5.06E+01 6.44E\u201301 6.21E+01 5.99E+02 2.39E+03 4.14E+02 7.14E+04 7.26E+04 3.36E+05 6.29E+02 1.90E+04 9.16E+02 8.61E+04 3.51E+03 9.12E+00 2.62E+00 2.45E+00 1.18E+02 4.35E\u201301 3.84E\u201303 6.16E\u201302 4.06E+02 5.25E+03 3.37E\u201301 1.75E+00 4.75E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.92E+00 4.55E+00 6.36E\u201305 1.27E+02 2.51E+02 1.40E+02 1.28E+04 1.11E\u201301 1.91E+04 2.43E+03 1.31E\u201301 4.14E+02 2.95E+04 1.45E\u201301 3.24E+01 3.03E+03 5.22E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7044, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 292, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.75E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.92E+00 4.55E+00 6.36E\u201305 1.27E+02 2.51E+02 1.40E+02 1.28E+04 1.11E\u201301 1.91E+04 2.43E+03 1.31E\u201301 4.14E+02 2.95E+04 1.45E\u201301 3.24E+01 3.03E+03 5.22E+02 2.70E\u201302 5.56E+02 2.71E+01 2.70E+01 2.04E\u201302 4.36E\u201304 1.77E+00 1.98E+00 3.34E+02 3.15E\u201301 1.26E+00 1.25E+02 1.00E+03 2.46E+02 3.51E+05 1.53E+03 1.52E+05 2.83E+03 3.48E+02 2.73E+03 1.61E+01 4.07E+00 4.68E\u201301 1.62E+02 7.31E\u201302 2.40E\u201305 5.27E\u201302 2.29E+01 2.04E+01 2.77E\u201301 1.19E+00 1.23E+00 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.80E+00 9.43E\u201301 1.33E\u201303 3.37E+03 4.06E+03 5.73E+03 3.47E+05 3.29E\u201301 5.94E+05 3.70E+03 7.12E\u201302 1.37E+05 3.94E+04 1.24E\u201301 1.04E+00 1.06E+03 1.56E+02 8.56E\u201301 1.41E+04 1.62E+03 1.33E+01 2.60E\u201301 5.03E\u201302 1.45E+01 8.09E\u201301 5.97E+00 6.62E+02 2.65E+03 1.36E+03 4.78E+04 7.48E+04 4.83E+05 8.13E+02 4.92E+04 1.27E+03 2.55E+04 6.75E+03 1.14E+01 2.63E+00 1.70E+00 1.11E+02 3.80E\u201302 1.40E\u201303 3.22E\u201302 2.65E+01 1.73E+02 2.25E\u201301 3.19E+00 7.50E+00 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7045, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 292, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.83E+05 8.13E+02 4.92E+04 1.27E+03 2.55E+04 6.75E+03 1.14E+01 2.63E+00 1.70E+00 1.11E+02 3.80E\u201302 1.40E\u201303 3.22E\u201302 2.65E+01 1.73E+02 2.25E\u201301 3.19E+00 7.50E+00 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.73E\u201301 2.53E\u201301 1.56E\u201305 2.30E\u201301 2.41E\u201301 2.04E\u201301 2.97E+01 1.66E\u201303 1.67E+03 8.78E+00 1.31E\u201303 4.36E+01 5.90E+00 2.39E\u201302 6.30E\u201302 1.98E+01 3.02E+00 5.14E\u201303 1.02E+00 2.23E+00 4.85E\u201301 4.62E\u201304 7.29E\u201304 7.07E\u201303 3.72E\u201302 1.26E\u201301 1.01E+02 1.01E+02 2.15E\u201301 1.02E+02 2.91E+00 1.02E+03 3.12E+01 8.92E+03 3.08E+02 1.88E+01 7.65E\u201301 3.04E\u201301 1.24E+00 2.17E\u201304 2.90E\u201301 3.95E\u201303 4.27E\u201306 6.81E\u201304 9.84E+00 1.11E+00 5.35E\u201301 7.84E\u201304 9.23E\u201304 air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7046, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 293, "book_page": 292, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7047, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 293, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.25E\u201301 1.25E+01 5.19E\u201302 1.04E+04 2.92E+03 1.60E\u201302 2.68E+01 5.30E+02 3.40E+00 4.55E+01 1.10E+03 2.39E+03 1.31E\u201304 1.43E\u201311 2.49E+03 2.49E+03 4.26E+03 1.84E+03 4.17E+03 1.78E+01 4.05E+02 8.26E+00 2.19E+01 1.42E+00 1.22E+02 4.64E+01 1.33E+00 X X 1.65E+02 2.84E+00 1.89E+02 1.91E\u201301 5.25E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7048, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 293, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.39E+03 1.31E\u201304 1.43E\u201311 2.49E+03 2.49E+03 4.26E+03 1.84E+03 4.17E+03 1.78E+01 4.05E+02 8.26E+00 2.19E+01 1.42E+00 1.22E+02 4.64E+01 1.33E+00 X X 1.65E+02 2.84E+00 1.89E+02 1.91E\u201301 5.25E+01 3.95E+01 1.83E+03 1.06E+00 3.72E+01 1.70E+02 9.25E\u201301 7.43E+00 7.03E+01 1.39E+04 3.27E\u201302 3.92E+03 4.91E+01 1.47E+03 9.31E+03 1.75E+01 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.60E+00 1.63E+00 2.69E\u201302 4.65E+03 7.31E+03 5.36E\u201301 2.03E+01 1.13E+02 1.30E+00 1.94E+01 4.89E+04 7.12E+02 7.96E\u201304 7.93E\u201311 1.51E+03 1.65E+03 2.10E+04 4.74E+04 2.03E+04 2.00E+02 2.29E+03 1.63E+00 1.68E+01 2.91E+00 7.75E+01 7.69E+04 2.41E+03 X X 7.29E+03 3.24E\u201301 3.16E+01 8.83E+02 5.23E+01 2.73E+01 1.42E+03 2.84E\u201301 4.09E+00 1.62E+05 2.47E\u201301 2.19E+00 2.52E+01 3.89E+03 4.11E+00 3.71E+06 4.22E+01 3.80E+02 5.40E+03 5.75E+03 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.76E\u201301 9.27E+00 1.34E\u201302 2.87E+03 1.31E+03 2.69E\u201302 9.23E+00 5.02E+02 5.72E\u201301 9.82E+00 3.38E+02 1.89E+03 8.75E\u201305 8.98E\u201312 1.39E+03 1.80E+03 6.93E+03 3.00E+03 6.81E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7049, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 293, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.76E\u201301 9.27E+00 1.34E\u201302 2.87E+03 1.31E+03 2.69E\u201302 9.23E+00 5.02E+02 5.72E\u201301 9.82E+00 3.38E+02 1.89E+03 8.75E\u201305 8.98E\u201312 1.39E+03 1.80E+03 6.93E+03 3.00E+03 6.81E+03 5.32E+01 5.56E+02 4.47E+00 2.15E+01 2.01E+00 1.51E+01 5.36E+01 4.26E+00 X X 5.32E+02 2.33E\u201301 7.09E+01 4.92E\u201301 1.37E+01 3.93E+01 1.07E+03 7.04E\u201301 2.50E+01 4.38E+02 4.86E\u201301 5.35E+00 7.65E+01 1.03E+04 1.74E\u201302 1.01E+04 4.77E+01 1.30E+03 1.18E+03 3.88E+01 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.56E+00 1.96E+00 6.17E\u201303 1.50E+03 2.06E+03 5.19E\u201301 5.72E+00 1.61E+02 3.05E\u201301 1.23E+00 3.54E+03 9.33E+02 6.14E\u201304 7.14E\u201311 7.52E+02 1.09E+03 5.26E+04 5.71E+04 5.13E+04 6.11E+02 2.73E+03 1.52E+00 1.49E+01 2.41E+00 1.50E+01 2.87E+04 2.76E+03 X X 2.49E+04 5.23E\u201303 1.99E+01 9.97E+02 9.20E+00 3.52E+01 7.80E+02 3.47E\u201301 5.34E+00 1.78E+05 1.94E\u201301 2.62E+00 3.66E+01 5.00E+03 1.11E+00 4.07E+06 4.70E+01 5.22E+02 5.97E+02 4.94E+03 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.12E\u201304 3.04E\u201301 6.44E\u201301 9.74E+01 3.44E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7050, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 293, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.47E\u201301 5.34E+00 1.78E+05 1.94E\u201301 2.62E+00 3.66E+01 5.00E+03 1.11E+00 4.07E+06 4.70E+01 5.22E+02 5.97E+02 4.94E+03 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.12E\u201304 3.04E\u201301 6.44E\u201301 9.74E+01 3.44E+00 9.82E\u201306 4.30E\u201302 8.74E+00 2.40E\u201301 3.59E\u201302 4.94E+01 1.69E+01 1.43E\u201306 1.35E\u201312 2.10E+01 1.59E+01 5.34E+00 2.63E\u201301 5.55E+00 1.82E\u201302 1.68E+00 9.40E\u201301 4.66E\u201302 8.76E\u201304 2.22E+00 4.15E+00 2.61E\u201301 X X 8.03E\u201301 1.12E\u201301 2.46E+00 7.07E\u201301 1.80E+00 2.01E\u201301 2.01E\u201302 4.28E\u201302 1.79E+00 1.23E+04 1.88E\u201302 7.44E\u201302 4.45E\u201301 1.19E+02 1.28E\u201302 1.23E+04 9.93E\u201301 1.13E\u201301 4.31E+01 2.46E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7051, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 294, "book_page": 293, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethonmethyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitroben zene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequatchloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7052, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 294, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.37E\u201305 4.96E\u201301 2.02E+02 X 5.58E+01 2.37E+03 9.31 E\u201305 2.76E+03 9.87E+02 3.68E\u201301 4.67E+01 1.05E+01 1.59E+04 1.26E+00 1.52E+00 4.36E\u201301 8.24E\u201303 2.40E+03 X 2.03E+01 2.52E+04 3.68E\u201302 6.13E\u201305 1.82E+02 5.41E+02 2.10E+03 5.09E\u201305 X 4.13E\u201304 2.50E\u201304 5.26E+02 2.70E+03 2.02E\u201301 1.48E\u201301 7.04E\u201305 6.12E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7053, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 294, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.26E+00 1.52E+00 4.36E\u201301 8.24E\u201303 2.40E+03 X 2.03E+01 2.52E+04 3.68E\u201302 6.13E\u201305 1.82E+02 5.41E+02 2.10E+03 5.09E\u201305 X 4.13E\u201304 2.50E\u201304 5.26E+02 2.70E+03 2.02E\u201301 1.48E\u201301 7.04E\u201305 6.12E+01 3.25E+03 7.66E+03 1.30E+04 3.81E\u201305 9.52E\u201305 9.87E+00 6.16E+02 2.86E\u201306 5.97E+00 9.39E+02 6.2E+00 9.4E\u201301 8.2E+02 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.93E\u201304 9.12E\u201301 8.12E+04 X 1.41E+00 5.05E+02 9.14E\u201304 3.15E+03 7.24E+02 1.74E+02 5.97E+03 4.00E+01 3.09E+04 7.27E+00 5.53E\u201301 1.63E+00 8.54E\u201303 4.08E+02 X 7.11E+00 1.76E+03 1.22E\u201301 6.12E\u201304 9.39E+01 4.24E+04 2.75E+02 5.09E\u201304 X 3.38E\u201301 1.15E+00 1.07E+05 2.18E+02 9.05E+02 1.45E+00 6.99E\u201304 1.49E+02 8.46E+02 3.08E+05 1.81E+03 2.68E\u201303 5.92E\u201302 1.04E+02 1.89E+05 1.30E\u201304 7.21E+03 4.14E+02 3.8E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.2E+02 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.83E\u201305 1.95E\u201301 5.18E+02 X 2.54E+01 5.34E+02 7.44E\u201305 1.86E+03 5.97E+01 5.21E\u201301 1.34E+01 2.38E+01 2.10E+04 1.37E+00 5.61E\u201301 7.13E\u201302 1.67E\u201305 2.42E+03 X 1.10E+01 1.79E+04 1.97E\u201302 3.69E\u201305 1.65E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7054, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 294, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.95E\u201301 5.18E+02 X 2.54E+01 5.34E+02 7.44E\u201305 1.86E+03 5.97E+01 5.21E\u201301 1.34E+01 2.38E+01 2.10E+04 1.37E+00 5.61E\u201301 7.13E\u201302 1.67E\u201305 2.42E+03 X 1.10E+01 1.79E+04 1.97E\u201302 3.69E\u201305 1.65E+02 6.31E+02 1.79E+03 3.50E\u201305 X 3.95E\u201304 1.43E\u201304 1.33E+03 9.78E+02 1.04E\u201301 1.60E\u201301 5.04E\u201305 2.17E+01 3.04E+03 1.04E+04 2.41E+03 3.22E\u201305 4.90E\u201305 8.07E+00 1.47E+03 2.32E\u201306 1.53E+01 7.43E+02 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 6.4E+02 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.54E\u201304 3.18E\u201301 8.32E+04 X 4.04E\u201301 2.09E+02 9.92E\u201304 1.27E+03 3.00E+01 8.74E+01 4.38E+02 6.95E+01 2.27E+04 5.44E+00 3.55E\u201301 2.14E\u201301 4.92E\u201305 6.19E+02 X 6.45E+00 1.83E+03 6.36E\u201302 3.83E\u201304 8.89E+01 1.86E+04 4.09E+02 3.61E\u201304 X 1.23E\u201301 3.07E\u201301 1.05E+05 1.79E+01 2.01E+02 1.63E+00 5.79E\u201304 3.90E+01 1.16E+03 3.86E+05 2.73E+02 1.66E\u201303 1.62E\u201302 4.37E+01 1.80E+05 1.19E\u201304 7.74E+03 4.50E+02 2.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.7E+02 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.51E\u201307 8.19E\u201304 3.33E+01 X 2.88E+00 4.12E+01 1.27E\u201306 1.12E+00 5.66E+00 3.92E\u201302 1.16E\u201301 2.25E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7055, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 294, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.80E+05 1.19E\u201304 7.74E+03 4.50E+02 2.3E+00 7.4E\u201301 1.7E+02 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.51E\u201307 8.19E\u201304 3.33E+01 X 2.88E+00 4.12E+01 1.27E\u201306 1.12E+00 5.66E+00 3.92E\u201302 1.16E\u201301 2.25E+00 2.64E+01 1.35E\u201304 3.31E\u201303 1.70E\u201302 5.07E\u201304 4.56E+01 X 5.40E\u201301 6.99E+02 1.51E\u201303 5.35E\u201307 2.32E+00 5.31E+01 8.76E+00 1.36E\u201307 X 8.11E\u201303 4.71E\u201304 1.03E+02 3.16E+01 6.48E\u201301 3.44E\u201304 1.59E\u201305 6.88E\u201303 3.41E+01 1.69E+01 1.16E+03 4.72E\u201306 4.02E\u201305 1.67E\u201302 2.15E+02 2.61E\u201307 3.64E+00 7.23E+00 3.3E\u201302 3.5E\u201303 1.3E+01 air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7056, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 295, "book_page": 294, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5trichlorophenol 2,4,6trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7057, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 295, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+02 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.10E\u201301 1.59E+01 1.43E+01 4.03E+00 1.27E+01 3.48E+00 1.01E+00 2.28E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7058, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 295, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+02 9.9E\u201302 4.6E+00 1.10E\u201301 1.59E+01 1.43E+01 4.03E+00 1.27E+01 3.48E+00 1.01E+00 2.28E\u201302 5.00E+00 2.97E+00 1.23E+00 1.00E+00 8.57E+02 5.18E+03 1.72E+08 1.71E+01 1.59E+03 2.94E+02 4.03E+02 1.73E+02 1.62E+03 1.89E+04 2.48E+03 3.10E+03 1.10E+03 2.51E+05 7.92E+01 4.37E+05 1.17E+04 X 1.10E+03 5.73E+04 1.96E+01 2.05E+02 4.96E+03 2.72E+05 5.17E+04 2.26E+02 6.82E+03 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.1E+02 8.5E\u201301 2.6E+02 3.01E\u201301 1.59E+01 1.74E+01 2.08E+00 1.44E+01 2.01E+00 6.59E\u201301 8.15E\u201302 2.98E+00 8.67E\u201303 4.62E\u201301 7.32E\u201301 3.71E+02 9.08E+01 4.48E+07 6.11E\u201302 6.41E+01 1.65E+00 2.27E+00 2.51E\u201301 1.28E+01 2.83E+03 1.07E+01 1.37E+01 1.45E+01 1.08E+03 5.41E\u201301 7.43E+03 2.12E+02 X 2.46E\u201301 3.02E+03 3.60E+02 3.76E+03 4.84E+02 1.00E+03 3.48E+01 4.16E+03 8.58E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+02 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.04E\u201302 1.85E+01 1.59E+01 4.41E+00 1.48E+01 3.84E+00 9.49E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7059, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 295, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.02E+03 3.60E+02 3.76E+03 4.84E+02 1.00E+03 3.48E+01 4.16E+03 8.58E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+02 6.0E\u201302 3.8E+00 9.04E\u201302 1.85E+01 1.59E+01 4.41E+00 1.48E+01 3.84E+00 9.49E\u201301 1.91E\u201302 5.18E+00 2.00E+00 1.15E+00 1.00E+00 7.71E+02 5.67E+03 5.56E+08 1.22E+01 1.88E+03 2.87E+02 3.01E+02 6.81E+01 1.29E+03 2.38E+04 2.27E+03 2.70E+03 5.59E+02 1.88E+05 5.18E+01 3.48E+05 1.01E+03 X 6.98E+01 7.96E+04 4.79E+01 5.27E+02 4.27E+03 1.96E+05 2.66E+04 5.13E+02 8.81E+02 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.5E+02 4.3E\u201301 9.0E+01 1.00E\u201301 6.70E+00 6.97E+00 8.70E\u201301 5.89E+00 8.55E\u201301 2.85E\u201301 3.15E\u201302 1.31E+00 9.87E\u201303 2.15E\u201301 2.95E\u201301 2.63E+02 1.03E+02 1.52E+08 7.63E\u201302 8.13E+01 1.93E+00 3.12E+00 1.29E\u201301 1.70E+01 3.50E+03 1.49E+01 2.00E+01 1.38E+01 1.55E+03 5.07E\u201301 1.08E+04 1.93E+01 X 1.03E\u201302 4.08E+03 3.53E+02 3.93E+03 5.36E+02 7.95E+02 1.02E+01 3.72E+03 7.45E\u201301 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.9E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.75E\u201304 9.34E\u201303 1.72E\u201301 7.29E\u201302 2.27E\u201301 8.55E\u201303 5.16E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7060, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 295, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.08E+03 3.53E+02 3.93E+03 5.36E+02 7.95E+02 1.02E+01 3.72E+03 7.45E\u201301 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.9E\u201301 2.5E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 1.75E\u201304 9.34E\u201303 1.72E\u201301 7.29E\u201302 2.27E\u201301 8.55E\u201303 5.16E\u201304 2.62E\u201305 1.82E\u201303 2.15E\u201308 4.25E\u201304 1.20E\u201302 4.44E\u201301 1.67E\u201303 5.88E+02 3.61E\u201308 6.11E\u201302 6.68E\u201304 9.26E\u201310 9.58E\u201304 1.31E\u201303 7.59E\u201304 9.40E\u201306 3.65E\u201303 2.18E\u201308 5.84E+00 3.85E\u201303 1.93E\u201301 1.37E\u201302 X 5.00E\u201308 1.97E\u201302 1.66E\u201320 1.04E\u201317 7.62E\u201304 2.05E\u201302 3.28E\u201306 5.11E\u201319 8.23E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7061, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 296, "book_page": 295, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthre ne benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7062, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7063, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.07E+01 9.14E\u201302 1.14E+05 2.50E+05 5.17E+04 1.16E+06 1.99E+02 9.07E+04 2.44E+05 7.64E+01 1.51E+03 5.35E+05 2.08E+03 4.53E+03 3.84E+04 1.32E+04 1.05E+02 2.75E+04 9.01E+04 1.11E+03 3.15E+01 3.60E\u201301 3.72E+02 8.29E+01 6.41E+05 6.86E+00 2.77E+01 1.85E+04 3.38E+03 1.15E+03 2.00E+07 5.44E+04 7.94E+06 2.63E+04 2.85E+04 6.54E+05 2.21E+04 1.95E+02 7.87E+01 1.07E+05 7.95E+01 1.23E\u201302 5.31E+00 1.23E+05 7.89E+04 3.39E+01 1.11E+02 8.58E+01 2.14E+01 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.20E\u201301 2.66E\u201303 8.32E+03 1.22E+04 9.08E+03 4.36E+05 1.18E+00 1.67E+06 2.13E+02 5.27E\u201302 2.73E+04 8.02E+04 1.04E\u201301 1.42E+00 5.82E+02 4.40E+01 1.79E+00 5.50E+03 8.95E+03 5.74E+00 1.21E+00 1.14E\u201301 3.97E+01 3.52E\u201301 2.40E+02 1.21E+02 4.85E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7064, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.36E+05 1.18E+00 1.67E+06 2.13E+02 5.27E\u201302 2.73E+04 8.02E+04 1.04E\u201301 1.42E+00 5.82E+02 4.40E+01 1.79E+00 5.50E+03 8.95E+03 5.74E+00 1.21E+00 1.14E\u201301 3.97E+01 3.52E\u201301 2.40E+02 1.21E+02 4.85E+02 2.99E+03 6.20E+04 2.11E+04 3.02E+06 1.92E+02 1.00E+04 1.04E+03 4.44E+03 9.82E+02 9.62E+01 1.54E+00 3.69E\u201301 6.36E+02 7.65E\u201302 3.54E\u201303 1.47E\u201302 1.22E+01 8.98E+03 1.14E\u201301 1.18E+00 2.35E+00 4.34E\u201301 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.09E+01 6.95E\u201302 3.46E+05 7.20E+05 1.66E+05 3.86E+06 2.91E+01 1.07E+05 7.23E+05 2.50E+01 3.89E+03 7.72E+05 1.82E+01 1.32E+03 3.90E+04 7.63E+03 8.63E+01 8.89E+04 9.10E+03 9.44E+02 2.49E+01 3.36E\u201301 2.60E+02 7.12E+01 4.12E+05 1.77E+01 7.07E+01 5.89E+04 5.62E+03 2.89E+03 2.90E+07 4.27E+04 1.45E+07 2.12E+04 3.06E+04 9.85E+05 1.57E+04 1.17E+02 1.04E+02 7.70E+04 1.04E+01 8.85E\u201303 2.82E+00 5.51E+03 8.17E+03 2.23E+01 2.63E+02 1.90E+02 4.73E+01 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.35E\u201301 1.43E\u201303 2.78E+04 3.62E+04 3.16E+04 1.30E+06 1.91E\u201301 7.58E+05 8.09E+02 1.33E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7065, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.85E\u201303 2.82E+00 5.51E+03 8.17E+03 2.23E+01 2.63E+02 1.90E+02 4.73E+01 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.35E\u201301 1.43E\u201303 2.78E+04 3.62E+04 3.16E+04 1.30E+06 1.91E\u201301 7.58E+05 8.09E+02 1.33E\u201302 3.05E+04 1.17E+05 1.27E\u201303 1.25E\u201301 8.62E+02 4.65E+01 1.36E+00 1.85E+04 2.68E+02 6.71E+00 1.52E+00 5.52E\u201302 1.16E+01 4.49E\u201301 2.38E+01 1.40E+02 5.59E+02 9.98E+03 4.20E+04 2.22E+04 4.39E+06 2.48E+02 2.73E+04 1.44E+03 1.57E+03 1.96E+03 1.23E+02 1.55E+00 2.69E\u201301 6.10E+02 7.49E\u201303 1.33E\u201303 7.68E\u201303 9.14E\u201301 3.17E+02 9.35E\u201302 2.31E+00 3.79E+00 7.19E\u201301 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.83E\u201307 1.37E\u201305 1.34E\u201302 2.53E\u201303 4.32E\u201304 2.06E\u201301 8.27E\u201304 3.30E\u201316 2.10E\u201302 6.57E\u201306 1.43E\u201320 1.95E\u201307 6.23E\u201308 2.59E\u201307 6.27E\u201308 3.54E\u201305 4.81E\u201303 2.12E\u201303 9.74E\u201302 4.56E\u201305 3.79E\u201304 7.16E\u201304 5.46E\u201303 2.48E\u201305 2.13E\u201302 2.27E\u201319 2.27E\u201319 8.37E\u201303 2.69E\u201318 4.06E\u201321 5.98E+00 2.25E\u201306 1.58E+01 1.89E\u201306 3.13E\u201301 3.18E\u201302 1.24E\u201302 3.60E\u201305 6.55E\u201306 4.13E\u201303 1.27E\u201305 3.90E\u201306 6.08E\u201312 1.44E\u201302 2.59E\u201301 5.60E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7066, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.13E\u201302 2.27E\u201319 2.27E\u201319 8.37E\u201303 2.69E\u201318 4.06E\u201321 5.98E+00 2.25E\u201306 1.58E+01 1.89E\u201306 3.13E\u201301 3.18E\u201302 1.24E\u201302 3.60E\u201305 6.55E\u201306 4.13E\u201303 1.27E\u201305 3.90E\u201306 6.08E\u201312 1.44E\u201302 2.59E\u201301 5.60E\u201303 2.64E\u201304 3.77E\u201304 6.38E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7067, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 297, "book_page": 296, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7068, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 297, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7069, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 297, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.73E+02 3.08E+00 3.18E+05 2.27E+05 2.77E+00 6.35E+04 9.42E+03 1.12E+02 2.78E+04 6.97E+05 1.50E+05 5.46E\u201301 2.25E\u201302 2.42E+05 9.11E+05 2.67E+05 1.74E+05 2.65E+05 1.32E+04 8.16E+04 2.81E+02 1.37E+03 1.83E+04 2.24E+04 4.54E+04 1.52E+02 X X 7.68E+04 1.63E+02 1.90E+03 9.62E+00 6.54E+03 3.11E+04 2.07E+05 2.72E+01 3.79E+02 1.70E+03 2.31E+01 1.55E+02 1.11E+03 1.35E+05 1.91E+01 3.92E+04 4.30E+02 3.84E+04 5.86E+05 4.73E+02 5.98E\u201301 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.52E\u201301 1.72E\u201303 5.86E+03 5.41E+03 3.49E\u201302 1.21E+02 5.47E+01 3.43E\u201301 1.14E+01 3.42E+05 3.53E+03 1.36E\u201303 2.78E\u201305 6.71E+02 3.64E+03 3.16E+03 1.87E+04 3.15E+03 8.68E+02 1.25E+04 1.90E\u201301 4.16E+00 1.19E+01 1.14E+01 7.46E+04 2.39E+03 X X 1.46E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7070, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 297, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.47E+01 3.43E\u201301 1.14E+01 3.42E+05 3.53E+03 1.36E\u201303 2.78E\u201305 6.71E+02 3.64E+03 3.16E+03 1.87E+04 3.15E+03 8.68E+02 1.25E+04 1.90E\u201301 4.16E+00 1.19E+01 1.14E+01 7.46E+04 2.39E+03 X X 1.46E+04 1.51E\u201302 2.02E+01 1.65E+02 8.74E+01 5.56E+02 7.69E+02 3.63E\u201302 6.69E\u201301 3.04E+04 6.35E\u201302 1.29E+00 2.53E+01 4.21E+03 3.51E+00 7.00E+05 6.45E+01 5.82E+02 5.71E+02 8.69E+03 2.12E\u201303 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.28E+02 7.95E\u201301 8.78E+04 1.02E+05 4.66E+00 2.19E+04 8.91 E+03 1.89E+01 6.01E+03 2.13E+05 1.19E+05 3.64E\u201301 1.42E\u201302 1.36E+05 6.56E+05 4.34E+05 2.83E+05 4.33E+05 3.93E+04 1.13E+05 1.52E+02 1.34E+03 2.59E+04 2.77E+03 5.24E+04 4.89E+02 X X 2.47E+05 1.34E+01 7.12E+02 2.46E+01 1.71E+03 3.09E+04 1.21E+05 1.81E+01 2.55E+02 4.39E+03 1.21E+01 1.11E+02 1.21E+03 1.01E+05 1.02E+01 1.01E+05 4.18E+02 3.41E+04 7.43E+04 1.05E+03 3.88E\u201301 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.09E\u201301 4.32E\u201304 2.24E+03 1.95E+03 3.63E\u201302 3.45E+01 7.82E+01 8.03E\u201302 7.72E\u201301 2.49E+04 4.76E+03 1.27E\u201303 3.39E\u201305 3.39E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7071, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 297, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.41E+04 7.43E+04 1.05E+03 3.88E\u201301 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.09E\u201301 4.32E\u201304 2.24E+03 1.95E+03 3.63E\u201302 3.45E+01 7.82E+01 8.03E\u201302 7.72E\u201301 2.49E+04 4.76E+03 1.27E\u201303 3.39E\u201305 3.39E+02 2.47E+03 8.65E+03 2.56E+04 8.64E+03 2.81E+03 1.65E+04 2.00E\u201301 3.69E+00 1.02E+01 2.29E+00 2.81E+04 2.74E+03 X X 5.05E+04 2.44E\u201304 1.28E+01 1.96E+02 1.83E+01 7.30E+02 4.29E+02 4.44E\u201302 8.74E\u201301 3.44E+04 4.98E\u201302 1.55E+00 3.69E+01 5.41E+03 9.60E\u201301 7.91E+05 7.21E+01 8.11E+02 6.31E+01 7.57E+03 2.09E\u201303 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.22E\u201305 3.66E\u201304 3.37E\u201301 1.30E\u201302 1.30E\u201307 1.21E\u201303 1.68E\u201303 8.54E\u201307 1.82E\u201303 3.50E\u201301 2.35E\u201301 1.19E\u201306 1.12E\u201312 4.69E\u201303 8.80E\u201302 6.15E\u201303 9.25E\u201302 2.15E\u201303 4.94E\u201303 5.98E\u201301 1.56E\u201303 2.25E\u201311 5.28E\u201304 1.59E\u201303 4.01E+00 2.59E\u201301 X X 6.19E\u201306 4.39E\u201308 1.64E\u201305 4.77E\u201322 1.55E\u201301 1.06E\u201302 1.09E\u201305 1.35E\u201311 1.12E\u201308 8.06E+01 8.51E\u201310 1.45E\u201306 1.96E\u201305 2.16E\u201303 1.08E\u201302 8.06E+01 4.61E\u201304 2.13E\u201304 2.26E\u201305 2.31E\u20131 8 5.99E\u201307", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7072, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 298, "book_page": 297, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethonmethyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitroben zene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequatchloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7073, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 298, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7074, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 298, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.59E+02 3.22E+03 X 6.52E+02 7.01E+04 5.65E\u201301 1.19E+06 2.90E+05 5.07E+01 3.95E+03 7.08E+02 5.03E+06 5.17E+02 2.37E+02 2.60E+03 5.52E\u201301 3.58E+04 X 1.24E+03 2.59E+05 3.96E+00 5.52E\u201301 4.93E+04 2.90E+03 2.71E+04 4.40E\u201301 X 6.96E\u201301 2.07E\u201301 7.95E+03 9.80E+04 1.01E+01 4.96E+02 2.95E\u201301 4.86E+04 1.71E+05 4.53E+05 4.10E+05 9.70E\u201302 4.23E\u201302 2.71E+04 8.90E+03 2.79E\u201302 9.11E+01 2.75E+04 2.7E+02 1.6E+03 8.7E+03 6.0E+03 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) eq./kg) 1.06E+00 5.89E+04 X 1.84E\u201301 1.41E+02 2.51 E\u201303 5.33E+03 1.46E+03 1.72E+02 2.83E+03 1.19E+01 2.68E+04 1.05E+01 5.63E\u201302 5.00E+00 4.13E\u201306 1.56E+02 X 2.43E+00 5.00E+02 5.77E\u201302 2.19E\u201303 1.25E+02 5.33E+04 1.44E+02 2.23E\u201303 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7075, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 298, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.41E+02 2.51 E\u201303 5.33E+03 1.46E+03 1.72E+02 2.83E+03 1.19E+01 2.68E+04 1.05E+01 5.63E\u201302 5.00E+00 4.13E\u201306 1.56E+02 X 2.43E+00 5.00E+02 5.77E\u201302 2.19E\u201303 1.25E+02 5.33E+04 1.44E+02 2.23E\u201303 X 3.37E\u201301 1.15E+00 1.46E+05 7.44E+01 1.77E+02 4.42E+00 1.24E\u201303 7.80E+02 1.51E+03 2.11E+05 8.34E+01 3.33E\u201303 5.82E\u201302 4.23E+02 1.63E+05 3.77E\u201304 1.65E+03 2.51E+02 1.9E+00 9.0E+00 5.5E+01 9.0E+02 2.59E+02 8.25E+03 X 2.97E+02 1.58E+04 4.51E\u201301 7.98E+05 1.76E+04 7.15E+01 1.14E+03 1.60E+03 6.65E+06 5.62E+02 8.77E+01 4.26E+02 1.12E\u201303 3.62E+04 X 6.73E+02 1.84E+05 2.12E+00 3.32E\u201301 4.48E+04 3.38E+03 2.31E+04 3.02E\u201301 X 6.66E\u201301 1.18E\u201301 2.02E+04 3.54E+04 5.18E+00 5.33E+02 2.11E\u201301 1.72E+04 1.60E+05 6.15E+05 7.60E+04 8.20E\u201302 2.18E\u201302 2.21E+04 2.13E+04 2.26E\u201302 2.34E+02 2.18E+04 1.1E+02 1.6E+03 6.8E+03 8.1E+03 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.84E\u201301 6.13E+04 X 5.29E\u201302 5.85E+01 3.09E\u201303 2.19E+03 6.20E+01 8.74E+01 2.17E+02 2.17E+01 2.05E+04 8.63E+00 3.84E\u201302 6.71 E\u201301 2.39E\u201308 2.36E+02 X 2.32E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7076, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 298, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.1E+03 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.84E\u201301 6.13E+04 X 5.29E\u201302 5.85E+01 3.09E\u201303 2.19E+03 6.20E+01 8.74E+01 2.17E+02 2.17E+01 2.05E+04 8.63E+00 3.84E\u201302 6.71 E\u201301 2.39E\u201308 2.36E+02 X 2.32E+00 5.20E+02 3.30E\u201302 1.56E\u201303 1.20E+02 2.37E+04 2.14E+02 1.64E\u201303 X 1.29E\u201301 3.08E\u201301 1.45E+05 6.61E+00 4.11E+01 5.10E+00 1.27E\u201303 2.16E+02 2.11E+03 2.93E+05 1.26E+01 2.67E\u201303 1.62E\u201302 1.81E+02 1.58E+05 4.91 E\u201304 1.83E+03 2.75E+02 1.2E+00 9.2E+00 7.7E+01 1.2E+03 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.91E\u201304 1.03E\u201318 X 7.07E\u201306 4.65E\u201304 1.17E\u201306 3.14E\u201303 3.36E\u201302 3.84E\u201302 4.97E\u201302 3.21E\u201304 3.90E\u201301 6.05E\u201305 2.49E\u201306 1.46E\u201302 1.19E\u201310 9.34E\u201304 X 8.13E\u201304 3.15E\u201304 6.47E\u201304 4.92E\u201307 1.65E\u201303 1.55E\u201317 1.01E\u201303 1.27E\u201307 X 7.94E\u201303 4.67E\u201304 3.13E\u201317 9.29E\u201302 7.86E\u201322 3.17E\u201304 1.42E\u201305 2.66E\u201303 3.91E\u201302 1.13E\u201301 7.03E\u201305 4.59E\u201306 3.92E\u201305 1.35E\u201302 1.02E\u201317 2.56E\u201307 2.53E\u201321 1.29E\u201303 3.0E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.8E\u201312 5.7E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7077, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 299, "book_page": 298, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloral\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5trichlorophenol 2,4,6trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7078, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 299, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.8E+00 1.9E+01 7.10E\u201305 3.82E\u201302 3.00E\u201302 3.90E\u201303 2.86E\u201302 4.38E\u201303 1.29E\u201303 8.77E\u201305 6.99E\u201303 5.60E\u201308 1.09E\u201303 1.09E\u201303 1.88E+00 1.30E\u201303 1.32E+05 1.67E\u201310 5.39E\u201302 2.39E\u201304 1.14E\u201310", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7079, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 299, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 9.8E+00 1.9E+01 7.10E\u201305 3.82E\u201302 3.00E\u201302 3.90E\u201303 2.86E\u201302 4.38E\u201303 1.29E\u201303 8.77E\u201305 6.99E\u201303 5.60E\u201308 1.09E\u201303 1.09E\u201303 1.88E+00 1.30E\u201303 1.32E+05 1.67E\u201310 5.39E\u201302 2.39E\u201304 1.14E\u201310 2.87E\u201304 6.65E\u201303 1.15E\u201303 3.71 E\u201306 1.11E\u201302 6.04E\u201308 4.98E+00 6.04E\u201303 1.23E\u201301 1.26E+00 X 1.06E\u201307 1.67E+01 7.57E\u201321 3.82E\u201320 8.35E\u201303 4.09E\u201302 1.09E\u201304 2.39E\u201319 8.85E\u201308 7.41 E\u201309 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.3E\u201301 3.4E+02 2.70E\u201301 1.48E+01 1.59E+01 3.63E+00 1.33E+01 3.13E+00 9.48E\u201301 9.08E\u201302 4.45E+00 7.28E\u201301 1.02E+00 1.00E+00 3.74E+02 2.19E+02 5.04E+08 3.96E\u201301 1.18E+02 7.63E+00 1.01E+01 3.71E+00 4.55E+01 3.31E+03 5.93E+01 9.59E+01 3.67E+01 8.89E+03 3.13E+00 1.51E+04 8.00E+03 X 1.99E+01 1.77E+04 6.53E+02 1.10E+04 5.99E+02 5.94E+03 9.95E+02 5.45E+03 1.48E+02 1.20E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.86E\u201305 4.45E\u201302 3.34E\u201302 4.27E\u201303 3.33E\u201302 4.83E\u201303 1.21E\u201303 7.36E\u201305 7.25E\u201303 3.78E\u201308 1.02E\u201303 1.09E\u201303 1.70E+00 1.43E\u201303 4.28E+05 1.19E\u201310 6.36E\u201302 2.34E\u201304 8.51", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7080, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 299, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.0E+00 1.5E+01 5.86E\u201305 4.45E\u201302 3.34E\u201302 4.27E\u201303 3.33E\u201302 4.83E\u201303 1.21E\u201303 7.36E\u201305 7.25E\u201303 3.78E\u201308 1.02E\u201303 1.09E\u201303 1.70E+00 1.43E\u201303 4.28E+05 1.19E\u201310 6.36E\u201302 2.34E\u201304 8.51 E\u201311 1.13E\u201304 5.29E\u201303 1.45E\u201303 3.40E\u201306 9.71E\u201303 3.07E\u201308 3.72E+00 3.94E\u201303 9.83E\u201302 1.08E\u201301 X 6.76E\u201309 2.32E+01 1.84E\u201320 9.81E\u201320 7.19E\u201303 2.95E\u201302 5.60E\u201305 5.42E\u201319 1.14E\u201308 5.98E\u201309 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E\u201301 1.2E+02 1.89E\u201301 1.16E+01 1.27E+01 3.51E+00 1.01E+01 2.94E+00 1.03E+00 6.10E\u201302 4.53E+00 8.28E\u201301 1.23E+00 1.00E+00 4.44E+02 2.48E+02 1.85E+09 4.94E\u201301 1.61E+02 8.93E+00 1.39E+01 2.00E+00 6.09E+01 4.09E+03 8.20E+01 1.40E+02 3.49E+01 1.30E+04 4.00E+00 2.19E+04 7.39E+02 X 8.31 E\u201301 2.51E+04 6.40E+02 1.15E+04 6.63E+02 4.71E+03 2.91E+02 4.87E+03 1.29E+01 1.83E+00 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E\u201303 4.7E\u201310 1.05E\u201304 3.68E\u201303 7.42E\u201302 3.49E\u201302 9.48E\u201302 3.96E\u201303 2.40E\u201304 2.03E\u201305 8.27E\u201304 4.02E\u201309 2.03E\u201304 5.73E\u201303 9.60E\u201302 5.23E\u201306 8.31E+02 6.37E\u201311 9.11E\u201304 1.31E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7081, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 299, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.8E\u201303 4.7E\u201310 1.05E\u201304 3.68E\u201303 7.42E\u201302 3.49E\u201302 9.48E\u201302 3.96E\u201303 2.40E\u201304 2.03E\u201305 8.27E\u201304 4.02E\u201309 2.03E\u201304 5.73E\u201303 9.60E\u201302 5.23E\u201306 8.31E+02 6.37E\u201311 9.11E\u201304 1.31E\u201305 1.76E\u201312 6.23E\u201306 2.75E\u201305 6.70E\u201306 1.72E\u201308 8.58E\u201305 5.32E\u201310 1.57E\u201301 1.17E\u201304 4.80E\u201303 6.68E\u201303 X 7.00E\u201310 4.03E\u201303 2.96E\u201320 2.96E\u201317 4.98E\u201305 3.42E\u201304 4.88E\u201308 6.61E\u201319 1.38E\u201309 3.34E\u201310", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7082, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 300, "book_page": 299, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthre ne benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7083, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 300, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.19E\u201306 1.06E+00 2.77E\u201301 4.85E\u201302 9.11E+00 1.14E\u201302 1.57E\u201316", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7084, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 300, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.19E\u201306 1.06E+00 2.77E\u201301 4.85E\u201302 9.11E+00 1.14E\u201302 1.57E\u201316 5.54E\u201302 3.19E\u201305 2.51 E\u201320 5.00E\u201305 6.46E\u201307 1.88E\u201306 2.40E\u201308 1.81E\u201304 6.53E\u201303 1.16E\u201301 3.10E+01 5.62E\u201305 3.47E\u201303 2.59E\u201304 1.37E\u201301 2.78E\u201305 2.35E\u201301 8.78E\u201323 3.51E\u201322 2.58E\u201301 1.21E\u201318 4.08E\u201320 1.06E+02 2.45E\u201306 2.36E+00 8.08E\u201307 1.45E+01 3.21E+00 1.74E\u201302 4.06E\u201306 1.56E\u201303 6.39E\u201302 2.92E\u201305 5.02E\u201306 1.56E\u201312 1.13E\u201302 1.63E+01 7.88E\u201305 1.11E\u201302 3.83E\u201302 3.93E\u201303 7.43E\u201306 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.52E\u201302 8.54E+04 1.23E+05 6.49E+04 1.48E+06 7.83E+00 2.00E+06 8.93E+03 1.58E+00 2.33E+05 9.44E+04 4.04E+01 2.42E+01 1.35E+03 2.97E+02 2.97E+01 2.38E+04 4.71E+05 2.78E+01 8.03E+00 3.51E\u201301 3.64E+01 1.98E+00 2.22E+03 1.18E+03 4.72E+03 7.65E+03 1.15E+05 1.36E+05 3.58E+06 1.26E+03 1.65E+05 1.55E+03 1.87E+05 3.61E+04 5.50E+02 5.43E+00 1.51E+01 2.84E+03 1.67E+00 3.24E\u201303 1.23E\u201301 2.39E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7085, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 300, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.64E+01 1.98E+00 2.22E+03 1.18E+03 4.72E+03 7.65E+03 1.15E+05 1.36E+05 3.58E+06 1.26E+03 1.65E+05 1.55E+03 1.87E+05 3.61E+04 5.50E+02 5.43E+00 1.51E+01 2.84E+03 1.67E+00 3.24E\u201303 1.23E\u201301 2.39E+03 5.88E+04 7.95E\u201301 9.69E+00 1.94E+01 1.57E+01 3.37E+00 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.99E\u201306 3.23E+00 7.98E\u201301 1.56E\u201301 3.00E+01 1.67E\u201303 1.84E\u201316 1.64E\u201301 1.04E\u201305 6.45E\u201320 7.25E\u201305 5.68E\u201309 5.49E\u201307 2.43E\u201308 1.05E\u201304 5.36E\u201303 3.78E\u201301 3.15E+00 4.78E\u201305 2.73E\u201303 2.41E\u201304 9.55E\u201302 2.39E\u201305 1.51E\u201301 2.26E\u201322 9.06E\u201322 8.27E\u201301 2.00E\u201318 1.03E\u201319 1.54E+02 1.93E\u201306 4.30E+00 6.49E\u201307 1.56E+01 4.83E+00 1.24E\u201302 2.43E\u201306 2.07E\u201303 4.58E\u201302 3.81 E\u201306 3.61 E\u201306 8.31E\u201313 5.05E\u201304 1.70E+00 5.18E\u201305 2.65E\u201302 8.47E\u201302 8.68E\u201303 5.50E\u201306 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.05E\u201302 2.85E+05 3.66E+05 2.26E+05 4.42E+06 1.89E+00 9.07E+05 3.39E+04 3.99E\u201301 2.60E+05 1.38E+05 4.96E\u201301 2.14E+00 2.00E+03 3.14E+02 4.51E+01 8.01E+04 1.48E+04 3.25E+01 1.01E+01 4.46E\u201301 2.27E+01 2.53E+00 2.22E+02 1.36E+03 5.43E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7086, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 300, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.42E+06 1.89E+00 9.07E+05 3.39E+04 3.99E\u201301 2.60E+05 1.38E+05 4.96E\u201301 2.14E+00 2.00E+03 3.14E+02 4.51E+01 8.01E+04 1.48E+04 3.25E+01 1.01E+01 4.46E\u201301 2.27E+01 2.53E+00 2.22E+02 1.36E+03 5.43E+03 2.56E+04 7.80E+04 1.43E+05 5.21E+06 1.62E+03 4.47E+05 2.16E+03 7.07E+04 7.24E+04 7.01E+02 5.45E+00 1.11E+01 2.72E+03 1.64E\u201301 3.80E\u201303 6.42E\u201302 1.81E+02 2.10E+03 6.54E\u201301 2.04E+01 3.41E+01 2.76E+01 4.07E+00 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.71E\u201306 6.23E\u201303 7.97E\u201304 2.55E\u201304 8.78E\u201302 2.51E\u201305 3.93E\u201316 5.94E\u201304 1.05E\u201307 1.13E\u201319 1.61E\u201308 9.37E\u201310 1.07E\u201309 1.61E\u201310 6.09E\u201307 1.02E\u201303 8.15E\u201304 2.85E\u201301 8.64E\u201307 6.40E\u201305 4.10E\u201304 3.82E\u201304 4.51E\u201307 5.72E\u201305 2.05E\u201318 2.05E\u201318 1.61E\u201303 4.92E\u201318 2.48E\u201320 4.97E\u201301 3.95E\u201308 2.52E\u201301 7.32E\u201308 9.58E\u201301 1.35E\u201303 2.34E\u201304 7.49E\u201307 9.61E\u201307 8.22E\u201305 2.06E\u201307 6.46E\u201307 1.08E\u201314 2.16E\u201304 1.04E\u201301 1.00E\u201304 1.75E\u201305 6.39E\u201305 3.53E\u201306 1.81E\u201307", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7087, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 301, "book_page": 300, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7088, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 301, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01 -0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.82E\u201307 1.05E\u201301 4.20E\u201302 1.43E\u201304 1.33E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7089, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 301, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.82E\u201307 1.05E\u201301 4.20E\u201302 1.43E\u201304 1.33E\u201302 1.94E\u201303 2.14E\u201308 2.07E\u201302 6.08E+00 9.97E\u201301 9.44E\u201306 1.05E\u201312 9.88E\u201303 2.62E\u201301 8.75E\u201302 1.76E+01 2.87E\u201302 8.72E\u201301 1.56E+01 2.13E\u201304 2.06E\u201311 3.88E\u201302 1.35E\u201303 2.28E+01 1.13E+00 X X 7.42E\u201304 3.78E\u201309 2.88E\u201305 5.57E\u201323 1.13E\u201301 6.00E\u201302 1.84E\u201302 5.35E\u201313 3.78E\u201310 1.73E+00 6.75E\u201310 3.01E\u201306 9.22E\u201305 8.51E\u201303 2.32E\u201303 3.95E+01 1.63E\u201303 6.96E\u201302 6.94E\u201305 6.59E\u201319 7.23E\u201306 1.15E\u201302 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.19E\u201302 1.31E+04 1.24E+04 2.48E+00 1.46E+03 2.40E+02 2.59E+00 3.23E+02 2.74E+06 6.61E+03 6.16E\u201302 2.58E\u201303 5.65E+03 2.28E+04 3.98E+04 3.98E+04 3.99E+04 4.16E+03 2.12E+04 5.65E+00 3.35E+01 1.08E+03 4.48E+02 6.98E+04 2.43E+03 X X 1.10E+05 7.16E\u201301 5.92E+01 1.71E+03 2.26E+02 1.27E+03 5.07E+03 5.65E\u201301 8.04E+00 2.72E+05 4.88E\u201301 4.35E+00 4.82E+01 6.93E+03 2.37E+00 6.23E+06 7.35E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7090, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 301, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.08E+03 4.48E+02 6.98E+04 2.43E+03 X X 1.10E+05 7.16E\u201301 5.92E+01 1.71E+03 2.26E+02 1.27E+03 5.07E+03 5.65E\u201301 8.04E+00 2.72E+05 4.88E\u201301 4.35E+00 4.82E+01 6.93E+03 2.37E+00 6.23E+06 7.35E+01 1.35E+03 1.08E+04 1.10E+04 1.41E\u201301 3.30E+01 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.84E\u201308 2.90E\u201302 1.89E\u201302 2.41 E\u201304 4.56E\u201303 1.84E\u201303 3.59E\u201309 4.47E\u201303 1.85E+00 7.91E\u201301 6.29E\u201306 6.61E\u201313 5.53E\u201303 1.89E\u201301 1.42E\u201301 2.87E+01 4.70E\u201302 2.61E+00 2.16E+01 1.15E\u201304 2.02E\u201311 5.48E\u201302 1.66E\u201304 2.63E+01 3.63E+00 X X 2.39E\u201303 3.10E\u201310 1.08E\u201305 1.42E\u201322 2.95E\u201302 5.97E\u201302 1.07E\u201302 3.56E\u201313 2.54E\u201310 4.46E+00 3.55E\u201310 2.16E\u201306 1.00E\u201304 6.34E\u201303 1.23E\u201303 1.02E+02 1.58E\u201303 6.18E\u201302 8.80E\u201306 1.45E\u201318 4.69E\u201306 4.50E\u201303 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.30E\u201302 4.99E+03 4.48E+03 2.63E+00 4.17E+02 3.43E+02 6.06E\u201301 2.20E+01 2.00E+05 8.90E+03 6.72E\u201302 3.15E\u201303 2.85E+03 1.54E+04 1.09E+05 1.08E+05 1.09E+05 1.35E+04 2.81E+04 5.97E+00 2.97E+01 9.23E+02 9.06E+01 4.74E+04 3.45E+03 X X 3.84E+05 1.16E\u201302 3.74E+01 2.03E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7091, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 301, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.00E+05 8.90E+03 6.72E\u201302 3.15E\u201303 2.85E+03 1.54E+04 1.09E+05 1.08E+05 1.09E+05 1.35E+04 2.81E+04 5.97E+00 2.97E+01 9.23E+02 9.06E+01 4.74E+04 3.45E+03 X X 3.84E+05 1.16E\u201302 3.74E+01 2.03E+03 4.75E+01 1.66E+03 2.83E+03 6.91 E\u201301 1.05E+01 3.06E+05 3.83E\u201301 5.22E+00 7.02E+01 8.91E+03 2.02E+00 7.02E+06 8.22E+01 1.88E+03 1.20E+03 9.54E+03 1.42E\u201301 1.24E+01 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.74E\u201306 1.00E\u201303 5.07E\u201305 8.83E\u201308 2.13E\u201305 3.22E\u201305 1.51E\u201309 1.63E\u201305 3.77E\u201301 7.23E\u201303 1.03E\u201307 9.93E\u201314 8.37E\u201305 1.68E\u201303 1.10E\u201304 2.52E\u201303 3.83E\u201305 9.56E\u201304 7.42E\u201302 2.42E\u201305 4.40E\u201314 2.39E\u201305 2.45E\u201305 2.05E+00 2.36E\u201301 X X 4.07E\u201306 1.49E\u201310 3.78E\u201307 4.57E\u201321 3.92E\u201303 3.10E\u201304 2.02E\u201307 2.16E\u201314 1.82E\u201311 4.65E+02 1.37E\u201311 3.04E\u201308 5.95E\u201307 7.50E\u201305 9.06E\u201304 4.63E+02 3.75E\u201305 5.42E\u201306 3.21 E\u201307 2.89E\u201318 1.08E\u201307 1.90E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7092, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 302, "book_page": 301, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethonmethyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitroben zene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequatchloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7093, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 302, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.09E\u201319 X 4.54E\u201307 3.00E\u201304 1.51E\u201305 2.02E\u201301 1.23E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7094, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 302, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.09E\u201319 X 4.54E\u201307 3.00E\u201304 1.51E\u201305 2.02E\u201301 1.23E\u201301 2.36E\u201301 1.07E+01 1.20E\u201305 9.95E+00 5.77E\u201302 1.73E\u201305 3.29E\u201302 4.63E\u201311 8.88E\u201304 X 5.03E\u201304 1.16E\u201304 4.41E\u201304 1.01E\u201305 2.25E\u201303 7.38E\u201318 4.51E\u201303 1.01E\u201305 X 2.02E\u201304 1.89E\u201304 7.90E\u201318 2.62E\u201302 9.46E\u201323 2.87E\u201302 8.27E\u201306 1.15E+00 7.89E\u201302 3.01 E+00 5.35E\u201306 1.55E\u201305 4.48E\u201305 1.76E+00 2.39E\u201318 1.41E\u201306 1.76E\u201321 3.64E\u201303 1.1E\u201310 1.1 E\u201304 7.3E\u201313 9.1E\u201301 3.8E\u201303 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.53E+05 X 2.79E+00 1.03E+03 1.31E\u201301 4.09E+04 8.06E+03 1.68E+02 5.57E+03 7.84E+01 2.83E+05 7.40E+01 4.66E+00 3.00E+02 1.70E\u201302 8.57E+02 X 2.67E+01 3.44E+03 1.45E\u201301 1.31E\u201301 1.12E+03 6.07E+04 6.73E+02 1.25E\u201301 X 6.48E\u201301 1.11E+00 1.97E+05 4.18E+02 1.76E+03 1.40E+02 5.09E\u201302 3.29E+03 4.90E+03 5.69E+05 3.61E+03 5.67E\u201302 5.65E\u201302 8.35E+03 3.53E+05 1.95E\u201302 1.36E+04 8.09E+02 7.5E+00 4.4E+01 2.2E+02 1.1E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7095, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 302, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 6.48E\u201301 1.11E+00 1.97E+05 4.18E+02 1.76E+03 1.40E+02 5.09E\u201302 3.29E+03 4.90E+03 5.69E+05 3.61E+03 5.67E\u201302 5.65E\u201302 8.35E+03 3.53E+05 1.95E\u201302 1.36E+04 8.09E+02 7.5E+00 4.4E+01 2.2E+02 1.1E+03 7.4E\u201301 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.56E\u201318 X 2.07E\u201307 6.76E\u201305 1.21E\u201305 1.36E\u201301 7.43E\u201303 3.34E\u201301 3.10E+00 2.72E\u201305 1.31E+01 6.28E\u201302 6.40E\u201306 5.39E\u201303 9.39E\u201314 8.96E\u201304 X 2.73E\u201304 8.23E\u201305 2.36E\u201304 6.10E\u201306 2.04E\u201303 8.55E\u201318 3.84E\u201303 6.96E\u201306 X 1.93E\u201304 1.08E\u201304 1.99E\u201317 9.46E\u201303 4.84E\u201323 3.08E\u201302 5.91 E\u201306 4.05E\u201301 7.38E\u201302 4.09E+00 9.91E\u201307 1.31E\u201305 2.31E\u201305 1.44E+00 5.71E\u201318 1.14E\u201306 4.51E\u201321 2.88E\u201303 4.7E\u201311 1.1 E\u201304 5.7E\u201313 1.2E+00 2.3E\u201303 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.59E+05 X 8.02E\u201301 4.24E+02 1.72E\u201301 1.68E+04 3.43E+02 1.42E+02 5.50E+02 1.43E+02 2.17E+05 6.36E+01 3.18E+00 4.06E+01 9.88E\u201305 1.30E+03 X 2.54E+01 3.58E+03 1.51E\u201301 9.71E\u201302 1.08E+03 2.69E+04 1.00E+03 9.25E\u201302 X 7.85E\u201301 4.57E\u201301 1.95E+05 3.72E+01 4.10E+02 1.63E+02 6.28E\u201302 9.16E+02 6.83E+03 7.90E+05", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7096, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 302, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.06E+01 9.88E\u201305 1.30E+03 X 2.54E+01 3.58E+03 1.51E\u201301 9.71E\u201302 1.08E+03 2.69E+04 1.00E+03 9.25E\u201302 X 7.85E\u201301 4.57E\u201301 1.95E+05 3.72E+01 4.10E+02 1.63E+02 6.28E\u201302 9.16E+02 6.83E+03 7.90E+05 5.45E+02 8.12 E\u201302 3.25E\u201302 3.59E+03 3.41E+05 2.92E\u201302 1.50E+04 8.87E+02 4.6E+00 4.6E+01 3.2E+02 1.5E+03 8.4E\u201301 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1.4DCB eq./kg) 2.61E\u201318 X 2.34E\u201308 5.22E\u201306 2.07E\u201307 8.23E\u201305 7.08E\u201304 2.59E\u201302 2.89E\u201302 2.61 E\u201306 1.66E\u201302 6.30E\u201306 3.78E\u201308 1.29E\u201303 2.84E\u201312 1.70E\u201305 X 1.34E\u201305 3.21 E\u201306 1.81E\u201305 8.88E\u201308 2.87E\u201305 1.76E\u201317 1.89E\u201305 2.72E\u201308 X 4.01 E\u201303 3.59E\u201304 4.18E\u201317 3.06E\u201304 7.25E\u201321 6.70E\u201305 1.87E\u201306 1.31E\u201304 8.35E\u201304 6.87E\u201303 4.79E\u201307 1.95E\u201306 1.91E\u201305 3.02E\u201303 2.16E\u201317 1.31E\u201307 1.95E\u201320 2.83E\u201305 6.1E\u201313 4.2E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 5.1E\u201303 9.7E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7097, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 303, "book_page": 302, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5trichlorophenol 2,4,6trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene Comp. seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7098, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 303, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7099, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 303, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.3E\u201308 3.73E\u201304 2.77E\u201302 8.33E\u201302 2.29E\u201302 2.48E\u201302 1.95E\u201302 1.92E\u201302 7.47E\u201304 5.42E\u201302 5.68E\u201305 1.76E\u201302 1.38E\u201302 1.47E+02 3.18E+01 1.22E+05 4.43E\u201301 2.76E+01 1.24E+00 2.95E+01 2.53E+00 7.92E+00 1.80E+03 7.44E+01 1.67E+02 5.09E+01 4.54E+04 6.47E+00 9.59E+04 2.83E+02 X 2.14E\u201301 8.16E+01 7.39E+00 6.41E+00 3.45E+02 2.83E+03 1.94E+02 9.75E+01 4.59E+00 8.28E+00 7.15E\u201304 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+02 2.91E\u201301 3.92E\u201301 2.28E+00 6.55E\u201301 5.09E\u201301 4.33E\u201301 5.07E\u201301 5.89E\u201302 1.06E+00 2.87E\u201306 3.67E\u201301 5.46E\u201301 1.19E+02 6.23E\u201301 4.46E+04 1.58E\u201303 1.27E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7100, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 303, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.4E+02 2.91E\u201301 3.92E\u201301 2.28E+00 6.55E\u201301 5.09E\u201301 4.33E\u201301 5.07E\u201301 5.89E\u201302 1.06E+00 2.87E\u201306 3.67E\u201301 5.46E\u201301 1.19E+02 6.23E\u201301 4.46E+04 1.58E\u201303 1.27E+00 8.20E\u201303 1.66E\u201301 7.03E\u201303 6.81E\u201302 2.71E+02 3.25E\u201301 7.72E\u201301 6.73E\u201301 2.55E+02 2.15E\u201301 1.64E+03 3.23E+01 X 5.02E\u201305 6.23E+00 8.28E+01 5.93E+01 3.39E+01 1.06E+01 1.41E\u201301 1.17E+03 5.77E\u201303 3.59E\u201302 2.37E\u201303 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.4E\u201308 3.08E\u201304 3.23E\u201302 9.28E\u201302 2.51E\u201302 2.88E\u201302 2.15E\u201302 1.80E\u201302 6.27E\u201304 5.61E\u201302 3.84E\u201305 1.64E\u201302 1.38E\u201302 1.33E+02 3.48E+01 3.95E+05 3.16E\u201301 3.26E+01 1.21E+00 2.20E+01 9.97E\u201301 6.30E+00 2.27E+03 6.83E+01 1.46E+02 2.59E+01 3.40E+04 4.22E+00 7.64E+04 2.43E+01 X 1.36E\u201302 1.13E+02 1.81E+01 1.64E+01 2.97E+02 2.04E+03 9.99E+01 2.21E+02 5.92E\u201301 6.69E+00 5.44E\u201304 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 9.58E\u201302 1.62E\u201301 8.98E\u201301 2.65E\u201301 2.06E\u201301 1.79E\u201301 2.12E\u201301 2.24E\u201302 4.52E\u201301 3.16E\u201306 1.62E\u201301 2.13E\u201301 7.91E+01 6.83E\u201301 1.43E+05 1.97E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7101, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 303, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.44E\u201304 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+02 9.58E\u201302 1.62E\u201301 8.98E\u201301 2.65E\u201301 2.06E\u201301 1.79E\u201301 2.12E\u201301 2.24E\u201302 4.52E\u201301 3.16E\u201306 1.62E\u201301 2.13E\u201301 7.91E+01 6.83E\u201301 1.43E+05 1.97E\u201303 1.55E+00 9.52E\u201303 2.29E\u201301 3.19E\u201303 8.97E\u201302 3.34E+02 4.49E\u201301 1.12E+00 6.39E\u201301 3.60E+02 1.87E\u201301 2.38E+03 2.87E+00 X 2.10E\u201306 8.18E+00 8.34E+01 6.46E+01 3.75E+01 8.40E+00 4.12E\u201302 1.07E+03 5.01E\u201304 5.47E\u201302 1.13E\u201303 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.3E\u201310 1.47E\u201303 8.30E\u201301 1.46E+01 9.35E+00 1.89E+01 1.21E+00 5.40E\u201302 1.71E\u201303 2.50E\u201301 3.10E\u201304 6.23E\u201302 1.00E+00 1.72E+01 1.01E+00 2.70E+04 7.40E\u201301 4.36E+00 6.98E\u201301 1.58E+00 5.87E\u201301 3.78E\u201301 2.56E+01 1.44E+00 1.57E+01 1.69E+00 6.98E+03 2.47E+00 4.22E+03 2.04E+01 X 2.26E\u201301 8.94E+00 9.39E\u201301 1.63E+02 6.59E+00 2.20E+02 9.73E\u201301 8.55E+00 3.49E+00 5.95E\u201301 3.44E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7102, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 304, "book_page": 303, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthre ne benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7103, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7104, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 6.17E+01 1.33E+02 6.08E+01 5.21E+03 9.17E\u201301 4.34E+04 1.03E+02 2.52E\u201302 4.13E+02 2.66E+04 4.01E\u201301 2.32E+01 2.01E+03 5.85E+02 3.40E\u201301 5.81E+01 9.35E+01 1.61E+01 1.80E+00 3.23E\u201303 1.04E+00 1.81E+00 3.56E+02 1.46E\u201301 5.82E\u201301 7.37E+01 1.61 E+03 2.44E+02 9.99E+05 8.06E+02 1.99E+05 6.45E+03 8.67E+01 2.41E+01 7.96E+02 3.01E+00 1.49E\u201303 1.29E+03 7.86E\u201302 1.59E\u201304 1.30E\u201302 7.41E+01 5.98E+02 1.62E\u201301 1.84E\u201302 4.61E\u201303 6.24E\u201304 8.94E+00 7.41E\u201303 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.53E+00 6.49E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7105, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.41E+01 7.96E+02 3.01E+00 1.49E\u201303 1.29E+03 7.86E\u201302 1.59E\u201304 1.30E\u201302 7.41E+01 5.98E+02 1.62E\u201301 1.84E\u201302 4.61E\u201303 6.24E\u201304 8.94E+00 7.41E\u201303 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 4.53E+00 6.49E+00 1.07E+01 1.99E+03 8.22E\u201302 5.77E+05 1.14E\u201301 2.94E\u201305 4.13E+03 4.01E+03 6.88E\u201305 7.37E\u201303 3.04E+01 1.97E+00 1.42E+00 1.21E+01 3.04E+01 8.54E\u201302 8.09E\u201302 8.29E\u201302 1.65E+00 8.43E\u201303 1.44E\u201301 1.24E+00 4.95E+00 1.21E+01 2.10E+04 2.42E+03 1.52E+05 2.84E+00 2.97E+02 2.54E+02 4.32E+01 5.97E\u201302 3.50E+00 2.40E\u201302 1.56E\u201305 7.81E+00 1.20E\u201304 2.52E\u201303 3.59E\u201305 4.09E\u201302 8.08E+01 7.12E\u201304 4.25E\u201304 8.56E\u201304 6.51 E\u201305 3.94E\u201302 9.71E\u201306 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.86E+02 3.82E+02 1.95E+02 1.72E+04 1.34E\u201301 5.11E+04 3.06E+02 8.23E\u201303 1.06E+03 3.86E+04 3.53E\u201303 6.75E+00 2.04E+03 3.38E+02 2.79E\u201301 1.89E+02 9.51E+00 1.37E+01 1.42E+00 3.01E\u201303 7.25E\u201301 1.55E+00 2.29E+02 3.74E\u201301 1.50E+00 2.36E+02 2.67E+03 6.12E+02 1.45E+06 6.33E+02 3.63E+05 5.18E+03 9.35E+01 3.63E+01 5.65E+02 1.80E+00 1.97E\u201303 9.28E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7106, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.51E+00 1.37E+01 1.42E+00 3.01E\u201303 7.25E\u201301 1.55E+00 2.29E+02 3.74E\u201301 1.50E+00 2.36E+02 2.67E+03 6.12E+02 1.45E+06 6.33E+02 3.63E+05 5.18E+03 9.35E+01 3.63E+01 5.65E+02 1.80E+00 1.97E\u201303 9.28E+02 1.03E\u201302 1.15E\u201304 6.89E\u201303 3.32E+00 6.26E+01 1.06E\u201301 4.40E\u201302 1.02E\u201302 1.38E\u201303 6.62E+00 1.91E\u201303 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.51E+01 1.93E+01 3.74E+01 5.93E+03 1.26E\u201302 2.66E+05 4.28E\u201301 7.11E\u201306 4.92E+03 5.84E+03 8.41E\u201307 6.51E\u201304 4.51E+01 2.08E+00 7.94E\u201301 4.08E+01 8.38E\u201301 9.99E\u201302 1.01E\u201301 3.72E\u201302 4.75E\u201301 1.08E\u201302 1.43E\u201302 1.58E+00 6.32E+00 4.05E+01 1.45E+04 2.69E+03 2.21E+05 3.68E+00 7.99E+02 3.53E+02 1.36E+01 1.17E\u201301 4.46E+00 2.41E\u201302 1.10E\u201305 7.49E+00 1.13E\u201305 9.23E\u201304 1.88E\u201305 2.74E\u201303 2.82E+00 5.57E\u201304 8.04E\u201304 1.36E\u201303 1.02E\u201304 4.76E\u201302 2.31E\u201306 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.11 E+01 2.29E+01 8.33E+00 3.95E+02 8.02E\u201301 3.46E+03 8.33E+01 1.01 E\u201302 9.05E+01 2.85E+01 4.10E\u201302 1.07E\u201301 4.94E+01 7.50E+00 1.64E+00 6.35E+00 7.39E+01 1.31E+00 8.96E\u201301 1.17E\u201301 6.78E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7107, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 3.11 E+01 2.29E+01 8.33E+00 3.95E+02 8.02E\u201301 3.46E+03 8.33E+01 1.01 E\u201302 9.05E+01 2.85E+01 4.10E\u201302 1.07E\u201301 4.94E+01 7.50E+00 1.64E+00 6.35E+00 7.39E+01 1.31E+00 8.96E\u201301 1.17E\u201301 6.78E\u201301 1.33E\u201301 1.67E+01 1.79E+02 1.79E+02 4.64E+00 2.11 E+02 6.01E+00 1.56E+04 6.90E+01 8.97E+04 6.34E+02 6.00E+01 8.54E+00 5.99E+01 2.89E+00 1.40E\u201303 1.15E+01 2.29E\u201302 2.53E\u201304 1.42E\u201303 2.00E+02 1.08E+02 2.12E+00 7.27E\u201303 4.04E\u201303 5.49E\u201304 8.05E\u201301 1.45E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7108, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 305, "book_page": 304, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7109, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7110, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.01 E+04 3.31 E+02 4.20E\u201305 7.25E+01 3.45E+02 1.19E+00 2.21E+00 2.08E+04 1.11E+04 1.75E\u201303 1.13E\u201309 7.55E+02 3.50E+03 3.81E+02 2.50E+02 3.79E+02 1.91E+01 4.48E+03 1.47E+01 9.22E\u201301 2.29E+00 3.09E+01 6.97E+01 3.23E+00 X X 9.01E+01 2.33E\u201301 1.68E+02 2.61 E\u201301 9.74E+01 6.93E+02 1.62E+02 4.63E\u201301 3.00E+01 4.29E+02 4.13E\u201301 3.93E+00 4.37E+01 1.41E+04 1.36E\u201301 9.86E+03 9.49E+01 1.89E+03 3.50E+02 3.58E+01 1.89E\u201303 3.76E+00 4.78E+02 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.91 E+02 8.69E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7111, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.63E\u201301 3.00E+01 4.29E+02 4.13E\u201301 3.93E+00 4.37E+01 1.41E+04 1.36E\u201301 9.86E+03 9.49E+01 1.89E+03 3.50E+02 3.58E+01 1.89E\u201303 3.76E+00 4.78E+02 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.91 E+02 8.69E+00 1.29E\u201306 1.41E\u201301 2.09E+00 3.65E\u201303 1.35E\u201303 1.03E+04 2.64E+02 4.07E\u201304 7.82E\u201311 2.27E+00 1.46E+01 6.80E+00 9.47E+01 6.14E+00 1.33E+00 7.09E+02 1.84E\u201302 2.80E\u201303 2.45E\u201302 2.56E\u201302 2.82E+04 7.25E+02 X X 1.71E+01 2.19E\u201305 1.79E+00 2.15E+00 1.40E+00 1.25E+01 6.61E\u201301 6.17E\u201304 5.29E\u201302 6.58E+03 1.13E\u201303 3.28E\u201302 9.99E\u201301 4.40E+02 3.07E+00 1.51E+05 1.43E+01 2.98E+01 3.42E\u201301 3.38E+02 2.49E\u201304 5.73E\u201302 4.63E+03 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.55E+03 1.49E+02 7.05E\u201305 2.49E+01 3.27E+02 2.00E\u201301 4.77E\u201301 6.35E+03 8.77E+03 1.17E\u201303 7.13E\u201310 4.23E+02 2.52E+03 6.20E+02 4.08E+02 6.19E+02 5.70E+01 6.19E+03 7.94E+00 9.01E\u201301 3.23E+00 3.81E+00 8.05E+01 1.04E+01 X X 2.90E+02 1.92E\u201302 6.29E+01 6.71 E\u201301 2.55E+01 6.89E+02 9.46E+01 3.08E\u201301 2.02E+01 1.10E+03 2.17E\u201301 2.83E+00 4.75E+01 1.05E+04 7.22E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7112, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.94E+00 9.01E\u201301 3.23E+00 3.81E+00 8.05E+01 1.04E+01 X X 2.90E+02 1.92E\u201302 6.29E+01 6.71 E\u201301 2.55E+01 6.89E+02 9.46E+01 3.08E\u201301 2.02E+01 1.10E+03 2.17E\u201301 2.83E+00 4.75E+01 1.05E+04 7.22E\u201302 2.53E+04 9.17E+01 1.68E+03 4.44E+01 7.93E+01 1.22E\u201303 1.47E+00 1.23E+03 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.48E+02 3.07E+00 1.29E\u201306 4.03E\u201302 2.99E+00 8.54E\u201304 8.97E\u201305 7.50E+02 3.55E+02 3.15E\u201304 7.10E\u201311 1.15E+00 9.88E+00 1.81E+01 1.18E+02 1.65E+01 4.28E+00 9.33E+02 1.84E\u201302 2.49E\u201303 2.03E\u201302 5.08E\u201303 1.05E+04 8.29E+02 X X 5.94E+01 3.54E\u201307 1.13E+00 2.86E+00 2.90E\u201301 1.63E+01 3.69E\u201301 7.56E\u201304 6.91 E\u201302 7.86E+03 8.90E\u201304 3.94E\u201302 1.45E+00 5.66E+02 8.25E\u201301 1.80E+05 1.59E+01 4.15E+01 3.78E\u201302 3.05E+02 2.25E\u201304 2.00E\u201302 5.00E+03 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kq) 5.88E+02 9.94E+00 4.82 E\u201305 1.15E+01 2.27E+01 5.17E\u201301 2.75E+00 4.21E+03 2.71E+02 1.95E\u201303 2.26E\u201309 8.30E+01 2.87E+02 1.15E+01 1.15E+01 1.15E+01 2.32E+00 1.06E+02 5.79E+00 9.63E\u201302 5.47E+00 1.60E+01 5.35E+01 3.53E+00 X X 1.27E+01 1.45E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7113, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.17E\u201301 2.75E+00 4.21E+03 2.71E+02 1.95E\u201303 2.26E\u201309 8.30E+01 2.87E+02 1.15E+01 1.15E+01 1.15E+01 2.32E+00 1.06E+02 5.79E+00 9.63E\u201302 5.47E+00 1.60E+01 5.35E+01 3.53E+00 X X 1.27E+01 1.45E\u201301 6.44E+00 1.34E+00 2.34E+01 2.07E+01 7.57E\u201302 9.45E\u201302 4.73E+00 2.85E+04 4.16E\u201302 1.74E\u201301 1.09E+00 3.05E+02 3.65E\u201301 2.85E+04 2.17E+00 5.38E\u201301 8.68E+01 5.00E+00 2.95E\u201303 3.13E+00 6.87E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7114, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 306, "book_page": 305, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethonmethyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitroben zene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram Toluene tin tolclophos-methyl tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequatchloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7115, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7116, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.95E+01 9.70E+02 2.47E\u201303 4.98E+02 1.12E+03 5.87E\u201301 1.50E+01 3.28E\u201301 9.17E+02 2.93E\u201301 3.47E+00 4.43E+00 4.84E\u201305 1.67E+03 X 1.73E+01 1.99E+04 4.25E\u201301 1.43E\u201303 2.55E+02 1.45E+03 2.33E+03 1.54E\u201303 X 2.23E\u201303 5.61E\u201304 1.26E+03 6.86E+02 2.76E\u201301 3.05E+00 1.05E\u201303 4.96E+01 5.77E+03 1.07E+03 3.31 E+03 4.62E\u201304 4.74E\u201304 3.98E+01 1.49E+03 6.43E\u201305 1.42E+01 3.74E+02 1.4E+00 8.2E+00 6.2E+02 3.8E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 8.42E\u201303 1.98E+00 5.49E\u201304 2.35E+00 5.86E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7117, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "E+03 4.62E\u201304 4.74E\u201304 3.98E+01 1.49E+03 6.43E\u201305 1.42E+01 3.74E+02 1.4E+00 8.2E+00 6.2E+02 3.8E+02 7.9E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 8.42E\u201303 1.98E+00 5.49E\u201304 2.35E+00 5.86E+00 2.77E+01 3.05E+01 5.90E\u201303 5.47E+00 8.70E\u201303 1.65E\u201303 3.10E\u201301 1.83E\u201308 7.31E+00 X 4.23E\u201302 3.85E+01 2.94E\u201302 3.21E\u201304 6.77E\u201301 2.22E+04 1.27E+01 1.07E\u201304 X 3.15E\u201301 1.14E+00 1.23E+04 6.50E\u201301 2.32E+00 1.30E\u201301 4.47E\u201304 8.45E\u201301 5.25E+01 5.59E+02 6.74E\u201301 2.47E\u201303 4.71 E\u201302 1.15E+00 1.45E+04 1.28E\u201304 1.34E+02 3.49E+00 9.7E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 3.9E+00 5.8E+01 2.2E\u201301 1.7E+02 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 1.35E+01 2.18E+02 1.98E\u201303 3.35E+02 6.75E+01 8.31E\u201301 4.33E+00 7.43E\u201301 1.21E+03 3.18E\u201301 1.28E+00 7.25E\u201301 9.83E\u201308 1.69E+03 X 9.36E+00 1.41E+04 2.27E\u201301 8.61E\u201304 2.31E+02 1.69E+03 1.98E+03 1.06E\u201303 X 2.13E\u201303 3.20E\u201304 3.19E+03 2.48E+02 1.42E\u201301 3.28E+00 7.53E\u201304 1.76E+01 5.40E+03 1.46E+03 6.13E+02 3.91E\u201304 2.44E\u201304 3.25E+01 3.55E+03 5.20E\u201305 3.66E+01 2.95E+02 5.7E\u201301 8.1E+00 4.8E+02 5.1E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7118, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 2.13E\u201303 3.20E\u201304 3.19E+03 2.48E+02 1.42E\u201301 3.28E+00 7.53E\u201304 1.76E+01 5.40E+03 1.46E+03 6.13E+02 3.91E\u201304 2.44E\u201304 3.25E+01 3.55E+03 5.20E\u201305 3.66E+01 2.95E+02 5.7E\u201301 8.1E+00 4.8E+02 5.1E+02 4.8E\u201301 7.6E+00 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 2.42E\u201303 8.18E\u201301 5.97E\u201304 9.64E\u201301 2.49E\u201301 1.39E+01 2.27E+00 1.08E\u201302 4.17E+00 6.96E\u201303 1.10E\u201303 4.08E\u201302 1.05E\u201310 1.11E+01 X 3.99E\u201302 4.01E+01 1.56E\u201302 2.01 E\u201304 6.50E\u201301 9.90E+03 1.89E+01 7.62E\u201305 X 1.14E\u201301 3.05E\u201301 1.26E+04 5.69E\u201302 6.01E\u201301 1.47E\u201301 3.71 E\u201304 2.33E\u201301 7.31E+01 7.68E+02 1.01E\u201301 1.53E\u201303 1.29E\u201302 4.88E\u201301 1.45E+04 1.17E\u201304 1.60E+02 3.82E+00 6.0E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 5.5E+00 7.5E+01 1.1 E\u201301 5.9E+01 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) X 5.87E+00 9.23E+01 3.36E\u201303 1.72E+01 8.09E+01 2.15E+00 2.69E+00 4.81 E+00 2.51 E+02 3.69E\u201302 4.53E\u201302 4.74E+00 2.62E\u201303 1 .20E+02 X 2.49E+00 1.79E+03 1.45E\u201301 1.48E\u201303 2.99E+01 1.09E+02 2.93E+01 1.41 E\u201303 X 3.02E\u201301 2.07E\u201303 2.13E+02 5.08E+01 1.22E+00 1.79E+00 1.86E\u201302 1.31E+00 2.45E+02 3.70E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7119, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.74E+00 2.62E\u201303 1 .20E+02 X 2.49E+00 1.79E+03 1.45E\u201301 1.48E\u201303 2.99E+01 1.09E+02 2.93E+01 1.41 E\u201303 X 3.02E\u201301 2.07E\u201303 2.13E+02 5.08E+01 1.22E+00 1.79E+00 1.86E\u201302 1.31E+00 2.45E+02 3.70E+01 1.88E+03 2.14E\u201303 1.56E\u201303 3.52E+01 4.44E+02 3.14E\u201304 7.50E+00 1.58E+01 7.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7120, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 307, "book_page": 306, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,1,1trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5trichlorophenol 2,4,6trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7121, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 307, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7122, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 307, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.73E\u201304 1.03E\u201301 1.86E\u201301 3.02E\u201302 8.97E\u201302 3.22E\u201302 1.92E\u201302 7.47E\u201304 6.63E\u201302 5.68E\u201305 1.76E\u201302 1.38E\u201302 1.47E+02 1.23E+02 4.88E+05 1.53E+00 9.91E+01 4.83E+00 8.20E+01 9.23E+00 3.07E+01 3.95E+03 2.52E+02 4.87E+02 1.59E+02 4.54E+04 8.10E+00 9.58E+04 2.91E+02 X 8.62E\u201301 3.23E+02 7.39E+00 6.41E+00 9.29E+02 3.72E+03 8.00E+02 9.75E+01 1.83E+01 1.09E+01 7.15E\u201304 2.50E+02 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.91 E\u201301 1.46E+00 5.10E+00 8.65E\u201301 1.84E+00 7.15E\u201301 5.07E\u201301 5.89E\u201302 1.30E+00 2.87E\u201306 3.67E\u201301 5.46E\u201301 1.19E+02 2.49E+00 1.78E+05 5.47E\u201303 4.64E+00 3.20E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7123, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 307, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.91 E\u201301 1.46E+00 5.10E+00 8.65E\u201301 1.84E+00 7.15E\u201301 5.07E\u201301 5.89E\u201302 1.30E+00 2.87E\u201306 3.67E\u201301 5.46E\u201301 1.19E+02 2.49E+00 1.78E+05 5.47E\u201303 4.64E+00 3.20E\u201302 4.62E\u201301 2.66E\u201302 2.64E\u201301 6.02E+02 1.15E+00 2.24E+00 2.11E+00 2.55E+02 2.69E\u201301 1.64E+03 3.32E+01 X 2.03E\u201304 2.46E+01 8.28E+01 5.93E+01 9.13E+01 1.39E+01 5.80E\u201301 1.17E+03 2.30E\u201302 4.75E\u201302 2.37E\u201303 1.81E+01 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.08E\u201304 1.20E\u201301 2.07E\u201301 3.31 E\u201302 1.04E\u201301 3.55E\u201302 1.80E\u201302 6.27E\u201304 6.87E\u201302 3.84E\u201305 1.64E\u201302 1.38E\u201302 1.33E+02 1.34E+02 1.58E+06 1.10E+00 1.17E+02 4.72E+00 6.13E+01 3.64E+00 2.44E+01 5.00E+03 2.31 E+02 4.25E+02 8.11 E+01 3.40E+04 5.29E+00 7.64E+04 2.50E+01 X 5.48E\u201302 4.49E+02 1.81E+01 1.64E+01 8.00E+02 2.68E+03 4.11E+02 2.21E+02 2.36E+00 8.82E+00 5.44E\u201304 7.42E+02 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.58E\u201302 6.03E\u201301 2.01E+00 3.50E\u201301 7.43E\u201301 2.95E\u201301 2.12E\u201301 2.24E\u201302 5.53E\u201301 3.16E\u201306 1.62E\u201301 2.13E\u201301 7.91 E+01 2.70E+00 5.72E+05 6.83E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7124, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 307, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.44E\u201304 7.42E+02 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.58E\u201302 6.03E\u201301 2.01E+00 3.50E\u201301 7.43E\u201301 2.95E\u201301 2.12E\u201301 2.24E\u201302 5.53E\u201301 3.16E\u201306 1.62E\u201301 2.13E\u201301 7.91 E+01 2.70E+00 5.72E+05 6.83E\u201303 5.65E+00 3.71E\u201302 6.36E\u201301 1.20E\u201302 3.48E\u201301 7.43E+02 1.59E+00 3.26E+00 2.00E+00 3.60E+02 2.35E\u201301 2.38E+03 2.95E+00 X 8.46E\u201306 3.23E+01 8.34E+01 6.46E+01 1.01E+02 1.10E+01 1.69E\u201301 1.07E+03 2.00E\u201303 7.24E\u201302 1.13E\u201303 6.03E+01 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.47E\u201303 7.73E\u201301 1.19E+01 7.97E+00 1.71E+01 9.93E\u201301 5.40E\u201302 1.71E\u201303 2.19E\u201301 3.10E\u201304 6.23E\u201302 1.00E+00 1.72E+01 9.73E\u201301 2.69E+04 6.40E\u201301 3.92E+00 6.81E\u201301 1.10E+00 5.36E\u201301 3.67E\u201301 1.83E+01 1.22E+00 1.14E+01 1.32E+00 6.98E+03 2.14E+00 4.17E+03 1.99E+01 X 2.28E\u201301 8.84E+00 9.39E\u201301 1.63E+02 4.44E+00 7.23E+01 1.00E+00 8.55E+00 3.48E+00 5.03E\u201301 3.44E\u201303 3.10E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7125, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 308, "book_page": 307, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthre ne benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7126, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7127, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.29E+02 2.40E+02 2.03E+04 3.23E+00 4.34E+04 4.12E+02 1.00E\u201301 4.13E+02 8.25E+04 4.71E+00 1.25E+02 6.11E+03 1 .85E+03 3.40E\u201301 2.30E+02 3.72E+02 5.93E+01 3.95E+00 3.23E\u201303 3.75E+00 6.37E+00 1.45E+03 1.46E\u201301 5.82E\u201301 2.88E+02 1.61E+03 2.44E+02 3.05E+06 2.96E+03 6.89E+05 6.45E+03 3.42E+02 9.64E+01 2.59E+03 1.10E+01 5.96E\u201303 4.55E+03 3.12E\u201301 1.59E\u201304 5.12E\u201302 2.95E+02 2.28E+03 6.28E\u201301 7.37E\u201302 1.84E\u201302 2.49E\u201303 2.76E+01 2.93E\u201302 5.76E+04 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.59E+01 4.28E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7128, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.59E+03 1.10E+01 5.96E\u201303 4.55E+03 3.12E\u201301 1.59E\u201304 5.12E\u201302 2.95E+02 2.28E+03 6.28E\u201301 7.37E\u201302 1.84E\u201302 2.49E\u201303 2.76E+01 2.93E\u201302 5.76E+04 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.59E+01 4.28E+01 7.77E+03 2.90E\u201301 5.77E+05 4.54E\u201301 1.18E\u201304 4.13E+03 1.24E+04 8.08E\u201304 3.96E\u201302 9.27E+01 6.23E+00 1.42E+00 4.80E+01 1.21E+02 3.14E\u201301 1.78E\u201301 8.29E\u201302 5.97E+00 2.97E\u201302 5.84E\u201301 1.24E+00 4.95E+00 4.74E+01 2.10E+04 2.42E+03 4.64E+05 1.04E+01 1.03E+03 2.54E+02 1.70E+02 2.39E\u201301 1.14E+01 8.79E\u201302 6.23E\u201305 2.75E+01 4.78E\u201304 2.52E\u201303 1.42E\u201304 1.63E\u201301 3.07E+02 2.77E\u201303 1.70E\u201303 3.42E\u201303 2.61 E\u201304 1.22E\u201301 3.83E\u201305 1.14E+03 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.52E+03 7.77E+02 6.76E+04 4.74E\u201301 5.11E+04 1.22E+03 3.28E\u201302 1.06E+03 1.19E+05 4.14E\u201302 3.63E+01 6.21E+03 1.07E+03 2.79E\u201301 7.47E+02 3.78E+01 5.04E+01 3.11E+00 3.01 E\u201303 2.62E+00 5.48E+00 9.31E+02 3.74E\u201301 1.50E+00 9.25E+02 2.67E+03 6.12E+02 4.43E+06 2.33E+03 1.25E+06 5.18E+03 3.69E+02 1.45E+02 1.84E+03 6.60E+00 7.88E\u201303 3.26E+03 4.08E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7129, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.04E+01 3.11E+00 3.01 E\u201303 2.62E+00 5.48E+00 9.31E+02 3.74E\u201301 1.50E+00 9.25E+02 2.67E+03 6.12E+02 4.43E+06 2.33E+03 1.25E+06 5.18E+03 3.69E+02 1.45E+02 1.84E+03 6.60E+00 7.88E\u201303 3.26E+03 4.08E\u201302 1.15E\u201304 2.72E\u201302 1.32E+01 2.38E+02 4.12E\u201301 1.76E\u201301 4.08E\u201302 5.51E\u201303 2.04E+01 7.54E\u201303 1.59E+04 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 7.72E+01 1.49E+02 2.32E+04 4.45E\u201302 2.66E+05 1.71E+00 2.84E\u201305 4.92E+03 1.80E+04 9.87E\u201306 3.51E\u201303 1.37E+02 6.57E+00 7.94E\u201301 1.61E+02 3.33E+00 3.67E\u201301 2.22E\u201301 3.72E\u201302 1.71E+00 3.79E\u201302 5.80E\u201302 1.58E+00 6.32E+00 1.58E+02 1.45E+04 2.69E+03 6.75E+05 1.35E+01 2.76E+03 3.53E+02 5.35E+01 4.69E\u201301 1.45E+01 8.83E\u201302 4.42E\u201305 2.64E+01 4.49E\u201305 9.23E\u201304 7.41E\u201305 1.09E\u201302 1.07E+01 2.16E\u201303 3.21E\u201303 5.42E\u201303 4.08E\u201304 1.47E\u201301 9.14E\u201306 4.32E+02 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 2.29E+01 8.28E+00 3.86E+02 7.07E\u201301 3.46E+03 8.32E+01 1.01E\u201302 9.05E+01 2.19E+01 1.20E\u201301 1.44E\u201301 3.76E+01 5.93E+00 1.64E+00 6.28E+00 7.35E+01 1.21E+00 6.78E\u201301 1.17E\u201301 6.13E\u201301 1.18E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7130, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "eq./kg) 2.29E+01 8.28E+00 3.86E+02 7.07E\u201301 3.46E+03 8.32E+01 1.01E\u201302 9.05E+01 2.19E+01 1.20E\u201301 1.44E\u201301 3.76E+01 5.93E+00 1.64E+00 6.28E+00 7.35E+01 1.21E+00 6.78E\u201301 1.17E\u201301 6.13E\u201301 1.18E\u201301 1.70E+01 1.79E+02 1.79E+02 4.53E+00 2.11E+02 6.01E+00 1.19E+04 6.34E+01 7.76E+04 6.34E+02 5.92E+01 8.54E+00 4.87E+01 2.64E+00 1.40E\u201303 1.02E+01 2.27E\u201302 2.53E\u201304 1.40E\u201303 2.00E+02 1.03E+02 2.06E+00 7.26E\u201303 4.04E\u201303 5.49E\u201304 6.20E\u201301 1.43E+00 4.22E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7131, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 309, "book_page": 308, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7132, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7133, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.31 E+03 1.68E\u201304 2.88E+02 1.13E+03 4.47E+00 8.98E+00 7.09E+04 3.03E+04 1.78E\u201303 1.13E\u201309 2.96E+03 1.37E+04 1.51E+03 9.90E+02 1.50E+03 7.56E+01 1.32E+04 4.42E+01 3.67E+00 8.95E+00 1.22E+02 8.44E+01 4.26E+00 X X 3.56E+02 1.92E+00 3.96E+02 2.61E\u201301 3.71E+02 2.43E+03 6.45E+02 1.68E+00 7.84E+01 4.29E+02 1.50E+00 1.36E+01 1.41E+02 2.84E+04 1.36E\u201301 9.86E+03 9.49E+01 5.81E+03 1.45E+03 3.58E+01 1.89E\u201303 1.25E+01 4.78E+02 X MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.58E+01 5.16E\u201306 5.60E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7134, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.84E+01 4.29E+02 1.50E+00 1.36E+01 1.41E+02 2.84E+04 1.36E\u201301 9.86E+03 9.49E+01 5.81E+03 1.45E+03 3.58E+01 1.89E\u201303 1.25E+01 4.78E+02 X MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.58E+01 5.16E\u201306 5.60E\u201301 6.84E+00 1.41E\u201302 5.51 E\u201303 3.50E+04 7.23E+02 4.12E\u201304 7.82E\u201311 8.91E+00 5.71E+01 2.70E+01 3.74E+02 2.44E+01 5.26E+00 2.09E+03 5.55E\u201302 1.12E\u201302 9.55E\u201302 1.01E\u201301 3.42E+04 9.58E+02 X X 6.80E+01 1.81E\u201304 4.22E+00 2.15E+00 5.34E+00 4.37E+01 2.63E+00 2.24E\u201303 1.38E\u201301 6.58E+03 4.11E\u201303 1.14E\u201301 3.23E+00 8.87E+02 3.08E+00 1.51E+05 1.43E+01 9.13E+01 1.42E+00 3.38E+02 2.49E\u201304 1.91E\u201301 4.63E+03 X FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.91E+02 2.82E\u201304 9.90E+01 1.07E+03 7.51E\u201301 1.94E+00 2.16E+04 2.40E+04 1.18E\u201303 7.13E\u201310 1.66E+03 9.86E+03 2.46E+03 1.61E+03 2.45E+03 2.26E+02 1.83E+04 2.39E+01 3.59E+00 1.26E+01 1.51E+01 9.75E+01 1.37E+01 X X 1.16E+03 1.58E\u201301 1.48E+02 6.71E\u201301 9.69E+01 2.42E+03 3.77E+02 1.12E+00 5.27E+01 1.10E+03 7.85E\u201301 9.81E+00 1.54E+02 2.12E+04 7.26E\u201302 2.53E+04 9.17E+01 5.16E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7135, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.51E+01 9.75E+01 1.37E+01 X X 1.16E+03 1.58E\u201301 1.48E+02 6.71E\u201301 9.69E+01 2.42E+03 3.77E+02 1.12E+00 5.27E+01 1.10E+03 7.85E\u201301 9.81E+00 1.54E+02 2.12E+04 7.26E\u201302 2.53E+04 9.17E+01 5.16E+03 1.84E+02 7.93E+01 1.22E\u201303 4.90E+00 1.23E+03 X MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.26E+01 5.15E\u201306 1.60E\u201301 9.79E+00 3.29E\u201303 3.65E\u201304 2.55E+03 9.73E+02 3.19E\u201304 7.10E\u201311 4.50E+00 3.86E+01 7.16E+01 4.68E+02 6.53E+01 1.70E+01 2.74E+03 5.53E\u201302 9.91E\u201303 7.93E\u201302 2.01E\u201302 1.28E+04 1.10E+03 X X 2.36E+02 2.92E\u201306 2.66E+00 2.86E+00 1.10E+00 5.73E+01 1.47E+00 2.74E\u201303 1.81E\u201301 7.86E+03 3.22E\u201303 1.37E\u201301 4.70E+00 1.14E+03 8.30E\u201301 1.80E+05 1.59E+01 1.27E+02 1.57E\u201301 3.05E+02 2.25E\u201304 6.66E\u201302 5.00E+03 X TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 9.85E+00 4.82E\u201305 1.14E+01 1.86E+01 4.86E\u201301 2.79E+00 3.57E+03 1.86E+02 1.92E\u201303 2.26E\u201309 8.14E+01 2.80E+02 1.15E+01 1.14E+01 1.15E+01 2.30E+00 7.80E+01 4.37E+00 9.60E\u201302 5.33E+00 1.59E+01 4.74E+01 3.04E+00 X X 1.26E+01 2.99E\u201301 4.56E+00 1.34E+00 2.23E+01 1.82E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7136, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.92E\u201303 2.26E\u201309 8.14E+01 2.80E+02 1.15E+01 1.14E+01 1.15E+01 2.30E+00 7.80E+01 4.37E+00 9.60E\u201302 5.33E+00 1.59E+01 4.74E+01 3.04E+00 X X 1.26E+01 2.99E\u201301 4.56E+00 1.34E+00 2.23E+01 1.82E+01 7.53E\u201302 8.57E\u201302 3.29E+00 2.85E+04 3.77E\u201302 1.51E\u201301 8.81E\u201301 2.23E+02 3.74E\u201301 2.85E+04 2.17E+00 4.13E\u201301 8.99E+01 5.00E+00 2.95E\u201303 2.60E+00 6.87E+01 X", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7137, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 310, "book_page": 309, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance oxamyl oxydemethonmethyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitroben zene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequatchloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride x = not calculated Comp. indus. soil Indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7138, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7139, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 FAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 1.20E+02 3.59E+03 2.47E\u201303 1.94E+03 4.37E+03 1.14E+00 5.80E+01 1.31E+00 3.66E+03 1.17E+00 1.27E+01 7.87E+00 3.12E\u201305 5.22E+03 X 6.35E+01 5.35E+04 4.76E\u201301 1.44E\u201303 9.88E+02 1.45E+03 5.64E+03 2.65E\u201303 X 2.23E\u201303 5.61 E\u201304 1.26E+03 4.38E+03 2.76E\u201301 9.17E+00 1.05E\u201303 1.97E+02 1.91E+04 4.23E+03 1.83E+04 4.62E\u201304 4.74E\u201304 1.55E+02 1.49E+03 6.43E\u201305 1.42E+01 1.38E+03 5.4E+00 3.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+03 9.8E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.44E\u201302 7.32E+00 5.49E\u201304 9.17E+00 2.30E+01 5.37E+01 1.18E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7140, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.74E\u201304 1.55E+02 1.49E+03 6.43E\u201305 1.42E+01 1.38E+03 5.4E+00 3.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+03 9.8E\u201301 9.4E+00 MAETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 3.44E\u201302 7.32E+00 5.49E\u201304 9.17E+00 2.30E+01 5.37E+01 1.18E+02 2.68E\u201302 2.19E+01 3.46E\u201302 6.06E\u201303 5.50E\u201301 1.18E\u201308 2.29E+01 X 1.56E\u201301 1.04E+02 3.29E\u201302 3.23E\u201304 2.62E+00 2.22E+04 3.07E+01 1.85E\u201304 X 3.15E\u201301 1.14E+00 1.23E+04 4.16E+00 2.32E+00 3.91 E\u201301 4.47E\u201304 3.36E+00 1.74E+02 2.21E+03 3.73E+00 2.47E\u201303 4.71E\u201302 4.50E+00 1.45E+04 1.28E\u201304 1.34E+02 1.29E+01 3.8E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.7E+02 2.7E\u201301 1.7E+02 FSETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.50E+01 8.08E+02 1.98E\u201303 1.31E+03 2.65E+02 1.61E+00 1.68E+01 2.97E+00 4.84E+03 1.27E+00 4.70E+00 1.29E+00 6.33E\u201308 5.27E+03 X 3.44E+01 3.81E+04 2.55E\u201301 8.66E\u201304 8.97E+02 1.69E+03 4.80E+03 1.82E\u201303 X 2.13E\u201303 3.20E\u201304 3.19E+03 1.59E+03 1.42E\u201301 9.87E+00 7.53E\u201304 6.97E+01 1.79E+04 5.75E+03 3.39E+03 3.91 E\u201304 2.44E\u201304 1.27E+02 3.55E+03 5.20E\u201305 3.66E+01 1.09E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01 1.3E+03 1.5E+03 6.0E\u201301 7.6E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7141, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.19E+03 1.59E+03 1.42E\u201301 9.87E+00 7.53E\u201304 6.97E+01 1.79E+04 5.75E+03 3.39E+03 3.91 E\u201304 2.44E\u201304 1.27E+02 3.55E+03 5.20E\u201305 3.66E+01 1.09E+03 2.2E+00 3.1E+01 1.3E+03 1.5E+03 6.0E\u201301 7.6E+00 MSETP (500 yr) (kg 1 ,4DCB eq./kg) 9.86E\u201303 3.02E+00 5.97E\u201304 3.77E+00 9.76E\u201301 2.70E+01 8.81E+00 4.86E\u201302 1.67E+01 2.77E\u201302 4.01E\u201303 7.23E\u201302 6.77E\u201311 3.47E+01 X 1.47E\u201301 1.08E+02 1.75E\u201302 2.02E\u201304 2.52E+00 9.90E+03 4.57E+01 1.31E\u201304 X 1.14E\u201301 3.05E\u201301 1.26E+04 3.64E\u201301 6.01 E\u201301 4.42E\u201301 3.71 E\u201304 9.27E\u201301 2.42E+02 3.03E+03 5.62E\u201301 1.53E\u201303 1.29E\u201302 1.90E+00 1.45E+04 1.17E\u201304 1.60E+02 1.41E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 2.2E+02 1.4E\u201301 5.9E+01 TETP (500 yr) (kg 1,4DCB eq./kg) 5.98E+00 8.53E+01 3.36E\u201303 1.68E+01 7.92E+01 1.74E+00 2.61E+00 4.79E+00 2.51E+02 3.68E\u201302 4.15E\u201302 3.78E+00 4.22E\u201304 9.41E+01 X 2.29E+00 1.31E+03 1.23E\u201301 1.47E\u201303 2.90E+01 1.09E+02 2.07E+01 1.15E\u201303 X 3.02E\u201301 2.07E\u201303 2.13E+02 8.12E+01 1.22E+00 1.47E+00 1.86E\u201302 1.30E+00 2.03E+02 3.65E+01 2.60E+03 2.14E\u201303 1.56E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7142, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 2.29E+00 1.31E+03 1.23E\u201301 1.47E\u201303 2.90E+01 1.09E+02 2.07E+01 1.15E\u201303 X 3.02E\u201301 2.07E\u201303 2.13E+02 8.12E+01 1.22E+00 1.47E+00 1.86E\u201302 1.30E+00 2.03E+02 3.65E+01 2.60E+03 2.14E\u201303 1.56E\u201303 3.43E+01 4.44E+02 3.14E\u201304 7.50E+00 1.46E+01 6.8E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 2.3E+01 4.6E+00 1.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201303", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7143, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 311, "book_page": 310, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Status: Author(s). Equations: The five indicator results are expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while FAETP is the Fresh water Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, MAETP is the Marine Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, FSETP is the Fresh water Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, MSETP is the Marine Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, TETP is the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, and is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The five indicator scores can only be added after weighting (see Part 2a, Section 4.3.8). Remark: The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7144, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 311, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr. Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7145, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 312, "book_page": 311, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.8.5: Alternative MAETP, MSETP and TETP factors for characterising ecotoxic releases, for infinite time horizon and continental scale. Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7146, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.1E\u2013031 1.8E+00 1.3E+00 1.7E\u201301 1.3E+00 1.9E\u201301 5.7E\u201302 3.8E\u201303 3.1E\u201301 2.6E\u201306 4.8E\u201302 4.8E\u201302 8.9E+01 7.9E+01 1.2E+08 2.0E\u201301 2.6E+01 3.6E+00 5.1E+00 8.2E\u201301 9.2E+00 1.0E+03 2.2E+01 1.6E+00 1.8E+01 4.9E+02 5.2E\u201301 7.5E+03 5.3E+01 X 8.2E+00 1.2E+03 1.6E+02 1.1E+03 1.9E+02 1.6E+02 1.9E+02 3.6E+03 2.1E+01 6.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201304 7.7E+02 1.1E+03 9.6E+02 4.5E+04 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4-", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7147, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.2E+01 1.6E+00 1.8E+01 4.9E+02 5.2E\u201301 7.5E+03 5.3E+01 X 8.2E+00 1.2E+03 1.6E+02 1.1E+03 1.9E+02 1.6E+02 1.9E+02 3.6E+03 2.1E+01 6.1E\u201301 4.4E\u201304 7.7E+02 1.1E+03 9.6E+02 4.5E+04 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.7E\u201303 2.0E+00 1.6E+00 2.1E\u201301 1.5E+00 2.4E\u201301 8.4E\u201302 6.1E\u201303 4.2E\u201301 3.0E\u201306 7.1E\u201302 6.7E\u201302 1.4E+02 9.5E+01 6.3E+08 2.5E\u201301 4.0E+01 4.3E+00 7.2E+00 4.4E\u201301 1.3E+01 1.9E+03 3.1E+01 2.3E+00 1.8E+01 7.3E+02 6.7E\u201301 1.2E+04 5.2E+00 X 3.4E\u201301 1.9E+03 7.2E+02 5.5E+03 2.8E+02 1.3E+02 5.7E+01 1.5E+04 1.8E+00 9.4E\u201301 6.1E\u201304 3.1E+03 3.9E+03 5.0E+03 2.6E+05 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.7E\u201306 2.1E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 1.7E\u201302 4.7E\u201302 2.2E\u201303 1.2E\u201304 4.4E\u201306 4.7E\u201304 2.2E\u201308 1.2E\u201304 2.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 9.0E+03 3.2E\u201301 1.4E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 6.0E\u201301 1.9E\u201302 4.4E\u201302 8.7E+00 4.7E\u201301 1.5E\u201302 6.9E\u201301 1.5E+01 5.0E\u201303 1.9E+03 1.4E\u201302 X 9.1E\u201302 2.6E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.2E+03 2.0E+00 2.3E+00 1.9E\u201301 3.5E+00 4.7E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 5.3E\u201306 2.3E\u201301 2.4E\u201301 2.0E\u201301 2.9E+01 Part 2b: Operational annex 1 Means air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7148, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 313, "book_page": 312, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7149, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 313, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.8E\u201301 2.2E+06 9.6E+02 2.7E\u201301 7.7E+03 1.6E+04 1.0E+01 1.2E+01 6.7E+02 1.5E+02 3.0E\u201301 2.2E+03 3.1E+04 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 7.6E+00 6.2E\u201301 5.9E+01 4.2E+01 1.7E+02 2.3E+02 2.6E+04 5.2E+03 1.9E+05 6.2E+02 1.8E+04 7.7E+02 3.1E+04 3.3E+03 8.8E+00 2.5E+00 2.2E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7150, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 313, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.7E+02 1.5E+02 3.0E\u201301 2.2E+03 3.1E+04 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 7.6E+00 6.2E\u201301 5.9E+01 4.2E+01 1.7E+02 2.3E+02 2.6E+04 5.2E+03 1.9E+05 6.2E+02 1.8E+04 7.7E+02 3.1E+04 3.3E+03 8.8E+00 2.5E+00 2.2E+00 1.1E+02 3.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201304 6.1E\u201302 3.3E+02 2.9E+03 2.5E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.0E+00 3.0E+00 1.6E+00 2.4E\u201302 3.4E+03 4.4E+03 4.7E\u201301 2.0E+01 1.1E+02 1.3E+00 1.8E+01 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.4E\u201301 4.7E+06 3.7E+03 6.8E\u201302 3.8E+04 3.4E+04 1.2E\u201301 1.0E+00 1.0E+03 1.6E+02 4.6E\u201301 1.2E+04 1.2E+03 1.3E+01 2.5E\u201301 1.8E\u201302 5.0E+00 8.0E\u201301 5.9E+00 2.1E+02 8.3E+02 1.2E+03 8.2E+04 2.5E+04 4.2E+05 8.1E+02 4.9E+04 1.2E+03 1.7E+04 6.7E+03 1.1E+01 2.6E+00 1.7E+00 1.1E+02 3.6E\u201302 3.2E\u201304 3.2E\u201302 2.5E+01 1.4E+02 2.1E\u201301 3.0E+00 7.2E+00 5.3E+00 2.0E+00 6.0E\u201303 1.4E+03 1.7E+03 5.0E\u201301 5.7E+00 1.6E+02 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.7E\u201304 1.3E+03 8.3E+00 1.1E\u201303 5.9E+01 5.8E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 2.1E\u201303 9.9E\u201301 1.8E+00 4.8E\u201301 4.4E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 3.6E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.2E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7151, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 313, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.7E\u201304 1.3E+03 8.3E+00 1.1E\u201303 5.9E+01 5.8E+00 2.4E\u201302 6.3E\u201302 2.0E+01 3.0E+00 2.1E\u201303 9.9E\u201301 1.8E+00 4.8E\u201301 4.4E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 3.6E\u201302 1.2E\u201301 2.2E+03 2.2E+03 2.1E\u201301 7.8E+01 5.0E+00 1.0E+03 3.1E+01 8.5E+03 3.1E+02 1.5E+01 7.3E\u201301 3.0E\u201301 1.2E+00 2.0E\u201304 2.8E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 6.3E\u201307 6.8E\u201304 7.9E+00 9.6E\u201301 4.1E\u201301 6.5E\u201304 8.1E\u201304 9.7E\u201305 3.0E\u201301 5.8E\u201301 8.1E+01 2.4E+00 8.9E\u201306 4.2E\u201302 8.7E+00 2.4E\u201301 3.3E\u201302 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7152, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 314, "book_page": 313, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7153, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 314, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+04 6.2E+02 4.9E\u201304 5.2E\u201311 1.5E+03 1.6E+03 1.9E+04 1.4E+04 1.8E+04 1.4E+02 1.2E+03 1.4E+00 1.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.3E+01 1.0E+03 5.0E+01 X X 4.1E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.0E+01 6.4E+01 3.8E+01 2.5E+01 1.4E+03 2.8E\u201301 4.1E+00 9.8E+03 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.3E+01 3.4E+03 1.2E\u201301 2.2E+05 2.5E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7154, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 314, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2E+03 1.4E+00 1.7E+01 2.8E+00 7.3E+01 1.0E+03 5.0E+01 X X 4.1E+03 3.2E\u201301 3.0E+01 6.4E+01 3.8E+01 2.5E+01 1.4E+03 2.8E\u201301 4.1E+00 9.8E+03 2.4E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.3E+01 3.4E+03 1.2E\u201301 2.2E+05 2.5E+01 3.5E+02 5.4E+03 9.0E+03 3.4E\u201304 8.2E\u201301 1.8E+04 X 1.4E+00 5.0E+02 7.0E\u201304 3.0E+03 6.8E+02 1.1E+01 1.1E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.9E+03 9.1E+02 5.3E\u201304 6.4E\u201311 7.5E+02 1.1E+03 5.1E+04 3.8E+04 5.0E+04 5.6E+02 2.3E+03 1.5E+00 1.5E+01 2.4E+00 1.5E+01 1.1E+03 2.6E+02 X X 2.1E+04 5.2E\u201303 2.0E+01 3.2E+02 8.3E+00 3.4E+01 7.7E+02 3.5E\u201301 5.3E+00 4.8E+04 1.9E\u201301 2.6E+00 3.6E+01 4.9E+03 1.1E\u201301 1.1E+06 4.1E+01 5.1E+02 6.0E+02 3.7E+04 3.4E\u201304 3.1E\u201301 8.9E+04 X 4.0E\u201301 2.1E+02 9.3E\u201304 1.3E+03 3.0E+01 2.0E+01 1.5E+02 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.9E+01 1.6E+01 1.1E\u201306 1.0E\u201312 2.1E+01 1.5E+01 4.8E+00 8.5E\u201302 5.0E+00 1.7E\u201302 1.5E+00 8.2E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.4E\u201304 2.1E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 X X 7.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 1.1E+01 1.4E+00 2.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 1.8E+00 1.9E+04 1.9E\u201302 7.4E\u201302 4.4E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7155, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 314, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.8E+00 8.5E\u201302 5.0E+00 1.7E\u201302 1.5E+00 8.2E\u201301 4.7E\u201302 8.4E\u201304 2.1E+00 2.1E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 X X 7.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 2.5E+00 1.1E+01 1.4E+00 2.0E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 1.8E+00 1.9E+04 1.9E\u201302 7.4E\u201302 4.4E\u201301 1.2E+02 1.1E\u201303 1.9E+04 9.9E\u201301 1.1E\u201301 4.3E+01 1.3E+01 5.9E\u201307 7.5E\u201304 8.4E+01 X 2.9E+00 4.1E+01 1.1E\u201306 1.1E+00 5.5E+00 6.6E\u201303 3.3E\u201302 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7156, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 315, "book_page": 314, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7157, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 315, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB 3.5E+01 2.9E+04 5.6E+00 5.1E\u201301 1.6E+00 8.5E\u201303 4.0E+02 X 6.6E+00 1.7E+03 4.2E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 9.1E+01 9.8E+04 2.7E+02 4.7E\u201304 X 8.8E\u201303 8.3E\u201303 1.2E+05 1.9E+02 6.3E+01 1.3E+00 4.0E\u201304 1.3E+02 8.0E+02 2.3E+05 1.8E+03 6.8E\u201304 2.0E\u201303 9.4E+01 5.8E+04 6.2E\u201305", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7158, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 315, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "X 6.6E+00 1.7E+03 4.2E\u201302 4.7E\u201304 9.1E+01 9.8E+04 2.7E+02 4.7E\u201304 X 8.8E\u201303 8.3E\u201303 1.2E+05 1.9E+02 6.3E+01 1.3E+00 4.0E\u201304 1.3E+02 8.0E+02 2.3E+05 1.8E+03 6.8E\u201304 2.0E\u201303 9.4E+01 5.8E+04 6.2E\u201305 4.5E+02 3.9E+02 3.7E+00 7.0E\u201301 1.1E+02 1.1E+02 2.3E\u201301 1.9E+05 1.8E+00 1.4E+00 2.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.4E\u201302 4.2E\u201303 3.5E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 6.7E+01 2.2E+04 5.1E+00 3.5E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 4.9E\u201305 6.2E+02 X 6.4E+00 1.8E+03 4.4E\u201302 3.6E\u201304 8.8E+01 2.0E+05 4.1E+02 3.5E\u201304 X 1.4E\u201302 8.8E\u201303 5.6E+05 1.7E+01 6.2E+01 1.6E+00 5.0E\u201304 3.8E+01 1.2E+03 3.6E+05 2.7E+02 1.0E\u201303 1.8E\u201303 4.3E+01 2.7E+05 9.7E\u201305 2.2E+03 4.5E+02 2.3E+00 7.3E\u201301 1.6E+02 2.2E+02 2.7E\u201301 3.0E+05 2.0E+00 1.8E+00 2.5E\u201301 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201301 9.5E\u201302 6.7E\u201303 4.7E\u201301 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.1E+00 2.5E+01 1.1E\u201304 3.1E\u201303 1.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.1E\u201301 7.0E+02 5.7E\u201304 4.6E\u201307 2.3E+00 3.9E+01 8.7E+00 1.3E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 2.5E+02 2.9E+01 1.0E+01 3.3E\u201304 1.1E\u201305 6.4E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.5E+01 1.2E+03 2.4E\u201306 4.3E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7159, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 315, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201304 4.6E+01 X 5.1E\u201301 7.0E+02 5.7E\u201304 4.6E\u201307 2.3E+00 3.9E+01 8.7E+00 1.3E\u201307 X 8.1E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 2.5E+02 2.9E+01 1.0E+01 3.3E\u201304 1.1E\u201305 6.4E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.5E+01 1.2E+03 2.4E\u201306 4.3E\u201306 1.6E\u201302 4.8E+02 1.9E\u201307 8.6E+00 7.2E+00 3.3E\u201302 3.4E\u201303 1.3E+01 6.4E\u201301 8.2E\u201304 2.8E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 1.7E\u201302 4.4E\u201302 2.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201304 4.4E\u201306 4.6E\u201304 Part 2b: Operational annex eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7160, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 316, "book_page": 315, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7161, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 316, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7162, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 316, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.5E\u201303 5.8E\u201302 5.6E\u201302 1.1E+02 8.4E+01 2.5E+07 6.0E\u201302 5.1E+01 1.6E+00 2.2E+00 2.3E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.7E+03 1.1E+01 1.3E+01 1.4E+01 1.0E+03 3.5E\u201301 6.9E+03 1.9E+02 2.5E\u201301 2.4E+03 1 .3E+02 6.0E+02 3.3E+02 9.8E+02 3.5E+01 3.9E+03 8.5E+00 2.2E\u201301 5.7E\u201304 6.4E+03 1.0E+04 5.3E+03 1.7E+05 6.0E\u201301 2.5E+06 2.1E+02 5.2E\u201302 1.8E+03 4.7E+04 1.0E\u201301 1.4E+00 5.4E+02 4.3E+01 6.4E\u201301 3.0E+03 5.7E+03 5.6E+00 1.0E+00 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.8E\u201303 8.6E\u201302 7.8E\u201302 1.8E+02 1.0E+02 1.3E+08 7.6E\u201302 7.7E+01 1.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.1E+03 1.5E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+03 4.6E\u201301 1.1E+04 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201302 3.9E+03 6.0E+02 2.9E+03 4.9E+02 7.9E+02 1.0E+01 1.6E+04 7.4E\u201301 3.3E\u201301 7.9E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7163, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 316, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.6E\u201302 7.7E+01 1.9E+00 3.1E+00 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 3.1E+03 1.5E+01 2.0E+01 1.4E+01 1.5E+03 4.6E\u201301 1.1E+04 1.9E+01 1.0E\u201302 3.9E+03 6.0E+02 2.9E+03 4.9E+02 7.9E+02 1.0E+01 1.6E+04 7.4E\u201301 3.3E\u201301 7.9E\u201304 2.6E+04 3.5E+04 2.8E+04 9.9E+05 1.5E\u201301 5.4E+06 8.1E+02 1.3E\u201302 9.0E+03 1.0E+05 1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 8.5E+02 4.6E+01 9.9E\u201301 1.6E+04 2.3E+02 6.7E+00 1.5E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201308 1.1E\u201304 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 1.1E\u201303 4.4E+02 3.6E\u201308 3.6E\u201302 6.2E\u201304 9.3E\u201310 6.1E\u201304 1.1E\u201303 7.5E\u201304 9.3E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 2.2E\u201308 5.2E+00 2.4E\u201303 1.9E\u201301 1.3E\u201302 5.0E\u201308 1.6E\u201302 5.7E\u201322 4.2E\u201319 7.6E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 3.3E\u201306 1.6E\u201320 8.2E\u201308 1.8E\u201307 4.7E\u201306 1.4E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 4.3E\u201304 1.9E\u201301 4.8E\u201304 1.0E\u201317 2.0E\u201302 5.6E\u201306 1.1E\u201321 1.9E\u201307 6.2E\u201308 2.6E\u201307 6.3E\u201308 3.5E\u201305 2.0E\u201303 2.0E\u201303 8.0E\u201302 4.5E\u201305 3.6E\u201304 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7164, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 317, "book_page": 316, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7165, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 317, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7166, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 317, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.5E\u201302 6.5E+00 3.4E\u201301 2.4E+02 8.8E+00 3.5E+01 1.7E+03 2.1E+04 1.5E+03 1.8E+06 1.9E+02 1.0E+04 8.7E+02 2.2E+03 9.7E+02 9.4E+01 1.5E+00 3.6E\u201301 6.2E+02 7.6E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201302 1.2E+01 5.8E+03 1.1E\u201301 1.1E+00 2.1E+00 4.0E\u201301 7.4E\u201301 1.7E\u201303 5.4E+03 4.9E+03 3.4E\u201302 1.2E+02 5.3E+01 3.4E\u201301 1.1E+01 1.0E+05 3.2E+03 1.1E\u201303 2.8E\u201305 6.6E+02 3.6E+03 3.1E+03 6.9E+03 3.1E+03 6.6E+02 7.3E+03 1.9E\u201301 4.1E+00 1.2E+01 1.1E+01 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201302 4.3E+00 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 4.3E+01 1.7E+02 8.7E+03 6.7E+04 7.3E+03 3.8E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.2E+03 2.0E+03 1.2E+02 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201301 6.1E+02 7.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201304 7.7E\u201303 9.1E\u201301 2.7E+02 9.3E\u201302 2.3E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7167, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 317, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3E+00 4.5E\u201301 2.4E+01 4.3E+01 1.7E+02 8.7E+03 6.7E+04 7.3E+03 3.8E+06 2.5E+02 2.7E+04 1.4E+03 1.2E+03 2.0E+03 1.2E+02 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201301 6.1E+02 7.5E\u201303 3.4E\u201304 7.7E\u201303 9.1E\u201301 2.7E+02 9.3E\u201302 2.3E+00 3.7E+00 7.0E\u201301 9.1E\u201301 4.3E\u201304 2.2E+03 1.9E+03 3.6E\u201302 3.4E+01 7.8E+01 8.0E\u201302 7.7E\u201301 1.4E+04 4.7E+03 1.2E\u201303 3.4E\u201305 3.4E+02 2.5E+03 8.6E+03 1.9E+04 8.6E+03 2.6E+03 1.4E+04 2.0E\u201301 3.7E+00 1.0E+01 2.3E+00 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201304 1.3E\u201303 2.4E\u201305 2.0E\u201302 2.0E\u201320 2.0E\u201320 8.1E\u201303 9.3E\u201320 2.6E\u201322 5.8E+00 2.2E\u201306 1.5E+01 1.9E\u201306 2.5E\u201301 3.0E\u201302 1.2E\u201302 3.6E\u201305 6.1E\u201306 4.0E\u201303 1.1E\u201305 5.7E\u201307 6.1E\u201312 1.2E\u201302 2.2E\u201301 4.3E\u201303 2.2E\u201304 3.3E\u201304 5.5E\u201306 1.2E\u201305 3.3E\u201304 2.8E\u201301 9.1E\u201303 1.2E\u201307 1.2E\u201303 1.7E\u201303 8.5E\u201307 1.7E\u201303 3.3E\u201301 2.3E\u201301 8.8E\u201307 8.7E\u201313 4.6E\u201303 8.5E\u201302 5.5E\u201303 3.0E\u201302 1.9E\u201303 4.5E\u201303 5.1E\u201301 1.4E\u201303 2.2E\u201311 5.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201303 Part 2b: Operational annex 1698-60-8", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7168, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 318, "book_page": 317, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7169, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 318, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water CAS number 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7170, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 318, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+03 5.3E+01 8.3E+03 1.5E\u201302 1.9E+01 1.3E+01 8.2E+01 5.1E+02 7.6E+02 3.6E\u201302 6.6E\u201301 2.0E+03 6.3E\u201302 1.2E+00 2.3E+01 3.7E+03 1.2E\u201301 4.6E+04 3.8E+01 5.4E+02 5.7E+02 9.7E+03 2.0E\u201303 1.0E+00 1.1E+04 1.8E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.3E\u201303 5.2E+03 1.4E+03 1.1E+01 6.7E+02 1.1E+01 2.6E+04 9.3E+00 5.6E\u201302 4.9E+00 4.1E\u201306 1.5E+02 2.4E+00 5.0E+02 2.3E\u201302 2.0E\u201303 1.2E+02 1.2E+05 1.4E+02 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.5E+03 2.8E+02 4.4E+04 2.4E\u201304 1.3E+01 6.5E+01 1.8E+01 7.2E+02 4.3E+02 4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 9.9E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 3.6E+01 5.2E+03 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+05 6.3E+01 8.0E+02 6.3E+01 4.0E+04 2.1E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 5.5E+04 5.3E\u201302 5.8E+01 3.0E\u201303 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 2.1E+01 9.2E+01 2.1E+01 2.0E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7171, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 318, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4E\u201302 8.7E\u201301 9.9E+03 5.0E\u201302 1.5E+00 3.6E+01 5.2E+03 1.2E\u201301 2.3E+05 6.3E+01 8.0E+02 6.3E+01 4.0E+04 2.1E\u201303 3.8E\u201301 5.5E+04 5.3E\u201302 5.8E+01 3.0E\u201303 2.2E+03 6.2E+01 2.1E+01 9.2E+01 2.1E+01 2.0E+04 8.4E+00 3.8E\u201302 6.7E\u201301 2.4E\u201308 2.4E+02 2.3E+00 5.2E+02 2.5E\u201302 1.5E\u201303 1.2E+02 2.5E+05 2.1E+02 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.1E\u201301 2.0E\u201302 6.0E\u201306 4.4E\u201308 1.6E\u201305 4.7E\u201323 1.2E\u201301 1.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201311 1.1E\u201308 9.2E+01 8.5E\u201310 1.4E\u201306 2.0E\u201305 2.2E\u201303 9.5E\u201304 9.2E+01 4.5E\u201304 2.1E\u201304 2.3E\u201305 7.2E\u201320 5.4E\u201307 4.5E\u201304 4.0E\u201320 7.1E\u201306 4.6E\u201304 9.9E\u201307 3.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 6.4E\u201303 1.4E\u201302 3.0E\u201304 3.7E\u201301 5.0E\u201305 2.3E\u201306 1.4E\u201302 1.2E\u201310 9.3E\u201304 7.7E\u201304 3.1E\u201304 2.5E\u201304 4.2E\u201307 1.6E\u201303 4.7E\u201319 1 .0E\u201303 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7172, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 319, "book_page": 318, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7173, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 319, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4-DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7174, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 319, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4-DCB eq./kg) 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 1.2E+05 7.4E+01 1.3E+01 4.2E+00 9.6E\u201304 7.2E+02 1.5E+03 1.8E+05 8.3E+01 1.4E\u201303 2.3E\u201303 3.9E+02 4.2E+04 2.9E\u201304 1.1E+02 2.4E+02 3.0E\u201303 1.9E+00 8.7E+00 5.3E+01 5.3E+02 1.9E\u201301 2.5E+05 8.5E\u201302 8.7E+00 8.4E+00 2.6E+00 7.3E+00 2.2E+00 6.3E\u201301 2.5E\u201302 3.0E+00 7.2E\u201301 7.8E\u201301 6.3E\u201301 2.5E+02 2.0E+02 3.2E+08 3.9E\u201301 1.0E+02 7.4E+00 9.9E+00 3.7E+00 4.4E+01 1.9E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.6E\u201303 2.3E\u201302 1.2E\u201302 5.8E+05 6.6E+00 1.3E+01 5.1E+00 1.2E\u201303 2.1E+02 2.1E+03 2.8E+05 1.3E+01 2.0E\u201303 2.1E\u201303 1.8E+02 1.9E+05 4.6E\u201304 5.4E+02 2.7E+02 4.5E\u201303 1.2E+00 9.2E+00 7.7E+01 1.0E+03 2.2E\u201301 4.0E+05 1.3E\u201301 9.6E+00 1.0E+01 3.2E+00 8.2E+00 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 4.1E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.2E+00 8.8E\u201301 4.0E+02 2.4E+02 1.7E+09 4.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 8.9E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.0E+01 3.6E+03 TETP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7175, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 319, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.2E\u201301 4.0E+05 1.3E\u201301 9.6E+00 1.0E+01 3.2E+00 8.2E+00 2.6E+00 9.3E\u201301 4.0E\u201302 4.1E+00 8.3E\u201301 1.2E+00 8.8E\u201301 4.0E+02 2.4E+02 1.7E+09 4.9E\u201301 1.6E+02 8.9E+00 1.4E+01 2.0E+00 6.0E+01 3.6E+03 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4-DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u201307 8.0E\u201304 1.6E\u201305 9.9E\u201319 8.6E\u201302 7.4E\u201323 3.0E\u201304 1.0E\u201305 2.5E\u201303 3.9E\u201302 9.9E\u201302 7.0E\u201305 2.3E\u201306 4.2E\u201306 1.3E\u201302 3.7E\u201319 1.8E\u201307 2.0E\u201322 1.3E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 3.0E\u201311 1.1E\u201304 5.8E\u201312 5.2E\u201302 5.7E\u201304 1.4E\u201306 4.5E\u201306 7.8E\u201304 1.4E\u201302 7.9E\u201303 1.8E\u201302 9.7E\u201304 5.2E\u201305 3.3E\u201306 2.1E\u201304 3.9E\u201309 5.3E\u201305 1.0E\u201303 3.0E\u201302 3.4E\u201306 5.7E+02 6.3E\u201311 5.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201305 1.8E\u201312 4.0E\u201306 2.3E\u201305 5.9E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7176, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 320, "book_page": 319, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7177, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 320, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CASnumber 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7178, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 320, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.8E+01 9.4E+01 3.5E+01 8.7E+03 3.1E+00 1.4E+04 7.3E+03 2.0E+01 1.5E+04 2.3E+02 1.7E+03 4.1E+02 5.8E+03 9.9E+02 5.1E+03 1.5E+02 1.2E+00 1.5E\u201302 6.5E+04 1.0E+05 3.8E+04 5.8E+05 7.8E+00 3.0E+06 8.9E+03 1.6E+00 1.5E+04 5.5E+04 4.0E+01 2.4E+01 1.3E+03 2.9E+02 2.9E+01 1.3E+04 3.3E+05 2.7E+01 6.8E+00 2.7E\u201301 3.4E+01 1.9E+00 2.2E+03 8.4E+01 3.4E+02 4.4E+03 3.9E+04 9.6E+03 2.1E+06 1.2E+03 1.6E+05 1.3E+03 1.1E+05 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.2E+01 1.4E+02 3.4E+01 1.3E+04 4.0E+00 2.2E+04 7.2E+02 8.3E\u201301 2.4E+04 1.1E+03 8.5E+03 6.1E+02 4.7E+03 2.9E+02 2.1E+04 1.3E+01 1.8E+00 2.0E\u201302 2.7E+05 3.5E+05 2.0E+05 3.4E+06 1.9E+00 6.4E+06 3.4E+04 4.0E\u201301 7.6E+04 1.2E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.0E+03 3.1E+02 4.5E+01 6.8E+04 1.3E+04 3.2E+01 9.8E+00 4.2E\u201301 2.2E+01 2.5E+00 2.2E+02 4.1E+02 1.7E+03 2.2E+04 1.2E+05", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7179, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 320, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.0E+05 3.4E+06 1.9E+00 6.4E+06 3.4E+04 4.0E\u201301 7.6E+04 1.2E+05 5.0E\u201301 2.1E+00 2.0E+03 3.1E+02 4.5E+01 6.8E+04 1.3E+04 3.2E+01 9.8E+00 4.2E\u201301 2.2E+01 2.5E+00 2.2E+02 4.1E+02 1.7E+03 2.2E+04 1.2E+05 4.6E+04 4.6E+06 1.6E+03 4.5E+05 2.1E+03 5.9E+04 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.7E\u201308 8.3E\u201305 5.3E\u201310 1.4E\u201301 7.2E\u201305 4.7E\u201303 6.3E\u201303 7.0E\u201310 3.2E\u201303 9.0E\u201322 9.1E\u201319 4.6E\u201305 3.3E\u201304 4.9E\u201308 2.0E\u201320 1.4E\u201309 3.3E\u201310 5.9E\u201307 5.8E\u201303 7.6E\u201304 2.2E\u201304 6.7E\u201302 1.5E\u201305 1.2E\u201317 5.6E\u201304 8.9E\u201308 5.1E\u201321 1.4E\u201308 9.3E\u201310 1.1E\u201309 1.6E\u201310 6.1E\u201307 4.2E\u201304 6.8E\u201304 2.1E\u201301 8.5E\u201307 5.9E\u201305 1.1E\u201304 8.8E\u201305 4.4E\u201307 5.5E\u201305 1.0E\u201319 1.0E\u201319 1.4E\u201303 1.5E\u201319 9.4E\u201322 4.4E\u201301 3.9E\u201308 2.4E\u201301 7.1E\u201308 6.8E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7180, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 321, "book_page": 320, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7181, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 321, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.6E+04 5.4E+02 5.2E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7182, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 321, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.6E+04 5.4E+02 5.2E+00 1.5E+01 2.8E+03 1.7E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.2E\u201301 2.4E+03 3.9E+04 7.8E\u201301 9.5E+00 1.9E+01 1.5E+01 3.3E+00 5.2E\u201302 1.2E+04 1.1E+04 2.4E+00 1.4E+03 2.3E+02 2.6E+00 3.2E+02 8.1E+05 5.9E+03 6.1E\u201302 2.6E\u201303 5.6E+03 2.2E+04 3.9E+04 3.9E+04 3.9E+04 3.2E+03 1.2E+04 5.6E+00 3.3E+01 1.1E+03 4.5E+02 3.0E+04 2.1E+02 6.3E+04 7.2E\u201301 5.6E+01 1.3E+02 2.1E+02 1.2E+03 5.0E+03 5.6E\u201301 8.0E+00 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.2E+04 7.0E+02 5.4E+00 1.1E+01 2.7E+03 1.6E\u201301 3.6E\u201303 6.4E\u201302 1.8E+02 1.8E+03 6.5E\u201301 2.0E+01 3.4E+01 2.7E+01 4.1E+00 1.3E\u201302 4.9E+03 4.4E+03 2.6E+00 4.2E+02 3.4E+02 6.0E\u201301 2.2E+01 1.1E+05 8.7E+03 6.7E\u201302 3.1E\u201303 2.8E+03 1.5E+04 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.3E+04 2.5E+04 6.0E+00 3.0E+01 9.2E+02 9.1E+01 3.3E+04 1.1E+03 3.3E+05 1.2E\u201302 3.7E+01 6.6E+02 4.7E+01 1.6E+03 2.8E+03 6.9E\u201301 1.0E+01 TETP", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7183, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 321, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.7E\u201302 3.1E\u201303 2.8E+03 1.5E+04 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.1E+05 1.3E+04 2.5E+04 6.0E+00 3.0E+01 9.2E+02 9.1E+01 3.3E+04 1.1E+03 3.3E+05 1.2E\u201302 3.7E+01 6.6E+02 4.7E+01 1.6E+03 2.8E+03 6.9E\u201301 1.0E+01 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.3E\u201303 2.3E\u201304 7.4E\u201307 8.9E\u201307 8.0E\u201305 1.7E\u201307 9.5E\u201308 1.1E\u201314 1.7E\u201304 8.0E\u201302 7.7E\u201305 1.5E\u201305 5.6E\u201305 3.1E\u201306 1.8E\u201307 4.2E\u201306 8.2E\u201304 3.5E\u201305 8.0E\u201308 2.1E\u201305 3.2E\u201305 1.5E\u201309 1.5E\u201305 2.7E\u201301 6.9E\u201303 7.6E\u201308 7.7E\u201314 8.2E\u201305 1.6E\u201303 9.8E\u201305 8.1E\u201304 3.5E\u201305 8.2E\u201304 5.6E\u201302 2.1E\u201305 4.4E\u201314 2.3E\u201305 2.3E\u201305 1.1E\u201301 1.7E\u201302 3.5E\u201306 1.5E\u201310 3.7E\u201307 2.7E\u201322 3.1E\u201303 3.0E\u201304 2.0E\u201307 2.2E\u201314 1.8E\u201311 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7184, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 322, "book_page": 321, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust(PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7185, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 322, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater CAS number 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.8E+04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7186, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 322, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.8E+04 4.8E\u201301 4.2E+00 4.3E+01 6.0E+03 2.1E+00 4.0E+05 4.3E+01 1.3E+03 1.1E+04 1.2E+04 1.4E\u201301 3.3E+01 2.9E+04 2.8E+00 1.0E+03 1.3E\u201301 4.0E+04 7.9E+03 5.0E+01 3.1E+03 7.3E+01 2.8E+05 6.9E+01 4.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.7E\u201302 8.4E+02 2.6E+01 3.4E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.1E+03 1.3E+05 6.6E+02 1.2E\u201301 4.6E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 1.7E+05 4.2E+02 1.3E+02 1.4E+02 5.0E\u201302 3.1E+03 4.7E+03 4.9E+05 3.6E+03 5.3E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.7E+04 3.8E\u201301 5.2E+00 6.9E+01 8.6E+03 1.9E+00 2.0E+06 7.2E+01 1.9E+03 1.2E+03 5.0E+04 1.4E\u201301 1.2E+01 1.4E+05 8.0E\u201301 4.2E+02 1.7E\u201301 1.7E+04 3.4E+02 9.3E+01 4.3E+02 1.4E+02 2.2E+05 6.3E+01 3.2E+00 4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 2.8E+05 1.0E+03 9.2E\u201302 7.2E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 7.8E+05 3.7E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E+02 6.3E\u201302 9.0E+02 6.8E+03 7.7E+05 5.4E+02 8.0E\u201302 TETP (inf) (kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7187, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 322, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.1E+01 9.9E\u201305 1.3E+03 2.5E+01 3.6E+03 1.5E\u201301 9.7E\u201302 1.1E+03 2.8E+05 1.0E+03 9.2E\u201302 7.2E\u201301 2.2E\u201301 7.8E+05 3.7E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E+02 6.3E\u201302 9.0E+02 6.8E+03 7.7E+05 5.4E+02 8.0E\u201302 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 4.1E+02 1.4E\u201311 3.0E\u201308 5.8E\u201307 7.3E\u201305 7.9E\u201305 4.1E+02 3.3E\u201305 5.3E\u201306 3.2E\u201307 8.6E\u201320 9.7E\u201308 1.7E\u201305 8.1E\u201320 2.3E\u201308 5.2E\u201306 1.7E\u201307 8.0E\u201305 6.8E\u201304 4.2E\u201303 7.7E\u201303 2.4E\u201306 1.6E\u201302 5.2E\u201306 3.5E\u201308 1.3E\u201303 2.8E\u201312 1.7E\u201305 1.3E\u201305 3.2E\u201306 6.9E\u201306 7.5E\u201308 2.8E\u201305 5.2E\u201319 1.9E\u201305 2.6E\u201308 4.0E\u201304 1.2E\u201305 1.2E\u201318 2.8E\u201304 3.9E\u201322 6.4E\u201305 1.3E\u201306 1.2E\u201304 8.2E\u201304 5.8E\u201303 4.8E\u201307 9.7E\u201307 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7188, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 323, "book_page": 322, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl Comp. seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7189, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 323, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7190, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 323, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.7E\u201302 7.8E+03 8.9E+04 1.8E\u201302 8.9E+02 7.8E+02 7.3E+00 4.3E+01 2.2E+02 6.7E+02 7.0E\u201301 2.5E+05 3.0E\u201303 4.1E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 5.4E\u201302 4.5E\u201302 4.2E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 2.7E\u201306 3.8E\u201302 3.6E\u201302 3.1E+01 5.5E\u201301 2.3E+04 1.6E\u201303 9.5E\u201301 7.9E\u201303 1.6E\u201301 5.5E\u201303 6.5E\u201302 1.6E+02 3.2E\u201301 7.6E\u201301 6.3E\u201301 2.4E+02 1.3E\u201301 1.5E+03 2.8E+01 5.0E\u201305 4.8E+00 6.6E+01 3.9E+02 2.3E+01 1.0E+01 1.4E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201302 3.5E+03 4.0E+05 2.9E\u201302 4.4E+03 8.8E+02 4.6E+00 4.5E+01 3.2E+02 1.3E+03 8.3E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7191, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 323, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.5E+03 2.8E+01 5.0E\u201305 4.8E+00 6.6E+01 3.9E+02 2.3E+01 1.0E+01 1.4E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.5E\u201302 3.5E+03 4.0E+05 2.9E\u201302 4.4E+03 8.8E+02 4.6E+00 4.5E+01 3.2E+02 1.3E+03 8.3E\u201301 4.0E+05 4.5E\u201303 4.6E\u201302 2.1E\u201301 6.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 5.1E\u201302 6.4E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201306 5.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 5.0E+01 6.6E\u201301 1.2E+05 2.0E\u201303 1.5E+00 9.5E\u201303 2.3E\u201301 3.0E\u201303 8.9E\u201302 2.9E+02 4.5E\u201301 1.1E+00 6.3E\u201301 3.6E+02 1.6E\u201301 2.3E+03 2.8E+00 2.1E\u201306 7.7E+00 3.0E+02 1.9E+03 3.4E+01 8.4E+00 4.1E\u201302 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.0E\u201306 2.9E\u201303 6.6E\u201319 9.2E\u201308 8.6E\u201322 2.8E\u201305 6.1E\u201313 4.1E\u201307 1.1E\u201314 4.2E\u201303 3.1E\u201305 1.4E\u201306 1.3E\u201303 8.3E\u201301 1.5E+01 9.3E+00 1.9E+01 1.2E+00 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303 2.5E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 9.9E\u201301 1.7E+01 1.0E+00 2.7E+04 7.4E\u201301 4.4E+00 7.0E\u201301 1.6E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 1.4E+00 1.6E+01 1.7E+00 7.0E+03 2.5E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 2.3E\u201301 8.9E+00 1.3E+00 3.3E+03 6.6E+00 2.2E+02 9.7E\u201301 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7192, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 324, "book_page": 323, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7193, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 324, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7194, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 324, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.0E+03 5.7E\u201303 3.5E\u201302 3.8E\u201304 3.5E+00 5.4E+00 6.3E+00 7.9E+02 3.8E\u201302 1.3E+06 1.1E\u201301 2.8E\u201305 9.3E+02 2.3E+03 6.8E\u201305 7.4E\u201303 2.8E+01 1.9E+00 2.8E\u201301 6.5E+00 1.7E+01 8.3E\u201302 6.8E\u201302 8.4E\u201303 2.5E\u201301 8.3E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 6.7E+00 2.7E+01 7.0E+00 1.1E+04 7.8E+02 8.9E+04 2.8E+00 2.9E+02 2.1E+02 1.8E+01 5.8E\u201302 3.4E+00 2.3E\u201302 1.5E\u201305 7.6E+00 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201304 3.5E\u201305 3.4E\u201302 5.1E+01 6.6E\u201304 3.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 5.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.3E+03 5.0E\u201304", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7195, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 324, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.9E+02 2.1E+02 1.8E+01 5.8E\u201302 3.4E+00 2.3E\u201302 1.5E\u201305 7.6E+00 1.1E\u201304 1.5E\u201304 3.5E\u201305 3.4E\u201302 5.1E+01 6.6E\u201304 3.6E\u201304 7.3E\u201304 5.5E\u201305 3.9E\u201302 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.3E+03 5.0E\u201304 5.4E\u201302 5.2E\u201304 1.4E+01 1.8E+01 3.3E+01 4.5E+03 9.2E\u201303 2.7E+06 4.3E\u201301 7.0E\u201306 4.6E+03 5.1E+03 8.4E\u201307 6.5E\u201304 4.4E+01 2.1E+00 4.3E\u201301 3.5E+01 6.7E\u201301 9.9E\u201302 9.7E\u201302 1.3E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 1.4E\u201302 3.3E+01 1.3E+02 3.5E+01 3.4E+04 3.7E+03 1.9E+05 3.7E+00 8.0E+02 3.4E+02 9.8E+00 1.2E\u201301 4.4E+00 2.4E\u201302 1.1E\u201305 7.4E+00 1.1E\u201305 2.1E\u201304 1.9E\u201305 2.6E\u201303 2.3E+00 5.5E\u201304 7.7E\u201304 1.3E\u201303 9.8E\u201305 4.7E\u201302 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.0E+01 3.5E+00 5.9E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 8.0E\u201301 3.6E+03 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.8E+01 4.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201301 4.9E+01 7.5E+00 1.6E+00 6.3E+00 7.4E+01 1.3E+00 9.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.8E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 6.3E+03 6.3E+03 4.6E+00 2.2E+02 1.4E+01 1.6E+04 6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 6.0E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7196, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 324, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3E+00 9.0E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.8E\u201301 1.3E\u201301 1.7E+01 6.3E+03 6.3E+03 4.6E+00 2.2E+02 1.4E+01 1.6E+04 6.9E+01 9.0E+04 6.3E+02 6.0E+01 8.5E+00 6.0E+01 2.9E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.2E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.1E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 8.0E\u201301 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7197, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 325, "book_page": 324, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7198, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 325, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7199, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 325, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.1E\u201306 3.6E+02 7.6E+00 1.2E\u201306 1.4E\u201301 2.0E+00 3.6E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 3.0E+03 2.4E+02 2.5E\u201304 5.2E\u201311 2.2E+00 1.4E+01 6.5E+00 3.0E+01 5.9E+00 1.0E+00 4.1E+02 1.7E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201302 3.7E+02 1.5E+01 9.8E+00 2.2E\u201305 1.7E+00 8.9E+00 1.3E+00 1.1E+01 6.5E\u201301 6.1E\u201304 5.2E\u201302 1.5E+03 1.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 9.0E\u201301 3.8E+02 8.7E\u201302 3.4E+04 8.3E+00 2.8E+01 3.4E\u201301 5.4E+03 2.1E\u201304 5.2E\u201302 5.8E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201306 1.4E+02 3.0E+00 1.3E\u201306 4.0E\u201302 3.0E+00", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7200, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 325, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.5E+03 1.1E\u201303 3.2E\u201302 9.0E\u201301 3.8E+02 8.7E\u201302 3.4E+04 8.3E+00 2.8E+01 3.4E\u201301 5.4E+03 2.1E\u201304 5.2E\u201302 5.8E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.3E\u201306 1.4E+02 3.0E+00 1.3E\u201306 4.0E\u201302 3.0E+00 8.5E\u201304 8.9E\u201305 4.1E+02 3.5E+02 2.7E\u201304 6.4E\u201311 1.1E+00 9.8E+00 1.8E+01 8.2E+01 1.6E+01 4.0E+00 8.1E+02 1.8E\u201302 2.5E\u201303 2.0E\u201302 5.0E\u201303 4.1E+02 7.9E+01 5.1E+01 3.5E\u201307 1.1E+00 4.4E+01 2.8E\u201301 1.6E+01 3.7E\u201301 7.5E\u201304 6.9E\u201302 7.3E+03 8.9E\u201304 3.9E\u201302 1.4E+00 5.5E+02 8.2E\u201302 1.7E+05 1.4E+01 4.1E+01 3.8E\u201302 2.2E+04 2.2E\u201304 2.0E\u201302 2.8E+04 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.4E+00 5.9E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 2.3E+01 5.2E\u201301 2.7E+00 4.2E+03 2.7E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.3E+01 2.9E+02 1.2E+01 1.2E+01 1.2E+01 2.3E+00 1.1E+02 5.8E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.5E+00 1.6E+01 5.2E+01 3.5E+00 1.3E+01 1.4E\u201301 6.4E+00 3.3E+01 2.3E+01 2.1E+01 7.6E\u201302 9.4E\u201302 4.7E+00 5.5E+04 4.2E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 1.1E+00 3.0E+02 3.6E\u201301 5.5E+04 2.2E+00 5.4E\u201301 8.7E+01 3.6E+01 3.0E\u201303 3.1E+00 2.4E+02 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7201, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 326, "book_page": 325, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4tetrachlorobenzene Comp. agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7202, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 326, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil agri. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7203, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 326, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 71-55-6 634-66-2 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.4E\u201303 2.0E+00 4.2E\u201304 2.3E+00 5.7E+00 1.7E+00 6.2E+00 5.5E\u201303 5.3E+00 7.4E\u201303 1.6E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 1.8E\u201308 7.2E+00 4.1E\u201302 3.8E+01 1.0E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 6.7E\u201301 5.9E+04 1.2E+01 9.9E\u201305 8.3E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 6.5E+04 6.3E\u201301 9.0E+00 1.2E\u201301 2.6E\u201304 7.8E\u201301 5.0E+01 4.8E+02 6.7E\u201301 6.3E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 1.1E+00 2.2E+04 6.1E\u201305 5.7E+01 3.3E+00 4.1E\u201303 9.4E\u201303 4.5E\u201302 3.8E+00 3.4E+01 5.9E\u201302 1.2E+05 3.0E\u201303 1.5E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201301 5.6E\u201304 9.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 3.2E+00 8.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7204, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 326, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6.1E\u201305 5.7E+01 3.3E+00 4.1E\u201303 9.4E\u201303 4.5E\u201302 3.8E+00 3.4E+01 5.9E\u201302 1.2E+05 3.0E\u201303 1.5E\u201301 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.4E\u201303 8.2E\u201301 5.6E\u201304 9.6E\u201301 2.5E\u201301 3.2E+00 8.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 4.1E+00 6.7E\u201303 1.1E\u201303 4.0E\u201302 1.1E\u201310 1.1E+01 4.0E\u201302 4.0E+01 1.1E\u201302 1.9E\u201304 6.5E\u201301 1.2E+05 1.9E+01 7.5E\u201305 1.3E\u201302 8.8E\u201303 3.0E+05 5.6E\u201302 8.8E+00 1.4E\u201301 3.2E\u201304 2.3E\u201301 7.3E+01 7.4E+02 1.0E\u201301 9.5E\u201304 1.5E\u201303 4.8E\u201301 9.8E+04 9.6E\u201305 2.8E+02 3.8E+00 6.3E\u201303 5.9E\u201303 4.7E\u201302 5.5E+00 6.6E+01 7.0E\u201302 2.0E+05 4.5E\u201303 1.7E\u201301 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 5.9E+00 9.2E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 8.1E+01 2.1E+00 2.7E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.5E\u201302 4.7E+00 2.6E\u201303 1.2E+02 2.5E+00 1.8E+03 1.4E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 3.0E+01 1.1E+02 2.9E+01 1.4E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201303 7.0E+02 5.1E+01 3.0E+01 1.8E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E+01 1.9E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.5E+01 1.4E+03 3.1E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.6E+01 7.6E\u201306 7.0E\u201302 5.3E\u201301 3.3E+01 6.4E+00 2.2E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 1.3E\u201303 7.7E\u201301 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7205, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 327, "book_page": 326, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,2,3,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium captafol Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7206, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 327, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7207, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 327, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 634-90-2 87-61-6 95-94-3 120-82-1 95-50-1 107-06-2 108-70-3 106-99-0 541-73-1 106-46-7 100-00-5 58-90-2 1746-01-6 93-76-5 95-95-4 88-06-2 94-75-7 120-83-2 95-57-8 95-76-1 108-42-9 106-47-8 30560-19-1 107-02-8 107-13-1 116-06-3 309-00-2 7664-41-7 101-05-3 120-12-7 7440-36-0 7440-38-2 1912-24-9 2642-71-9 86-50-0 7440-39-3 17804-35-2 25057-89-0 71-43-2 56-55-3 50-32-8 191-24-2 207-08-9 100-44-7 7440-41-7 82657-04-3 85-68-7 22537-48-0 2425-06-1 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.8E\u201301 7.1E\u201302 1.6E\u201301 6.9E\u201302 4.3E\u201302 2.8E\u201303 1.3E\u201301 2.7E\u201306 3.8E\u201302 3.6E\u201302 3.1E+01 2.2E+00 9.3E+04 5.4E\u201303 3.5E+00 3.1E\u201302 4.5E\u201301 2.1E\u201302 2.5E\u201301 3.5E+02 1.1E+00 2.2E+00 2.0E+00 2.4E+02 1.6E\u201301 1.5E+03 2.9E+01 2.0E\u201304 1.9E+01 6.6E+01 3.9E+02 6.2E+01 1.4E+01 5.8E\u201301 2.0E+03 2.3E\u201302 4.7E\u201302 3.8E\u201304 1.4E+01 2.1E+01 2.5E+01 3.1E+03 1.3E\u201301 1.3E+06 4.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201304 9.3E+02 7.2E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCS eq./kg) 4.7E\u201301 8.9E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 8.4E\u201302 6.4E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201306 5.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 5.0E+01", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7208, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 327, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.1E+01 2.5E+01 3.1E+03 1.3E\u201301 1.3E+06 4.5E\u201301 1.1E\u201304 9.3E+02 7.2E+03 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCS eq./kg) 4.7E\u201301 8.9E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 8.4E\u201302 6.4E\u201302 4.4E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 3.1E\u201306 5.7E\u201302 5.0E\u201302 5.0E+01 2.6E+00 4.8E+05 6.8E\u201303 5.3E+00 3.7E\u201302 6.3E\u201301 1.1E\u201302 3.4E\u201301 6.5E+02 1.6E+00 3.2E+00 2.0E+00 3.6E+02 2.0E\u201301 2.3E+03 2.8E+00 8.5E\u201306 3.0E+01 3.0E+02 1.9E+03 9.2E+01 1.1E+01 1.7E\u201301 8.3E+03 2.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 5.2E\u201304 5.6E+01 7.4E+01 1.3E+02 1.8E+04 3.2E\u201302 2.7E+06 1.7E+00 2.8E\u201305 4.6E+03 1.6E+04 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.2E+01 7.9E+00 1.7E+01 9.9E\u201301 5.4E\u201302 1.7E\u201303 2.2E\u201301 3.1E\u201304 6.2E\u201302 9.9E\u201301 1.7E+01 9.7E\u201301 2.7E+04 6.4E\u201301 3.9E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.1E+00 5.4E\u201301 3.7E\u201301 1.8E+01 1.2E+00 1.1E+01 1.3E+00 7.0E+03 2.1E+00 4.2E+03 2.0E+01 2.3E\u201301 8.8E+00 1.3E+00 3.3E+03 4.4E+00 7.2E+01 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 3.5E+00 5.0E\u201301 3.4E\u201303 3.1E+01 2.3E+01 8.3E+00 3.9E+02 7.1E\u201301 3.6E+03 8.3E+01 1.0E\u201302 1.7E+02 2.2E+01 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7209, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 328, "book_page": 327, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carcinogenic PAHs chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt copper coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos Ethylbenzene Ethylene fenitrothion fenthion Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7210, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 328, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7211, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 328, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 133-06-2 63-25-2 10605-21-7 1563-66-2 75-15-0 57-74-9 470-90-6 1698-60-8 108-90-7 1897-45-6 101-21-3 2921-88-2 16056-83-1 18540-29-9 218-01-9 7440-48-4 15158-11-9 56-72-4 21725-46-2 52315-07-8 66215-27-8 50-29-3 52918-63-5 8065-48-3 1014-69-3 117-81-7 333-41-5 84-74-2 75-09-2 120-36-5 62-73-7 60-57-1 84-66-2 84-75-3 26761-40-0 27554-26-3 60-51-5 133-11-3 88-85-7 1420-07-1 117-84-0 298-04-4 330-54-1 534-52-1 115-29-7 72-20-8 13194-48-4 100-41-4 74-85-1 122-14-5 55-38-9 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 8.0E\u201304 4.0E\u201302 8.6E+01 6.1E+00 2.8E\u201301 2.6E+01 6.6E+01 3.1E\u201301 1.5E\u201301 8.4E\u201303 9.0E\u201301 2.9E\u201302 5.8E\u201301 6.7E+00 2.7E+01 2.7E+01 1.1E+04 7.8E+02 2.7E+05 1.0E+01 1.0E+03 2.1E+02 6.9E+01 2.3E\u201301 1.1E+01 8.5E\u201302 5.9E\u201305 2.7E+01 4.5E\u201304 1.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201304 1.4E\u201301 1.9E+02 2.6E\u201303 1.4E\u201303 2.9E\u201303 2.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 3.6E\u201305 1.0E+03 3.1E+01 4.7E\u201306 5.5E\u201301 6.7E+00 1.4E\u201302 5.3E\u201303 1.0E+04 6.5E+02 2.5E\u201304 5.2E\u201311 8.8E+00 5.6E+01 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.9E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 1.4E+02", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7212, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 328, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2.9E\u201303 2.2E\u201304 1.2E\u201301 3.6E\u201305 1.0E+03 3.1E+01 4.7E\u201306 5.5E\u201301 6.7E+00 1.4E\u201302 5.3E\u201303 1.0E+04 6.5E+02 2.5E\u201304 5.2E\u201311 8.8E+00 5.6E+01 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.9E\u201306 3.5E\u201303 1.4E+02 6.5E+00 4.3E\u201301 1.4E+02 2.7E+00 3.7E\u201301 2.1E\u201301 1.3E\u201302 5.9E\u201301 3.8E\u201302 5.8E\u201302 3.3E+01 1.3E+02 1.4E+02 3.4E+04 3.7E+03 5.9E+05 1.3E+01 2.8E+03 3.4E+02 3.9E+01 4.7E\u201301 1.4E+01 8.8E\u201302 4.4E\u201305 2.6E+01 4.4E\u201305 2.1E\u201304 7.4E\u201305 1.0E\u201302 8.9E+00 2.1E\u201303 3.1E\u201303 5.2E\u201303 3.9E\u201304 1.5E\u201301 9.0E\u201306 4.2E+02 1.2E+01 5.0E\u201306 1.6E\u201301 9.7E+00 3.3E\u201303 3.6E\u201304 1.4E+03 9.5E+02 2.8E\u201304 6.4E\u201311 4.5E+00 3.8E+01 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.2E\u201301 1.4E-01 3.8E+01 5.9E+00 1.6E+00 6.3E+00 7.3E+01 1.2E+00 6.8E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 6.1E\u201301 1.2E\u201301 1.7E+01 6.3E+03 6.3E+03 4.5E+00 2.2E+02 1.4E+01 1.2E+04 6.3E+01 7.8E+04 6.3E+02 5.9E+01 8.5E+00 4.9E+01 2.6E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7213, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 328, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.9E+01 8.5E+00 4.9E+01 2.6E+00 1.4E\u201303 1.0E+01 2.3E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 1.4E\u201303 2.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.1E+00 7.3E\u201303 4.0E\u201303 5.5E\u201304 6.2E\u201301 1.4E+00 4.2E+02 9.9E+00 4.8E\u201305 1.1E+01 1.9E+01 4.9E\u201301 2.8E+00 3.6E+03 1.9E+02 1.9E\u201303 2.3E\u201309 8.1E+01 2.8E+02 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7214, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 329, "book_page": 328, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulfide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury metamitron metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum meta-Xylene Naphtalene nickel nitrogen dioxide oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl ortho-Xylene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzen e pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phoxim Phtalic anhydride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7215, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 329, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7216, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 329, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 900-95-8 639-58-7 76-87-9 206-44-0 133-07-3 50-00-0 1071-83-6 76-44-8 23560-59-0 87-68-3 118-74-1 7647-01-0 7783-06-4 193-39-5 36734-19-7 34123-59-6 14280-50-3 58-89-9 330-55-2 121-75-5 94-74-6 7085-19-0 14302-87-5 41394-05-2 67129-08-2 18691-97-9 16752-77-5 74-83-9 22967-92-6 3060-89-7 51218-45-2 7786-34-7 7439-98-7 108-38-3 91-20-3 7440-02-0 10102-44-0 23135-22-0 301-12-2 95-47-6 56-38-2 298-00-0 608-93-5 82-68-8 87-86-5 52645-53-1 85-01-8 108-95-2 14816-18-3 85-44-9 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.6E+01 1.2E+02 2.3E+01 4.0E+00 1.2E+03 5.1E\u201302 1.1E\u201302 9.1E\u201302 9.9E\u201302 4.5E+02 2.0E+01 3.9E+01 1.8E\u201304 4.0E+00 8.9E+00 4.9E+00 4.0E+01 2.6E+00 2.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 1.5E+03 4.1E\u201303 1.1E\u201301 2.9E+00 7.7E+02 8.8E\u201302 3.4E+04 8.3E+00 8.5E+01 1.4E+00 5.4E+03 2.1E\u201304 1.7E\u201301 5.8E+03 3.4E\u201302 7.2E+00 4.2E\u201304 9.0E+00 2.2E+01 3.3E+00 2.4E+01 2.5E\u201302 2.1E+01 2.9E\u201302 5.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201301 1.2E\u201308 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.1E+01 3.2E+02 6.5E+01 1.6E+01 2.4E+03 5.4E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.8E\u201302", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7217, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 329, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7.2E+00 4.2E\u201304 9.0E+00 2.2E+01 3.3E+00 2.4E+01 2.5E\u201302 2.1E+01 2.9E\u201302 5.8E\u201303 5.3E\u201301 1.2E\u201308 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 7.1E+01 3.2E+02 6.5E+01 1.6E+01 2.4E+03 5.4E\u201302 9.9E\u201303 7.8E\u201302 2.0E\u201302 5.0E+02 1.0E+02 2.0E+02 2.9E\u201306 2.6E+00 4.4E+01 1.1E+00 5.6E+01 1.5E+00 2.7E\u201303 1.8E\u201301 7.3E+03 3.2E\u201303 1.4E\u201301 4.6E+00 1.1E+03 8.2E\u201302 1.7E+05 1.4E+01 1.3E+02 1.6E\u201301 2.2E+04 2.2E\u201304 6.5E\u201302 2.8E+04 9.9E\u201303 3.0E+00 5.6E\u201304 3.7E+00 9.7E\u201301 6.1E+00 3.3E+00 4.8E\u201302 1.7E+01 2.7E\u201302 4.0E\u201303 7.2E\u201302 6.8E\u201311 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 1.1E+01 2.3E+00 7.8E+01 4.4E+00 9.6E\u201302 5.3E+00 1.6E+01 4.6E+01 2.9E+00 1.3E+01 3.0E\u201301 4.6E+00 3.3E+01 2.2E+01 1.8E+01 7.5E\u201302 8.6E\u201302 3.3E+00 5.5E+04 3.8E\u201302 1.5E\u201301 8.8E\u201301 2.2E+02 3.7E\u201301 5.5E+04 2.2E+00 4.1E\u201301 9.0E+01 3.6E+01 3.0E\u201303 2.6E+00 2.4E+02 6.0E+00 8.5E+01 3.4E\u201303 1.7E+01 7.9E+01 1.7E+00 2.6E+00 4.8E+00 2.5E+02 3.7E\u201302 4.1E\u201302 3.8E+00 4.2E\u201304 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7218, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 330, "book_page": 329, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance pirimicarb dust (PM10) propachlor propoxur Propylene Oxide para-Xylene pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc zineb chlormequat-chloride fenpropimorph fluroxypyr epoxiconazole ethylene oxide hydrogen fluoride Comp. indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7219, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 330, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil CAS number 23103-98-2 PM10 1918-16-7 114-26-1 75-56-9 106-42-3 13457-18-6 7782-49-2 122-34-9 100-42-5 7446-09-5 127-18-4 56-23-5 7440-28-0 137-26-8 7440-31-5 57018-04-9 108-88-3 2303-17-5 24017-47-8 56-35-9 52-68-6 79-01-6 67-66-3 1582-09-8 7440-62-2 75-01-4 23713-49-7 12122-67-7 999-81-5 67306-03-0 69377-81-7 ?? 75-21-8 7664-39-3 MAETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 2.2E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.0E+02 1.2E\u201302 2.5E\u201304 2.6E+00 5.9E+04 3.0E+01 1.7E\u201304 8.3E\u201303 8.2E\u201303 6.5E+04 4.1E+00 9.0E+00 3.6E\u201301 2.6E\u201304 3.1E+00 1.7E+02 1.9E+03 3.7E+00 6.3E\u201304 1.6E\u201303 4.1E+00 2.2E+04 6.1E\u201305 5.7E+01 1.2E+01 3.7E\u201302 1.7E\u201301 1.1E+01 9.7E+01 7.4E\u201302 1.2E+05 MSETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 3.5E+01 1.5E\u201301 1.1E+02 1.2E\u201302 1.9E\u201304 2.5E+00 1.2E+05 4.6E+01 1.3E\u201304 1.3E\u201302 8.8E\u201303 3.0E+05 3.6E\u201301 8.8E+00 4.3E\u201301 3.2E\u201304 9.1E\u201301 2.4E+02 2.9E+03 5.6E\u201301 9.5E\u201304 1.5E\u201303 1.9E+00 9.8E+04 9.6E\u201305 2.8E+02 1.4E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.9E+02 8.7E\u201302 2.0E+05 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.4E+01 2.3E+00 1.3E+03 1.2E\u201301", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7220, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 330, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9.1E\u201301 2.4E+02 2.9E+03 5.6E\u201301 9.5E\u201304 1.5E\u201303 1.9E+00 9.8E+04 9.6E\u201305 2.8E+02 1.4E+01 2.3E\u201302 1.8E\u201301 1.5E+01 1.9E+02 8.7E\u201302 2.0E+05 TETP (inf) (kg 1,4- DCB eq./kg) 9.4E+01 2.3E+00 1.3E+03 1.2E\u201301 1.5E\u201303 2.9E+01 1.1E+02 2.1E+01 1.2E\u201303 3.0E\u201301 1.6E\u201303 7.0E+02 8.1E+01 3.0E+01 1.5E+00 1.9E\u201302 1.3E+00 2.0E+02 3.7E+01 2.6E+03 2.1E\u201303 1.5E\u201303 3.4E+01 1.4E+03 3.1E\u201304 2.5E+01 1.5E+01 6.8E\u201302 5.1E\u201301 2.3E+01 4.6E+00 1.9E\u201301 6.0E\u201303 x = not calculated Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7221, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 331, "book_page": 330, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: Huijbregts, 2000; Huijbregts et al., 2000a Status: Author(s). Equations: The five indicator results are expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene equivalent. is the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecom (=air, fresh water, seawater, agricultural soil or industrial soil), while FAETP is the Fresh water Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, MAETP is the Marine Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential, FSETP is the Fresh water Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, MSETP is the Marine Sediment EcoToxicity Potential, TETP is the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, and is the emission of substance i to medium ecom. The five indicator scores can only be added after weighting (see Part 2a, Section 4.3.8). Remark: The USES-LCA model is based on the RIVM USES 2.0 model, which is an improved version of the EUSES model that serves as a screening tool for the EU. Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7222, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 331, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data have been gathered by Huijbregts and have been subjected to a small-scale unofficial critical review. Model and parameter uncertainties are still considerable. Special care has to be taken if results depend predominantly on (essential) heavy metals (check in contribution analysis, see Section 5.4), in particular Be and Cr. Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7223, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 332, "book_page": 331, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.9 Photo-oxidant formation Table 4.3.9.1: High for background concentrations for characterising photo-oxidant forming releases to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7224, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 332, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,1,1-trichioroethane 1,2,3-Trimethyl Benzene 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1-Butanol* 1-Butene 1-Butoxypropanol* 1-ButylAcetate* 1-Hexene 1-Methoxy\u20132-propanol* 1-Pentene 1-Propanol* 1-Propyl Benzene 1-Propylacetate* 1-Undecane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3-Dimethylbutane 2-butanone 2-Butoxy-Ethanol* 2-Ethoxy-Ethanol* 2-Methoxy-Ethanol* 2-Methyl\u20131-Butene 2-Methyl\u20132-Butene 2-Methylbutan\u20131-ol* 2-Methylbutan\u20132-ol* 2-Methylhexane 2-Methylpentane 3,5-Diethyltoluene 3,5-Dimethylethylbenzene 3-Methyl\u20131-Butene 3-Methylbutan\u20131-ol* 3-Methylbutan\u20132-ol* 3-Methylhexane 3-Methylpentane 3-Pentanol* Acetaldehyde Acetic acid Acetone Acetylene Benzaldehyde Benzene Butane Butane (unspec.) Butyraldehyde Carbon monoxide** cis\u20132-Butene cis\u20132-Hexene cis\u20132-Pentene cis-Dichloroethene Cyclohexane Cyclohexanol* Cyclohexanone Decane comp air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7225, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 332, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cyclohexane Cyclohexanol* Cyclohexanone Decane comp air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS-number 71\u201355\u20136 526\u201373\u20138 95\u201363\u20136 108\u201367\u20138 106\u201399\u20130 71\u201336\u20133 106\u201398\u20139 57018\u201352\u20137 123\u201386\u20134 592\u201341\u20136 107\u201398\u20132 109\u201367\u20131 71\u201323\u20138 103\u201365\u20131 109\u201360\u20134 1120\u201321\u20134 75\u201383\u20132 79\u201329\u20138 78\u201393\u20133 111\u201376\u20132 110\u201380\u20135 109\u201386\u20134 563\u201346\u20132 513\u201335\u20139 137\u201332\u20136 75\u201385\u20134 591\u201376\u20134 107\u201383\u20135 20\u201350\u2013240 934\u201374\u20137 563\u201345\u20131 123\u201351\u20133 598\u201375\u20134 589\u201334\u20134 96\u201314\u20130 584\u201302\u20131 75\u201307\u20130 64\u201319\u20137 67\u201364\u20131 74\u201386\u20132 100\u201352\u20137 71\u201343\u20132 106\u201397\u20138 106\u201397\u20138 123\u201372\u20138 630\u201308\u20130 590\u20138\u20131 7688\u201321\u20133 627\u201320\u20133 156\u201359\u20132 110\u201382\u20137 108\u201393\u20130 108\u201394\u20131 124\u201318\u20135 POCP (in kg ethylene eq./kg) 0.009 1.27 1.28 1.38 0.851 0.62 1.08 0.463 0.269 0.874 0.355 0.977 0.561 0.636 0.282 0.384 0.241 0.541 0.373 0.483 0.386 0.307 0.771 0.842 0.489 0.228 0.411 0.42 1.3 1.32 0.671 0.433 0.406 0.364 0.479 0.595 0.641", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7226, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 332, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.38 0.851 0.62 1.08 0.463 0.269 0.874 0.355 0.977 0.561 0.636 0.282 0.384 0.241 0.541 0.373 0.483 0.386 0.307 0.771 0.842 0.489 0.228 0.411 0.42 1.3 1.32 0.671 0.433 0.406 0.364 0.479 0.595 0.641 0.097 0.094 0.085 \u20130.092 0.218 0.352 0.352 0.795 0.027 1.15 1.07 1.12 0.447 0.29 0.518 0.299 0.384 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7227, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 333, "book_page": 332, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Diacetone alcohol* Dichloromethane Diethyl Ether* Diethylketone Diisopropylether* Dimethyl Ether* Dodecane Ethane Ethanol* Ethyl Acetate* Ethyl- trans-Butyl Ether* Ethylbenzene Ethylene Ethylene Glycol* Formaldehyde Formic acid Heptane Hexan\u20132-one Hexan\u20133-one Hexane isobutane isobutanol* isobutene isobutyraldehyde isopentane isoprene isopropanol* isopropyl acetate* isopropyl benzene meta-Ethyltoluene meta-Xylene Methane Methanol* Methyl Acetate* Methyl Chloride Methyl Formate* Methyl Isobutyl Ketone Methyl propyl Ketone Methyl tert-Butyl Ether* Methyl tert-butylketone Methyl-lsopropylketone Neopentane Nitrogen dioxide** Nitrogen mono oxide** Nonane Octane ortho-Ethyltoluene ortho-Xylene para-Ethyltoluene para-Xylene Pentanaldehyde Pentane Propane Propanoic acid Propionaldehyde Propylene Propylene Glycol* sec-Butanol* sec-ButylAcetate* comp air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7228, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Propylene Propylene Glycol* sec-Butanol* sec-ButylAcetate* comp air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS-number 123\u201342\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 60\u201329\u20137 96\u201322\u20130 108\u201320\u20133 115\u201310\u20136 112\u201340\u20133 74\u201384\u20130 64\u201317\u20135 141\u201378\u20136 637\u201392\u201330 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 107\u201321\u20131 50\u201300\u20130 64\u201318\u20136 142\u201382\u20135 591\u201378\u20136 589\u201338\u20138 110\u201354\u20133 75\u201328\u20135 78\u201383\u20131 115\u201311\u20137 78\u201384\u20132 78\u201378\u20134 78\u201379\u20135 67\u201363\u20130 108\u201321\u20134 98\u201382\u20138 620\u201314\u20134 108\u201338\u20133 74\u201382\u20138 67\u201356\u20131 79\u201320\u20139 74\u201387\u20133 107\u201331\u20133 108\u201310\u20131 107\u201387\u20139 1634\u201304\u20134 75\u201397\u20138 563\u201380\u20134 463\u201382\u20131 10102\u201344\u20130 10102\u201343\u20139 111\u201384\u20132 111\u201365\u20139 611\u201314\u20133 95\u201347\u20136 622-96\u20138 106\u201342\u20133 110\u201362\u20133 109\u201366\u20130 74\u201398\u20136 79\u201309\u20134 123\u201338\u20136 115\u201307\u20131 57\u201355\u20136 78\u201392\u20132 105\u201346\u20134 POCP (in kg ethylene eq./kg) 0.307 0.068 0.445 0.414 0.398 0.189 0.357 0.123 0.399 0.209 0.244 0.73 0.373 0.519 0.032 0.494 0.572 0.599 0.482 0.307 0.360 0.627 0.514 0.405 1.09", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7229, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "78\u201392\u20132 105\u201346\u20134 POCP (in kg ethylene eq./kg) 0.307 0.068 0.445 0.414 0.398 0.189 0.357 0.123 0.399 0.209 0.244 0.73 0.373 0.519 0.032 0.494 0.572 0.599 0.482 0.307 0.360 0.627 0.514 0.405 1.09 0.188 0.211 0.5 1.02 1.11 0.006 0.14 0.059 0.005 0.027 0.49 0.548 0.175 0.323 0.364 0.173 0.028 \u20130.427 0.414 0.453 0.898 1.05 0.906 1.01 0.765 0.395 0.176 0.15 0.798 1.12 0.457 0.447 0.275 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7230, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 334, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Sulphur dioxide** styrene tertiary-Butanol* tertiary-Butyl Acetate* Tetrachloroethylene Toluene trans\u20132-Butene trans\u20132-Hexene trans\u20132-Pentene trans-dichloroethene Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane dimethoxy methane* dimethyl carbonate* comp air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS-number 7446\u201309\u20135 100\u201342\u20135 75\u201365\u20130 540\u201388\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 108\u201388\u20133 624\u201364\u20136 4050\u201345\u20137 646\u201304\u20138 156\u201360\u20135 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 109\u201387\u20135 616\u201338\u20136 POCP (in kg ethylene eq./kq) 0.048 0.142 0.106 0.053 0.029 0.637 1.13 1.07 1.12 0.392 0.325 0.023 0.164 0.025 Source: Derwent et al., 1998 unless specified otherwise: * value is updated in Jenkin & Hayman, 1999 ** value for inorganic substances from Derwent et al., 1996 Status: Authors Equation: The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, ethylene. is the Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential for substance i, while is the quantity of substance i emitted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7231, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 334, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is the Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential for substance i, while is the quantity of substance i emitted. Remark: Note that in this case it is of specific importance to specify emissions in terms of its constituent NO and emissions since the POCP values for these two chemical species are extremely different ! Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7232, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 335, "book_page": 334, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.9.2: Alternative MIRs, MOIRs and EBIRs for characterising photo-oxidant forming releases to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7233, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 335, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,1,2-Trichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethene 1,2,3-Trimethyl Benzene 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,2-Butanediol 1,2-dichloroethane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,2-Dihydroxy Hexane 1,3,5-Triethylcyclohexane 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1,3,5-Tripropylcyclohexane 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-Diethyl\u20135-methylcyclohexane 1,3-Diethyl\u20135-pentylcyclohexane 1,3-Diethylcyclohexane 1,3-Dimethylcyclohexane 1,3-Dimethylcyclopentane 1,3-Dipropyl\u20135-ethylcyclohexane 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-Butanol 1-Butene 1-Butyl Acetate 1-Butyl Benzene 1-Butyl Bromide 1-Chlorobutane 1-Ethoxy\u20132-propanol 1-Ethyl\u20134-methylcyclohexane 1-Heptanol 1-Heptene 1-Hexene 1-Methoxy\u20132-propanol 1-Methyl\u20132-pyrrolidone 1-Nonene 1-Octanol 1-Octene 1-Pentadecane 1-Pentene 1-Propanol 1-Propyl Benzene 1-Propyl Bromide 1-Propylacetate 1-Tetradecane 1-Tridecane 1-Undecane 2- Octanol 2-(2-Butoxyethoxy)-Ethanol 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)-Ethanol 2,2,3 trimethylbutane 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 2,2,5-Trimethylhexane", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7234, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 335, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1-Tetradecane 1-Tridecane 1-Undecane 2- Octanol 2-(2-Butoxyethoxy)-Ethanol 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)-Ethanol 2,2,3 trimethylbutane 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 2,2,5-Trimethylhexane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3 Dimethyl Pentane 2,3,3-Trimethyl\u20131-butene CAS number 79\u201300\u20135 ??? 75\u201335\u20134 526\u201373\u20138 95\u201363\u20136 584\u201303\u20132 107\u201306\u20132 78\u201387\u20135 6920\u201322\u20135 ??? 108\u201367\u20138 ??? 106\u201399\u20130 ??? ??? ??? 591\u201321\u20139 2453\u201300\u20131 ??? 106\u201346\u20137 71\u201336\u20133 106\u201398\u20139 123\u201386\u20134 104\u201351\u20138 109\u201365\u20139 109\u201369\u20133 1569\u201302\u20134 6236\u201388\u20130 111\u201370\u20136 592\u201376\u20137 592\u201341\u20136 107\u201398\u20132 872\u201350\u20134 124\u201311\u20138 111\u201387\u20135 111\u201366\u20130 629\u201362\u20139 109\u201367\u20131 71\u201323\u20138 103\u201365\u20131 106\u201394\u20135 109\u201360\u20134 629\u201359\u20134 629\u201350\u20135 1120\u201321\u20134 123\u201396\u20136 112\u201334\u20135 111\u201390\u20130 464\u201306\u20132 594\u201382\u20131 540\u201384\u20131 3522\u201394\u20139 75\u201383\u20132 565\u201359\u20133 594\u201356\u20139 MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.02 0.02 0.47 3.03 1.31 0.41 0.18 0.07 0.41 0.4 3.37 0.32 3.08 0.43 0.37 0.38 0.47 0.73 0.34 0.03 0.79 2.61 0.24 0.44 0.35 0.24 0.57 0.46 0.45 1.12 1.4 0.59 0.57 0.74 0.42 0.89 0.09 1.78 0.67 0.44 0.24 0.28 0.09 0.1 0.12 0.22 0.46 0.59 0.34", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7235, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 335, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.4 3.37 0.32 3.08 0.43 0.37 0.38 0.47 0.73 0.34 0.03 0.79 2.61 0.24 0.44 0.35 0.24 0.57 0.46 0.45 1.12 1.4 0.59 0.57 0.74 0.42 0.89 0.09 1.78 0.67 0.44 0.24 0.28 0.09 0.1 0.12 0.22 0.46 0.59 0.34 0.11 0.33 0.33 0.31 0.36 0.95 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.04 0.04 0.72 2.36 0.96 0.6 0.31 0.13 0.59 0.62 2.58 0.49 3.28 0.65 0.57 0.61 0.75 1.12 0.53 0.03 1.15 2.88 0.42 0.19 0.16 0.44 0.79 0.74 0.69 1.28 1.59 0.81 0.91 0.87 0.62 1.04 0.19 2.01 1.02 0.18 - 0.5 0.19 0.2 0.24 0.37 0.61 0.76 0.55 0.2 0.53 0.56 0.53 0.63 0.99 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.05 0.06 0.91 2.08 0.61 0.75 0.4 0.17 0.73 0.7 2.3 0.53 3.91 0.73 0.64 0.63 0.82 1.28 0.58 0.01 1.4 3.4.3 0.48 0.55 0.96 0.79 0.85 1.43 1.79 1.03 1.02 0.94 0.74 1.14 0.16 2.29 1.24 0.62 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.43 0.72 0.93 0.68 0.23 0.61 0.61 0.64 0.74 - Part 2b: Operational annex - \u20130.19 \u20130.3 \u20130.35", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7236, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 336, "book_page": 335, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 2,3,4-Trimethyl Pentane 2,3-Dimethyl\u20132-Butene 2,3-Dimethylhexane 2,3-Dimethylnapthtalene 2,4-Dimethyl Hexane 2,4-Dimethyl Pentane 2,4-Dimethylheptane 2,5-Dimethyl Hexane 2,6-Diethyloctane 2,3- Dimethylbutane 2-butanone 2-Butoxy-Ethanol 2-Butyltetrahydrofuran 2-Chloromethyl\u20133-chloropropene 2-Ethoxy-Ethanol 2-Ethoxyethyl Acetate 2-Ethyl\u20131-Hexanol 2-Heptenes 2-Hexenes 2-Methoxy-Ethanol 2-Methyl\u20131-Butene 2-Methyl\u20131-Pentene 2-Methyl\u20132-Butene 2-Methyl\u20132-Pentene 2-Methylheptane 2-Methylpentane 2-Pentenes 3- Octanol 3-(Chloromethyl)-heptane 3,4-Propylheptane 3,5-Diethylheptane 3,7-Diethylnonane 3,8 Diethyldecane 3,9-Diethylundecane 3-Carene 3-Methyl\u20131-Butene 3-Methylheptane 3-Methylhexane 3-Methylpentane 3-Nonenes 3-Octenes 4-Ethylheptane 4-Methylheptane Acetaldehyde Acetone Acetylene Acrolein Acrylonitrile Alkyl Phenols alpha Methyl Tetrahydrofuran alpha-Methyl Styrene alpha-Pinene Benzene Benzaldehyde Benzotrifluoride Beta-Pinene Biacetyl CAS number 565\u201375\u20133 563\u201379\u20131 584\u201394\u20131", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7237, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 336, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Acrolein Acrylonitrile Alkyl Phenols alpha Methyl Tetrahydrofuran alpha-Methyl Styrene alpha-Pinene Benzene Benzaldehyde Benzotrifluoride Beta-Pinene Biacetyl CAS number 565\u201375\u20133 563\u201379\u20131 584\u201394\u20131 581\u201340\u20138 589\u201343\u20135 108\u201308\u20137 2213\u201323\u20132 592\u201313\u20132 ??? 79\u201329\u20138 78\u201393\u20133 111\u201376\u20132 ??? ??? 110\u201380\u20135 111\u201315\u20139 104\u201376\u20137 6443\u201392\u20131 592\u201343\u20138 109\u201386\u20134 563\u201346\u20132 763\u201329\u20131 513\u201335\u20139 625\u201327\u20134 592\u201327\u20138 107\u201383\u20135 109\u201368\u20132 20296\u201329\u20131 ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? 13466\u201378\u20139 563\u201345\u20131 589\u201381\u20131 589\u201334\u20134 96\u201314\u20130 20063\u201392\u20137 14919\u201301\u20138 ??? 589\u201353\u20137 75\u201307\u20130 67\u201364\u20131 74\u201386\u20132 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 - 96\u201347\u20139 98\u201383\u20130 7785\u201326\u20134 71\u201343\u20132 100\u201352\u20137 98\u201308\u20138 19902\u201308\u20130 431\u201303\u20138 MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.35 2.66 0.35 1.19 0.51 0.42 0.44 0.5 0.34 0.3 0.35 0.57 0.9 0.56 0.9 0.42 0.42 1.89 2.27 0.75 1.32 1.1 2.74 2.29 0.3 0.46 2.84 0.22 0.24 0.3 0.45 0.34 0.2 0.17 0.6 1.78 0.33 0.43 0.49 1.56 1.81 0.34 0.35 1.54 0.12 0.09 0.89 0.52 0.62 1.27 0.49 0.96 0.2 0.09 0.47 4.31 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.6 2.09 0.6 0.81 0.82 0.7 0.72 0.82 0.55", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7238, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 336, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.45 0.34 0.2 0.17 0.6 1.78 0.33 0.43 0.49 1.56 1.81 0.34 0.35 1.54 0.12 0.09 0.89 0.52 0.62 1.27 0.49 0.96 0.2 0.09 0.47 4.31 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.6 2.09 0.6 0.81 0.82 0.7 0.72 0.82 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.81 1.24 0.56 1.08 0.63 0.66 1.89 2.27 0.94 1.38 1.15 2.39 1.98 0.53 0.79 2.81 0.36 0.44 0.49 0.7 0.53 0.34 0.3 0.72 2.01 0.56 0.73 0.85 1.62 1.86 0.57 0.59 1.67 0.13 0.13 0.96 0.69 1.7 0.95 0.17 0.07 0.55 3.4 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.69 1.96 0.68 0.46 0.97 0.84 0.81 0.99 0.63 0.64 0.6 0.96 1.55 0.64 1.29 0.77 0.81 2.13 2.57 1.13 1.53 - 2.5 - 0.57 0.95 3.21 0.42 0.49 0.53 0.81 0.58 0.37 0.32 0.82 2.29 0.63 0.82 1.03 1.83 2.13 0.61 0.64 2.1 0.14 0.15 1.22 0.85 2.11 - 1.06 0.07 0.02 0.6 3.5 Part 2b: Operational annex \u20131 \u20130.04 \u20130.44 \u20132.49 \u20130.33 \u20133.11", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7239, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 337, "book_page": 336, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Branched E Alkanes Branched C11 Alkanes Branched C12 Alkanes Branched C13 Alkanes Branched C14 Alkanes Branched C15 Alkanes Branched C16 Alkanes Branched C17 Alkanes Branched C18 Alkanes Branched C5 Alkanes Branched C6 Alkanes Branched C7 Alkanes Branched C8 Alkanes Branched C9 Alkanes Butane E 3-Alkenes E Bicycloalkanes E Cyclic Ketones E Cyclic or di-olefins E Cycloalkanes E Disub. Benzenes E Internal Alkenes E Ketones E Monosub. Benzenes E Styrenes E Tetrasub. Benzenes E Trisub. Benzenes C11 3-Alkenes C11 Bicycloalkanes C11 Cyclic or di-olefins C11 Cycloalkanes C11 Disub. Benzenes C11 Internal Alkenes C11 Monosub. Benzenes C11 Pentasub. Benzenes C11 Pentasub. Benzenes C11 Tetralin or Indane C11 Tetrasub. Benzenes C11 Trisub. Benzenes C12 2-Alkenes C12 3-Alkenes C12 Bicycloalkanes C12 Cyclic or di-olefins C12 Cycloalkanes C12 Disub. Benzenes C12 Disub. Naphthalenes C12 Hexaasub. Benzenes C12 Internal Alkenes C12 Monosub. Benzenes C12 Monosub. Naphth. C12 Tetrasub", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7240, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 337, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Benzenes C12 Disub. Naphthalenes C12 Hexaasub. Benzenes C12 Internal Alkenes C12 Monosub. Benzenes C12 Monosub. Naphth. C12 Tetrasub. Benzenes C12 Trisub. Benzenes C13 3-Alkenes C13 Bicycloalkanes C13 Cyclic or di-olefins C13 Cycloalkanes C13 Disub", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7241, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 337, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Benzenes C12 Monosub. Naphth. C12 Tetrasub. Benzenes C12 Trisub. Benzenes C13 3-Alkenes C13 Bicycloalkanes C13 Cyclic or di-olefins C13 Cycloalkanes C13 Disub. Benzenes CAS number - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 106\u201397\u20138 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.3 0.45 0.34 0.34 0.2 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.42 0.46 0.43 0.35 0.34 0.29 1.38 0.38 0.16 1.4 0.38 2.76 1.38 0.16 0.44 0.44 3.02 3.02 1.24 0.43 1.26 0.43 2.5 1.24 0.4 2.73 2.49 0.23 2.73 2.73 1.13 1.13 0.41 1.14 0.4 2.28 1.19 2.49 1.13 0.36 0.71 2.49 2.49 1.04 0.37 1.05 0.37 2.1 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.49 0.7 0.55 0.53 0.34 0.3 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.74 0.79 0.73 0.59 0.57 0.55 1.42 0.61 0.23 1.44 0.61 2.17 1.42 0.23 0.19 2.31 2.31 1.28 0.66 1.3 0.65 1.96 1.28 0.17 2.09 1.91 0.08 2.09 2.09 1.17 1.17 0.63 1.19 0.62 1.79 0.81 1.91 1.17 0.15 0.42 1.91 1.91 1.07 0.57 1.09 0.57 1.65 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) . - -", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7242, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 337, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "- - . - - - - - - - - 0.68 1.6 - - - - - - - - - - - 1.45 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.33 - - - - - - - - - - - 1.23 - - - - Part 2b: Operational annex \u20130.3 - -", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7243, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 338, "book_page": 337, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance C13 Disub. Naphthalenes C13 Internal Alkenes C13 Monosub. Benzenes C13 Monosub. Naphth. C13 Trisub. Benzenes C13 Trisub. Naphthalenes C14 Bicycloalkanes C14 Cycloalkanes C15 Bicycloalkanes C15 Cycloalkanes C3 Adehydes C4Aldehydes C4 Internal Alkenes C5 Adehydes C5 Cyclic Ketones C5 Internal Alkenes C5 Ketones C5 Terminal Alkenes C6 Adehydes C6 Cyclic Ketones C6 Cyclic or di-olefins C6 Cycloalkanes C6 Internal Alkenes C6 Ketones C6 Terminal Alkenes C7 Adehydes C7 Cyclic Ketones C7 Cyclic or di-olefins C7 Cycloalkanes C7 Internal Alkenes C7 Ketones C7 TerminalAlkenes C8 Aldehydes C8 Cyclic Ketones C8 Cyclic or di-olefins C8 Cycloalkanes C8 Disub. Benzenes C8 Internal Alkenes C8 Ketones C8 Terminal Alkenes C9 Bicycloalkanes C9 Cyclic Ketones C9 Cyclic or di-olefins C9 Cycloalkanes C9 Disub. Benzenes C9 Internal Alkenes C9 Ketones C9 Monosub. Benzenes C9 Styrenes C9 Terminal Alkenes C9 Trisub", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7244, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 338, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Benzenes Carbon Monoxide chlorobenzene Chloropicrin cis\u20132-Butene cis\u20132-Pentene Crotonaldehyde CAS number - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 630\u201308\u20130 108\u201390\u20137 76\u201306\u20132 590\u20138\u20131 627\u201320\u20133 123\u201373\u20139 MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 1.09 1.04 0.33 0.66 2.3 1.09 0.35 0.34 0.32 0.32 1.85 1.48 3.24 1.24 0.3 2.84 0.29 1.78 1.07 0.26 2.33 0.41 2.27 0.25 1.4 0.94 0.23 1.93 0.48 1.89 0.22 1.12 0.83 0.2 1.84 0.42 3.49 1.81 0.2 0.89 0.47 0.18 1.59 0.46 3.08 1.56 0.18 0.49 0.49 0.74 3.37 0.016 0.08 0.26 3.11 2.84 1.53 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.74 1.07 0.14 0.38 1.76 0.74 0.53 0.53 0.5 0.49 2.05 1.65 3.14 1.38 0.42 2.81 0.41 2.01 1.19 0.36 2.32 0.71 2.27 0.36 1.59 1.04 0.32 1.93 0.78 1.89 0.31 1.28 0.93 0.28 1.89 0.69 2.75 1.86 0.28 1.04 0.75 0.25 1.65 0.74 2.42 1.62 0.25 0.21 0.87 2.58 0.029 0.07 0.44 3.11 2.81 1.7 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) - - - - - - - - - - 2.55 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7245, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 338, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.25 1.65 0.74 2.42 1.62 0.25 0.21 0.87 2.58 0.029 0.07 0.44 3.11 2.81 1.7 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) - - - - - - - - - - 2.55 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.037 0.03 1.12 3.66 - - Part 2b: Operational annex \u20130.33", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7246, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 339, "book_page": 338, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Cyclobutane Cyclohexane Cyclohexene Cyclopentadiene Cyclopentane Cyclopentene Cyclopropane Decane Diacetone alcohol Dibutyl Ether Dichloromethane Diethyl Ether Dimethyl Adipate Dimethyl Ether Dimethyl Glutarate Dimethyl Naphthalenes Dimethyl Succinate d-Limonene Dodecane Ethane Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Acetylene Ethyl Acrylate Ethyl Amine Ethyl Chloride Ethyl Cyclopentane Ethyl Isopropyl Ether Ethyl- trans-Butyl Ether Ethylbenzene Ethylcyclohexane Ethylene Ethylene Dibromide Ethylene Glycol Ethylene Oxide Formaldehyde Furan Glyoxal Heptane hexadecane Hexane Hexylcyclohexane Indan isoamyl isobutyrate isobutane isobutanol isobutene isobutyl acetate isobutyl isobutyrate isopentane isoprene isopropanol isopropyl acetate isopropyl benzene meta-Cresol meta-Xylene Methacrolein CAS number - 110\u201382\u20137 110\u201383\u20138 - 287\u201392\u20133 142\u201329\u20130 75\u201319\u20134 124\u201318\u20135 123\u201342\u20132 142\u201396\u20131 75\u201309\u20132 60\u201329\u20137 627\u201393\u20130 115\u201310\u20136 1119\u201340\u20130 28804\u201388\u20138 106\u201365\u20130 138\u201386\u20133 112\u201340\u20133 74\u201384\u20130 64\u201317\u20135 141\u201378\u20136 107\u201300\u20136", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7247, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "number - 110\u201382\u20137 110\u201383\u20138 - 287\u201392\u20133 142\u201329\u20130 75\u201319\u20134 124\u201318\u20135 123\u201342\u20132 142\u201396\u20131 75\u201309\u20132 60\u201329\u20137 627\u201393\u20130 115\u201310\u20136 1119\u201340\u20130 28804\u201388\u20138 106\u201365\u20130 138\u201386\u20133 112\u201340\u20133 74\u201384\u20130 64\u201317\u20135 141\u201378\u20136 107\u201300\u20136 140\u201388\u20135 75\u201304\u20137 75\u201300\u20133 1640\u201389\u20137 ??? 637\u201392\u201330 100\u201341\u20134 1678\u201391\u20137 74\u201385\u20131 106\u201393\u20134 107\u201321\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 50\u201300\u20130 110\u201300\u20139 107\u201322\u20132 142\u201382\u20135 544\u201376\u20133 110\u201354\u20133 ??? 496\u201311\u20137 2050\u201301\u20133 75\u201328\u20135 78\u201383\u20131 115\u201311\u20137 110\u201319\u20130 97\u201385\u20138 78\u201378\u20134 78\u201379\u20135 67\u201363\u20130 108\u201321\u20134 98\u201382\u20138 108\u201339\u20134 108\u201338\u20133 78\u201385\u20133 MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.28 0.41 1.4 3.01 0.65 2.21 0.02 0.13 0.15 0.71 0.01 0.91 0.33 0.22 0.1 1.19 0.05 0.72 0.1 0.08 0.42 0.17 2.71 1.46 1.7 0.05 0.73 0.89 0.53 0.55 0.42 2.05 0.09 0.56 0.01 1.62 5.44 0.51 0.22 0.08 0.29 0.2 0.29 0.3 0.32 0.55 1.42 0.33 0.23 0.42 2.3 0.18 0.29 0.46 0.62 3.49 1.31 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.55 0.71 1.52 2.98 1.14 1.94 0.05 0.26 0.26 1.03 0.03 1.2 0.5 0.43 0.2 0.81 0.11 0.74 0.22 0.15 0.66 0.29 2.99 1.62 2.17 0.1 1.14 1.12 0.74 0.24 0.69 2.31 0.17 0.83 0.02 1.16", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7248, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.55 0.71 1.52 2.98 1.14 1.94 0.05 0.26 0.26 1.03 0.03 1.2 0.5 0.43 0.2 0.81 0.11 0.74 0.22 0.15 0.66 0.29 2.99 1.62 2.17 0.1 1.14 1.12 0.74 0.24 0.69 2.31 0.17 0.83 0.02 1.16 4.28 0.43 0.41 0.18 0.54 0.36 0.09 0.5 0.54 0.8 1.32 0.59 0.42 0.74 2.46 0.27 0.43 0.19 2.75 1.3 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.7 0.79 1.81 - 1.39 1.99 0.06 0.21 0.3 1.26 0.04 1.43 0.52 0.6 0.2 - 0.14 0.81 0.16 0.19 0.79 0.38 - - 2.77 0.13 1.32 1.36 0.92 0.72 2.62 0.21 0.03 1.01 - 0.46 0.45 0.16 0.62 0.36 - 0.61 0.69 0.99 1.42 0.71 0.48 0.93 2.91 0.35 0.53 - 2.38 1.59 Part 2b: Operational annex \u20130.35 \u20130.44 \u20130.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7249, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 340, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Methane Methanol Methyl Acetate Methyl Acetylene Methyl Acrylate Methyl Bromide Methyl Chloride Methyl cyclohexane Methyl cyclopentane Methyl Glyoxal Methyl Isobutyl Ketone Methyl iso-butyrate Methyl Naphthalenes Methyl Nitrite Methyl tert-Butyl Ether Methylvinyl Ketone Naphtalene Neopentane Nitrobenzene Nonane Octane Octyl Cyclohexane ortho-Cresol ortho-Xylene para-Cresol para-Trifluoromethyl-CI-Benzene para-Xylene Pentane Pentanol Phenol Propane Propyl Cyclopentane Propylene Propylene Carbonate Propylene Glycol Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether Acetate Propylene Oxide Sabinene sec-Butanol sec-Butyl Benzene styrene Subst. C7 Ester(C12) Sucts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7250, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "C9 Ester (C12) tertiary-Butanol tertiary-Butyl Acetate Tetrachloroethylene Tetralin Tolualdehyde Toluene trans\u20131,2-Dichloroethene trans\u20132-Butene trans\u20132-Pentene Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane Trimethylamine Vinyl Acetate Vinyl Chloride CAS number 74\u201382\u20138 67\u201356\u20131 79\u201320\u20139 74\u201399\u20137 96\u201333\u20133 74\u201383\u20139 74\u201387\u20133 108\u201387\u20132 96\u201337\u20137 ??? 108\u201310\u20131 547\u201363\u20137 - 624\u201391\u20139 1634\u201304\u20134 78\u201394\u20134 91\u201320\u20133 463\u201382\u20131 98\u201395\u20133 111\u201384\u20132 111\u201365\u20139 ??? 95\u201348\u20137 95\u201347\u20136 106\u201344\u20135 939\u201399\u20131 106\u201342\u20133 109\u201366\u20130 ??? 108\u201395\u20132 74\u201398\u20136 ??? 115\u201307\u20131 108\u201332\u20137 57\u201355\u20136 108\u201365\u20136 75\u201356\u20139 3387\u201341\u20135 78\u201392\u20132 135\u201398\u20138 100\u201342\u20135 - - 75\u201365\u20130 540\u201388\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 119\u201364\u20132 122\u201378\u20131 108\u201388\u20133 540\u201359\u20130 624\u201364\u20136 646\u201304\u20138 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 75\u201350\u20133 108\u201305\u20134 75\u201301\u20134 MIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.004 0.16 0.03 1.23 1.7 0.01 0.01 0.48 0.8 3.35 0.85 0.18 0.78 1.93 0.18 1.68 0.31 0.16 0.02 0.14 0.17 0.15 0.62 2.08 0.62 0.04 0.71 0.36 0.6 0.34 0.14 0.6 2.72 0.11 0.61 0.3 0.1 0.53 0.39 0.39 0.56 0.22 0.22 0.1 0.04 0.01 0.26 1.26 0.15 3.24 2.84 0.24 0.01 1.92 1.7", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7251, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "0.18 1.68 0.31 0.16 0.02 0.14 0.17 0.15 0.62 2.08 0.62 0.04 0.71 0.36 0.6 0.34 0.14 0.6 2.72 0.11 0.61 0.3 0.1 0.53 0.39 0.39 0.56 0.22 0.22 0.1 0.04 0.01 0.26 1.26 0.15 3.24 2.84 0.24 0.01 1.92 1.7 0.63 MOIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.007 0.2 0.06 1.97 1.88 0.01 0.02 0.78 1.26 2.54 1.02 0.31 0.46 2.01 0.31 1.67 0.04 0.27 0.02 0.28 0.34 0.28 1.63 0.03 0.46 0.65 0.91 0.27 0.95 2.9 0.14 0.84 0.43 0.19 0.57 0.62 0.16 0.38 0.36 0.15 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.87 0.26 3.14 2.81 0.3 0.01 1.66 1.88 EBIR (in kg formed ozone/kg) 0.009 0.22 0.08 2.48 - 0.02 0.02 0.85 1.48 2.49 1.19 0.39 0.04 3.7 0.41 1.98 0.34 0.01 0.23 0.3 0.28 - 1.23 - 0.01 0.04 0.81 1.13 0.36 1.06 3.4 0.15 1.05 0.55 0.24 0.61 0.78 0.46 0.44 0.18 0.08 0.02 - 0.24 0.34 3.63 - 0.34 0.02 1.73 - 1.28 Part 2b: Operational annex \u20130.46 \u20130.44 \u20130.44 \u20130.32 \u20131.63 \u20130.27 \u20130.38 \u20132.28 \u20130.27 \u20130.88 \u20130.04", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7252, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 341, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: Carter et al., 1997 Status: Authors Equation: The indicator results are expressed in kg ozone formed. is the Maximum Incremental Reactivity for substance i, while is the Maximum Ozone Incremental Reactivity for substancei, is the Equal Benefit Incremental Reactivity for substance i, and is the quantity of substance i emitted. Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7253, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 342, "book_page": 341, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.9.3: Alternative low for characterising photo-oxidant forming releases to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7254, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3-Trimethyl Benzene 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,2-Butanediol 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1-Butanol 1-Butene 1-Butyl Acetate 1-Methoxy\u20132-propanol 1-Pentene 1-Propyl Benzene 1-Undecane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2.3- Dimethylbutane 2-butanone 2-Methyl\u20131-Butene 2-Methyl\u20132-Butene 2-Methylheptane 2-Methylhexane 2-Methylnonane 2-Methyloctane 2-Methylpentane 3-Methyl\u20131-Butene 3-Methylhexane 3-Methylpentane Acetaldehyde Acetone Acetylene Acrolein Allyl chloride Benzene Butane Butane (unspec.) Butyraldehyde Carbon Monoxide Decane Dichloromethane Dimethyl Ether Dodecane Ethane Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Ethylbenzene Ethylene Formaldehyde Heptane Hexane isobutane isobutanol isobutene isobutyl acetate isobutyraldehyde isopentane isoprene isopropanol isopropyl acetate isopropyl benzene CAS-number 71\u201355\u20136 526\u201373\u20138 95\u201363\u20136 584\u201303\u20132 108\u201367\u20138 71\u201336\u20133 106\u201398\u20139 123\u201386\u20134 107\u201398\u20132 109\u201367\u20131 103\u201365\u20131 1120\u201321\u20134 75\u201383\u20132 79\u201329\u20138 78\u201393\u20133 563\u201346\u20132 513\u201335\u20139 592\u201327\u20138 591\u201376\u20134 871\u201383\u20130 3221\u201361\u20132", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7255, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CAS-number 71\u201355\u20136 526\u201373\u20138 95\u201363\u20136 584\u201303\u20132 108\u201367\u20138 71\u201336\u20133 106\u201398\u20139 123\u201386\u20134 107\u201398\u20132 109\u201367\u20131 103\u201365\u20131 1120\u201321\u20134 75\u201383\u20132 79\u201329\u20138 78\u201393\u20133 563\u201346\u20132 513\u201335\u20139 592\u201327\u20138 591\u201376\u20134 871\u201383\u20130 3221\u201361\u20132 107\u201383\u20135 563\u201345\u20131 589\u201334\u20134 96\u201314\u20130 75\u201307\u20130 67\u201364\u20131 74\u201386\u20132 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201305\u20131 71\u201343\u20132 106\u201397\u20138 106\u201397\u20138 123\u201372\u20138 630\u201308\u20130 124\u201318\u20135 75\u201309\u20132 115\u201310\u20136 112\u201340\u20133 74\u201384\u20130 64\u201317\u20135 141\u201378\u20136 100\u201341\u20134 74-85\u20131 50\u201300\u20130 142\u201382\u20135 110\u201354\u20133 75\u201328\u20135 78\u201383\u20131 115\u201311\u20137 110\u201319\u20130 78\u201384\u20132 78\u201378\u20134 78\u201379\u20135 67\u201363\u20130 108\u201321\u20134 98\u201382\u20138 POCP (in kg ethylene eq./kg) 0.002 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.04 0.4 0.02 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.5 Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7256, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 343, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance meta-Ethyltoluene meta-Xylene Methane Methanol Methyl Acetate Methyl cyclohexane Methyl Isobutyl Ketone Nonane Octane ortho-Ethyltoluene ortho-Xylene para-Ethyltoluene para-Xylene Pentane Propane Propionaldehyde Propylene Propylene Glycol Methyl Ether Acetate Tetrachloroethylene Toluene trans\u20132-Butene trans\u20132-Pentene Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane Valeraldehyde XYLENE (unspecified) CAS-number 620\u201314\u20134 108\u201338\u20133 74\u201382\u20138 67\u201356\u20131 79\u201320\u20139 108\u201387\u20132 108\u201310\u20131 111\u201384\u20132 111\u201365\u20139 611\u201314\u20133 95\u201347\u20136 622\u201396\u20138 106\u201342\u20133 109\u201366\u20130 74\u201398\u20136 123\u201338\u20136 115\u201307\u20131 108\u201365\u20136 127\u201318\u20134 108\u201388\u20133 624\u201364\u20136 646\u201304\u20138 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 110\u201362\u20133 POCP (in kg ethylene eq 0.4 0.5 0.007 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.01 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.004 0.3 0.4 ./kg) Source: Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al., 1992 Status: Authors Equation: The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference substance, ethylene", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7257, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 343, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is the Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential for substance i, while is the quantity of substance i emitted. Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7258, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 344, "book_page": 343, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.10 Acidification Table 4.3.10.1: Average European AP factors for characterising acidifying releases to the air. Substance Compartment CAS number AP in kg eq. in Switzerland /kg ammonia air 7664\u201341\u20137 1.6 nitrogenoxides(as air 10102\u201344\u20130 0.5 sulphur dioxide air 7446\u201309\u20135 1.2 Source: Huijbregts, 1999a Status: Author Equation: The indicator result is expressed in kg emitted in Switzerland equivalent. is the Acidification Potential for substance i emitted to the air, while is the emission of substance i to the air. Table 4.3.10.2: Substance ammonia hydrogen chloride hydrogen fluoride hydrogen sulfide nitric acid nitrogen dioxide nitrogen monoxide nitrogen oxides phosphoric acid sulfur dioxide sulfur trioxide sulphuric acid Alternative generic AP factors for characterising acidifying releases to the air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7259, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 344, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CAS number AP 7664\u201341\u20137 7664\u201301\u20130 7664\u201339\u20133 7783\u201306\u20134 7697\u201337\u20132 10102\u201344\u20130 10102\u201343\u20139 10102\u201344\u20130 7664\u201338\u20132 7446\u201309\u20135 7446\u201311\u20139 7664\u201393\u20139 (in kg eq./kg) 1.88 0.88 1.60 1.88 0.51 0.70 1.07 0.70 0.98 1.00 0.80 0.65 Source: Heijungs et al., 1992 (updated with Hauschild & Wenzel, Status: authors Equation: The indicator for substance 1998) result is expressed in kg -equivalents. is the Acidification i emitted to the air; while is the emission of substance i to the Potential air.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7260, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 345, "book_page": 344, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex\n\nPart 2b: Operational annex\n\nPart 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7261, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 346, "book_page": 345, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.11.1 : Generic EP factors for characterising eutrophying releases to air, water and soil. Substance CAS number EP (in kg ammonia 7664\u201341\u20137 0.35 ammonium 14798\u201303\u20139 0.33 nitrate 14797\u201355\u20138 0.1 nitric acid 7697\u201337\u20132 0.1 nitrogen 7727\u201337\u20139 0.42 nitrogen dioxide 10102\u201344\u20130 0.13 nitrogen monoxide 10102\u201343\u20139 0.2 nitrogen oxides 10102\u201344\u20130 0.13 phosphate 7664\u201338\u20132 phosphoric acid 7664\u201338\u20132 0.97 phosphorus (P) 7723\u201314\u20130 3.06 phosphorus(V) oxide 1314\u201356\u20133 1.34 chemical oxygen demand (COD)1 - 0.022 Source: Heijungs et al., 1992 with some modifications Status: authors Equation: The indicator result is expressed in kg equivalent. is the Eutrophication Potential for substance i emitted to air, water or soil, while is the emission of substance i to air, water or soil. Remark: If the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)2 is specified it can generally be converted to a COD. The conversion factor will depend on the situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7262, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Remark: If the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)2 is specified it can generally be converted to a COD. The conversion factor will depend on the situation. 1 The amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic compounds in a water sample to carbon dioxide and water; it is measured utilizing a strong chemical oxidant. 2 The amount of oxygen used by micro-organisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter. 4.3.11 Eutrophication Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7263, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex\n\nPart 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7264, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 349, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.12 Waste heat Characterisation factor is 1 for all waste heat interventions. 4.3.13 Odour 4.3.13.1 Malodorous air Table 4.3.13.1 : Inverse OTV factors for characterising odour releases to air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7265, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1-Butanol 1-Butyl Acetate 1-butylpropionate 2-butanone 2-ethyl\u20135,5-dimethyl\u20131,3-dioxane 2-methylpropanoic acid 3-methylbutanoic acid Acetaldehyde Acetic acid Acetone Acrolein ammonia butanoic acid butylacrylate Butyraldehyde carbon disulfide chlorobenzene decaline Dichloromethane diethylamine dimethylamine ethanethiol Ethanol Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Acrylate ethylbutyrate ethylthioethane Formaldehyde hydrogen sulfide isobutanol isobutene isopentylacetate isopropyl benzene isopropyl propionate meta-Cresol meta-Xylene methanethiol Methanol Methyl Acetate Methyl Acrylate Methyl Bromide Compartment air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 95\u201363\u20136 108\u201367\u20138 71\u201336\u20133 123\u201386\u20134 590\u201301\u20132 78\u201393\u20133 ??? 79\u201331\u20132 503\u201374\u20132 75\u201307\u20130 64\u201319\u20137 67\u201364\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 7664\u201341\u20137 107\u201392\u20136", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7266, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number 71\u201355\u20136 95\u201363\u20136 108\u201367\u20138 71\u201336\u20133 123\u201386\u20134 590\u201301\u20132 78\u201393\u20133 ??? 79\u201331\u20132 503\u201374\u20132 75\u201307\u20130 64\u201319\u20137 67\u201364\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 7664\u201341\u20137 107\u201392\u20136 141\u201332\u20132 123\u201372\u20138 75\u201315\u20130 108\u201390\u20137 - 75\u201309\u20132 109\u201389\u20137 124\u201340\u20133 75\u201308\u20131 64\u201317\u20135 141\u201378\u20136 140\u201388\u20135 105\u201354\u20134 352\u201393\u20132 50\u201300\u20130 7783\u201306\u20134 78\u201383\u20131 115\u201311\u20137 123\u201392\u20132 98\u201382\u20138 637\u201378\u20135 108\u201339\u20134 108\u201338\u20133 74\u201393\u20131 67\u201356\u20131 79\u201320\u20139 96\u201333\u20133 74\u201383\u20139 1/OTV 1.89E51 7.14E6 5.56E6 1.3E7 3.23E7 1.16E7 1 .47E6 1.79E11 2E8 4.55E9 3.7E9 1 .64E7 13900 1 .45E7 1E6 2.86E9 6.67E8 1.19E9 5.56E6 1E6 3.57E5 1.11E7 7.14E8 2.27E10 1 .56E6 4.76E5 1 .22E9 3.33E10 7.14E8 2.04E6 2.33E9 2.86E7 66700 1.33E7 1.37E7 3.1 3E6 1.75E9 1.85E6 4.17E9 13700 45500 1E8 8.33E8 1 Means", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7267, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 352, "book_page": 1560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.13.2 Malodorous water To be inserted 4.3.14 Noise To be inserted Substance methyl dithiomethane Methyl Isobutyl Ketone methyl methacrylate methyl propionate methyl thiometnane ortho-Cresol ortho-Xylene para-Cresol para-Xylene Phenol Propanoic acid Propionaldehyde pyridine styrene terephthaloyldichloride Tetrachloroethylene Toluene Trichloroethylene Trimethylamine Valeraldehyde Compartment air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air CAS number ??? 108\u201310\u20131 80\u201362\u20136 554\u201312\u20131 75\u201318\u20133 95\u201348\u20137 95\u201347\u20136 106\u201344\u20135 106\u201342\u20133 108\u201395\u20132 79\u201309\u20134 123\u201338\u20136 110\u201386\u20131 100\u201342\u20135 100\u201320\u20139 127\u201318\u20134 108\u201388\u20133 79\u201301\u20136 75\u201350\u20133 110\u201362\u20133 1/OTV 6.67E8 1.45E6 1.59E6 2.86E5 3.33E9 5.56E8 1.28E6 5.56E9 1 .92E6 2.56E7 1.92E8 2.86E8 8.33E6 1.47E7 3.13E8 1.2E5 2.63E5 2.56E5 3.85E9 4.17E8 Source: Status: Equation: Roos, 1989. Author", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7268, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 352, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Author. The indicator result is expressed in 1/OTV is the characterisation factor for odour for substance i emitted to air, while (kg) is the quantity of substance i emitted.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7269, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 353, "book_page": 352, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.15 Impacts of ionising radiation Table 4.3.15.1 : Damage factors for characterising radioactive releases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7270, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 353, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Carbon\u201314 (C\u201314) Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) Cobalt\u201358 (Co\u201358) Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) hydrogen\u20133 (H\u20133) lodine\u2013129 (l\u2013129) lodine\u2013131 (l\u2013131) lodine\u2013133 (l\u2013133) Krypton\u201385 (Kr\u201385) Lead\u2013210 (Pb\u2013210) Plutonium alpha (Pu alpha) Plutonium\u2013238 (Pu\u2013238) Polonium\u2013210 (Po\u2013210) Radium\u2013226 (Ra\u2013226) Radon\u2013222 (Rn\u2013222) Th\u2013230 Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) Xe\u2013133 Ag\u2013110m Antimony\u2013124 (Sb\u2013124) Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) Cobalt\u201358 (Co\u201358) Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) H\u20133 lodine\u2013131 (I\u2013131) manganese\u201354 (Mn\u201354) Radium\u2013226 (Ra\u2013226) Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) Am\u2013241 Antimony\u2013125 (Sb\u2013125) Carbon\u201314 (C\u201314) Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) Cm alpha Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) H\u20133 lodine\u2013129 (l\u2013129) Plutonium alpha (Pu alpha) Ru\u2013106 Sr\u201390 Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) comp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7271, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 353, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air freshwater freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water freshwater freshwater fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water freshwater sea water sea water seawater sea water sea water seawater seawater sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water seawater sea water sea water Damage factor 2.10E\u201371 1.20E\u20138 1 .30E\u20138 4.30E\u201310 1.60E\u20138 1.40E\u201311 9.40E\u20137 1.60E\u201310 9.40E\u201312 1.40E\u201313 1.50E\u20139 8.30E\u20138 6.70E\u20138 1 .50E\u20139 9.10E\u201310 2.40E\u201311 4.50E\u20138 9.70E\u20138 2.10E\u20138 8.20E\u20139 1.40E\u201313 5.10E\u201310 8.20E\u201310 1 .40E\u20137 1 .70E\u20137 4.10E\u201311 4.40E\u20138 4.50E\u201313 5.10E\u201310 3.10E\u201310 1.30E\u201310 2.40E\u20139 2.30E\u20139 2.30E\u20139 3.10E\u20138 1.50E\u201311 1.20E\u20139 7.90E\u20138 7.90E\u20138 5.70E\u20138 3.90E\u201310 6.90E\u201314 1.00E\u20137 7.40E\u20139 1.40E\u201310 4.00E\u201312 2.30E\u201311 2.50E\u201311 2.30E\u201311 1 Means", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7272, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 354, "book_page": 353, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: Status: Equation: Frischknecht et al., 2000 Authors, method also used for the Eco-indicator \u201899. The indicator result is expressed inyr. is the characterisation factor substance i emitted to ecomp based on DALYs, while (kBq) is the activity of substance i emitted to compartment ecomp. Note that we have used the unit 'yr' for the indicator result and for the characterisation factor, while Frischknecht et al. (2000) use \u2019DALYs\u2019 and This has been done in agreement with Section 2.4, which stipulates that SI units are to be used. In fact, \u2019DALY\u2019 can be regarded as the name of the quantity (like \u2019length\u2019), and \u2019yr\u2019 as one possible unit of measurement (like \u2019metre\u2019). Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7273, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 355, "book_page": 354, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.3.1 5.2: Screening factors for characterising radioactive releases (level I)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7274, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 355, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance Compartment Ac\u2013225 Ac\u2013227 Ag\u2013108m Am\u2013241 Be\u201310 Bi\u2013210m C\u201314 Ca\u201341 Cd\u2013113m Ce\u2013144 CI\u201336 Cm\u2013244 Co\u201360 Cs\u2013134 Cs\u2013135 Cs\u2013137 Eu\u2013152 Eu\u2013154 Fe\u201355 H\u20133 I\u2013129 K\u201340 Kr\u201385 Mn\u201354 Mo\u201393 Nb\u201394 Nb\u201395 Ni\u201359 Ni\u201363 Np\u2013237 P\u201332 Pa\u2013231 Pa\u2013233 Pb\u2013210 Pd\u2013107 Pm\u2013147 Po\u2013210 Pu\u2013238 Pu\u2013239 Pu\u2013240 Pu\u2013241 Pu\u2013242 Ra\u2013223 Ra\u2013225 Ra\u2013226 Ra\u2013228 Rb\u201387 Re\u2013187 Ru\u2013106 Sb\u2013125 Se\u201379 Si\u201332 Sm\u2013151 Sn\u2013126 Sr\u201390 Tc\u201399 Te\u2013125m Screening factor 2.50E\u2013021 1.00E+01 3.60E\u201301 1.00E+00 2.60E\u201303 1 .20E\u201301 2.60E\u201304 2.40E\u201303 8.30E\u201302 5.20E\u201303 6.50E\u201301 5.40E\u201301 1.70E\u201301 1.30E\u201301 2.00E\u201302 2.20E\u201301 1.40E\u201301 1.20E\u201301 2.80E\u201304 1.90E\u201306 5.60E\u201301 9.40E\u201302 2.80E\u201309 9.70E\u201303 2.10E\u201303 3.80E\u201301 1.20E\u201303 6.80E\u201304 1.60E\u201303 1.30E+00 7.30E\u201303 3.00E+00 6.70E\u201304 7.10E\u201301 1.30E\u201304 3.20E\u201304 1.60E\u201301 8.90E\u201301 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 2.00E\u201302 9.50E\u201301 5.60E\u201302 4.70E\u201302 8.30E\u201301 4.20E\u201301 1.60E\u201302 1.80E\u201305 9.60E\u201303 1.60E\u201302 1.70E\u201302 6.80E\u201302 1.60E\u201304 5.20E\u201301 1.90E\u201301 3.40E\u201302 6.90E\u201304 1 Means air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7275, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 355, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.70E\u201302 8.30E\u201301 4.20E\u201301 1.60E\u201302 1.80E\u201305 9.60E\u201303 1.60E\u201302 1.70E\u201302 6.80E\u201302 1.60E\u201304 5.20E\u201301 1.90E\u201301 3.40E\u201302 6.90E\u201304 1 Means air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7276, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 356, "book_page": 355, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Th\u2013227 Th\u2013228 Th\u2013229 Th\u2013230 Th\u2013232 Th\u2013234 U\u2013232 U\u2013233 U\u2013234 U\u2013235 U\u2013236 U\u2013238 Zr\u201393 Zr\u201395 Ac\u2013225 Ac\u2013227 Ag\u2013108m Am\u2013241 Be\u201310 Bi\u2013210m C\u201314 Ca\u201341 Cd\u2013113m Ce\u2013144 CI\u201336 Cm\u2013244 Co\u201360 Cs\u2013134 Cs\u2013135 Cs\u2013137 Eu\u2013152 Eu\u2013154 Fe\u201355 H\u20133 I\u2013129 K\u201340 Kr\u201385 Mn\u201354 Mo\u201393 Nb\u201394 Nb\u201395 Ni\u201359 Ni\u201363 Np\u2013237 P\u201332 Pa\u2013231 Pa\u2013233 Pb\u2013210 Pd\u2013107 Pm\u2013147 Po\u2013210 Pu\u2013238 Pu\u2013239 Pu\u2013240 Pu\u2013241 Pu\u2013242 Ra\u2013223 Ra\u2013225 Ra\u2013226 Compartment air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7277, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 356, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water Screening factor 6.40E\u201302 8.00E\u201301 3.40E+00 4.90E\u201301 2.60E+00 1.80E\u201303 1.90E+00 3.20E\u201301 3.10E\u201301 3.40E\u201301 3.00E\u201301 2.90E\u201301 7.40E\u201304 4.10E\u201303 4.90E\u201308 6.80E\u201306 1.30E\u201306 2.00E\u201306 8.40E\u201309 3.30E\u201307 5.60E\u201307 1 .00E\u201308 2.70E\u201307 3.70E\u201308 1.30E\u201306 9.00E\u201307 6.10E\u201307 1.10E\u201306 1 .20E\u201307 1.10E\u201306 5.00E\u201307 4.20E\u201307 1.50E\u201309 1.40E\u201311 1.40E\u201306 1.10E\u201306 5.10E\u201313 3.40E\u201307 2.20E\u201309 1.40E\u201306 7.00E\u201309 1.70E\u201309 3.70E\u201309 2.40E\u201306 8.20E\u201307 5.10E\u201306 2.90E\u201309 6.80E\u201306 2.50E\u201310 1.00E\u201309 8.20E\u201307 1.50E\u201306 1.70E\u201306 1.70E\u201306 3.80E\u201308 1.60E\u201306 2.20E\u201307 1.40E\u201307 4.70E\u201306", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7278, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 357, "book_page": 356, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Ra\u2013228 Rb\u201387 Re\u2013187 Ru\u2013106 Sb\u2013125 Se\u201379 Si\u201332 Sm\u2013151 Sn\u2013126 Sr\u201390 Tc\u201399 Te\u2013125m Th\u2013227 Th\u2013228 Th\u2013229 Th\u2013230 Th\u2013232 Th\u2013234 U\u2013232 U\u2013233 U\u2013234 U\u2013235 U\u2013236 U\u2013238 Zr\u201393 Zr\u201395 Ac\u2013225 Ac\u2013227 Ag\u2013108m Am\u2013241 Be\u201310 Bi\u2013210m C\u201314 Ca\u201341 Cd\u2013113m Ce\u2013144 CI\u201336 Cm\u2013244 Co\u201360 Cs\u2013134 Cs\u2013135 Cs\u2013137 Eu\u2013152 Eu\u2013154 Fe\u201355 H\u20133 I\u2013129 K\u201340 Kr\u201385 Mn\u201354 Mo\u201393 Nb\u201394 Nb\u201395 Ni\u201359 Ni\u201363 Np\u2013237 P\u201332 Pa\u2013231 Pa\u2013233 Compartment fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7279, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 357, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater Screening factor 3.90E\u201306 8.50E\u201308 1.10E\u201309 2.20E\u201308 1 .00E\u201308 4.10E\u201308 1.30E\u201307 4.50E\u201310 6.80E\u201307 4.30E\u201307 6.90E\u201308 6.90E\u201309 8.40E\u201308 5.70E\u201307 3.80E\u201306 3.70E\u201305 8.90E\u201306 1 .30E\u201308 2.40E\u201306 8.50E\u201308 8.10E\u201308 3.90E\u201307 7.70E\u201308 1 .80E\u201307 3.00E\u201309 7.40E\u201308 8.80E\u201309 4.20E\u201306 3.20E\u201306 1.20E\u201305 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7280, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 357, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "00E\u201308 7.60E\u201307 1 .40E\u201307 4.90E\u201311 5.90E\u201305 4.70E\u201308 2.50E\u201311 7.20E\u201307 1 .30E\u201305 3.90E\u201307 2.50E\u201309 8.70E\u201307 1.20E\u201305 1.00E\u201305 2.40E\u201308 5.20E\u201313 1 .50E\u201307 7.80E\u201307 5.10E\u201313 8.10E\u201307 1.10E\u201308 3.30E\u201305 8.80E\u201308 9.20E\u201309 2.10E\u201309 7.00E\u201306 6.40E\u201307 3.00E\u201305 1.50E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7281, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 358, "book_page": 357, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Pb\u2013210 Pd\u2013107 Pm\u2013147 Po\u2013210 Pu\u2013238 Pu\u2013239 Pu\u2013240 Pu\u2013241 Pu\u2013242 Ra\u2013223 Ra\u2013225 Ra\u2013226 Ra\u2013228 Rb\u201387 Re\u2013187 Ru\u2013106 Sb\u2013125 Se\u201379 Si\u201332 Sm\u2013151 Sn\u2013126 Sr\u201390 Tc\u201399 Te\u2013125m Th\u2013227 Th\u2013228 Th\u2013229 Th\u2013230 Th\u2013232 Th\u2013234 U\u2013232 U\u2013233 U\u2013234 U\u2013235 U\u2013236 U\u2013238 Zr\u201393 Zr\u201395 Compartment seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater seawater Screening factor 5.60E\u201306 1.20E\u201309 4.60E\u201309 4.20E\u201305 5.30E\u201307 5.80E\u201307 5.90E\u201307 2.00E\u201308 5.60E\u201307 1.10E\u201307 7.30E\u201308 8.90E\u201306 7.80E\u201306 5.20E\u201310 3.90E\u201312 1.90E\u201307 3.60E\u201308 1.40E\u201307 1.10E\u201309 1.70E\u201309 6.90E\u201307 3.70E\u201309 6.80E\u201309 7.20E\u201308 1.00E\u201306 1.40E\u201305 1.00E\u201304 1.60E\u201305 9.40E\u201305 4.90E\u201307 4.70E\u201306 9.30E\u201309 5.00E\u201309 7.40E\u201307 4.70E\u201309 2.50E\u201307 1.30E\u201308", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7282, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 358, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.90E\u201307 3.60E\u201308 1.40E\u201307 1.10E\u201309 1.70E\u201309 6.90E\u201307 3.70E\u201309 6.80E\u201309 7.20E\u201308 1.00E\u201306 1.40E\u201305 1.00E\u201304 1.60E\u201305 9.40E\u201305 4.90E\u201307 4.70E\u201306 9.30E\u201309 5.00E\u201309 7.40E\u201307 4.70E\u201309 2.50E\u201307 1.30E\u201308 3.10E\u201307 Source: Status: Equation: Solberg-Johansen, 1998 Author", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7283, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 358, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The indicator result is dimensionless. = activity of the emission pulse of radionuclide i (Bq). dispersion factor for for i in j = volume flow rate of discharge to medium probability coefficient foreffects for the whole population. for emissions to air: radionuclide i in environmental medium j Screening screening factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7284, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 359, "book_page": 358, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.3.16 Casualties Characterisation factor is 1 for all interventions in this impact category. 4.3.17 Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking INTERVENTIONS FOR WHICH CHARACTERISATION FACTORS ARE LACKING, BUT WHICH ARE KNOWN TO CONTRIBUTE TO ONE OR MORE IMPACT CATEGORIES Examples of such interventions are: which is known to reduce climate change (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7285, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 359, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "negative GWP) numerous chemicals with known toxic effects: ammonia benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene chrysene dust (PM10) fluoranthrene hydrogen chloride hydrogen sulphide indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene nitrogen dioxide phenanthrene sulphur dioxide many other chemicals Note that this list of examples is far from complete ! ESTIMATION OF POTENTIAL IMPACT If characterisation factors are lacking, consider: the use of estimates based on the scientific and engineering expertise of experts (e.g., QSARs), using best available data of similar emissions (same chemical structure/chemical class) with similar impacts. Source: Christiansen et al. , 1997. 4.3.18 Economic flows not followed to system boundary To be inserted \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7286, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 360, "book_page": 359, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.4 Classification Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.4.1 : All interventions for which baseline characterisation factors are available. Substance actinium (Ac) aluminium (Al) antimony (Sb) argon (Ar) arsenic (As) barium (Ba) beryllium (Be) bismuth (Bi) boron (B) bromine (Br) cadmium (Cd) calcium (Ca) cerium (Ce) cesium (Cs) chlorine (Cl) chromium (Cr) cobalt (Co) copper (Cu) dysprosium (Dy) erbium (Er) europium (Eu) fluorine (F) gadolinium (Gd) gallium (Ga) germanium (Ge) gold (Au) hafnium (Hf) helium (He) holmium (Ho) indium (In) iodine (I) iridium (Ir) iron (Fe) kalium (K;potassium) krypton (Kr) lanthanum (La) lead (Pb) lithium (Li) lutetium (Lu) magnesium (Mg) manganese (Mn) mercury (Hg) molybdenum (Mo) neodymium (Nd) neon (Ne) nickel (Ni) niobium (Nb) osmium (Os) palladium (Pd) phosphorus (P) cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7287, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 360, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201334\u20138 7429\u201390\u20135 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201337\u20131 7440\u201338\u20132 7440\u201339\u20133 7440\u201341\u20137 7440\u201369\u20139 7440\u201342\u20138 7726\u201395\u20136 7440\u201343\u20139 7440\u201370\u20132 7440\u201345\u20131 7440\u201346\u20132 7782\u201350\u20135 7440\u201347\u20133 7440\u201348\u20134 7440\u201350\u20138 7429\u201391\u20136 7440\u201352\u20130 7440\u201353\u20131 7782\u201341\u20134 7440\u201354\u20132 7440\u201355\u20133 7440\u201356\u20134 7440\u201357\u20135 7440\u201358\u20136 7440\u201359\u20137 7440\u201360\u20130 7440\u201374\u20136 7553\u201356\u20132 7439\u201388\u20135 7439\u201389\u20136 7440\u201309\u20137 7439\u201390\u20139 7439\u201391\u20130 7439\u201392\u20131 7439\u201393\u20132 7439\u201394\u20133 7439\u201395\u20134 7439\u201396\u20135 7439\u201397\u20136 7439\u201398\u20137 7440\u201300\u20138 7440\u201301\u20139 7440\u201302\u20130 7440\u201303\u20131 7440\u201304\u20132 7440\u201305\u20133 7723\u201314\u20130 group element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element initial emission or extraction resources resources resources resources resources resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7288, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 360, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "element element element element element element element element element element element element element initial emission or extraction resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7289, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 361, "book_page": 360, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance platinum (Pt) polonium (Po) praseodymium (Pr) protactinium (Pa) radium (Ra) radon (Rn) rhenium (Re) rhodium (Rh) rubidium (Rb) ruthenium (Ru) samarium (Sm) scandium (Sc) selenium (Se) silicium (Si; silicon) silver (Ag) Sodium (Na) strontium (Sr) sulfur (S) tantalum(Ta) tellurium (Te) terbium (Tb) thallium (Tl) thorium (Th) thulium (Tm) tin (Sn) titanium (Ti) tungsten (W); wolfraam uranium (U) vanadium (V) xenon (Xe) ytterbium (Yb) yttrium (Y) zinc (Zn) Zirconium (Zr) coal hard coal soft, lignite natural gas oil crude bauxite chromium (ore) copper (ore) iron (ore lead (ore) manganese (ore) molybdenum (ore) nickel (ore) tin (ore) zinc (ore) 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,3-Trimethyl Benzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7290, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 361, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201306\u20134 7440\u201308\u20136 7440\u201310\u20130 1004\u201329\u20131 7440\u201314\u20134 10043\u201392\u20132 7440\u201315\u20135 7440\u201316\u20136 7440\u201317\u20137 7440\u201318\u20138 7440\u201319\u20139 7440\u201320\u20132 7782\u201349\u20132 7440\u201321\u20133 7440\u201322\u20134 7440\u201323\u20135 7440\u201324\u20136 7704\u201334\u20139 7440\u201325\u20137 13494\u201380\u20139 7440\u201327\u20139 7440\u201328\u20130 7440\u201329\u20131 7440\u201330\u20134 7440\u201331\u20135 7440\u201332\u20136 7440\u201333\u20137 7440\u201361\u20131 7440\u201362\u20132 7440\u201363\u20133 7440\u201364\u20134 7440\u201365\u20135 7440\u201366\u20136 7440\u201367\u20137 coal hard coal soft nat", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7291, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 361, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "gas 8012\u201395\u20131 7429\u201390\u20135(o) 7440\u201347\u20133(o) 7440\u201350\u20138(o) 7439\u201389\u20136(o) 7439\u201392\u20131(o) 7439\u201396\u20135(o) 7439\u201398\u20137(o) 7440\u201302\u20130(o) 7440\u201331\u20135(o) 7440\u201366\u20136(o) 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 526\u201373\u20138 95\u201394\u20133 group element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element element fossil fuel fossil fuel fossil fuel fossil fuel ore ore ore ore ore ore ore ore ore ore haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic initial emission or extraction resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7292, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 361, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources resources air air air air air air unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg m3 kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7293, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 362, "book_page": 361, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene 1,3-Butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-Butanol 1-Butene 1-Butoxypropanol 1-Butyl Acetate 1-butylpropionate 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 1-Hexene 1 -Methoxy\u20132-propanol 1-Pentene 1-Propanol 1-Propyl Benzene 1-Propylacetate 1 -Undecane 2,2-Dimethylbutane 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2.3-Dimethylbutane 2-butanone 2-Butoxy-Ethanol 2-chlorophenol 2-Ethoxy-Ethanol 2-ethyl\u20135,5-dimethyl\u20131,3-dioxane 2-Methoxy-Ethanol 2-Methyl\u20131-Butene 2-Methyl\u20132-Butene 2-Methylbutan\u20131-ol 2-Methylbutan\u20132-ol 2-Methylhexane 2-Methylpentane 2-methylpropanoic acid 3,4-dichloroaniline 3,5-Diethyltoluene 3,5-Dimethylethylbenzene 3-chloroaniline 3-Methyl\u20131-Butene 3-Methylbutan\u20131-ol 3-Methylbutan\u20132-ol 3-methylbutanoic acid cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7294, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 362, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "120\u201382\u20131 95\u201363\u20136 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 108\u201367\u20138 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 71\u201336\u20133 106\u201398\u20139 57018\u201352\u20137 123\u201386\u20134 590\u201301\u20132 100\u201300\u20135 592\u201341\u20136 107\u201398\u20132 109\u201367\u20131 71\u201323\u20138 103\u201365\u20131 109\u201360\u20134 1120\u201321\u20134 75\u201383\u20132 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 79\u201329\u20138 78\u201393\u20133 111\u201376\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 110\u201380\u20135 ??? 109\u201386\u20134 563\u201346\u20132 513\u201335\u20139 137\u201332\u20136 75\u201385\u20134 591\u201376\u20134 107\u201383\u20135 79\u201331\u20132 95\u201376\u20131 25550\u201313\u20134 29224\u201355\u20133 108\u201342\u20139 563\u201345\u20131 123\u201351\u20133 598\u201375\u20134 503\u201374\u20132 group initial emission unit or extraction haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated aromatic aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) aromatic nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated aromatic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7295, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 362, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) aromatic nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (carboxylic acid) haloginated aromatic aromatic aromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (carboxylic air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7296, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 362, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7297, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 363, "book_page": 362, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 3-Methylhexane 3-Methylpentane 3-Pentanol 4-chloroaniline acephate Acetaldehyde Acetic acid Acetone Acetylene Acrolein Acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia ammonium anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone Benzaldehyde Benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butane (unspec.) butanoic acid butylacrylate Butylbenzylphtalate Butyraldehyde cadmium (II) ion captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran Carbon dioxide carbon disulfide Carbon Monoxide Carbon\u201314 (C\u201314) Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7298, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 363, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "589\u201334\u20134 96\u201314\u20130 584\u201302\u20131 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 75\u201307\u20130 64\u201319\u20137 67\u201364\u20131 74\u201386\u20132 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 14798\u201303\u20139 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 100\u201352\u20137 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 106\u201397\u20138 107\u201392\u20136 141\u201332\u20132 85\u201368\u20137 123\u201372\u20138 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 124\u201338\u20139 75\u201315\u20130 630\u201308\u20130 14762\u201375\u20135 13967\u201370\u20139 group initial emission unit orextraction acid) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) haloginated aromatic pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (carboxylic acid) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (alkyne) nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) pesticide pesticide inorganic inorganic pesticide PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (carboxylic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7299, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 363, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (carboxylic acid) nonaromatic (ester) aromatic nonaromatic (aldehyde) metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic inorganic inorganic radioactive radioactive air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7300, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 364, "book_page": 363, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) CFC\u201311 CFC\u2013113 CFC\u2013114 CFC\u2013115 CFC\u201312 CFC\u201313 chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium (III) ion chromium (VI) ion chrysene cis\u20132-Butene cis\u20132-Hexene cis\u20132-Pentene cis-Dichloroethene cobalt Cobalt\u201358 (Co\u201358) Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) copper (II) ion coumaphos cyanazine Cyclohexane Cyclohexanol Cyclohexanone cypermethrin cyromazine DDT decaline Decane deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate Diacetone alcohol diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethyl Ether diethylamine Diethylketone Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7301, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 364, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "10045\u201397\u20133 75\u201369\u20134 26523\u201364\u20138 1320\u201337\u20132 76\u201315\u20133 75\u201371\u20138 75\u201372\u20139 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16065\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 590\u201318\u20131 ??? 627\u201320\u20133 156\u201359\u20132 7440\u201348\u20134 13981\u201338\u20139 10198\u201340\u20130 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 110\u201382\u20137 108\u201393\u20130 108\u201394\u20131 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 14727\u201356\u20131 124\u201318\u20135 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 123\u201342\u20132 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 60\u201329\u20137 109\u201389\u20137 96\u201322\u20130 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 group initial emission unit or extraction radioactive haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated nonaromatic metal radioactive radioactive metal pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkane)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7302, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 364, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated nonaromatic metal radioactive radioactive metal pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alcohol) pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (ether) nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) nonaromatic (ketone) aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7303, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 365, "book_page": 364, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Diisopropylether dimethoate Dimethoxy methane Dimethyl carbonate Dimethyl Ether dimethylamine Dimethylphtalate Dinitrogen oxide dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate dioxins (unspec.) disulfothon diuron DNOC Dodecane dust (PM10) endosulfan endrin Ethane ethanethiol Ethanol ethoprophos Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Acrylate Ethyl- trans-Butyl Ether Ethylbenzene ethylbutyrate Ethylene Ethylene Glycol Ethylene Oxide ethylthioethane fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde Formic acid glyphosate HALON HALON\u20131201 HALON\u20131202 HALON\u20131211 HALON\u20131301 HALON\u20132311 HALON\u20132402 HCFC\u2013123 HCFC\u2013124 HCFC\u2013141b cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7304, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 365, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "108\u201320\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 109\u201387\u20135 616\u201338\u20136 115\u201310\u20136 124\u201340\u20133 133\u201311\u20133 10024\u201397\u20132 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 dioxines 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 112\u201340\u20133 PM10 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 74\u201384\u20130 75\u201308\u20131 64\u201317\u20135 13194\u201348\u20134 141\u201378\u20136 140\u201388\u20135 637\u201392\u20133 0 100\u201341\u20134 105\u201354\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 107\u201321\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 352\u201393\u20132 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 64\u201318\u20136 1071\u201383\u20136 ??? ??? 75\u201361\u20136 353\u201359\u20133 75\u201363\u20138 ??? 25497\u201330\u20137 306\u201383\u20132 63938\u201310\u20133 27156\u201303\u20132 group initial emission unit or extraction nonaromatic (ether) pesticide nonaromatic (ether) nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) aromatic inorganic pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) inorganic pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) pesticide nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ether) aromatic nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7305, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 365, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(ester) nonaromatic (ether) aromatic nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (carboxylic acid) pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7306, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 366, "book_page": 365, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance HCFC\u2013142b HCFC\u201322 HCFC\u2013225ca HCFC\u2013225cb heptachlor Heptane heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene Hexan\u20132-one Hexan\u20133-one Hexane HFC\u2013125 HFC\u2013134 HFC\u2013134a HFC\u2013143 HFC\u2013143a HFC\u2013152a HFC\u2013227ea HFC\u201323 HFC\u2013236fa HFC\u2013245ca HFC\u201332 HFC\u201341 HFC\u201343\u201310mee hydrogen chloride hydrogen fluoride hydrogen sulfide hydrogen\u20133 (H\u20133) indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene lodine\u2013129 (l\u2013129) lodine\u2013131 (I\u2013131) lodine\u2013133 (l\u2013133) iprodione isobutane isobutanol isobutene isobutyraldehyde isopentane isopentylacetate isoprene isopropanol isopropyl acetate isopropyl benzene isopropyl propionate isoproturon Krypton\u201385 (Kr\u201385) lead (II) ion Lead\u2013210 (Pb\u2013210) lindane linuron malathion cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7307, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 366, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "75\u201368\u20133 75\u201345\u20136 422\u201356\u20130 507\u201355\u20131 76\u201344\u20138 142\u201382\u20135 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 591\u201378\u20136 589\u201338\u20138 110\u201354\u20133 354\u201333\u20136 811\u201397\u20132 811\u201397\u20132 (a) 430\u201366\u20130 420\u201346\u20132 75\u201337\u20136 431\u201389\u20130 75\u201346\u20137 690\u201339\u20131 679\u201386\u20137 75\u201310\u20135 593\u201353\u20133 138495\u201342\u20138 7647\u201301\u20130 7664\u201339\u20133 7783\u201306\u20134 1333\u201374\u20130 (radioactive 3) 193\u201339\u20135 10043\u201366\u20130 24267\u201356\u20139 14834\u201367\u20134 36734\u201319\u20137 75\u201328\u20135 78\u201383\u20131 115\u201311\u20137 78\u201384\u20132 78\u201378\u20134 123\u201392\u20132 78\u201379\u20135 67\u201363\u20130 108\u201321\u20134 98\u201382\u20138 637\u201378\u20135 34123\u201359\u20136 7439\u201390\u20139 (radiaactive 85) 14280\u201350\u20133 14255\u201304\u20130 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 group initial emission unit or extraction haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7308, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 366, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic radioactive PAH radioactive radioactive radioactive pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (ester) aromatic nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide radioactive metal radioactive pesticide pesticide pesticide air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg KBq KBq KBq", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7309, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 366, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg KBq kg kg kg air air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7310, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 367, "book_page": 366, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance MCPA mecoprop mercury (II) ion meta-Cresol meta-Ethyltoluene metamitron meta-Xylene metazachlor methabenzthiazuron Methane methanethiol Methanol methomyl Methyl Acetate Methyl Acrylate Methyl Chloride methyl dithiomethane Methyl Formate Methyl Isobutyl Ketone methyl methacrylate methyl propionate Methyl propyl Ketone Methyl tert-Butyl Ether Methyl tert-butylketone methyl thiomethane methylbromide Methyl-Isopropylketone methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum Naphtalene Neopentane nickel Nitrate nitric acid nitrogen nitrogen dioxide nitrogen mono oxide nitrogen oxides (as NO2) Nonane Octane ortho-Cresol ortho-Ethyltoluene ortho-Xylene oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl para-Cresol para-Ethyltoluene parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl para-Xylene cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7311, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 367, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 108\u201339\u20134 620\u201314\u20134 41394\u201305\u20132 108\u201338\u20133 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 74\u201382\u20138 74\u201393\u20131 67\u201356\u20131 16752\u201377\u20135 79\u201320\u20139 96\u201333\u20133 74\u201387\u20133 ??? 107\u201331\u20133 108\u201310\u20131 80\u201362\u20136 554\u201312\u20131 107\u201387\u20139 1634\u201304\u20134 75\u201397\u20138 75\u201318\u20133 74\u201383\u20139 563\u201380\u20134 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 91\u201320\u20133 463\u201382\u20131 7440\u201302\u20130 14797\u201355\u20138 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 10102\u201344\u20130 10102\u201343\u20139 10102\u201344\u20130 (as NO2) 111\u201384\u20132 111\u201365\u20139 95\u201348\u20137 611\u201314\u20133 95\u201347\u20136 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 106\u201344\u20135 622\u201396\u20138 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 106\u201342\u20133 group initial emission unit or extraction pesticide pesticide metal aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alcohol) pesticide nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) haloginated nonaromatic nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (ether) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide nonaromatic (ketone) metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7312, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 367, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (ether) nonaromatic (ketone) nonaromatic (alkane) pesticide nonaromatic (ketone) metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH nonaromatic (alkane) metal inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (alkane) aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7313, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 368, "book_page": 367, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol Pentanaldehyde Pentane Perfluorobutane Perfluorocyclobutane Perfluoroethane Perfluorohexane Perfluoromethane Perfluoropentane Perfluoropropane permethrin phenanthrene Phenol phosphate phosphoric acid Phosphorus phosphorus(V) oxide (P2O5) phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Plutonium alpha (Pu alpha) Plutonium\u2013238 (Pu\u2013238) Polonium\u2013210 (Po\u2013210) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) propachlor Propane Propanoic acid Propionaldehyde propoxur Propylene Propylene Glycol Propylene Oxide pyrazophos pyridine Radium\u2013226 (Ra\u2013226) Radon\u2013222 (Rn\u2013222) sec-Butanol sec-ButylAcetate selenium simazine styrene sulphur dioxide Sulphur hexafluoride terephthaloyldichloride tertiary-Butanol tertiary-Butyl Acetate Tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7314, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 368, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 ??? 109\u201366\u20130 355\u201325\u20139 115\u201325\u20133 76\u201316\u20134 355\u201342\u20130 75\u201373\u20130 678\u201326\u20132 76\u201319\u20137 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14265\u201344\u20132 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 1314\u201356\u20133 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 7440\u201307\u20135 13981\u201316\u20133 13981\u201352\u20137 PAH carc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7315, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 368, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1918\u201316\u20137 74\u201398\u20136 79\u201309\u20134 123\u201338\u20136 114\u201326\u20131 115\u201307\u20131 57\u201355\u20136 75\u201356\u20139 13457\u201318\u20136 110\u201386\u20131 13982\u201363\u20133 14859\u201367\u20137 78\u201392\u20132 105\u201346\u20134 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 7446\u201309\u20135 2551\u201362\u20134 100\u201320\u20139 75\u201365\u20130 540\u201388\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 group initial emission unit or extraction haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (alkane) haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide PAH aromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic pesticide aromatic pesticide radioactive radioactive radioactive PAH pesticide nonaromatic (alkane) nonaromatic (carboxylic acid) nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide aromatic radioactive radioactive nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (ester) metal pesticide aromatic inorganic inorganic haloginated nonaromatic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7316, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 368, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide aromatic radioactive radioactive nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (ester) metal pesticide aromatic inorganic inorganic haloginated nonaromatic nonaromatic (alcohol) nonaromatic (ester) haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg air", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7317, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 369, "book_page": 368, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Thorium\u2013230 tin tolclophos-methyl Toluene trans\u20132-Butene trans\u20132-Hexene trans\u20132-Pentene trans-dichloroethene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin Trimethylamine Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) Valeraldehyde vanadium Vinyl Chloride Xenon\u2013133 zinc (II) ion zineb 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7318, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 369, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201329\u20131 (radioactive 230) 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 624\u201364\u20136 4050\u201345\u20137 646\u201304\u20138 156\u201360\u20135 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 75\u201350\u20133 13966\u201329\u20135 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 235) 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 238) 110\u201362\u20133 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 7440\u201363\u20133 (radioactive 133) 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 group radioactive metal pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) radioactive radioactive radioactive nonaromatic (aldehyde) metal haloginated nonaromatic radioactive metal pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7319, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 369, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "radioactive radioactive nonaromatic (aldehyde) metal haloginated nonaromatic radioactive metal pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide initial emission or extraction air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air air fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7320, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 369, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7321, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 370, "book_page": 369, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Acrolein acrylonitrile Ag\u2013110m aldicarb aldrin ammonia ammonium anilazine anthracene antimony Antimony\u2013124 (Sb\u2013124) arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium (II) ion captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) Chemical oxigen demand (COD) chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium III chromium VI chrysene cobalt Cobalt\u201358 (Co\u201358) Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) copper (II) ion coumaphos cyanazine cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7322, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 370, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 14391\u201376\u20135 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 14798\u201303\u20139 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 14234\u201335\u20136 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 13967\u201370\u20139 10045\u201397\u20133 COD 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16065\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 13981\u201338\u20139 10198\u201340\u20130 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 group nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) radioactive pesticide pesticide inorganic inorganic pesticide PAH metal radioactive metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide aromatic metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic radioactive radioactive pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH metal radioactive", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7323, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 370, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic radioactive radioactive pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH metal radioactive radioactive metal pesticide pesticide initial emission or extraction fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7324, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 370, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7325, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 371, "book_page": 370, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate dioxins (TEQ) disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos ethylbenzene ethylene ethylene oxide fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate H\u20133 heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen fluoride indeno[1 ,2,3-cd]pyrene Iodine\u2013131 (I\u2013131) iprodione isoproturon lead (II) ion lindane cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7326, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 371, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 dioxine 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 1333\u201374\u20130 (radioactive 3) 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7664\u201339\u20133 193\u201339\u20135 24267\u201356\u20139 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 group pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide radioactive pesticide pesticide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7327, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 371, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide radioactive pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic inorganic PAH radioactive pesticide pesticide metal pesticide initial emission or extraction fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7328, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 371, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7329, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 372, "book_page": 371, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance linuron malathion manganese\u201354 (Mn\u201354) MCPA mecoprop mercury (II) ion metamitron meta-xylene metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbramide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum naphtalene nickel Nitrate nitric acid Nitrogen ortho-xylene oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl para-xylene pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene phenol phosphate phosphoric acid Phosphorus phosphorus(V) oxide (P2O5) phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) propachlor propoxur propylene oxide pyrazophos Radium\u2013226 (Ra\u2013226) selenium simazine styrene tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7330, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 372, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 18476\u201392\u20131 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 108\u201338\u20133 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 14797\u201355\u20138 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 95\u201347\u20136 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 106\u201342\u20133 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14265\u201344\u20132 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 1314\u201356\u20133 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PAH carc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7331, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 372, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 13457\u201318\u20136 13982\u201363\u20133 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 group pesticide pesticide radioactive pesticide pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH metal inorganic inorganic inorganic aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide PAH aromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic pesticide aromatic pesticide PAH pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (ester) pesticide radioactive metal pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic metal initial emission or extraction fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7332, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 372, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water unit kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7333, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 373, "book_page": 372, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene (tri) Trichloromethane trifluarin Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc (II) ion zineb 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1 -chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin Am\u2013241 ammonia ammonium anilazine cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7334, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 373, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 13966\u201329\u20135 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 235) 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 238) 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 86954\u201336\u20131 7664\u201341\u20137 14798\u201303\u20139 101\u201305\u20133 group pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide radioactive radioactive radioactive metal haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7335, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 373, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) nonaromatic (nitrogen compounds) pesticide pesticide radioactive inorganic inorganic pesticide initial emission or extraction fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water fresh water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7336, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 373, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7337, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 374, "book_page": 373, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance anthracene antimony Antimony\u2013125 (Sb\u2013125) arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium (II) ion captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide Carbon\u201314 (C\u201314) Cesium\u2013134 (Cs\u2013134) Cesium\u2013137 (Cs\u2013137) Chemical oxigen demand (COD) chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium (III) ion chromium (VI) ion chrysene Cm alpha cobalt Cobalt\u201360 (Co\u201360) copper (II) ion coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di (2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7338, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 374, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 14683\u201310\u20134 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 14762\u201375\u20135 13967\u201370\u20139 10045\u201397\u20133 COD 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16065\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 10198\u201340\u20130 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 group PAH metal radioactive metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide aromatic metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic radioactive radioactive radioactive pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH radioactive metal radioactive metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7339, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 374, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH radioactive metal radioactive metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide initial emission or extraction sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water unit kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7340, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 375, "book_page": 374, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos ethylbenzene ethylene ethylene oxide fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate H\u20133 heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen fluoride indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene lodine\u2013129 (l\u2013129) iprodione isoproturon lead (II) ion lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury (II) ion metamitron meta-xylene metazachlor methabenzthiazuron cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7341, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 375, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 1333\u201374\u20130 (radioactive 3) 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7664\u201339\u20133 193\u201339\u20135 10043\u201366\u20130 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 108\u201338\u20133 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 group aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide radioactive pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic inorganic PAH radioactive pesticide pesticide metal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7342, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 375, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide radioactive pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic inorganic PAH radioactive pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide initial emission or extraction sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7343, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 375, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7344, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 376, "book_page": 375, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum naphtalene nickel Nitrate nitric acid Nitrogen ortho-xylene oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl para-xylene pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene phenol phosphate phosphoric acid Phosphorus phosphorus(V) oxide (P2O5) phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Plutonium alpha (Pu alpha) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) propachlor propoxur propylene oxide pyrazophos Ruthenium\u2013106 selenium simazine Strontium\u201390 styrene tetrachloroethylene Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7345, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 376, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 14797\u201355\u20138 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 95\u201347\u20136 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 106\u201342\u20133 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14265\u201344\u20132 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 1314\u201356\u20133 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 7440\u201307\u20135 PAH carc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7346, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 376, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 13457\u201318\u20136 13967\u201348\u20131 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 10098\u201397\u20132 100\u201342\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 group pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH metal inorganic inorganic inorganic aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide PAH aromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic pesticide aromatic pesticide radioactive PAH pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (ester) pesticide radioactive metal pesticide radioactive aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide initial emission or extraction sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7347, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 376, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water unit kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7348, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 377, "book_page": 376, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance Trichloroethylene (tri) Trichloromethane trifluarin Uranium\u2013234 (U\u2013234) Uranium\u2013235 (U\u2013235) Uranium\u2013238 (U\u2013238) vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc (II) ion zineb 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia ammonium anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7349, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 377, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 13966\u201329\u20135 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 235) 7440\u201361\u20131 (radioactive 238) 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 14798\u201303\u20139 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 group haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide radioactive radioactive radioactive metal haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7350, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 377, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (nitrogen compound) pesticide pesticide inorganic inorganic pesticide PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide initial emission or extraction sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water sea water agric", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7351, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 377, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil unit kg kg kg KBq KBq KBq kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7352, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 378, "book_page": 377, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substance benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium (II) ion captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium (III) ion chromium (VI) ion chrysene cobalt copper (II) ion coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7353, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 378, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16065\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 group aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide aromatic metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7354, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 378, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide initial emission or extraction agric", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7355, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 378, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7356, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 379, "book_page": 378, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos ethylbenzene ethylene ethylene oxide fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen fluoride indeno[1 ,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead (II) ion lindane linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury (II) ion metamitron meta-xylene metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum naphtalene nickel Nitrate nitric acid Nitrogen ortho-xylene oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl para-xylene pentachlorobenzene cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7357, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 379, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7664\u201339\u20133 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 108\u201338\u20133 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 14797\u201355\u20138 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 95\u201347\u20136 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 106\u201342\u20133 608\u201393\u20135 group pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic inorganic PAH pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH metal inorganic inorganic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7358, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 379, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH metal inorganic inorganic inorganic aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic initial emission or extraction agric", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7359, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 379, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7360, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 380, "book_page": 379, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene phenol phosphate phosphoric acid Phosphorus phosphorus(V) oxide (P2O5) phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) propachlor propoxur propylene oxide pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene tetrachloroethylene (PER) Tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride)(HC\u201310) thallium Thiram tin tolclophos-methyl toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc (II) ion zineb 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,2,3,4-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1,2-dichloroethane 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene 1,3-butadiene 1,3-dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene 1-chloro\u20134-nitrobenzene 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7361, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 380, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14265\u201344\u20132 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 1314\u201356\u20133 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PAHcarc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7362, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 380, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 71\u201355\u20136 634\u201366\u20132 634\u201390\u20132 87\u201361\u20136 95\u201394\u20133 120\u201382\u20131 95\u201350\u20131 107\u201306\u20132 108\u201370\u20133 106\u201399\u20130 541\u201373\u20131 106\u201346\u20137 100\u201300\u20135 58\u201390\u20132 group haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide PAH aromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic pesticide aromatic pesticide PAH pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (ester) pesticide metal pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide metal haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7363, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 380, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic initial emission or extraction agric", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7364, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 380, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil agric. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7365, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 381, "book_page": 380, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,4,5-T 2,4,5-trichlorophenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenol 2-chlorophenol 3,4-dichloroaniline 3-chloroaniline 4-chloroaniline acephate Acrolein acrylonitrile aldicarb aldrin ammonia ammonium anilazine anthracene antimony arsenic atrazine azinphos-ethyl azinphos-methyl barium benomyl bentazone benzene benzo[a]anthracene benzo[a]pyrene benzo[ghi]perylene benzo[k]fluoranthrene benzylchloride beryllium bifenthrin Butylbenzylphtalate cadmium (II) ion captafol captan carbaryl carbendazim carbofuran carbon disulfide chlordane chlorfenvinphos chloridazon chlorobenzene chlorothalonil chlorpropham chlorpyriphos chromium (III) ion chromium (VI) ion chrysene cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7366, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 381, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1746\u201301\u20136 93\u201376\u20135 95\u201395\u20134 88\u201306\u20132 94\u201375\u20137 120\u201383\u20132 95\u201357\u20138 95\u201376\u20131 108\u201342\u20139 106\u201347\u20138 30560\u201319\u20131 107\u201302\u20138 107\u201313\u20131 116\u201306\u20133 309\u201300\u20132 7664\u201341\u20137 14798\u201303\u20139 101\u201305\u20133 120\u201312\u20137 7440\u201336\u20130 7440\u201338\u20132 1912\u201324\u20139 2642\u201371\u20139 86\u201350\u20130 7440\u201339\u20133 17804\u201335\u20132 25057\u201389\u20130 71\u201343\u20132 56\u201355\u20133 50\u201332\u20138 191\u201324\u20132 207\u201308\u20139 100\u201344\u20137 7440\u201341\u20137 82657\u201304\u20133 85\u201368\u20137 22537\u201348\u20130 2425\u201306\u20131 133\u201306\u20132 63\u201325\u20132 10605\u201321\u20137 1563\u201366\u20132 75\u201315\u20130 57\u201374\u20139 470\u201390\u20136 1698\u201360\u20138 108\u201390\u20137 1897\u201345\u20136 101\u201321\u20133 2921\u201388\u20132 16065\u201383\u20131 18540\u201329\u20139 218\u201301\u20139 group haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide nonaromatic (ester) nonaromatic (nitrogen compound) pesticide pesticide inorganic inorganic pesticide PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide aromatic metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7367, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 381, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PAH metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide aromatic PAH PAH PAH PAH haloginated aromatic metal pesticide aromatic metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide inorganic pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide metal metal PAH initial emission or extraction indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7368, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 381, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7369, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 382, "book_page": 381, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance cobalt copper (II) ion coumaphos cyanazine cypermethrin cyromazine DDT deltamethrin demeton desmetryn Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalate diazinon Dibutylphtalate Dichloromethane dichlorprop dichlorvos dieldrin Diethylphtalate Dihexylphtalate Diisodecylphtalate Diisooctylphtalate dimethoate Dimethylphtalate dinoseb dinoterb Dioctylphtalate disulfothon diuron DNOC endosulfan endrin ethoprophos ethylbenzene ethylene ethylene oxide (ind,) fenitrothion fenthion fentin acetate fentin chloride fentin hydroxide fluoranthrene folpet Formaldehyde glyphosate heptachlor heptenophos hexachloro\u20131 ,3-butadiene hexachlorobenzene hydrogen fluoride indeno[1 ,2,3-cd]pyrene iprodione isoproturon lead (II) ion lindane cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7370, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 382, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "7440\u201348\u20134 15158\u201311\u20139 56\u201372\u20134 21725\u201346\u20132 52315\u201307\u20138 66215\u201327\u20138 50\u201329\u20133 52918\u201363\u20135 8065\u201348\u20133 1014\u201369\u20133 117\u201381\u20137 333\u201341\u20135 84\u201374\u20132 75\u201309\u20132 120\u201336\u20135 62\u201373\u20137 60\u201357\u20131 84\u201366\u20132 84\u201375\u20133 26761\u201340\u20130 27554\u201326\u20133 60\u201351\u20135 133\u201311\u20133 88\u201385\u20137 1420\u201307\u20131 117\u201384\u20130 298\u201304\u20134 330\u201354\u20131 534\u201352\u20131 115\u201329\u20137 72\u201320\u20138 13194\u201348\u20134 100\u201341\u20134 74\u201385\u20131 75\u201321\u20138 122\u201314\u20135 55\u201338\u20139 900\u201395\u20138 639\u201358\u20137 76\u201387\u20139 206\u201344\u20130 133\u201307\u20133 50\u201300\u20130 1071\u201383\u20136 76\u201344\u20138 23560\u201359\u20130 87\u201368\u20133 118\u201374\u20131 7664\u201339\u20133 193\u201339\u20135 36734\u201319\u20137 34123\u201359\u20136 14280\u201350\u20133 58\u201389\u20139 group metal metal pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic aromatic aromatic aromatic pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide pesticide pesticide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7371, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 382, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic nonaromatic (alkene) nonaromatic (ester) pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide PAH pesticide nonaromatic (aldehyde) pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated aromatic inorganic PAH pesticide pesticide metal pesticide initial emission or extraction indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7372, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 382, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7373, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 383, "book_page": 382, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance linuron malathion MCPA mecoprop mercury (II) ion metamitron meta-xylene metazachlor methabenzthiazuron methomyl methylbromide methyl-mercury metobromuron metolachlor mevinphos molybdenum naphtalene nickel Nitrate nitric acid Nitrogen ortho-xylene oxamyl oxydemethon-methyl parathion-ethyl parathion-methyl para-xylene pentachlorobenzene pentachloronitrobenzene pentachlorophenol permethrin phenanthrene phenol phosphate phosphoric acid Phosphorus phosphorus(V) oxide (P2O5) phoxim Phtalic anhydride pirimicarb Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Carcinogenic- (carcinogenic-PAH) propachlor propoxur propylene oxide pyrazophos selenium simazine styrene tetrachloroethylene(PER) Tetrachloromethane thallium Thiram tin cas no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7374, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 383, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "330\u201355\u20132 121\u201375\u20135 94\u201374\u20136 7085\u201319\u20130 14302\u201387\u20135 41394\u201305\u20132 108\u201338\u20133 67129\u201308\u20132 18691\u201397\u20139 16752\u201377\u20135 74\u201383\u20139 22967\u201392\u20136 3060\u201389\u20137 51218\u201345\u20132 7786\u201334\u20137 7439\u201398\u20137 91\u201320\u20133 7440\u201302\u20130 14797\u201355\u20138 7697\u201337\u20132 7727\u201337\u20139 95\u201347\u20136 23135\u201322\u20130 301\u201312\u20132 56\u201338\u20132 298\u201300\u20130 106\u201342\u20133 608\u201393\u20135 82\u201368\u20138 87\u201386\u20135 52645\u201353\u20131 85\u201301\u20138 108\u201395\u20132 14265\u201344\u20132 7664\u201338\u20132 7723\u201314\u20130 1314\u201356\u20133 14816\u201318\u20133 85\u201344\u20139 23103\u201398\u20132 PAH carc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7375, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 383, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1918\u201316\u20137 114\u201326\u20131 75\u201356\u20139 13457\u201318\u20136 7782\u201349\u20132 122\u201334\u20139 100\u201342\u20135 127\u201318\u20134 56\u201323\u20135 7440\u201328\u20130 137\u201326\u20138 7440\u201331\u20135 group pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide metal pesticide pesticide pesticide metal PAH metal inorganic inorganic inorganic aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic haloginated aromatic pesticide PAH aromatic inorganic inorganic inorganic inorganic pesticide aromatic pesticide PAH pesticide pesticide nonaromatic (ester) pesticide metal pesticide aromatic haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide metal initial emission or extraction indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7376, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 383, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7377, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 384, "book_page": 383, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Substance tolclophos-methyl toluene tri-allate triazophos tributyltinoxide trichlorfon Trichloroethylene Trichloromethane trifluarin vanadium Vinyl Chloride zinc (II) ion zineb cas no. 57018\u201304\u20139 108\u201388\u20133 2303\u201317\u20135 24017\u201347\u20138 56\u201335\u20139 52\u201368\u20136 79\u201301\u20136 67\u201366\u20133 1582\u201309\u20138 7440\u201362\u20132 75\u201301\u20134 23713\u201349\u20137 12122\u201367\u20137 group pesticide aromatic pesticide pesticide pesticide pesticide haloginated nonaromatic haloginated nonaromatic pesticide metal haloginated nonaromatic metal pesticide initial emission or extraction indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil indus. soil unit kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg\n\nPart 2b: Operational annex 4.5 Characterisation For characterisation equations, we refer to the specific equations provided with each table of characteristion factors given in Section 4.3.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7378, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 385, "book_page": 384, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.6 Normalisation Table 4.6.1 : Factors for normalisation with the annual extent of the baseline impact categories and characterisation methods for different reference regions. impact category depletion of abiotic resources effects of land use land competition climate change stratospheric ozone depletion human toxicity ecotoxicity fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity marine ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity photo-oxidant formation acidification eutrophication Netherlands 1.71E+091 P.M. 2.51 E+11 9.77E+05 1.88E+11 7.54E+09 4.26E+12 9.59E+08 1.82E+08 6.69E+08 5.02E+08 West-Europe, 1.06E+10 P.M. 4.73E+12 8.30E+07 7.57E+12 5.05E+11 1.14E+14 4.73E+10 8.24E+09 2.74E+10 1.25E+10 World, 1.57E+11 P.M. 3.86E+13 5.15E+08 4.98E+13 2.03E+12 5.12E+14 2.68E+11 4.55E+10 2.99E+11 1.29E+11 mid World, 1.58E+11 P.M. 4.45E+13 1.14E+09 5.71 E+1 3 1.98E+12 9.11E+13 2.06E+11 1.07E+11 3.13E+11 1.32E+11 indicator result for impact category cat and reference system ref (i.c. kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7379, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.45E+13 1.14E+09 5.71 E+1 3 1.98E+12 9.11E+13 2.06E+11 1.07E+11 3.13E+11 1.32E+11 indicator result for impact category cat and reference system ref (i.c. kg. the reciprocal of indicator is here referred to as the normalisation factor for impact category cat and reference system ref magnitude of intervention i (emission, resource extraction or land use) associated with the reference system ref characterisation factor for intervention i and impact category cat (i.c. kg. normalised indicator result for impact category cat (yr); indicator result for impact category cat (i.c. kg). More normalisation data and factors (e.g. for non-baseline alternatives) including underlying interventions can be found in the impact assessment spreadsheet, which can be downloaded from: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/lca2/index.html Means \u2019 ; Source: Huijbregts et al. (in prep.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7380, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 387, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex Table 4.6.2: Factors for normalisation with the annual per-capita extent of the baseline impact categories and characterisation methods for different reference regions. impact categories depletion of abiotic resources effects of land use land competition climate change stratospheric ozone depletion human toxicity ecotoxicity fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity marine ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity photo-oxidant formation acidification eutrophication Netherlands , 1997 1.10E+021 P.M. 1.61E+04 6.26E\u201302 1.21 E+04 4.83E+02 2.73E+05 6.15E+01 1.17E+01 4.29E+01 3.21E+01 WestEurope, 3.26E+01 P.M. 1.46E+04 2.56E\u201301 2.33E+04 1.55E+03 3.49E+05 1.46E+02 2.54E+01 8.42E+01 3.84E+01 World, 2.77E+01 P.M. 6.83E+03 9.11E\u201302 8.80E+03 3.59E+02 9.05E+04 4.74E+01 8.04 5.29E+01 2.28E+01 mid World, 1990 3.01E+01 P.M. 8.46E+03 2.17E\u201301 1.09E+04 3.76E+02 1.73E+04 9.93E+01 2.03E+01 5.95E+01 2.51E+01 P.M. kg (CO2 eq). Source: Huijbregts et al. (in prep.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7381, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 1995, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8.46E+03 2.17E\u201301 1.09E+04 3.76E+02 1.73E+04 9.93E+01 2.03E+01 5.95E+01 2.51E+01 P.M. kg (CO2 eq). Source: Huijbregts et al. (in prep.). indicator result for impact category cat and reference system ref (i.c. kg\u00b7 the reciprocal of indicator is here referred to as the normalisation factor for impact category cat and reference system ref magnitude of intervention i (emission, resource extraction or land use) associated with the reference system ref characterisation factor for intervention i and impact category cat (i.c. kg\u00b7 normalised indicator result for impact category cat (yr capita); indicator result for impact category cat (i.e. kg). More normalisation data and factors (e.g. for non-baseline alternatives) including underlying interventions can be found in the impact assessment spreadsheet, which can be downloaded from: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/lca2/index.html 1 Means ;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7382, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 388, "book_page": 1995, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 4.7 Grouping To be inserted 4.8 Weighting To be inserted 1 yr when using Table 4.6.1, yr.capita when using Table 4.6.2. 2 \u201cInterventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\u201d and \u201cEconomic flows not followed to system boundary\u201d are not normalised.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7383, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 389, "book_page": 388, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7384, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 389, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interpretation 5.1 Procedures To be inserted 5.2 Consistency check Examples of inconsistencies are (ISO 14043, 2000): differences in data sources, e.g., Option A is based on literature data, whereas Option B is based on primary data; differences in data accuracy, e.g., a very detailed modularisation is available for Option A, whereas option B is described as an accumulated black box system; differences in technical level, e.g., data for Option A are based on an experimental process (e.g., a new catalyst with higher process efficiency at pilot plant level), whereas data for Option B are based on existing large-scale technology; temporal differences, e.g., data for Option A describe a recently developed technology, whereas Option B is described by a mixture of technologies, including recently built and old plants; differences in data age, e.g., data for Option A are 5-year-old primary data, whereas data for Option B have been recently collected; differences in geographical", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7385, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 389, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "recently built and old plants; differences in data age, e.g., data for Option A are 5-year-old primary data, whereas data for Option B have been recently collected; differences in geographical representation, e.g., data for Option A describe a representative European technology mix, whereas Option B is representative of one EU member country with a high level of environmental protection policy or one single plant; differences in functions performed by the two products or options", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7386, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 389, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5.3 Completeness check To be inserted 5.4 Contribution analysis For further (technical) information on how to conduct a contribution analysis (previously also called \u201cdominance analysis\u201d), see Heijungs et al. (1992) and Heijungs (1994), and/or use the CMLCA software: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca.html 5.5 Perturbation analysis For further (technical) information on how to conduct a perturbation analysis (previously also called \u201cmarginal analysis\u201d), see Heijungs et al. (1992) and Heijungs (1994), and/or use the CMLCA software: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca.html", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7387, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 390, "book_page": 389, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 5.6 Sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis For further (technical) information on how to conduct a sensitivity analysis, please consult and/or use the CMLCA software: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca.html For further (technical) information on how to conduct uncertainty analyses, please consult Huijbregts (1998a), Huijbregts (1998b) and Huijbregts et al. (2000b). CONDUCTING A SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS The effects of altering the choices for these issues on the results of the LCA must be calculated. The results of the study are highly sensitive to changes in economic flows near the FU. Thus, the product system specification probably represents the most important data for the results of the study. These data must therefore be carefully checked and submitted to a sensitivity analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7388, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 390, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These data must therefore be carefully checked and submitted to a sensitivity analysis. With regard to data uncertainties in a simplified LCA, practitioners should focus on those processes and flows found to be the most important in the contribution and/or perturbation analysis. The data for these processes and flows should be checked and a partial sensitivity analysis should be conducted for variations in these data. CHECKLIST OF ISSUES FOR SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR SIMPLIFIED LCA STUDIES: product system specification (composition of the product, trip rates, recycling rates, lifespan etc.); rules for allocation; characterisation method; weighting method, if applied. This checklist includes those model choices known to have a major influence on the results of the study. The checklist does not imply that the practitioner is not obliged to check for other issues of major importance for the specific LCA study in hand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7389, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 390, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The checklist does not imply that the practitioner is not obliged to check for other issues of major importance for the specific LCA study in hand. CHECKLIST OF ISSUES FOR SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR DETAILED LCA STUDIES: product system specification (composition of the product, trip rates, recycling rates, lifespan etc.); rules for allocation; characterisation method; weighting method and data; cut-off criteria; boundary setting and system definition; data; normalisation data. This checklist includes model choices known to have a significant influence on the results of the study. The checklist does not imply that the practitioner is not obliged to check for other issues of major importance for the specific LCA study in hand. 5.7 Conclusions and recommendations To be inserted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7390, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 391, "book_page": 390, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Ayres, R. U., K. Martin\u00e0s & L.W. Ayres, 1996. Eco-thermodynamics. Exergy and life cycle analysis. Working Paper (96/04/EPS), INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France. Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld, Y., P. Grennfelt & K. Pleijel, 1992. Photochemical ozone creation potentials: a study of different concepts. J. Air Waste Manage. 42 (9): 1152\u20131158. Berner, R.A. & A.C. Lasaga, 1989. Modeling the geochemical carbon cycle. Sc. Am. 260 (3): 54\u2013 61. Boustead, I., 1994. Ecoprofiles of the European polymer industry. APME/PWMI, Brussels. Carter, W.P.L., D. Luo & I.L. Malkina, 1997. Environmental chamber studies for development of an updated photochemical mechanism for VOC relativity assessment. Draft, final report to CARB, CRC, NREL. Los Angeles. Christiansen, K., A. de Beaufort-Langeveld, N. van den Berg, R. Haydock, M. ten Houten, S. Kotaji, E. Oerlemans, W.-P. Schmidt, A. Weidenhaupt & R. White, 1997", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7391, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Los Angeles. Christiansen, K., A. de Beaufort-Langeveld, N. van den Berg, R. Haydock, M. ten Houten, S. Kotaji, E. Oerlemans, W.-P. Schmidt, A. Weidenhaupt & R. White, 1997. Simplifying LCA: Just a cut? Final report SETAC-Europe LCA screening and streamlining working group. SETACEurope, Brussels. Derwent, R.G., M.E. Jenkin & S.M. Saunders, 1996. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for \u2019a large number of reactive hydrocarbons under European conditions. Atmos. Environ. 30 (2): 181\u2013199. Derwent, R.G., M.E. Jenkin, S.M. Saunders & M.J. Pilling, 1998. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for organic compounds in Northwest Europe calculated with a master chemical mechanism. Atmos. Environ. 32 (14\u201315): 2429\u20132441. EC, 1995a. ExternE. Externalities of energy. Vol. 2: Methodology. European Commission, Directorate-General XII: Science, Research and Development. Brussels- Luxembourg. Finnveden, G., 1996b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7392, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "EC, 1995a. ExternE. Externalities of energy. Vol. 2: Methodology. European Commission, Directorate-General XII: Science, Research and Development. Brussels- Luxembourg. Finnveden, G., 1996b. Life Cycle assessment as an environment systems analysis tool \u2013 with a focus on system boundaries. Licentiate Thesis, AFR-Report 137, AFN (Swedish Waste Research Council), Swedish EPA, Stockholm. Frischknecht, R., P. Hofstetter, I. Knoepfel, E. Walder, R. Dones & E. Zollinger, 1993 (+ updates 1995 en 1996). \u00d6koinventare f\u00fcr Energiesysteme. Grundlagen f\u00fcr den \u00f6kologischen Vergleich von Energiesystemen und den Einbezug von Energiesystemen in \u00d6kobilanzen f\u00fcr die Schweiz. 0. Auflage. Bundesamt f\u00fcr Energiewirtschaft, Bern. Frischknecht R., A. Braunschweig, P. Hofstetter & P. Suter, 2000. Human health damages due to ionising radiation in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assessment Rev. 20: 159\u2013 Goedkoop, M. & R. Spriensma, 1999. The Eco-indicator 99", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7393, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Suter, 2000. Human health damages due to ionising radiation in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assessment Rev. 20: 159\u2013 Goedkoop, M. & R. Spriensma, 1999. The Eco-indicator 99. A damage oriented method for life cycle Impact assessment. PR\u00e9 Consultants, Amersfoort. Guin\u00e9e, J.B., 1995. Development of a methodology for the environmental life-cycle assessment of products; with a case study on margarines. Thesis, Leiden University. Heijungs, R., 1994. A generic method for the identification of options for cleaner products. Ecol. Econ. 10 (1): 69\u201381. Heijungs, R., J. Guin\u00e9e, G. Huppes, R.M. Lankreijer, H.A. Udo de Haes, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, A.M.M. Ansems, P.G. Eggels, R. van Duin & H.P. de Goede, 1992. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of products. Guide and Backgrounds. CML, Leiden University, Leiden. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, J. Bruce, H. Lee, B.A. Callander, E. Haites, N. Harris & K. Maskell (eds), 1994. Climate change 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7394, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guide and Backgrounds. CML, Leiden University, Leiden. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, J. Bruce, H. Lee, B.A. Callander, E. Haites, N. Harris & K. Maskell (eds), 1994. Climate change 1994. Radiative forcing of climate change and an evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg & K. Maskell, 1996. Climate change 1995: the science of climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Huijbregts M.A.J., 1998a. A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Part I: A general Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment. Int. J. LCA. 3 (5): 273\u2013280. Huijbregts M.A.J., 1998b. A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Part II: Dealing with Parameter Uncertainty and Uncertainty due to Choices in Life Cycle Assessment. Int. J. LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7395, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Int. J. LCA. 3 (6): 343\u2013351. Huijbregts, M.A.J., 1999a. Priority assessment of toxic substances in LCA. Development and application of the multi-media fate, exposure and effect model USES-LCA. IVAM environmental research, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Part 2b: Operational annex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7396, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 392, "book_page": 391, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Part 2b: Operational annex Huijbregts, M., 1999b. Life cycle Impact assessment of acidifying and eutrophying air pollutants. Calculation of equivalency factors with RAINS-LCA. Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Amsterdam. Huijbregts, M.A.J., 2000. Priority Assessment of Toxic Substances in the frame of LCA. Time horizon dependency of toxicity potentials calculated with the multi-media fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA. Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. (http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/). Huijbregts, M.A.J., U. Thissen, J.B. Guin\u00e9e, T. Jager, D. Van de Meent, A.M.J. Ragas, A. Wegener Sleeswijk & L. Reijnders, 2000a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7397, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/). Huijbregts, M.A.J., U. Thissen, J.B. Guin\u00e9e, T. Jager, D. Van de Meent, A.M.J. Ragas, A. Wegener Sleeswijk & L. Reijnders, 2000a. Priority assessment of toxic substances in life cycle assessment, I: Calculation of toxicity potentials for 181 substances with the nested multi-media fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA. Chemosphere 41 (4): 541\u2013573. Huijbregts, M.A.J., U. Thissen, T. Jager, D. Van de Meent & A.M.J. Ragas, 2000b. Priority assessment of toxic substances in LCA. II: Assessing parameter uncertainty and human variability in the calculation of toxicity potentials. Chemosphere 41 (4): 575\u2013588. Huijbregts, M.A.J., A. de Koning, L. van Oers, G. Huppes & S. Suh, in prep. Normalisation data for the Netherlands (1997), West-Europe, (1995) and the World (1990). CML, Leiden. ISO International Standard 14043, 2000E. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7398, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CML, Leiden. ISO International Standard 14043, 2000E. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Interpretation. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. Jenkin, M.E. & G.D. Hayman, 1999. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for oxygenated volatile organic compounds: sensitivity to variations in kinetic and mechanistic parameters. Atmos. Environ. 33 (8): 1275\u20131293. K\u00f6llner, T., 2000. Species-pool Effect Potentials (SPEP) as a yardstick to evaluate land-use impacts on biodiversity. J. Cleaner Prod. 8 (4): 293\u2013311. Lindeijer, E., 1998. Kapitaalgoederen in LCA data van bedrijven. IVAM-ER, Amsterdam Lindeijer, E., M. van Kampen, P.J. Fraanje, H.F. van Dobben, G.J. Nabuurs, E.P.A.G. Schouwenberg, A.H. Prins, N. Dankers & M.F. Leopold., 1998. Biodiversity and life support indicators for land use impacts in LCA. Report W-DWW\u201398\u2013059. Publication series raw materials 1998/07. Ministry of transport, public works and water management, Delft", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7399, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Biodiversity and life support indicators for land use impacts in LCA. Report W-DWW\u201398\u2013059. Publication series raw materials 1998/07. Ministry of transport, public works and water management, Delft. Lindfors L-G, Christiansen K., L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V. Juntilla, O-J Hanssen, A. R\u00f8nning, T. Ekvall G. Finnveden, 1995a. Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. Nord 1995:20. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. Lindfors L-G, Christiansen K., L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V. Juntilla, A. Leskinen, O-J Hanssen, A. R\u00f8nning, T. Ekvall G. Finnveden, 1995b. LCA-NORDIC Technical reports No 1\u20139. TemaNord 1995:502. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. Potting, J., W. Sch\u00f6pp, K. Blok & M. Hauschild, 1998. Site-dependent life-cycle Impact assessment of acidification. J. Ind. Ecol. 2 (2): 63\u201387. Pr\u00e9 Consultants, 1997. SIMAPRO 4.0, LCA software (www.pre.nl). Amersfoort. Roos, C., 1989. Vooronderzoek financi\u00eble consequenties van een geurbelevingsnorm. MT-TNO report no. 88\u2013230, Apeldoorn", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7400, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Pr\u00e9 Consultants, 1997. SIMAPRO 4.0, LCA software (www.pre.nl). Amersfoort. Roos, C., 1989. Vooronderzoek financi\u00eble consequenties van een geurbelevingsnorm. MT-TNO report no. 88\u2013230, Apeldoorn. SAEFL (Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape), 1998. Life cycle inventories for packagings: Volume I and II. SAEFL, Bern. Solberg-Johansen, B., 1998. Environmental life cycle assessment of the nuclear fuel cycle. Thesis, Centre for environmental strategy, school of chemical, civil and environmental engineering, University of Surrey. Solomon, S. & D.L. Albritton, 1992. Time-dependent ozone depletion potentials for short- and long-term forecast. Nature 357: 33\u201337. Steen, B., 1996. EPS-Default Valuation of Environmental Impacts from Emission and Use of Resources. Version 1996. AFR Report 111. AFN, Swedish EPA, Stockholm, Sweden. Suh, S. and G. Huppes, 2000a. Gearing Input-output model into LCA-Part I: General framework for hybrid approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7401, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Version 1996. AFR Report 111. AFN, Swedish EPA, Stockholm, Sweden. Suh, S. and G. Huppes, 2000a. Gearing Input-output model into LCA-Part I: General framework for hybrid approach. CML working paper 2000.007, Leiden University, Leiden. Suh, S. and G. Huppes, 2000b. Gearing Input-output model into LCA-Part II: Compilation of environmentally extended input-output table of US. CML working paper 2000.007, Leiden University, Leiden. Tol, R.S.J. , 1999. New estimates of the damage costs of climate change, Part 1: Benchmark estimates (draft). Institute for Environmental Studies (IvM), Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Udo de Haes, H.A., 1996 (ed.). Towards a Methodology for Life Cycle Impact assessment. SETAC-Europe, Brussels.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7402, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 393, "book_page": 392, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 2b: Operational annex 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. Udo de Haes, H.A., O. Jolliet, G. Finnveden, M. Hauschild, W. Krewitt & R. M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1999; Best available practice regarding impact categories and category indicators in life cycle Impact assessment. Background document for the second working group on life cycle Impact assessment of SETAC-Europe (WIA\u20132). Int. J. LCA 4 (2): 66\u201374 & Int. J. LCA 4 (3): 167\u2013174. UNEP, 1999. Towards the global use of life cycle assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Production and Consumption Unit. ISBN 92\u2013807\u20131740\u20135. Paris. Weidema, B.P., 1998b. Multi-User Test of the Data Quality Matrix for Product Life Cycle Inventory. Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 259\u2013265. Weidema, B.P., 2000. Avoiding co-product allocation in Life Cycle Assessment. Accepted for publication in the J. Ind. Ecol. 4 (2): in press. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1992. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1991", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7403, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 393, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Accepted for publication in the J. Ind. Ecol. 4 (2): in press. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1992. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1991. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 25. Geneva. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1999. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1998. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 44. Geneva. WRI (World Resources Institute), 1994. World Resources 1994\u201395, a Guide to the Global Environment. Oxford University Press, New York.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7404, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 394, "book_page": 393, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PART 3 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7405, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 395, "book_page": null, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contents of Part 3 Reading guidance 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7406, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "General Introduction 1.1 General theoretical foundations of LCA 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 Introduction The purpose of LCA The questions addressed by LCA The methodology of LCA 1.2 Modeling aspects of LCA 1.2.1 1.2.2 Introduction Theoretical modeling aspects 1.2.2.1 1.2.2.2 1.2.2.3 The reality behind the model The need for a simple model Main model simplifications Practical modeling aspects Potential versus actual impacts Beyond the default simplifications Spatial differentiation Average and marginalprocesses and average and marginal process data Quantitative and qualitative information and notation Reporting of LCA Software for LCA Management of LCA projects: procedures Introduction Decision-making based on a process approach Designing the decision-making process Implementation of LCA tasks Representation of interests Progress of the decision-making process Process outcome Stepwise structure for Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7407, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Representation of interests Progress of the decision-making process Process outcome Stepwise structure for Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Interpretation Further reading guidance Goal and scope definition 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7408, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Introduction Goal definition Scope definition Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows Inventoryanalysis General introduction Economy - environment system boundary Flow diagram Format and data categories 1.2.3 1.2.3.1 1.2.3.2 1.2.3.3 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.5 1.2.3.6 1.2.3.7 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.3.7 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7409, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 396, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4. 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.3.1 4.3.3.2 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4.3.9 4.3.10 4.3.11 4.3.12 4.3.13 4.3.14 4.3.15 4.3.16 4.3.17 4.3.18 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 6", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7410, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data quality Data collection and relating data to unit processes Data validation Cut-off and data estimation Multifunctionality and allocation Calculation method Impact assessment General introduction International organisations involved ISO 14042 requirements Relation between ISO and SETAC Working Group on LCIA Selection of impact categories Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors Depletion of abiotic resources Depletion of biotic resources Impacts of land use Land competition Loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions Desiccation Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication Waste heat Odour Noise Impacts of ionising radiation Casualties Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Economic flows not followed to system boundary Classification Characterisation Normalisation Grouping Weighting Interpretation General", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7411, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking Economic flows not followed to system boundary Classification Characterisation Normalisation Grouping Weighting Interpretation General introduction Consistency check Completeness check Contribution analysis Perturbation analysis Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Conclusions and recommendations References", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7412, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 397, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Annex A: Contributors Appendix B: Areas of application of LCA Appendix C: Partitioning economic inputs and outputs to product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7413, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 398, "book_page": 675, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Reading guidance This is Part 3 of the set of publications entitled \u2018Handbook on life cycle assessment: An operational guide to the ISO standards\u2019. Part 1, \u2018LCA in perspective\u2019, is a short booklet describing in broad terms the purpose, role, fields of application and limitations of life cycle assessment. It is targeted principally at parties commissioning an LCA and parties using the results of such an analysis. Part 2 consists of two parts: the actual Guide (2a) and an Operational annex (2b). Its target audience is those concerned with actual execution of an LCA. Depending on context and complexity, this may be one person or an entire research team with various backgrounds, such as process technology, product design, abatement technology, ecotoxicology, and so on. The present Part 3, \u2018Scientific background\u2019, sets out the foundations and arguments for the methodological choices made, the alternative choices that are available, and much more", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7414, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 401, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The present Part 3, \u2018Scientific background\u2019, sets out the foundations and arguments for the methodological choices made, the alternative choices that are available, and much more. It is designed to encourage scientific debate on the progress made to date and as a reference book for those wishing to learn more about the rationale behind the rules presented in the Guide. The presentation of the proposed working method for LCA is structured according to a framework on which there is worldwide consensus and which forms the basis of a series of ISO standards. This framework breaks down the LCA procedure into four distinct phases: \u2013 Goal and scope definition ; \u2013 Inventory analysis; \u2013 Impact assessment; and \u2013 Interpretation; each of which comprises a number of distinct steps. The present Part has a chapter devoted to each of these four phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7415, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 401, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The present Part has a chapter devoted to each of these four phases. By way of introduction, Chapter 1 discusses the general theoretical foundations and modeling aspects of LCA, considers procedural aspects and outlines the stepwise structure of the present LCA Guide. Chapters 2 to 5 are then devoted to the four phases and constituent steps of an LCA, as specified above, with each step discussed according to a fixed format (as far as is useful): Chapter 6 provides a comprehensive bibliography of all the literature sources cited in the preceding chapters. Appendix A lists all the external contributors to this guide, while Appendices B and C report the results of two desk studies performed as part of the preparatory work for this guide. Appendix B reviews the desk study on the fields of application for LCA, Appendix C that on partitioning economic inputs and outputs to product systems (allocation)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7416, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 401, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Appendix B reviews the desk study on the fields of application for LCA, Appendix C that on partitioning economic inputs and outputs to product systems (allocation). \u2013 topic, providing a brief description of the scope and function of the step; \u2013 developments in the last decade, providing an as comprehensive as possible description and analysis of relevant developments since 1992; \u2013 prospects, describing developments anticipated in the future; \u2013 conclusions, presenting conclusions on the best available practice for the step in question, as recommended in this Guide; \u2013 research recommendations, outlining suggested topics for further research.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7417, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 399, "book_page": 401, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 1. General Introduction As defined in ISO 14040 (1997E), Life Cycle Assessment is a \u201ccompilation and evaluation of the inputs and outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system1 throughout its life cycle\u201d. According to ISO 14041 (1998E, p. 2) \u201cA product system is a collection of unit processes connected by flows of intermediate products which perform one or more defined functions. [...] The essential property of a product system is characterised by its function, and cannot be defined solely in terms of the final products\u201d.2 In the present Guide the terms \u2018economic process\u2019 or \u2018economic activity\u2019 have been used as synonyms alongside \u2018unit process\u2019 to refer to any kind of process producing an economically valuable material, component or product, or providing an economically valuable service such as transport or waste management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7418, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 403, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Economic or unit processes (often abbreviated to \u2018processes\u2019) are the smallest portions of a product system for which data are collected during execution of an LCA. They are linked to one another by flows of intermediate products and/or waste for treatment, to other product systems by product flows, and to the environment by elementary flows3 (ISO 14040, 1997E), i.e. inputs from and outputs to the environment, also referred to as environmental interventions4. These environmental interventions may have impacts on the environment by way of environmental processes. LCA takes as its starting point the function fulfilled by a product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7419, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 403, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These environmental interventions may have impacts on the environment by way of environmental processes. LCA takes as its starting point the function fulfilled by a product system. In principle, it encompasses all the environmental impacts of resource use, land use and emissions associated with all the processes required by this product system to fulfil this function - from resource extraction, through materials production and processing and use of the product during fulfillment of its function, to waste processing of the discarded product. LCA as defined here deals only with the environmental impacts of a product (system), thus ignoring financial, political, social and other factors (e.g. costs, regulatory matters or Third World issues). This does not, of course, imply that these other aspects are less relevant for the overall evaluation of a product, but merely delimits the scope of the present Guide. The complexity of LCA requires a fixed protocol for performing an LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7420, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 403, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The complexity of LCA requires a fixed protocol for performing an LCA study. Such a protocol has been established by the International Standards Organisation, ISO and is generally referred to as the methodological framework. ISO distinguishes four phases of an LCA study (see Figure 1.1): \u2013 Goal and scope definition; \u2013 Inventory analysis; \u2013 Impact assessment; \u2013 Interpretation. 1 In this Guide, \u2018product system\u2019 is synonymous with \u2018function system\u2019. 2 We have endeavoured to ensure that the terminology employed in this Guide is mutually consistent as well as consistently used. Thus, the definitions in this Guide are in basic conformity with the intentions, though not necessarily the letter, of the ISO 1404X series of standards. In a limited number of cases the definitions adopted here deviate from those of ISO, for reasons explained in the text. For the definitions employed in this Guide, see the Glossary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7421, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 403, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In a limited number of cases the definitions adopted here deviate from those of ISO, for reasons explained in the text. For the definitions employed in this Guide, see the Glossary. 3 According to ISO 14040 (1997) \u2018elementary flow\u2019 refers to \u201c(1) material or energy entering the system being studied, which has been drawn from the environment without previous human transformation; (2) material or energy leaving the system being studied, which is discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation\u201d. 4 In this Guide \u2018environmental interventions\u2019 is the preferred term, this being considered broader than the ISO term \u2018elementary flow\u2019. From the ISO definition of the latter (see above) it is unclear whether \u2018elementary flow\u2019 also covers land use, while land use is becoming an increasingly important issue under this heading. Environmental interventions thus include both environmental flows and land use.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7422, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 400, "book_page": 403, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background In 1994 ISO established a technical committee (TC 207) charged with standardising a number of environmental management tools, including LCA. To date, four international standards have been published by ISO on the topic of LCA: \u2013 ISO 14040 (1997E): \u2018Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment \u2013 Principles and framework\u2019; \u2013 ISO 14041 (1998E): \u2018Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment \u2013 Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis\u2019; \u2013 ISO 14042 (2000E): \u2018Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment \u2013 Life cycle Impact assessment\u2019; \u2013 ISO 14043 (2000E): \u2018Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment \u2013 Life cycle Interpretation\u2019. These ISO International Standards are important in providing an international reference with respect to principles, framework and terminology for conducting and reporting LCA studies. The ISO standards do not, however, provide a \u2018cookbook\u2019 of step-by-step operational guidelines for conducting an LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7423, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 404, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The ISO standards do not, however, provide a \u2018cookbook\u2019 of step-by-step operational guidelines for conducting an LCA study. Although the ISO Standards contain steps that shall or should be considered when conducting an LCA, these are not ordered in stepwise fashion. The general aim of the present Guide is to provide just such a stepwise \u2018cookbook\u2019 based on the ISO (International) Standards, as available to the authors at the time of writing (Spring 2000), by operationalising the various elements and requirements of these standards into a \u2018best available practice\u2019 (BAP) for each step. This general aim has been achieved by rewriting the guide of Heijungs et al. (1992) to include all the relevant developments - as known to the authors at the time of writing (Summer 2000)1 - that have taken place since publication of that original Guide, proceeding from the ISO standards and with particular reference to the work undertaken within the SETAC LCA community", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7424, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 404, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The original guide has also been revised to cater for a number of user wishes and requirements, an inventory of which was undertaken among Dutch users of the LCA Guide immediately prior to start of work on the present Guide (Van Drunen, 1997). 1 This means that a number of more recent developments have not been considered.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7425, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 401, "book_page": 404, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background In order to operationalise the LCA methodology some additions to the ISO Standards have been necessary. On some points it was also necessary to deviate from these standards, but only when the rationale for doing so was particularly significant (for example, with respect to the stepwise structure; see below). All these additions and deviations are comprehensively documented and justified in the present Guide. As far as possible this Guide has been organised in a stepwise manner, reflecting the sequential mode of implementing an LCA study. Although it is recognised that LCA is a highly iterative tool, iteration is not interpreted as a step in its own right as such steps may be required at any point of an LCA study. Hence the Guide has been set up as a \u2018rational reconstruction\u2019 of an actual LCA exercise. This document consists of three Parts: 1, 2 (a and b) and 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7426, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 405, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hence the Guide has been set up as a \u2018rational reconstruction\u2019 of an actual LCA exercise. This document consists of three Parts: 1, 2 (a and b) and 3. Part 1 - \u2018LCA in perspective\u2019 - provides a general introduction to LCA and includes a discussion of the possibilities and limitations of LCA and the organisations involved in LCA. Part 2 - \u2018Guide\u2019 - consists of two parts: a (\u2018Guide\u2019) and b (\u2018Operational annex\u2019). Part 2a provides an introduction to the procedural design of an LCA project, and guidelines on the best available practice for each of the steps distinguished in actual performance of an LCA study. Guidelines are provided for two levels of LCA sophistication: simplified and detailed. The latter proceeds from a well-defined set of assumptions or simplifications, which are described in Section 1.2.2.3. The simplified level has been introduced to provide a vehicle for performing faster and cheaper LCAs, which may well be sound enough for certain applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7427, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 405, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The simplified level has been introduced to provide a vehicle for performing faster and cheaper LCAs, which may well be sound enough for certain applications. Thus, the two levels of sophistication relate to different decision situations linked to different methodological choices. On certain points of detail there may often be good reason for undertaking more in-depth analysis than can be provided even by the \u2018standard\u2019 detailed LCA. This kind of in-depth analysis has not been specified here as a separate method but as options for extension. It is important to note that if such options are employed this means a deviation from the assumptions and simplifications described in Section 1.2.2.3 and from the practical points of departure of each LCA phase as described in Part 2a. Both types of decision situation and the methodological choices involved are elaborated in the present Guide. The guidelines for simplified LCA are largely in line with the ISO standards, but not entirely", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7428, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 405, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The guidelines for simplified LCA are largely in line with the ISO standards, but not entirely. For example, the allocation procedure recommended for simplified LCA does not comply with the stepwise ISO procedure described in ISO 14041 (1998E). The guidelines given for detailed LCA comply fully with the various ISO Standards mentioned, however, although they are elaborated here at a more operational level. Many of the optional extensions do not fit into the ISO framework. An example is the partial introduction of market mechanisms (lacking in the inventory of detailed LCA), which lead to a type of substitution very different from that described in ISO 14041. In Part 2b the most up-to-date operational models and data associated with the best available practice for these two levels of sophistication are provided as a separate document. This has been done to facilitate updating of these operational elements, most of which are likely to change regularly1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7429, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 405, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This has been done to facilitate updating of these operational elements, most of which are likely to change regularly1. Part 2b thus operationalises the guidelines of Part 2a. Part 3 provides the scientific background to the study as well as a reasoned justification of all the choices made in designing a best available practice for each individual step of the four phases of an LCA. Below, the general theoretical foundations and modeling aspects of LCA are first discussed. Procedural aspects are then considered and the stepwise structure of the present LCA Guide outlined. Finally, further reading guidance is provided for the remaining chapters of this Part of the Guide. 1 Whether such updates will actually take place on a regular basis is still uncertain. This would require time and funding and no appropriate arrangements have yet been made.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7430, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 402, "book_page": 405, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 1.1 General theoretical foundations of LCA 1.1.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to explore the scientific basis of life cycle assessment. The argumentation is grounded in several disciplines, including philosophy of science, systems analysis, logic and mathematics. There are various reasons for including a chapter on this subject in the present Guide. Most importantly, it provides the ultimate foundational basis of the entire LCA method as described and developed in this Guide. As such, it can be seen as contributing to the methodology of developing an operational method for LCA. The foundational issue has been raised a number of times in the last few years, especially through the explicit recognition by a number of authors that value judgements are, ought to be, or ought not to be part of the LCA method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7431, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this respect we would mention the \u2018values debate\u2019 around the conception of the ISO standard (Owens, 1997a; Hertwich & Pease, 1998; Marsmann et al., 1999), the incorporation of cultural perspectives in Impact assessment (Hofstetter, 1998; Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999), the participation of stakeholders when making choices (Tukker, 1998; Bras-Klapwijk, 1999; Lundie, 1999) and, in a quite different direction, attempts to develop inductive approaches to LCA (Heijungs,1998). Several of these developments refer to or build on post-modern (or post-structuralist) movements that have migrated from the humanities to the harder sciences. It should be noted that these developments are not universally welcomed in the humanities or in the social sciences either and that their inclusion in the field comes in many shades, from mere acknowledgement through to radical surrender", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7432, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In LCA, the debate is not essentially different from that in other fields of study; see, for example, Sokal & Bricmont (1997). There are other important reasons for including the present chapter. The foundational issue is one that will inevitably be raised whenever there is disagreement among parties: between industry and the environmental movement, for example, between individual industrial sectors or companies, between consumer organisations and government, and so on. While earlier guides to LCA focused on unambiguous and transparent reporting of data, assumptions and methods, it is now clear that this does not suffice. Some differences in data may be caused by differences in the scope, geographical boundaries and so on, of the LCA under review. There are also differences that may be argued to originate from differences in attitude, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7433, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are also differences that may be argued to originate from differences in attitude, however. Trip rates of returnable bottles, for instance, can be estimated pessimistically or optimistically, and may therefore differ between technophobes and technocrats. The use of quantitative safety factors for toxic mechanisms that are poorly understood provides another instance where diverging frames of the various parties may lead to disagreement on the findings of an LCA. This brings us back to the topic raised above. At the same time, though, it also points the way to the idea of validating the results of an LCA. Bringing cases to a hypothetical court then lead us to consider a series of crucial questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7434, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the same time, though, it also points the way to the idea of validating the results of an LCA. Bringing cases to a hypothetical court then lead us to consider a series of crucial questions. The first is: does LCA speak the truth and nothing but the truth? Or does an LCA only provide a certain measure of evidence? How can we ensure that assertions made by or with an LCA have a certain truth content? Can we develop an idea, be it only conceptual, of this content? A final reason is that an obvious need for such a chapter emerged during the planning and writing of the other parts of the Guide. There are certain topics such as the marginal-average debate, for instance, that exert an influence at so many separate places that dedicated discussion of these topics is a more elegant form of treatment than incomplete references on many different occasions, with excessive repetition. Moreover, many of these recurring themes are closely related", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7435, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Moreover, many of these recurring themes are closely related. The purposes of LCA, the questions posed in an LCA, the methodological means of achieving answers to these questions, the principles that underlie the modeling of the economy-environment interaction: these are all logically related and deserve coherent treatment. The structure of the present chapter on foundational issues is as follows. We first discuss the purpose of LCA, in operational terms (Section 1.1.2). As the substance of an LCA is closely related to its purpose, the issues involved are examined in relation to the main types of questions addressed by LCA (Section 1.1.3). In this Guide we focus primarily on the use of LCA for answering structural questions. Next, the methodology of LCA is discussed (Section 1.1.4). This leads us, in subsequent sections, to an extensive treatise on the LCA model developed in this Guide.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7436, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 403, "book_page": 406, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 1.1.2 The purpose of LCA By way of an initial reconnaissance of the field considered in this chapter we first discuss the exact purpose of LCA. It should be clear from the outset that what we record here is not the \u2018one and only\u2019 purpose of LCA, but what we propose to be the purpose. Some may be disappointed by what they regard as excessively modest aims, while others will hold that LCA will never fulfil the stated purpose. Although we agree that the purpose elaborated here is to be viewed as an ideal that will never be fully achieved, we see it as guiding LCA in a certain direction. The purpose of LCA is to compile and evaluate the environmental consequences of different options for fulfilling a certain function. A priori, we thus restrict LCA to environmental consequences. Nonetheless, the exact meaning of this term may still be subject to debate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7437, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A priori, we thus restrict LCA to environmental consequences. Nonetheless, the exact meaning of this term may still be subject to debate. For instance, inclusion of resource depletion may be controversial, as some see this as an economic problem only. However, we exclude economic consequences, such as cost effects or unemployment, social consequences, such as violation of human rights, and many other types of consequences. We do so not because they are unimportant, but because we wish to focus analysis solely on the environment. As real life decisions are ultimately made on the broader basis, it is important that LCA remain comparable to allies types of analysis in other fields as far as is reasonably possible. The next item to be noted is that \u2018purpose\u2019 relates to the fulfilment of a function. Thus, plastic and paper are not compared on a per kilogram basis, since this bears no relationship to \u2018function\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7438, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The next item to be noted is that \u2018purpose\u2019 relates to the fulfilment of a function. Thus, plastic and paper are not compared on a per kilogram basis, since this bears no relationship to \u2018function\u2019. For the same reason, alkyd and acrylic paints are not compared on a per litre basis. Functions are services that are embodied in material objects, often referred to as goods or products1. Certain functions involve material products that are intimately related to the potential function they fulfil. For example, the product \u2018beer\u2019 is virtually congruent with the function \u2018having the pleasure of drinking a beer\u2019. However, it embodies only part of that potential function, because other products (like a glass) may also be required. In the case of other functions the relationship with a (set of) products is rather less direct. For example, the products \u2018paper\u2019, \u2018pen\u2019, \u2018envelope\u2019, \u2018stamp\u2019, \u2018desk\u2019 and \u2018lamp\u2019 are together required for the function \u2018writing and sending a letter\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7439, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For example, the products \u2018paper\u2019, \u2018pen\u2019, \u2018envelope\u2019, \u2018stamp\u2019, \u2018desk\u2019 and \u2018lamp\u2019 are together required for the function \u2018writing and sending a letter\u2019. In all cases, however, there are products involved that play a very indirect role, in the past, in the future, or in a different part of the world. Beer is produced using ingredients (water, barley, etc.) as well as ancillary goods (electricity, etc.) and also requires capital goods (breweries, etc.). These \u2018second-order products\u2019 are themselves also produced, requiring a third-order level of products. A comparative analysis of the environmental consequences of different methods of beer production should naturally include relevant environmental impacts for at least several orders of these \u2018upstream\u2019 products and production operations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7440, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The same applies to the \u2018downstream\u2019 side, which in the example of beer would cover flushing the toilet and cleaning the glass, as well as the operation of the entire waste water treatment system, its construction and its demolition. We see how naturally the focus on a function opens the door to a comprehensive analysis of the entire life cycle of the function. Observe the phraseology \u2018life cycle of the function\u2019 rather than the more colloquial \u2018life cycle of the product\u2019, to signal the fact that the pivot of the analysis is the function, not the material product that is colloquially associated with it. We also see how naturally the concept of a \u2018product system\u2019, consisting of the several life cycle stages, enters the arena. This will be elaborated further in the subsequent chapters on Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis. When speaking of a function, one may indeed have in mind minor functions in the private sphere, like \u2018writing and sending a letter\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7441, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When speaking of a function, one may indeed have in mind minor functions in the private sphere, like \u2018writing and sending a letter\u2019. However, there is nothing to prevent us from widening the scope to include broad societal functions, like \u2018transporting 2 million commuters between the city of Chicago and the suburbs\u2019. Both minor and major functions should in principle be covered by LCA, although the practical methods employed in the analysis may be very different. It is only through an explicit restriction of scope that we can opt for a certain breadth of function as the topic of LCA. The stated purpose of LCA allows for two quite distinct modes of Interpretation. In the first, the question of interest is the contribution of a particular way of fulfilling a certain function to the entire spectrum of environmental problems as they currently exist or are being created", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7442, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Using LCA to answer this question is referred to as doing a descriptive LCA, although other terms like retrospective LCA, level 0 LCA, and status quo LCA are also encountered in the literature. In the second mode of interpretation the emphasis is on change. The analysis then addresses the environmental changes resulting from a change from or to a particular way of fulfilling a certain function. This change may assume a variety of forms, illustrated by \u2018drinking one more beer\u2019 and \u2018drinking a different brand of beer\u2019. The use of LCA for answering this second type of question is referred to as doing a change-oriented LCA, or sometimes a prospective LCA, or a level 1 (or 2 or 3) LCA. Both types of LCA Interpretation are deemed useful, difficult or state-of-the1 Products usually comprise both goods and services. Functions may be seen as services.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7443, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 404, "book_page": 407, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background art, depending on the perspective of the study in question as well as personal preferences. There is even evidence that while most LCAs are intended to be change-oriented, actual practice is descriptive, or that current practices in fact coincide. Whatever the case, in a chapter treating the foundations of LCA we consider that the two should be kept conceptually separate and discussed as such, even though the later chapters will focus on the change-oriented mode. 1.1.3 The questions addressed by LCA Our basic point of departure is a decision situation in which a choice is to be made between a number of alternatives. We distinguish between the questions to be answered and the way the answers can be produced. The questions are the starting points, and one or more simple or complex models are the means for answering them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7444, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The questions are the starting points, and one or more simple or complex models are the means for answering them. The questions are of the form: What are the environmental1 effects of choosing option A rather than option B for fulfilling a certain function? Restricting ourselves to the Inventory phase, effects are to be considered in terms of environmental interventions2. We distinguish three main types of question, related to three main types of decision:3 occasional choices, concerning one-off fulfilment of a function; structural choices, concerning a function that is regularly supplied; strategic choices, on how to supply a function for a long or even indefinite period of time. What specific questions are to be answered for each type of choice? Without pretending to be complete, we would consider the following questions relevant for developing a systematic approach to answering them", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7445, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The category of occasional choices refers to one-off decisions made by individuals that have a negligible influence on society. Concrete examples include: mode of travel: should I take the high speed train or the plane to my meeting in Paris next week? beverage containers: should I use a china cup or a paper cup in the lunch facility I happen to be visiting today? waste management: should I put this particular piece of waste paper in the paper container or the organic wastes container? The time horizon of the decision and function fulfilment is short. In contrast, the time horizon of effects in the chain may be quite long. In specifying the effect chain, one may take into account simple or more complex mechanisms, simple or complex model forms, one may use one or several models, etc. A current choice does not influence the past, so capital investments like building the aircraft to be used next week play no part in occasional choices", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7446, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A current choice does not influence the past, so capital investments like building the aircraft to be used next week play no part in occasional choices. However, the extra passenger may lead to earlier replacement of the aircraft, which then leads to earlier and possibly greater environmental interventions. Similar lines of reasoning can be developed for the other examples. It should be noted that occasional choices may be frequently repeated, as when a business traveller chooses between train and plane on every business trip. The same applies to the manager of a waste treatment plant making daily decisions on optimum operating conditions, depending on the incoming flow of waste. If a decision can be placed in such a framework, it is no longer an occasional choice. The category of structural choices refers to choices made by individuals as well as firms relating to decisions that affect society in a limited and readily reversible manner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7447, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The category of structural choices refers to choices made by individuals as well as firms relating to decisions that affect society in a limited and readily reversible manner. Examples include: mode of travel: should I take the high speed train or the plane to my weekly meetings in Paris? beverage containers: should I use a china or paper cup in the lunch facility at my office, every working day? waste management: should I put my daily flow of old newspapers in the dustbin or the paper recycling container? In this case the time horizon of function fulfilment may be long. The context for my decisions in terms of facilities required is given in the short term but the constraints are eased each year, as investments and wear alter the capacities of the various technologies installed. For instance, even a small but continuous flow of extra discarded paper will lead to adjustments in investments at paper mills", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7448, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, even a small but continuous flow of extra discarded paper will lead to adjustments in investments at paper mills. The choices illustrated are for consumers, but they may similarly apply to business enterprises, as when a company decides its employees are to make their business trips to Paris by train. A company\u2019s decision to give its employees a lease car or a free annual public transport ticket is also in this category. The essential 1 Here, we might add \u201cand other\u201d to allow for coverage of social and economic effects. 2 Non-environmental effects would fit into the same framework. 3 This categorisation of questions is close to, but nevertheless differs in some respects from the categories shortterm optimisation, mid-term improvements and long-term societal change.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7449, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 405, "book_page": 408, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background feature is that the choice is reversible, involving no major investments, for instance. This sets limits on the scale of the decision. Thus, if a government were to decide that every citizen be issued with a free public transport ticket, this would require major investments in the railway system, which is to be regarded as irreversible in practice, and we would then categorise such a decision as a \u2018strategic choice\u2019. This final category of strategic choices refers to choices by individuals, firms and governments relating to decisions that affect society in a substantial and practically irreversible manner", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7450, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This final category of strategic choices refers to choices by individuals, firms and governments relating to decisions that affect society in a substantial and practically irreversible manner. Examples include: mode of travel: should the government invest in high speed railroads or in airports? beverage containers: should society as a whole opt for re-usable china luncheon crockery rather than throw-away cups and plates? waste management: should cities introduce separation of waste flows into different fractions, with a concomitant set of waste processing and recycling facilities? The time horizon of the activities involved in function fulfilment is longer for strategic choices than for occasional choices. Structural choices have a similar or more limited time horizon. There may be a delay in the start of the activities in question, as with the investments required in the high speed train example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7451, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Structural choices have a similar or more limited time horizon. There may be a delay in the start of the activities in question, as with the investments required in the high speed train example. The time horizon of functioning may be limited to a few years, as with lunchroom kitchens, or may extend to centuries, as with rail infrastructure. Regarding the effects in the chain, one can again opt to consider a shorter or longer period, for example with respect to the time taken for recycling effects to fade off. Again, one or several models may be used, incorporating simple or complex mechanisms and with a simple linear or complex non-linear form. The essential feature is that the choice leads to extensive changes with a high degree of irreversibility, since the investments are so large that it is very unlikely that such a decision will easily be reversed. It may be difficult to adequately categorise all the choices encountered in practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7452, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It may be difficult to adequately categorise all the choices encountered in practice. Though certain choices may initially appear to be structural, they may be argued to constitute strategic decisions. For instance, if airline companies base their investment plans on current aircraft usage, one extra passenger weekly may lead to more investments. Similarly, an occasional choice for a fluorescent lamp is a decision for 5 years, with possibly even repercussions for power plant investment plans. It is consequently not so important in which category a given concrete choice is placed. What is important, rather, is that the user of LCA is aware of the fact that every category of question highlights certain aspects while ignoring others. In this Guide we concentrate on the structural choices. That does not imply we consider the occasional and strategic choices uninteresting or beyond the LCA domain. Indeed, we see these as representing useful questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7453, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "That does not imply we consider the occasional and strategic choices uninteresting or beyond the LCA domain. Indeed, we see these as representing useful questions. However, they require a modeling set-up deviating markedly from that needed to support structural choices. We have therefore chosen to leave the elaboration of these categories of choices to other projects. In our opinion the approaches developed by Clift and co-workers and by Weidema and co-workers may be useful for LCAs having occasional choices as their starting point. Strategic choices, on the other hand, call for an approach that would draw more heavily on elements of scenario analysis and partial or general equilibrium modeling. The methodology of LCA The terms \u2018method\u2019 and \u2018methodology\u2019 are often used to indicate what essentially is the method. A method is a structured way to achieve a certain goal: to measure the toxicity of a compound, for example, or construct a bridge", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7454, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A method is a structured way to achieve a certain goal: to measure the toxicity of a compound, for example, or construct a bridge. A method consists of rules, recipes, formulas, descriptions and so on. Even the Mosaic commandments can be seen as providing a method to live a life in accordance with the principles of God. In any case, a method is not a scientific undertaking. It may be the result of such an undertaking, however, and it may also guide such an undertaking. Methodology, on the other hand, also referred to as the philosophy of science, is a science that studies means of developing methods that can be labeled scientific. More specifically, epistemology studies the sources of our knowledge. The source of the Mosaic commandments is divine revelation. This source of knowledge will not be considered scientific; some will deem it superior to scientifically derived knowledge, while others will deem it inferior or simply not believe it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7455, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This source of knowledge will not be considered scientific; some will deem it superior to scientifically derived knowledge, while others will deem it inferior or simply not believe it. Intuition, tradition, narratives and historical accounts are other sources of knowledge that are not scientific, although that does not mean they are \u2018false\u2019. Surprisingly perhaps, both approaches (i.e. science-based and not science-based) are possible with LCA. They in fact lead to two different methods for LCA, and correspond to two different Interpretations of the objective of LCA. On the one hand stands the methodology whereby which the adequacy of LCA theory is determined by comparing theoretical predictions with actual, observed phenomena. Here, LCA is interpreted as part of science, as using the scientific method, be that interpreted as nomological-deductive (Nagel), 1.1.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7456, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 406, "book_page": 409, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "hypothetical-deductive (Popper) or inductive (Carnap)1. The only thing that is accessible for testing empirical relations and therefore able to provide grounds for confirmation or refutation is observed change. If an additional unit of product function is superimposed on a constant background of economic activity and environmental pollution, the change in observed activity and pollution can be argued to be due to the additional unit of function. In practice, autonomous changes in economic activity and pollution may be so large that we cannot speak of a constant background. We therefore have a violation of the ceteris paribus assumption. In many fields of science, like biology and sociology, however, this is a quite common state of affairs. A frequently adopted approach is then to analyse the complicated structure in question by way of a number of simpler steps. These steps then correspond to portions of accepted models, disciplines or causal relationships", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7457, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These steps then correspond to portions of accepted models, disciplines or causal relationships. Relevant examples in the context of LCA are process technology, micro-economics, multi-media fate models, dose-response functions and so on. The important point to bear in mind is that these previously established \u2018building blocks\u2019 are assembled as a means of predicting the changes in economic activity and environmental pollution due to an additional unit of product function. In other words, the approach is suitable as an epistemological basis for the change-oriented variant of LCA. For the normative element of LCA, the tools are not those of science but are in a similar vein, including multi-criteria analysis, multi-objective decision-making and, more generally, decision theory. On the other hand stands the methodology for dealing with descriptive LCA. This is not amenable to the scientific method (nomological deduction, hypothetical deduction or induction)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7458, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the other hand stands the methodology for dealing with descriptive LCA. This is not amenable to the scientific method (nomological deduction, hypothetical deduction or induction). There is no possibility, not even in theory, of testing empirically the contribution to economic activity and environmental pollution of a unit amount of product function. We can neither confirm nor refute statements based on a descriptive LCA. However, some of these statements will certainly be deemed more logical than others. It may be possible to design a set of rules for developing a method for doing descriptive LCA studies which is internally consistent and more or less in accordance with a number of intuitive ideas. The rules forming the basis of such a method are the axioms (postulates, principles) and the method developed from it follows by deduction, employing theorems (propositions) requiring rigorous proof", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7459, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The rules forming the basis of such a method are the axioms (postulates, principles) and the method developed from it follows by deduction, employing theorems (propositions) requiring rigorous proof. Given a consistent set of axioms, a method may be classified as false or true in a logical sense. It may be that certain propositions are undecidable, that is, their truth or falsehood cannot be established by means of the axioms. However, a different but equally consistent set of axioms may well lead to a different method, producing different but equally true LCA results. In applying these two methodologies there may be a substantial overlap of activities. When models are constructed according to the empirical-scientific method, there will be an array of central theoretical concepts. These may be interpreted as hypotheses, which can be refuted, or may be interpreted as axioms, which may or may not be accepted for certain reasons", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7460, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These may be interpreted as hypotheses, which can be refuted, or may be interpreted as axioms, which may or may not be accepted for certain reasons. Statements derived from these central concepts or axioms are true in the empirical science sense if the central concepts have been corroborated, in the axiom sense if they seem \u2018right\u2019. An example is the 100% rule in allocation, which may be interpreted as a reasonable or just axiom, or (in a specific model structure) as an empirical rule based on the conservation of mass and energy. 1.2 Modeling aspects of LCA 1.2.1 Introduction In the previous section we have seen that there are two fundamentally different methodologies for developing methods for LCA. These two indeed lead to a number of methods within each of the two modes, descriptive and change-oriented. For the descriptive mode of LCA this was already concluded when discussing the variety of options for choosing a set of axioms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7461, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the descriptive mode of LCA this was already concluded when discussing the variety of options for choosing a set of axioms. However, this open character of the method also holds true for the change-oriented mode of LCA. Although there is one ultimate benchmark for testing the predictions of change-oriented LCA, it is clear that this benchmark is useless in practice owing to the complex nature of autonomous developments in society, the economy and the environment. A plethora of unforeseen events mean that a ceteris paribus assumption will never hold for the full LCA model. Even in the absence of such extreme events as economic depressions, volcano eruptions or civil wars, technological change, economic growth, cultural development of tastes, shifts in taxing structure, changing infrastructure and so on are so ubiquitous that the consequences of decisions we wish to observe are mere ripples in a stormy pond", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7462, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, therefore, comparison of LCA predictions with reality is unattainable. In addition, when a choice is to be made between several alternatives for a given 1 The reader should bear in mind that the term \u2018deductive\u2019 in the realm of logic, for deriving conclusions from premises, embodies a different approach (see below) and that the term \u2018complete induction\u2019 is likewise used in a different sense in mathematics. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7463, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 407, "book_page": 410, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background function system, it might only be the effects of the adopted course of action that are investigated. As the effects of the rejected alternatives will never materialise, the grounds for the choice will be based on modeling assumptions, even though the consequences of implementing one alternative might be analysed empirically. Not only is society in toto too complex to analyse and in too great a flux to assume it in any way constant. It must also be acknowledged that predicting the environmental consequences of a simple unit change in the economy is an undertaking of tremendous complexity. The pathways in the economy and environment are long, interwoven and full of time lags and non-linearities. Every prediction will be based on a model, which simultaneously embodies incorporated knowledge and deliberate ignorance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7464, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Every prediction will be based on a model, which simultaneously embodies incorporated knowledge and deliberate ignorance. In other words, the predictions made with a change-oriented LCA are based on model calculations, and a model is a simplified representation of real mechanisms and phenomena. The choice of where to introduce which simplification is partly subjective. Different researchers may wish to use different models, corresponding to different assumptions and different simplifications. These researchers will therefore produce different answers to the same change-oriented question. Since there is only a platonic view of the benchmark of reality, it is hard to judge these different answers on the basis of their truth content. The best solution here is to state as explicitly as possible the assumptions and simplifications introduced in modeling the environmental consequences of a given change. Modeling choices are not entirely subjective, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7465, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Modeling choices are not entirely subjective, however. Depending on the questions asked, some models may be more appropriate than others. If one is interested in short-term effects of a given choice, short-term relations should play a role, including changes in capacity usage of given installations in the model. If the interest is in long-term consequences, the model should indicate consequences of changes in installed capacities. If both shortterm and long-term consequences are to be examined, a dynamic model predicting effects in time is the most appropriate. As change-oriented LCA constitutes the principal focus of the remainder of this Guide, the rest of this section will be concerned mainly with an explicit treatment of our arguments for constructing a particular LCA model and a consideration of theoretical and practical modeling aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7466, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The theoretical part considers such issues as the general structure of the model and the main directions in which simplifications can be introduced, while the practical part is devoted to several pertinent problems in LCA: potential and actual impacts, non-linearities, spatial differentiation, average and marginal data and software. 1.2.2 Theoretical modeling aspects 1.2.2.1 The reality behind the model It is useful to gain a clearer idea of what kind of reality is supposed to be reflected by the LCA model. For the sake of simplification, we shall restrict our discussion to the Inventory analysis; an extension to Impact assessment is, in principle, straightforward. When studying any change in environmental interventions it is necessary to specify: a time pattern, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7467, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When studying any change in environmental interventions it is necessary to specify: a time pattern, e.g. distinguishing between short-term changes and changes in the longer term; a reference situation (or more precisely: time path) in which the changes induced by the alternative investigated do not take place, that is the autonomous pattern or a reference alternative. Figure 1.2.2.1.1 illustrates what is involved in a change-oriented analysis. We see a time pattern of emissions.1 There is an autonomous pattern governed by a complex pattern of economic cycles, environmental regulation, population growth, cultural influences, natural disasters, civil wars and so forth. At a certain moment in time an economic actor has the power to decide to implement a choice, which is to be supported by an environmental analysis. This may be a producer redesigning his production process, a consumer buying a certain product, an authority granting a permit, and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7468, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This may be a producer redesigning his production process, a consumer buying a certain product, an authority granting a permit, and so on. From onwards Figure 1 shows two lines: one with some alternative being implemented and one with the reference alternative The analysis is thus between two parallel systems; it is not a before-after comparison but a with-without comparison. It is assumed here that there is an immediate effect at and that there is a complicated difference between the two lines at later stages. This complicated difference is due to upstream and downstream 1 For explanatory purposes, this is a one-dimensional conception, representing emissions of for example, or damage to the ozone layer or an aggregated weighting result. The focus of the present discussion on Inventory analysis means that emissions will be the typical entity considered, hence the symbol e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7469, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The focus of the present discussion on Inventory analysis means that emissions will be the typical entity considered, hence the symbol e. The generalisation to a multi-dimensional set of environmental consequences, including resource use, is straightforward.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7470, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 408, "book_page": 411, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background consequences that are introduced with different time-lags. Note that upstream processes occur only after the decision has been implemented. An example may clarify this further. A consumer who decides to drink one extra cup of coffee, buying it from a coffee machine, first causes an increase in electricity and water demand. With a delay of a few hours, he will use the toilet, again using electricity and water, but now also involving the waste-water treatment plant. With a delay of a few days, filling of the coffee machine will take place, with some extra filling of coffee (and perhaps sugar and milk) and the cup reservoir required. The same applies to the disposed cup. After days to weeks, the signal of extra coffee consumption will have reached the producers of coffee, milk, sugar and cups, and the waste treatment facilities. These will presumably produce extra coffee, milk, etc. to compensate for the extra use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7471, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 412, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These will presumably produce extra coffee, milk, etc. to compensate for the extra use. Next they may also be induced by this and similar signals to adjust their longer-term production and/or investment plans. This latter, indirect effect may also reach the producers of electricity and water, the coffee machine maintenance firm and the firm that empties the waste bins. For instance, it may be the case that an extra waste bin is already being delivered a day later, from stock. We may even extend this example, with bizarre consequences, analogous to the image used to illustrate chaos theory: the butterfly in Peking which causes a storm in New York. For instance, my personal coffee consumption may cause imports to exceed the threshold for constructing a new freight airport. Nobody knows at what levels chaos and instability occur. Similar examples may be conceived for any choice: product design, packaging material, mode of transport, etc. There may be all kinds of primary, secondary, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7472, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 412, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Similar examples may be conceived for any choice: product design, packaging material, mode of transport, etc. There may be all kinds of primary, secondary, etc. effects invoked at quite different moments of time. A general formula for expressing the effects of making a certain choice can be expressed as: where is the point in time at which the difference between the two emission levels is evaluated. represents this difference, and can hence be interpreted as the difference between the emission level with and without the choice being implemented. In principle, two future states are predicted, one for the reference situation and one following the choice being made and implemented. In the expression above, denotes the point in time at which the emission levels are predicted and the difference between them is evaluated. An obvious question is what should be chosen for A point in time is an infinitely short lapse of time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7473, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 412, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An obvious question is what should be chosen for A point in time is an infinitely short lapse of time. It may be that one of the processes of the life cycle is actually operating at that point in time, but most of the processes will take place at different moments in time. Therefore, opting for one point in time will discard many emissions from the life cycle, and is therefore not compatible with the principles outlined in the section on the purpose of LCA. It is natural to take a broader time span, for instance taking into account all substances released during the first day or month or decade after the moment of decision. If we wish to cover instantaneous effects as well as effects on the time scale of hours, days and years, we must switch from one moment in time to either the modeling and analysis of time series, or to an integration over an interval of time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7474, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 412, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this section we shall discuss the first option, while the second option will be considered as one form of simplification and is therefore discussed later, in the section on model simplifications.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7475, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 409, "book_page": 412, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Modeling time series comes down to predicting for a (possibly large) number of intervals for t. To give a concrete example, we could model the emission of during the first week following the decision, during the second week, during the third week, and so on. Or we could do so on a annual or daily basis. Within each time interval, the emissions would be integrated over that time interval. If required, time intervals might be unequal, for instance the first hour, the next week, the next year, and so on. Within an economic-environmental analysis, a quite detailed level of distinct time intervals is readily defensible. The fate and effects of volatile compounds may differ between morning, noon, evening and night. And aircraft noise is clearly perceived differently during day and night time. For certain chemicals, a seasonal distinction between summer and winter seems more appropriate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7476, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "And aircraft noise is clearly perceived differently during day and night time. For certain chemicals, a seasonal distinction between summer and winter seems more appropriate. Hence, while modeling time series may appear straightforward from a theoretical perspective, in practice it leads to massive data requirements, an immensely complex model and a tremendous quantity of results. The discussion on the temporal domain can be repeated for the spatial domain. In Figure 1.2.2.1.1 there is one independent variable: time. However, we may add three more mode-independent variables, corresponding to geographical longitude, latitude and elevation above ground level. This also means that we now express an emission as e(x, y, z) rather than e(t). There are again three principally different options: to restrict the analysis to a single location, to model spatial differentiation within selected regions and to integrate over the entire spatial domain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7477, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The first option is of definite interest for local policymaking, but again seems incompatible with the life cycle concept of wishing to include upstream and downstream effects, which almost by definition take place somewhere else on the earth. In the second option, a number of regions are distinguished for specifying where emissions take place. Again, from an economic-environmental point of view, this may be very relevant indeed. Emissions of acidifying compounds in Scandinavia lead to quite different effects from similar emissions in the Sahara. For volatile organic solvents, a distinction between indoor and outdoor emissions seems appropriate (Potting & Blok, 1994). And for there is a distinct difference between urban, rural and marine areas. As with time series, fine-meshed spatial series increase environmental relevance, but lead to spiralling data requirements, ever more complex models and extremely extensive analysis results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7478, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As with time series, fine-meshed spatial series increase environmental relevance, but lead to spiralling data requirements, ever more complex models and extremely extensive analysis results. 1.2.2.2 The need for a simple model A model is a simplified representation of part of reality. In the context of LCA, two basic modeling issues are of particular importance. LCA deals with complex, interwoven networks of industrial, agricultural, household and waste management activities dispersed over many locations and potentially spanning many decades. The mechanisms governing the dynamics of these activities are of a technical, economic, social, cultural and political nature. The mathematical relationships that describe these real mechanisms are, by principle, non-linear and dynamic and will often exhibit hysteresis and irreversibility. No such a model of \u2018true reality\u2019 exists, and an LCA model must inevitably introduce a multiplicity of crude simplifications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7479, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No such a model of \u2018true reality\u2019 exists, and an LCA model must inevitably introduce a multiplicity of crude simplifications. LCA concentrates on the function system for a particular product life cycle, although it is well known that economy and technology are such that any two products are at some stage connected through a common process. The LCA model should therefore be capable of dissecting a product life cycle from this interconnected complex. In particular, this procedure for isolating an individual product life cycle requires the setting of system boundaries and an appropriate allocation procedure. Another option is to incorporate \u2018all other processes\u2019 in a more aggregated fashion, using input-output tables, for example (Lave et al., 1995). Ideally, one would like to see the environmental interventions (and/or impacts) associated with a particular choice specified in terms of both location and time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7480, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Ideally, one would like to see the environmental interventions (and/or impacts) associated with a particular choice specified in terms of both location and time. For theoretical reasons this is extremely difficult, if not impossible, however. LCA practitioners are therefore happy to overcome the modeling difficulties while maintaining reasonable accuracy for the sum total of environmental interventions, integrated over all locations and infinite time in an assumed steady state. To date, little attention has been paid to aspects of spatial differentiation or specification of dynamic patterns in time, of the form \u2018emission in Dublin on June 16th\u2019. This has meant that LCA is sometimes said to exclude a priori specifications of space and time, and that spatially differentiated LCA or dynamic LCA is almost a contradiction in terms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7481, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This has meant that LCA is sometimes said to exclude a priori specifications of space and time, and that spatially differentiated LCA or dynamic LCA is almost a contradiction in terms. In this Guide we take a more liberal stance, regarding spatial and temporal integration as two possible steps in the inevitable process of constructing a workable LCA model. Several other simplifications have also been introduced. Some of these relate to model structure (e.g. linearisation of process characteristics and aggregation of individual companies along sectoral lines), others to mechanisms (e.g. ignoring demand elasticities or changes in use patterns by consumers). Again, we stress that although these simplifying steps facilitate the modeling exercise and may be a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7482, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 410, "book_page": 413, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background normal feature of LCA practice, the explicit incorporation of, say, non-linear relationships and economic mechanisms by no means contradicts the aim or principles of LCA. Hence, where this Guide proposes certain simplifications to the LCA model, this does not preclude additional efforts being made to develop more sophisticated models. This will hold particularly for strategic decisions having large-scale implications, and in such cases dynamic, non-linear, complex modeling may be imperative. This issue will not be considered in the present Guide. 1.2.2.3 Main model simplifications Although the ultimate aim is obviously to develop a high-quality model having adequate discriminatory power and yielding a consistently valid and reliable outcome, in practice this aim is constrained by a shortage of data, theoretical expertise and the capacity to handle complexity. Inevitably, simplifications must be introduced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7483, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inevitably, simplifications must be introduced. While omission of economic mechanisms and spatial detail makes for great simplification, however, it reduces the quality of the analysis results. When making predictions about the functioning of economic processes and their interrelationships, it is obviously a substantial loss to disregard economic mechanisms. The same holds for a wide variety of environmental effects that may be highly dependent on the location of the activities in question. Below, we propose several simplifications to the life cycle Inventory analysis model for use in supporting structural decisions. This exposition should be regarded as providing reference standards for two levels of LCA complexity suitable for different types of decision situation. We first provide a reference standard for a detailed type of LCA, which can be seen as a stepping stone towards an ideal generic method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7484, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We first provide a reference standard for a detailed type of LCA, which can be seen as a stepping stone towards an ideal generic method. As already mentioned, deviations from these simplifications are perfectly legitimate if such a need is felt. Such deviations may indeed lead to major improvements in model quality. However, a more simplified model may be perfectly legitimate in situations where the key differences between alternatives are very clear or where a rough indication is a good enough starting point. Alongside the detailed LCA we thus also specify, in Chapter 2 below, a reference for a more simplified version of LCA. Such \u2018best available practice\u2019 types of LCA are \u2018best\u2019 only in the given historic context and the databases and software that history has spawned. Two of the main directions for simplification follow directly from the discussion on the temporal and spatial detail of the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7485, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Two of the main directions for simplification follow directly from the discussion on the temporal and spatial detail of the analysis. The alternative to modeling time series is to integrate over the entire time horizon. Technically speaking this is not in itself a simplification, as the time series must first be modeled before integration is possible. In practice, however, integration opens the road to further simplification. If linear models are used, for example, it becomes irrelevant when exactly in time specific activities occur. In integration, the basic quantity of interest shifts from the difference between two emission levels at distinct points in time to the time-integrated difference between these two emission levels. Mathematically: where and delimit the time period covered by the analysis. represents this time-integrated difference. Observe that in Equation (1.2.2.1.1) and interrelationships and in Equation (1.2.2.3.1) have different dimensions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7486, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "represents this time-integrated difference. Observe that in Equation (1.2.2.1.1) and interrelationships and in Equation (1.2.2.3.1) have different dimensions. If the emission e is measured in kg, for instance, will likewise be expressed in kg, while will have the unit kg\u00d7yr. It seems natural to opt for full time integration when dealing with consequences occurring throughout the life cycle. In other words, taking and as integration boundaries seems to be optimal in relation to the stated purpose of LCA. However, it is sometimes advocated to restrict the time horizon from infinity to 100 years, for example. The main arguments given are data availability, policy relevance and uncertainties with respect to the very distant future. Especially in discussions regarding the impacts of landfill and the toxicity of heavy metals and other persistent chemicals this issue is sometimes raised", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7487, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Especially in discussions regarding the impacts of landfill and the toxicity of heavy metals and other persistent chemicals this issue is sometimes raised. An alternative here is to retain an infinitely long time horizon but to discount the future by means of a temporal discount rate that gives less weight to events occurring, at least in the model, in the distant future. An operational formula here is: where r is the temporal discount rate. Typical values of r range from 0 to 5%. A discount rate of 5% implies that the importance of effects is halved every 14 years, which means that effects occurring over 100 years hence are virtually ignored In Equation (1) the implicit value judgement is that effects now and in the future are valued the same. In Equation (2) the same can be achieved explicitly by setting r = 0.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7488, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 411, "book_page": 414, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background The compromise between taking a single point in time and modeling time series was found to be integration over the entire period in question. We can carry this compromise over to the spatial context. A complete integration of life-cycle-related emissions over the entire globe provides a workable approach that is compatible with the idea of following a life cycle. Mathematically: The threefold integration over the three spatial dimensions means that a possible unit for is In the integration, we have ignored the possibility of integrating only partially over space to exclude, say, Antarctica, the oceans or countries that are not signatories to certain environmental protocols. This option is technically analogous to setting the time horizon to 100 years instead of infinity. We also have ignored the possibility of \u2018space discounting\u2019, because we do not consider it a meaningful option in current LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7489, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We also have ignored the possibility of \u2018space discounting\u2019, because we do not consider it a meaningful option in current LCA. The implicit value judgement made in the spatial integration step is that similar effects in different locations are valued the same in the ultimate evaluation of impacts. Combination of the compromises with respect to temporal and spatial integration yields the formula: Of course, this formula is of little practical use and we shall not employ it in the remainder of the text. However, it serves to emphasise the basic idea that full temporal and spatial integration of emissions of pollutants and extractions of resources is a principle that is in good agreement with the stated purpose of LCA. Continuing the discussions on model simplifications, the following choices have been made in the baseline LCA model presented in this Guide: Near-complete omission of spatial detail, by not distinguishing between emissions near different kinds of ecosystem, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7490, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Note that this does not mean that the distances between unit processes is set at zero: transport is merely taken into account. Neither does it mean that all unit processes are assumed to operate according to the technological state of the art that is representative for a given region. We can still distinguish between the emission characteristics of electricity production at different locations, but merely refrain from specifying where the emission occurs. The only default spatial details that are retained are those specified by a short list of environmental media: air, surface water, soil, sea and sediment. Complete omission of temporal detail. Among other things, this means that emissions are specified as total (infinite) time-integrated emissions. This does not mean that operations like storage1 are left out. Neither does it mean that all unit processes are assumed to operate according to the technological state of the art at a given point in time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7491, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Neither does it mean that all unit processes are assumed to operate according to the technological state of the art at a given point in time. We can still distinguish between the emission characteristics of electricity production needed for constructing factory buildings now and that for recycling them 50 years hence. In fact, we recommend doing so. Complete omission of non-linearities.2 This means, for example, that if the production of 1 kg steel is associated with an emission of 5 kg of a substance, the production of 2 kg steel is assumed to be associated with an emission of 10 kg of that substance (hence, fixed input-output coefficients). Omission or extreme simplification of most economic, socio-cultural and technological mechanisms influencing operation of the processes considered in the Inventory analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7492, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Omission or extreme simplification of most economic, socio-cultural and technological mechanisms influencing operation of the processes considered in the Inventory analysis. For example, the most common economic response to a rise in demand for a product brought about by adopting a certain option for supply of a functional unit is a rise in price and certain buyers of that product leaving the market. This market mechanism is virtually ignored. Income effects are likewise ignored. For instance, if product A is more expensive than product B, switching to B will mean the consumer has 1 To continue the analogy with space: transport is the process that carries an item from location A to location B, while storage is the process that \u2018carries\u2019 an item from day A to day B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7493, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both transport and storage are economic processes which may need fuel, electricity, cleaning and so on, which may emit pollutants and which sometimes lead to a change in the quality (or even quantity) of the product concerned, for either better (wine) or worse (fresh flowers). 2 In this context, neglecting non-linearities means that the model structure is linear, in the sense of twice as much product requiring twice the amount of materials, leading to twice the emissions and to twice the environmental impact. It may still be the case that the simple coefficients used in the model are derived from highly non-linear models, as with global warming potential, for example.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7494, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 412, "book_page": 415, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background more money to spend on other (polluting) activities. This shift is not generally taken into account.1 The same holds for the phenomenon of people leaving more lamps on if light bulbs are energyefficient and hence less costly to burn. There are numerous examples of such forms of simplifications. Certain mechanisms are simply ignored (like the two above), while others are taken into limited account. An example in the latter category is given by economic substitution of certain materials by coproduced materials, where a sophisticated economic model would apply crosselasticities, while some LCA analysts assume full, or zero, substitution, or use this substitution as an artificial procedure for solving the multifunctionality problem, as a kind of allocation procedure. As a baseline, we here ignore all behavioural mechanisms except those related to changes in volume and (see above) simplify the latter mechanisms to a linear approximation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7495, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 416, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As a baseline, we here ignore all behavioural mechanisms except those related to changes in volume and (see above) simplify the latter mechanisms to a linear approximation. This has, Inter alia, important consequences for allocation; see Section 3.9. Figure 1.2.2.3.1 shows the model that is assumed to reflect the reality depicted in Figure 1.2.2.1.1 under some of the simplifications discussed above. Note that some of the complexities of economy-environment relationships are maintained. For instance, there is usually no aggregation of pollutants into substance groups (like \u2018heavy metals\u2019 or \u2018organic compounds\u2019). Similarly, economic activities are analysed at the micro-level, with \u2018steel rolling\u2019 or \u2018paper bleaching\u2019 being treated as separate activities. It is, of course, perfectly permissible to introduce further simplifications along these dimensions. They facilitate computation, but at the price of a less relevant answer", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7496, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 416, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is, of course, perfectly permissible to introduce further simplifications along these dimensions. They facilitate computation, but at the price of a less relevant answer. In our opinion the baseline simplifications proposed in this Guide represent a good compromise between quality and feasibility for structural, change-oriented LCAs. 1.2.3 Practical modeling aspects 1.2.3.1 Potential versus actual impacts There is a long tradition of debate on what types of impacts are accessible and/or predictable in LCA, and in particular in life cycle Impact assessment (LCIA). Emissions of hazardous chemicals take place at many different locations and at many different times. The default simplification principle of full space and time integration means that there is no information on spatial and temporal detail in the model. One just specifies the total life cycle loadings, in the form of aggregated releases: 5 mg mercury to water, 12 kg sulphur dioxide to air, and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7497, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 416, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One just specifies the total life cycle loadings, in the form of aggregated releases: 5 mg mercury to water, 12 kg sulphur dioxide to air, and so on. Hence, any attempt to interpret the contributions of these substances to environmental impact categories, such as ecotoxicity and acidification, can only be made without incorporation of spatial and temporal information, even if in some instances such details are available. Examples of items that may differ significantly between locations and times are background concentrations, presence of vulnerable ecosystems, environmental properties like soil composition, temperature and precipitation characteristics, population density and consumption patterns, and many 1 Unless, for example, the functional unit is expressed in monetary units.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7498, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 413, "book_page": 416, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background more. Absence of such knowledge, or the lack of scope for including such knowledge, means that the impacts of releases can be estimated in very generic terms only. As an example, consider the following. If, under average conditions, substance x is 20 times more persistent and 5 times more toxic than substance y, a release of one unit of substance x is considered to be equally hazardous to a release of 100 units of substance y. This rule is also applied in non-average situations. In fact, the question whether the situation is average or non-average, and any deviation from the average, is entirely ignored in assessing potential impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7499, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In fact, the question whether the situation is average or non-average, and any deviation from the average, is entirely ignored in assessing potential impacts. Examples of questions that are ignored are: are background concentrations below or above supposed threshold levels? do the releases take place in a densely or sparsely populated area? do the releases take place in a vulnerable or invulnerable ecosystem? is the fish in this lake actually used for consumption or not? is the prevailing wind direction around this chimney towards or away from the sea? Assessment in terms of potential impacts is sometimes understood to imply a worst-case analysis. This is certainly not an accurate description of the main idea behind \u2018generic conditions\u2019. However, in a certain sense it points in the right direction, as it is the capacity for causing harmful effects that forms the basis of the assessment, and not so much the extent to which this capacity becomes effective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7500, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, one aspect of pollution abatement is to release pollutants at the right place and the right time. Focusing on potential impacts means that such measures are ignored. Even if some further spatial detail were to be added to the models, on top of the seven media already considered, differentiating between densely and sparsely populated areas, for example, the \u2018potential\u2019 nature of the impact analysis would remain largely unchanged, as it still does not take all relevant characteristics into account. Actual impacts are sometimes contrasted to potential impacts, and their exact nature is perhaps even more confusing.1 If we move away from full space and time integration to add more and more details with respect to the spatial and temporal characteristics of release and receiving environment, we might say that we are moving into the area of actual impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7501, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is a huge difference between full integration and full differentiation, however, and there is hence a broad continuum between potential and actual impacts. Understood in this sense, potential and actual impacts are not so much a pair of opposites. Rather, one may speak of a degree of actuality that is taken into account by the Impact assessment method. It is clear that the amount of information required for assessing releases will grow as the required degree of actuality rises. For assessment in entirely potential terms, it suffices to know a handful of persistency and toxicity characteristics along with some overall parameters like average temperature, average soil pH, average intake of drinking water, and so on. For an assessment in more actual terms, more parameters are needed: temperature of the release region, population density of the receiving region, and so on. An assessment in extremely actual terms is an ideal to be approached but never reached", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7502, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An assessment in extremely actual terms is an ideal to be approached but never reached. It would include questions like: what is the body weight of the person walking over there at the moment of release? Is she pregnant? Is she a smoker or non-smoker? An assessment of impacts in extremely actual terms is very complicated, and it is doubtful whether there is any sense to it at all, even outside the realm of LCA. The inclusion of certain aspects of actuality is certainly important in tools like Risk Assessment (RA) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which are geared towards operating permits and other location-related decisions. For a tool that has comprehensiveness as its prime characteristic, in a first approximation it seems natural for LCA to ignore actuality-determining factors2. There is no fundamental reason for making LCA so abstract and general, merely reasons of practicality. Our objective is to construct an operational form of LCA, which implies a simple model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7503, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is no fundamental reason for making LCA so abstract and general, merely reasons of practicality. Our objective is to construct an operational form of LCA, which implies a simple model. As better types of model and data sets become available in due course, with results amenable to interpretation, the reference method for the detailed LCA model, as well as for the simplified LCA model, can be improved. If a deeper analysis is required, and if the resources to do so are available, there is no reason to stick to detailed LCA. More extended options might be examined and in many situations nonLCA types of analysis may also be relevant. On the other hand, a detailed LCA may be more demanding than is necessary for some more simple types of decisions. 1 The juxtaposition of \u2018actual\u2019 and \u2018potential\u2019 impacts remains ambiguous. Potential impacts sometimes denote modeled impacts, and are thus opposed to measured impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7504, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 The juxtaposition of \u2018actual\u2019 and \u2018potential\u2019 impacts remains ambiguous. Potential impacts sometimes denote modeled impacts, and are thus opposed to measured impacts. Sometimes the term is used to indicate the impact of below-threshold emissions, which, while not an impact in the sense of actual damage to ecosystems, might be described as occupying environmental utilisation space. 2 See appendix B for a more comprehensive discussion of the relationship between tools and applications.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7505, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 414, "book_page": 417, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 1.2.3.2 Beyond the default simplifications As stated above, the proposed simplifications provide a crude reference model structure that can always be improved in a wide variety of respects as circumstances dictate. The aim of this section is to discuss some of the ideas that may be introduced for improving on the reference model quality, as specified for detailed LCA. There is one particular direction for further model detailing that has received considerable attention in the literature: spatial differentiation. This is acknowledged by a separate section being devoted to this topic. The other directions in which attempts to escape from the simplifications have been made are described in this section. So far, little attention has been paid in the literature to temporal differentiation in LCA. Owens (1996, 1997a and 1997b) criticises the lack of \u201cspatial and temporal considerations\u201d in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7506, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "So far, little attention has been paid in the literature to temporal differentiation in LCA. Owens (1996, 1997a and 1997b) criticises the lack of \u201cspatial and temporal considerations\u201d in LCA. He mentions rates of emissions, duration and frequency of exposure, and seasonal influences of temperature and sunlight as missing time characteristics. He gives no suggestions, however, as to how these characteristics might be included operationally. Pleijel et al. (1999) studied the influences of climate, source strength and time of day of NOx and VOC releases on tropospheric ozone formation in the context of LCA. They found considerable variation. If and how this can be included in general LCA methodology is a question yet to be answered. Finally, Potting (2000) very briefly raises the same issue in a thesis otherwise devoted to the issue of spatial differentiation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7507, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, Potting (2000) very briefly raises the same issue in a thesis otherwise devoted to the issue of spatial differentiation. With respect to the inclusion of non-linearities, there is some literature relating to operations research and equilibrium models. Kandelaars (1998) discusses the materials-product chain, a concept that more or less coincides with LCA. The technical elaboration is quite different, however. Some unit processes are described within a framework of micro-economic production functions. Their concaveness contrasts with the linear, homogeneous, Leontief-type model that lies at the heart of LCA. It follows that solutions to the inventory problem cannot be found by normal matrix inversion (see Section 3.10), but that an optimisation algorithm is needed. Among other things this requires a quantity to be optimised, which is generally of a financial nature (e.g. cost minimisation or profit maximisation). Kandelaars shows that such models are feasible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7508, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Among other things this requires a quantity to be optimised, which is generally of a financial nature (e.g. cost minimisation or profit maximisation). Kandelaars shows that such models are feasible. However, all the examples she elaborates are very small product systems, comprising no more than 20 unit processes. It follows that the realism gained by including non-linearities is accompanied by a loss of realism due to a fairly drastic cut-off of ignored flows. It is difficult to say how gains and losses balance out in this and other cases. It remains the normal practice of LCA to place emphasis on completeness rather than elaborateness of mechanisms. Similar cases are provided by Gelderman (1999) and Freire etal. (2000), among others. The issue of including socio-economic, technological and other mechanisms has been discussed mainly in relation to the choices of product alternatives and functional unit and in relation to allocation based on the substitution method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7509, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, the aforementioned use of concave production functions with an economic optimisation objective is obviously also an example of how realism vis-\u00e0-vis economic mechanisms can be improved. Related to the goal definition is the question of which product alternatives are to be deemed comparable and what amounts of these product alternatives are assumed to function as substitutes. Fluorescent lamps are not always appropriate substitutes for incandescent lamps and when they are it is not always 100 hours that substitute for 100 hours, because people tend to keep fluorescent lamps switched on when they leave the room for a while. A strong plea for incorporating real behavioural mechanisms in such situations is made by Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1995) and by the Groupe des Sages (Udo de Haes et al., 1996). In concrete cases, empirical usage data on the various product alternatives have sometimes been incorporated (Potting et al., 1995)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7510, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1995) and by the Groupe des Sages (Udo de Haes et al., 1996). In concrete cases, empirical usage data on the various product alternatives have sometimes been incorporated (Potting et al., 1995). See Section 2.4 for a more extensive discussion of this topic. With respect to the allocation issue (see Section 3.9), it should be emphasised first that the substitution method implies incorporation of socio-economic mechanisms in an analysis that at most points ignores such mechanisms. The assumption of the substitution method is that if the product system under study also delivers a coproduct this will obviate the need to produce a product with more or less identical features. In its crudest form, the substitution method implicitly assumes that supply of the coproduct is fully inelastic and supply of the substituted product fully elastic. In general, neither of these assumptions will hold", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7511, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In general, neither of these assumptions will hold. To reflect relevant socio-economic causalities more accurately, Ekvall (1999) advocates using realistic default values for elasticities of supply and demand. A more extensive discussion of elasticities in relation to the multifunctionality problem is to be found in Section 3.9.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7512, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 415, "book_page": 418, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 1.2.3.3 Spatial differentiation Introduction The reliability and validity of LCA results can be substantially improved by introducing spatial differentiation. Although location-specific data will rarely be available for all processes within a product life cycle, spatially differentiated assessment may be preferable for those processes for which the required information is available. Especially for processes that appear to predominate in the overall impact of a product life cycle, additional effort to gather location-specific information is advisable. In recent years the issue of spatial differentiation has been gaining growing attention (cf. Potting & Blok, 1994; Pujol & Boidot Forget, 1994; Potting & Hauschild, 1997b; Tolle, 1997; Krewitt et al., 1998, 1999; Matsuno et al., 1998, 1999; Moriguchi & Kondo, 1998; Nigge, 1998; Potting et al., 1998, 1999; Schulze, 1999; T\u00f8rsl\u00f8v et al., 1999; Potting, 2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7513, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No general, comprehensive approach has yet been developed, however. To render spatial differentiation generally applicable to any process in any product life cycle, spatially specific equivalency factors are needed. Potting (2000) has made a start on developing such factors for the impact categories acidification and human toxicity. Her approach is geographically restricted to Europe, however, and the human toxicity model has been elaborated for two illustrative substances only. Moreover, the approaches adopted for the two impact categories differ with respect to how the ultimate effects are defined. The values of these exercises should not be underestimated, though. In the first place, they demonstrate that spatial differentiation is a worthwhile exercise, as there may be major variation among regions. In the second place, they form a good example of how spatial differentiation can be practically implemented in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7514, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the second place, they form a good example of how spatial differentiation can be practically implemented in LCA. A necessary first step towards the ultimate goal of constructing worldwide, mutually consistent equivalency factors for all impact categories is a systematic analysis and description of how such factors might be constructed. Spatial differentiation in relation to the structure of Impact assessment Heijungs & Wegener Sleeswijk (1999) distinguish three dimensions in life cycle characterisation of toxic (and other) substances: fate, exposure (or intake) and effect. The numerical impact of an emission can be considered to be composed of three independent variables, representing these dimensions. Spatial differentiation may be independently performed for each of these variables", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7515, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Spatial differentiation may be independently performed for each of these variables. One of the most important starting points for Impact assessment modeling in LCA is a definition of the distinct character of emissions in the usual steady-state modeling type of LCA elaborated here, and a short analysis of its consequences. In normal LCA practice emissions are not considered as continuous fluxes but as discrete pulses, since they are linked to single amounts of product function, rather than to (production) processes as such. These discrete emission pulses cause discrete \u2018concentration pulses\u2019. While continuous concentrations are characterised by concentration value and spatial magnitude or concentration pulses are additionally characterised by their temporal value. To handle large numbers of such concentration pulses, it is convenient to integrate them over both space and time. Integration over space (in yields amounts. The double integration therefore yields time-Integrated amounts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7516, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Integration over space (in yields amounts. The double integration therefore yields time-Integrated amounts. The advantage of space and time integration of emission pulses is that each pulse is thus characterised by a single value. This permits comparison and assessment of pulses having different spatial and temporal characteristics. The pros and cons of such integration, including the scope for making due allowance for the exceeding of thresholds, are discussed by Wegener Sleeswijk (in prep.). Spatial differentiation of fate-related aspects Multimedia fate models in Risk Assessment relate continuous emission fluxes to environmental concentrations (Mackay, 1991; Cowan et al., 1995). These same fate models can be used in LCA to relate discrete emission pulses to time-integrated environmental amounts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7517, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These same fate models can be used in LCA to relate discrete emission pulses to time-integrated environmental amounts. For a given substance, emission compartment and emission magnitude, the magnitudes of these time-integrated amounts depend on degradation, immobilisation and multimedia transport: the three main aspects of fate. Since multimedia fate models depend on geographical and climatological parameters, it is almost impossible to use them without applying some form of spatial differentiation. Parameters such as temperature, rainfall, soil composition and land/water surface ratio of continents may have a major influence on the multimedia distribution and/or degradation time of substances. The use of single values (point estimates, such as averages or default values) for such parameters can lead to major deviations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7518, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 416, "book_page": 419, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background between the modeling results and the real world. By distinguishing between geographical areas, the validity of the model can be improved, although this will lead to greater model complexity and additional data requirements. Most existing multimedia models distinguish between at least three emission compartments: air, soil and water, and between at least four transport compartments: air, soil, water and sediment. Spatial differentiation with respect to substance fate amounts to further division of each of these compartments . Together, the compartments make up the so-called unit world. While the spatially non-differentiated unit world consists of a (small) number of homogeneously mixed (sub-)compartments, the spatially differentiated unit world consists of a (larger) number of homogeneously mixed (sub-)compartments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7519, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A fate factor is a parameter that connects a standard emission of a certain substance into a certain compartment to the resulting (time-integrated) amount of this substance in one of the compartments of the unit world. Since one emission to one particular compartment may be distributed over many other compartments as well, most emissions are linked to a large number of fate factors. Spatial differentiation of exposure-related aspects An exposure (or intake) factor is a parameter that relates a standard (time-integrated) amount of a substance in a single environmental medium or compartment to the relative amount of this substance that eventually becomes bioavailable for (\u2018target\u2019) organisms via this medium or compartment. \u2018Exposure\u2019 in LCA terminology differs from the Risk Assessment concept \u2018dose\u2019 in two ways. In the first place, exposure refers to a discrete \u2013 rather than continuous \u2013 event. This is caused by the discrete (\u2018mass loading\u2019) character of emissions in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7520, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the first place, exposure refers to a discrete \u2013 rather than continuous \u2013 event. This is caused by the discrete (\u2018mass loading\u2019) character of emissions in LCA. In the second place, exposure is a collective \u2013 rather than individual \u2013 measure: if the population exposed to a certain dose is doubled, the exposure itself is considered to be doubled as well. Here, LCA differs in terminology from Risk Assessment, where \u2018exposure\u2019 and \u2018concentration\u2019 are often used almost synonymously. In toxicity analysis, separate exposure modeling is always necessary for species that are exposed to substances via different environmental media. For species that are (mainly) exposed via a single compartment, effect can be linked directly to the (time-integrated) amount of substance in this particular compartment by means of fate modeling. This is the case for water and soil ecosystems in models without spatial differentiation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7521, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is the case for water and soil ecosystems in models without spatial differentiation. In these models, the water medium and the soil medium each correspond to one compartment only. In the case of spatial differentiation, the sizes of the compartments into which each medium has been divided should be taken into account. For assessment with reference to single species \u2013 and especially for man \u2013 it will often be desirable to include population densities as well. For assessment vis-\u00e0-vis medium-wide ecosystems, it is difficult to say whether the volume of the compartment as such or a combination of volume and some sort of \u2018ecosystem density\u2019 measure is the best criterion for exposure assessment. For the time being, however, volume as such seems to be the most obvious criterion. For man, the total exposure to a substance is often the resultant of exposure via different routes: inhalation of air, intake through the skin and ingestion of drinking water and food", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7522, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For man, the total exposure to a substance is often the resultant of exposure via different routes: inhalation of air, intake through the skin and ingestion of drinking water and food. Different exposure factors are required to link the (time-integrated) amounts of the substance in different media and compartments to the eventual exposure. Air is inhaled directly and (usually) unpurified. The air route is therefore relatively simple to model. Substances in water may reach us either via drinking water or via the consumption of fish and other sea foods. Exposure rates depend not only on the level of drinking water consumption, but also on fish consumption, on drinking water purification and on bioconcentration and biomagnification in fish. Substances in soil will seldom give rise to significant direct human exposure, with a few exceptions like inhaled dust particles from asbestos-reinforced roads", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7523, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Substances in soil will seldom give rise to significant direct human exposure, with a few exceptions like inhaled dust particles from asbestos-reinforced roads. Indirect exposure via all manner of foodstuffs is a very significant exposure route for many substances, however. Exposure by this route depends on foodstuff consumption as such, but also on bioconcentration and biomagnification in all these foodstuffs, which are derived directly or indirectly from plants, including meat and dairy. Because of the enormous variety of foodstuffs we consume, the soil route is by far the most complex route for exposure modeling. The most obvious aspect of spatial differentiation that needs to be elaborated in the context of exposure modeling concerns differences in consumption patterns. This applies not only to food but also to drinking water, which may be either groundwater or surface water, and either unpurified or purified in some treatment system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7524, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This applies not only to food but also to drinking water, which may be either groundwater or surface water, and either unpurified or purified in some treatment system. Consumption patterns should, if possible, be combined with the magnitudes of the populations to which these consumption patterns apply, in order to calculate overall worldwide exposure to a substance from each medium or compartment.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7525, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 417, "book_page": 420, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background So far, spatial differentiation in exposure modeling has been fairly straightforward. It is further complicated, however, by the consequences of spatial differentiation in fate modeling. If media are divided into different compartments, it is not only the consumption pattern as such, but also the origin of foodstuffs, drinking water and even air consumed that determine eventual exposure. Especially for foodstuffs, this is a complicating factor in the extreme, since large numbers of people no longer obtain their food from their immediate surroundings but from all over the world. Spatial differentiation of effect-related aspects An effect factor is a parameter that relates a standard exposure level tor a species or ecosystem to a certain effect level. Sensitivity as such, the presence and abundance of sensitive species and background concentrations are effect-related aspects. The concept of sensitivity is intimately related to the dose-response relationship", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7526, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The concept of sensitivity is intimately related to the dose-response relationship. A numerical representation of sensitivity may be based either on the exposure value at which a species starts to show adverse effects to a substance (NOEC or NOAEL in toxicity assessment) or on the relative magnitude of the response to a standard increase of dose in the response area (the slope of the dose-response curve at the prevailing dose level). For doses in the area of the curve where the slope is greater than zero, the second possibility seems to be by far the best representation of sensitivity. For doses below no-effect levels, however, it is hard to say whether the relative distance to the point where adverse effects start to occur, or the (average) strength of the response to an increase of dose in the response area is the greater determining factor with respect to the latent, or \u2018potential\u2019 effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7527, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For some substances, no-effect toxicity levels are lacking, for carcinogenic organics and for radioactive particles, for example. The doseresponse curve of such substances has an F-shape, instead of the familiar S-shape. Similar doseresponse relationships may hold for non-toxicity-related impact categories. For toxicity, it is common practice in LCA to work with no-effect levels, rather than slopes, as measures of toxicity. For substances lacking real no-effect levels, threshold values may instead be used. For other impact categories, it is more common to work with values more or less representing slopes, although real dose-response curves are seldom used in these contexts. Whenever dose-response curves are used, it should be borne in mind that the relationship between the qualitative concept of \u2018response\u2019 and the numerical values representing this concept should be explicitly defined. Both the no-effect level and the slope of the dose-effect curve vary per species and per substance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7528, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both the no-effect level and the slope of the dose-effect curve vary per species and per substance. For aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, no-effect levels have been defined by combining no-effect levels for various subgroups of species in the respective ecosystems. Although different tests often show major variations in sensitivity among representatives of a single species, these variations can seldom be attributed unambiguously to location-specific conditions. Contrary to the sensitivity of single species, the sensitivity of ecosystems may show important spatial dependencies, however. This is not due to sensitivity as such, but to the presence and abundance of sensitive species in given regional ecosystems: in areas lacking sensitive species, the effects of an emission will be less readily observable than in areas where such species are abundant. This phenomenon constitutes an important assumption in the critical load concepts for acidification and eutrophication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7529, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This phenomenon constitutes an important assumption in the critical load concepts for acidification and eutrophication. In the case of human toxicity it is included by taking population density into account. In the toxicity model used for calculating ecosystem no-effect levels, however, the regional presence and abundance of sensitive species has not yet been taken into account. Since dose-response relationships are seldom linear and homogeneous, the dose-response ratio is not independent of background concentrations. In regions with low background concentrations, effects may not occur, despite the presence of sensitive species. It is a matter of choice whether the purely potential effects in such \u2018below-threshold\u2019 areas are taken into account. Especially for naturally occurring substances such as minerals, which may even be benevolent in low concentrations, this choice will not always be easy to make", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7530, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Especially for naturally occurring substances such as minerals, which may even be benevolent in low concentrations, this choice will not always be easy to make. In \u2018above-threshold\u2019 areas, background concentrations determine the prevailing slope of the dose-response curve. In more refined models, this may be taken into account. The relevant degree of spatial differentiation must then also be incorporated in inventory modeling and fate modeling. 1.2.3.4 Average and marginal processes and average and marginal process data Basic concepts The basic mathematical meaning of the terms \u2018average\u2019 and \u2018marginal\u2019 is clear and is summarised below. Still, application of these inherently clear concepts may give rise to difficulties. Implied in an LCA-relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7531, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 418, "book_page": 421, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background choice is the (exogenous) change in the volume of some product, as produced by some unit process (plant, facility, etc.). How, then, can we describe the resultant changes in the other inputs and outputs of that process? Let us simplify the situation to a process producing one functional output (x, say, electricity) and that has one other flow (y, say, input of fuel). A change in the demand for electricity will induce a change in the production volume of the generation process.1 This can be considered as a shift from the reference value of x (which we denote by to the value of x implied in the choice for alternative 1 (for which we use We shall call this an incremental change", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7532, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 422, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The associated incremental change in fuel demand (y) is from to The relationship between x and y is known in economics and engineering as the production function.2 It is a result of the interplay between physics, chemistry, technology and economics.3 The relationship can be symbolised as a function f which maps any value of x onto a value of y (or the other way around). The production function is thus In general it is a non-linear function, involving many variables. We here treat the case of two variables with known relations. In the case of an incremental change of electricity demand (from to we need to calculate (from to This means we have to calculate Our general ignorance regarding the production function f already makes this calculation problematic. A second problem is that we cannot simply rewrite this equation as a function of the change in x, as say, even if f(x) is known4. There are, however, two situations which permit important simplifications to be introduced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7533, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 422, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are, however, two situations which permit important simplifications to be introduced. One is referred to as a marginal change, the other as a change for which average5 data may be appropriate. See Figure 1.2.3.4.1. If the change is fairly small (as when drawing 40 W more from an existing, large power plant), we may make a linear approximation of the non-linear production function. In that case, we use where MF is the marginal factor (the \u2018slope\u2019) for the input of fuel.6 This formulation is known as using marginal data, because the data apply to a marginal change. It has the major advantage that one value, 1 For simplicity, we concentrate here on the direct (short-term) change. In the longer term such a change will lead to changes in maintenance, replacement, investments and so on. This issue will be expanded on in a later section. 2 In line with the previous note, there exist short-term and long-term production functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7534, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 422, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This issue will be expanded on in a later section. 2 In line with the previous note, there exist short-term and long-term production functions. 3 Supply relations for inputs and demand relations for outputs are omitted from the analysis here. In combination with a given production function, these will determine the output change due to an exogenous change. 4 Only if the function f is linear through the origin or, more generally, linear and homogeneous to degree 1, can this equation be used. 5 The terminology is confusing because it differs depending on context. In economics, the relevant context here, long-term marginal cost equals the short-term average for a given technology. 6 More precisely: it is the first derivative of f with respect to x, evaluated at There is one formal requirement for this approximation: f must be differentiable, which means that it must be continuous. In practice, MF may be recorded in a database, even without full knowledge of the function f", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7535, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 422, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, MF may be recorded in a database, even without full knowledge of the function f. MF is then obtained through a small but nonzero change around the typical working point of the process.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7536, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 419, "book_page": 422, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background MF, suffices to calculate the change in fuel input for any change in electricity production, as long as that change is small enough to justify linearisation. If, on the other hand, the change is \u2018revolutionary\u2019 in the sense of resulting in a complete shut-down of a facility ora full newstart-up a different approximation may be used: where AF is the average factor for the input of fuel.1 This approach is known as using average data. Here, there is no such thing as a corresponding average change. Its name derives from the fact that at the non-closed working point, the average fuel required per unit electricity generated coincides with the average factor. Using the average factor again has the major advantage that one value, AF, suffices to calculate the change in the fuel input for any change in power production, as long as that change is \u2018revolutionary\u2019 enough to justify complete start-up or shut-down", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7537, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Different meanings of \u2018average\u2019 In the above, we introduced the term \u2018average\u2019 as a means of dealing with process data in \u2018revolutionary\u2019 changes. We did not mention it with respect to incremental or marginal changes. However, it may be argued that using marginal data for ascribing interventions to activities may introduce an element of unfairness. If a train is carrying 100 passengers, one can calculate the average power consumption per passenger. If one extra passenger enters the train, the train\u2019s power consumption will increase marginally. There are, now, two alternative principles that can be adopted for assigning power consumption to this extra passenger: A. B. the \u2018factual\u2019 approach: the marginal change in power consumption is assigned to the extra passenger, or the \u2018fair\u2019 approach: the additional power consumption is distributed evenly among all 101 passengers", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7538, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The second approach has the advantage that historical facts (such as who was the last passenger) are irrelevant: every passenger is treated the same way and is \u2018responsible\u2019 for a proportional2 amount of electricity use and associated environmental interventions. This also means that this approach is not susceptible to \u2018strategic abuse\u2019, as when someone argues that the aircraft was flying anyhow, forgetting that structural changes may be induced by occasional choices taken by many individual people.3 It also has its disadvantages, however. One problem of a practical nature is that one can envisage different methods for establishing partitioning over the one hundred passengers: based on number (every passenger on mass (with or without luggage), on share in sales (first class versus second class passengers), etc. There is a more fundamental problem, though", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7539, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is a more fundamental problem, though. To some extent, the use of averages seems to be at variance with the original idea that LCA is supposed to provide a model of what is actually happening. The short-term marginal indicates what is happening first, while the long-term marginal indicates what will ultimately happen in a steady state (where the marginal is equal to the average for a given technology). Integrating a dynamic model would cover the long and the short term, but is beyond practical operational feasibility. We choose the long-term average as the most fitting approach for structural decisions, neglecting short-term mechanisms in the detailed LCA. Such elements may be introduced in the extensions to detailed LCA, however. Whichever of the two approaches is preferred, an important lesson here is that even marginal data may be used for average (= proportional) assignment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7540, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whichever of the two approaches is preferred, an important lesson here is that even marginal data may be used for average (= proportional) assignment. Fortunately, the dichotomy between factual and fair partitioning is not important for the structural type of modeling developed here; see our recommendations at the end of this chapter. Different meanings of \u2018marginal\u2019 Next, there is the problem what exactly is on the axes. First, let it be clear that a production function is normally more than a relation between one input and one output. It may be a whole vector of inputs that 1 More precisely, in the case of start-up it is the ratio and in the case of shut-down the ratio When the non-closed working point of the production characteristic in Figure 4 is the typical working point of the unit process, the two cases start-up and shut-down will yield the same average factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7541, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is one formal requirement here: the closed working point should have coordinates (0, 0), which means real closure. A boiler that is switched on but not used still requires some energy, but a boiler that is switched off does not. We do not preclude any choice in the treatment of capital goods here. 2 This is one reason for preferring the term \u2018proportional\u2019 to \u2018average\u2019. 3 One can also avoid ethical-sounding terms like fair by stating the problem slightly differently, as a situation A with 100 passengers, with part of this total power consumption allocated to each passenger on average, and a situation B with 101 passengers, with part of total power consumption as the average allocation. However, it should be remembered that, for structural decisions like most of those examined here, installed capacity is adjusted to a chanqe in output while intended capacity use (or operating point) remains the same", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7542, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The extra passenger then requires of an extra train and the average remains the same and only situation A is relevant.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7543, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 420, "book_page": 423, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background is related to a whole vector of outputs. Some pairs of inputs or outputs may be directly coupled (as in the case of burned fuel and generated electricity), while other pairs of inputs and outputs may be related only in a longer time perspective (as in the case of replaced generators and generated electricity). A marginal change, such as the effect resulting from changing one unit, may thus be modeled with different time frames in mind. In economics, for example, the short-term marginal effect of increasing production equals the change in variable costs, as in the case of the extra petrol needed to get an extra passenger airborne each flight. In the somewhat longer run, an extra passenger will lead to extra food on board, extra cabin maintenance, etc., so the marginal costs will come to exceed the variable costs. In the still longer run, the number of flights will rise, as scheduled flights are related to percentage occupancy", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7544, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the still longer run, the number of flights will rise, as scheduled flights are related to percentage occupancy. Ultimately, extra aircraft will be built. Therefore, the marginal costs will now include those of the extra aircraft built and operated to adapt to the increased demand. For a given type of aircraft, the long-term marginal costs hence equal the short-term average costs. In the further chains, similar sequences result, leading to the opening of extra bauxite mines, extra cargo ships, etc. These long-term marginal costs, as required in LCA for structural decisions, are effectively equal to the average costs, as these reflect the costs of all fixed overheads. The lesson here is to be precise in the uniqueness of the decisions studied. In the aircraft costs example, there was a subtle change from one passenger extra once, to short-term effects of one passenger extra on each flight, to longer-term effects of one passenger extra on each flight", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7545, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Each shift means that a different operational meaning of the adjective \u2018marginal\u2019 is to be understood. Finally, we must distinguish between the marginal process and the marginal data of a process. There may be one (or more) unconstrained process(es) that can be identified as the process(es) that will be used to satisfy the extra demand for a certain product. This process is the marginal process in a process mix. Next, it can be determined how emissions, fuel requirements, etc. will change when one marginal unit of output is needed. These changes then reflect the marginal process data, in the short, medium or long term. It is perfectly possible (or it may even be necessary) to treat the marginal process using longterm average data, so the two concepts should be clearly distinguished. In change-oriented LCA, the analysis is concerned with incremental changes rather than averages", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7546, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In change-oriented LCA, the analysis is concerned with incremental changes rather than averages. However, incremental changes, like marginal changes, may coincide with average effects under the assumptions stated above. These assumptions apply in long-term modeling, as required for the analysis of structural changes. In situations where a really simple model is used, these analytic differences may disappear. With linear relations not passing through the origin, marginal and incremental effects coincide, but differ from average effects. With linear relations through the origin, marginal, incremental and average effects are all equal. Thus, in very simple models the discussion on average and marginal data may be avoided, but not the discussion on the marginal process. 1.2.3.5 Quantitative and qualitative information and notation In principle, LCA is interpreted in this report as quantitative life cycle assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7547, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2.3.5 Quantitative and qualitative information and notation In principle, LCA is interpreted in this report as quantitative life cycle assessment. The model discussed so far concerns quantifiable flows of products, materials and energy, quantifiable emissions and resource extractions, and quantifiable contributions to environmental problems. It may seem unnecessary to discuss exactly we mean by \u2018quantitative information\u2019. However, it may be rewarding to be somewhat more explicit and also to include a few words on the scope for including qualitative information. First, an example of a purely qualitative LCA. Suppose that we adhere to a dogma that says: no tropical hardwood. This would mean that tropical hardwood window frames are bad. In a life cycle context, however, it would mean that aluminium window frames are equally bad, since there will be tropical hardwood somewhere in this life cycle as well", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7548, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In a life cycle context, however, it would mean that aluminium window frames are equally bad, since there will be tropical hardwood somewhere in this life cycle as well. Perhaps the office of the accountant of the aluminium smelter has tropical hardwood window frames. Of course, the amount of tropical hardwood per functional unit of window frame is much lower for aluminium window frames than it is for those made of tropical hardwood. If we wish to take this into account \u2013 and obviously we do \u2013 we must enter the domain of quantitative analysis. We conclude that qualitative information like \u2018contains hardwood\u2019 is difficult to employ in a comparative analysis covering more than a single aspect. A more sophisticated case is the desire to include qualitative attributes of the quantified information. An example is given by comparison of tropical hardwood window frames with and without an FSC certificate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7549, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An example is given by comparison of tropical hardwood window frames with and without an FSC certificate. One could argue that this calls for a method that is capable of handling qualitative information. Better still though, we could also recognise a parallel with distinguishing between emissions of copper from mercury, and distinguish extractions of FSC-certified wood from non-certified wood. In other words, the primacy of quantitative information does not imply that we stop using language to indicate the identity of the flows modeled. Technically, every distinction within a class of flows means that these flows are regarded as different. Thus, if we distinguish certified from non-certified tropical hardwood, we actually", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7550, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 421, "book_page": 424, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background have two different flows for hardwood. Likewise, distinguishing atmospheric and aquatic releases of lead effectively yields two different flows that have the term \u2018lead\u2019 in common. And the same applies to every form of spatial and temporal differentiation. It is a matter of personal preference whether we mentally consider Iberian and Scandinavian as two different flows or as one flow that comes in two varieties. In terms of modeling, however, they are two different flows, with separate entries in data tables. The general structure for indicating quantifiable entities in any science is a tripartite one (see, for example, the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics): \u2018quantity\u2019 = \u2018value\u2019 \u00d7 \u2018unit\u2019 (not to be read as an equation), as in the temperature is 23 degrees Celsius", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7551, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We thus have the following elements: quantity: the quantifiable entity of interest, like temperature; value: the numerical magnitude, like 23; unit1: the yardstick used to express the value, like degrees Celsius. This same general structure is, in principle, applicable to the LCA model, including its input and output data. However, several remarks are in order. \u2018Quantity\u2019 is a confusing word, because it also indicates \u2018amount\u2019 (\u2018quantity of product required for the functional unit\u2019). Other terms are \u2018variable\u2019, \u2018parameter\u2019 and \u2018flow type\u2019, and, in specific contexts, \u2018observable\u2019, \u2018data\u2019, and \u2018coefficient\u2019. All these terms also have disadvantages. In the context of LCA modeling the term \u2018variable\u2019 seems to be the most appropriate. Observe that the quantity may be a simple one, like temperature or emission of but it may also be more complex, like sea temperature or emission of in Sweden", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7552, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Observe that the quantity may be a simple one, like temperature or emission of but it may also be more complex, like sea temperature or emission of in Sweden. \u2018Value\u2019 is probably an even more confusing term than \u2018quantity\u2019, because it may easily suggest a focus on economics, welfare or utility. The term \u2018numerical value\u2019 is a rather clumsy solution. \u2018Magnitude\u2019 may also indicate the type of variable rather than its size. \u2018Size\u2019 and \u2018amount\u2019 are probably more unequivocal and neutral terms. Even the term \u2018unit\u2019 is not free of contextual differentiation, as in, for instance, \u2018unit processes\u2019 and \u2018functional unit\u2019. Furthermore, \u2018units\u2019 in LCA are often used loosely. The Syst\u00e8me International des Unit\u00e9s lists basic and derived units, like kg, m and m/s", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7553, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, \u2018units\u2019 in LCA are often used loosely. The Syst\u00e8me International des Unit\u00e9s lists basic and derived units, like kg, m and m/s. In published LCAs, guidebooks and software, one often sees unconventional units, like \u2018kg/functional unit\u2019, \u2018GWP\u2019 and \u2018mPts\u2019, and units may even be lacking altogether.2 As one terminology for all the disciplines involved in LCA seems too much to ask for, we here simply state our first preference, with what appear to be relevant synonyms: Variable: Value: Unit : parameter, quantity, entity, flow type, flow amount, size (possibly magnitude) [no synonyms] Finally, variables are often abbreviated to user-defined symbols, while units are abbreviated using conventional symbols. Speed, a variable, is written as v, u, s, or some other symbol. Attributes may be indicated using other symbols, subscripts or diacritical symbols, like v versus u, versus or v versus v. It is conventional practice to italicise symbols", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7554, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Attributes may be indicated using other symbols, subscripts or diacritical symbols, like v versus u, versus or v versus v. It is conventional practice to italicise symbols. A possible unit for speed is metre per second, abbreviated to non-italic m/s. Values are not abbreviated, although the unit may be subdivided or expanded using standard prefixes, as when 1200 m is written as 1.2 km. Given the prominent usage of 1 The terms \u2018unit\u2019 and \u2018dimension\u2019 are sometimes used incorrectly as synonyms. Every quantity has a unique dimension. Speed, for instance, has the dimension length over time. Dimensions therefore provide no yardstick. Units are specific cases of yardsticks. The dimension \u2018length\u2019 can be expressed by the units meter, inch, mile and so on. Moreover, different quantities may share the same dimension. For instance, length, distance, height and thickness all have the dimension length. Finally, certain quantities can have a composite dimension with a noncomposite unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7555, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, length, distance, height and thickness all have the dimension length. Finally, certain quantities can have a composite dimension with a noncomposite unit. Energy has the dimension mass times length squared over time squared, and is usually expressed in joule (J), although the composite unit kg times square metre over square second is identical with joule. 2 What units would we recommend in these cases? \u201cKg/functional unit\u201d is sometimes seen in inventory tables for the aggregated emissions of one functional unit. Almost all calculations are about a functional unit, so adding this is superfluous, just as it is superfluous to say that a can of paint contains 0.75 litre per can. A mere \u201ckg\u201d suffices here. In the \u201cGWP\u201d example more is involved. The GWP (global warming potential; see section 4.3.5) is a quantity (or variable) and it is an inherent (or intensive) property of a substance that does not depend on the amount of substance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7556, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The GWP (global warming potential; see section 4.3.5) is a quantity (or variable) and it is an inherent (or intensive) property of a substance that does not depend on the amount of substance. One can speak of the GWP of methane, just as one can speak of the density of stone. The GWP of methane is a dimensionless 21, and the multiplication of inventory results (in kg) by their respective GWP yields a quantity that is again expressed in kg. \u201cmPts\u201d or \u201cmillipoints\u201d is a unit that is sometimes used for the weighting result after characterisation, normalisation and weighting. If characterisation yields category results in kg and normalisation totals are in kg/yr, normalisation results are in yr. Finally, if weighting factors are dimensionless, the weighting result is again in yr. If the reference flow of the functional unit is expressed in terms of \u201cfunction years\u201d, normalisation and weighting results are dimensionless.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7557, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 422, "book_page": 425, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background mathematical models for analysing environmental impacts, it seems only natural that the conventions of mathematical notation developed in physics should be adopted in LCA, too. In addition to qualitative attributes that can be regarded as part of or an attribute to the flow name, it may be the case that we have real qualitative data. An example is a unit process which is known to disperse an \u2018awful odour\u2019. If such information is not quantifiable and we wish to keep this information available throughout the LCA, we must add it to the other qualitative and quantitative aspects of the unit process, and carry it over to the inventory table and subsequent Impact assessment and Interpretation. In the example with which we opened this section (the phrase \u2018contains tropical hardwood\u2019) we showed, however, that this type of purely qualitative information is of very limited value in the course of an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7558, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 426, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.2.3.6 Reporting of LCA Reporting an LCA is an important issue. Because the methods for LCA are manifold, databases often give conflicting figures, and many choices must be made in the course of completing an LCA, the results are highly dependent upon the exact details regarding methods, data and choices. The reporting of an LCA therefore implies far more than reporting the results of the LCA. It also embraces reporting the methods used, the data used, the choices made, the procedural context in which the LCA was produced and the exact question and purpose of the LCA. In the guidelines that accompany the operational steps implemented in this Guide, reporting guidelines will be given separately for each step. Equally important, however, is that the person or persons reporting an LCA develop an awareness of certain basic principles of LCA reporting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7559, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 426, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Equally important, however, is that the person or persons reporting an LCA develop an awareness of certain basic principles of LCA reporting. ISO 14040 (1997E) clause 6 reads as follows concerning the topic of reporting requirements (see textbox): The results of the LCA shall be fairly and accurately reported to the intended audience. The type and format of the report shall be defined in the scope phase of the study. The result, data, methods, assumptions and limitation shall be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the LCA study. The report shall also allow the results and Interpretation to be used in a manner consistent with the goals of the study. When the results of the LCA are to be communicated to any third party, i.e. interested party other than commissioner or practitioner of the study, regardless of the form of communication, a third-party report shall be prepared", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7560, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 426, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "interested party other than commissioner or practitioner of the study, regardless of the form of communication, a third-party report shall be prepared. This report constitutes a reference document, and shall be made available to any third party to whom the communication is made. The third-party report shall cover the following aspects: a) general aspects: 1) LCA commissioner, practitioner of LCA (internal or external); 2) sate of report; 3) statement that the study has been conducted according to the requirements of this International Standard, b) definition of goal and scope; c) life cycle Inventory analysis: data collection and calculation procedures; d) life cycle Impact assessment: the methodology and results of the Impact assessment that was performed; e) life cycle Interpretation: 1) the results; 2) assumptions and limitations associated with the Interpretation of results, both methodology and data related; 3) data quality assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7561, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 426, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "f) critical review: 1) name and affiliation of reviewers; 2) critical review reports; 3) responses to recommendations. For comparative assertions, the following issues shall also be addressed by the report: analysis of material flows to justify their inclusion or exclusion; assessment of the precision, completeness and representativeness of data used; description of the equivalence of the systems being compared in accordance with 5.1.2.4; description of the critical review process. Source: ISO 14040, 1997.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7562, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 423, "book_page": 426, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Lindfors et al. (1995a) and the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Case studies (Meier et al., 1997) give additional material for basic and specific guidelines for reporting. As general principles, we propose the following guidelines: The results of the LCA shall be fairly and accurately reported to the intended audience. The type and format of the report shall be defined in the scope phase of the study. The result, data, methods, assumptions and limitation shall be transparent and presented in sufficient detail to allow the reader to comprehend the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the LCA study. The report shall also allow the results and Interpretation to be used in a manner consistent with the goals of the study. When the results of the LCA are to be communicated to any third party, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7563, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The report shall also allow the results and Interpretation to be used in a manner consistent with the goals of the study. When the results of the LCA are to be communicated to any third party, i.e. interested party other than the commissioner or practitioner of the study or to the expert reviewer, regardless of the form of communication, a third-party report shall be prepared. This report constitutes a reference document, and shall be made available to any third party. A third-party Goal and scope report and a third-party Final report are mandatory for detailed LCA. For simplified LCA, only a Final report is mandatory; it is recommended that this Final report also conforms to the guidelines for third-party reports given below. The terminology used in the report shall be consistent with the ISO 14040 series. Other terms used shall be detailed and defined and used consistently throughout the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7564, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The terminology used in the report shall be consistent with the ISO 14040 series. Other terms used shall be detailed and defined and used consistently throughout the study. If, in principle, the LCA study undertaken conforms to the guidelines given in this document, any deviations from the guidelines provided shall be specifically documented and justified fairly and transparently. For each LCA phase and step, all assumptions and value judgements shall be clearly detailed, along with the justification for these assumptions. Since in this report some steps are named and sequenced a little differently from the ISO standards (see Chapter 1), the ISO reporting issues have not been adopted unaltered. All the ISO issues are covered, however, in the reporting guidelines given above. Furthermore, where possible and useful the ISO guidelines have been made more explicit, based on the guidelines provided by Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Meier et al. (1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7565, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, where possible and useful the ISO guidelines have been made more explicit, based on the guidelines provided by Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Meier et al. (1997). A distinction is made here between reports and reporting issues. Two main reports are distinguished: the Goal and scope report and the Final report. There is a relation between reports and issues to be reported, of course. For example, if it is decided to also draft an Inventory and/or Impact assessment report, all issues should be reported concerning that phase and the preceding phases. For a Goal and scope report, however, a different list of reporting issues holds. The reason for this is that in the Goal and scope phase of a study, the study results are not yet available and so cannot be discussed, evaluated, etc. In contrast, the initial choices and assumptions proposed can be reported and discussed at an early stage of the study with the commissioner and third parties, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7566, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In contrast, the initial choices and assumptions proposed can be reported and discussed at an early stage of the study with the commissioner and third parties, i.e. interested parties and/or expert reviewer. A Goal and scope report is particularly recommended for detailed LCA studies, since one main characteristic of detailed LCA studies is that some kind of critical review is made for which a third-party report is necessary and in which case it is useful to discuss the main choices and assumptions at an early stage of the study. By allowing comments at an early stage, the LCA study may get off to a more efficient and smoother start. The resulting Goal and scope report may be used as the basis for the Final report. Of course, modifications made to the former report during the course of the study should be duly documented and justified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7567, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Of course, modifications made to the former report during the course of the study should be duly documented and justified. When a full description of all methodological issues is provided in the Goal and scope report, consideration may be given to reporting only the results in the chapter of the Final report on Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. In the Goal and scope report the practitioner can justify the choices and assumptions made for each step by basically referring to the Guidelines given in this report or explaining why and how (s)he has deviated from these Guidelines. Thus, the goal and scope report can be a short report referring to the Guidelines as defined in this Guide, or a more extensive report explaining why and how other choices and assumptions (including extensions) have been made. On the one hand, extensions can be made to the detailed Guidelines. On the other hand, even the Guidelines for simplified LCA can be further simplified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7568, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the one hand, extensions can be made to the detailed Guidelines. On the other hand, even the Guidelines for simplified LCA can be further simplified. However, it should then be clearly documented if and how these further simplifications are to be justified in relation to the goal of the study. For simplified LCA we recommend not writing a specific report as part of the Goal and Scope definition phase. In a simplified LCA only a Final report should be written.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7569, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 424, "book_page": 427, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 1.2.3.7 Software for LCA Scientific endeavours to develop a method for LCA lead to calculation procedures involving a vast multitude of input data. Today it is not unusual to find 500 unit processes, 600 economic flows and 1000 environmental flows in a typical LCA. Clearly, such an analysis cannot be undertaken by hand and calculations must therefore be run on computers. There are three ways to use computers: One can use a general, i.e. non-LCA-dedicated program such as a spreadsheet. This has certain advantages: most (potential) practitioners already know how to work with these programs, they are quite flexible in manipulating data and they provide easy access to graphical presentations. On the other hand, the open and flexible nature of these programs make them rather inefficient for this particular purpose: the user must in fact himself create all the links between flows and processes and the same applies to the computational algorithms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7570, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 428, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One can also use a dedicated LCA program. There are several dozen such programs available, ranging in price from free to many thousands of euros and in scope from very basic to quite advanced. Many commercial programs are shipped with a database of process data and/or Impact assessment data. A clear disadvantage of commercial software is that the user has no capacity to perform analyses deviating, however slightly, from those that are part of the program. Some programs cannot deal with allocation, while others can handle one allocation method only. There is currently no program available that provides for full implementation of all the methods specified in this Guide. As a compromise between the flexibility of spreadsheets and the power of dedicated programs, a practitioner may decide to develop his own LCA software. This is a major task. This is clearly not an option to be recommended as standard practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7571, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 428, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is a major task. This is clearly not an option to be recommended as standard practice. For the occasional practitioner dealing with very small product systems (say, less than 20 unit processes) we tend to recommend the use of spreadsheets. As product systems grow or if detailed analyses are required, including sensitivity and uncertainty analyses, for instance, the use of commercial software is advisable. We refer to Rice (1996), Rice et al. (1997), Menke et al. (1996) and Siegenthaler et al. (1997) for an overview of the programs then available1. 1.3 Management of LCA projects: procedures 1.3.1 Introduction In principle, an LCA is an analytical activity that should be performed by independent experts. However, LCA projects also generally involve using the analytical results within a policy or strategy framework, as is the case with the majority of LCA studies conducted or commissioned by public authorities or private companies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7572, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 428, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In these cases the results of the LCA will have an influence on government or corporate decision-making and we then speak of mandated science: a scientific, analytical activity is performed for which a mandate has been given, and the outcome may steer decision-making. Authoritativeness of results ISO 14040 defines an interested party as \u201can individual or group concerned about or affected by the environmental performance of a product system or by the results of an LCA\u201d. While retaining this definition, in this Guide we generally employ the shorter synonym \u2018stakeholder\u2019. Three groups of environmental stakeholders are usually recognised: political (national, international legislators), public (press/media, local environmental initiatives and consumer and environmental organisations) and market (competitors, customers, suppliers and financial institutions)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7573, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 428, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When LCA is applied as mandated science problems of authoritativeness often arise, that is to say: the outcome of the LCA may not always be accepted by all the stakeholders in the policy or strategy. The upshot will be clear: if the outcome if not accepted, the LCA will be of no influence on decision-making. Problems of authoritativeness may arise for one of three reasons: the actual results of the LCA may be debatable, owing to dubious assumptions, data and/or system boundaries being used, for example; 1 A program that is intended mainly for educational purposes has been developed at CML. It can be downloaded, for educational purposes for free, at: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca .", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7574, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 425, "book_page": 428, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background there may be a misfit between the LCA results and other considerations pertinent to decision-making (safety, cost-effectiveness, etc.); the policy/strategy setting often involves many different parties representing differing interests. In such cases, parties will endeavour to magnify the above objections, for reasons of strategy as well as substance. Conducting LCAs in accordance with ISO standards If an LCA project is performed according to ISO standards, this means not only that the LCA itself will be methodically structured but also that certain aspects of the LCA process will be established beforehand. There are two important issues here. First, the ISO standards lay down (quality) criteria for the design and execution of the LCA as such as well as for the reporting of results, data, methods, assumptions and limitations. Second, the ISO standards outline a procedure for a \u2018critical review\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7575, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 429, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Second, the ISO standards outline a procedure for a \u2018critical review\u2019. In general terms, the ISO standards deem a critical review optional and indicate that use can be made of different review options. If the LCA results are used to support \u2018comparative assertions\u2019 a critical review is mandatory (\"since this application is likely to affect interested parties that are external to the LCA study\") according to \u00a7 7.2 of ISO 14040. In cases involving \u201ca comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public\u201d a \u201creview by interested parties\u201d is required under ISO 14040 (clause 5.1). For the sake of clarity, we here define several other key terms used in this Guide. An \u2018LCA study\u2019 is an environmental study in which LCA methodology is employed, performed by practitioners who may or may not be affiliated to the party or parties commissioning the study. An \u2018LCA project\u2018 is a project that seeks to obtain particular results by means of an LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7576, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 429, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An \u2018LCA project\u2018 is a project that seeks to obtain particular results by means of an LCA study. Besides commissioning parties and practitioners, the project may also involve other organizations and individuals, in the capacity of data supplier, peer reviewer or interest group, for example. An \u2018LCA process\u2019 is the integral series of exchanges among the individuals and organisations participating in an LCA project, from project initiation and guidance through to interpretation and discussion of the results. Use of a process approach Against this background, LCA-based decision-making can be seen as a process designed to involve all relevant stakeholders, which may take a variety of forms. This implies a need to elaborate a process approach, with the process being designed as appropriately as possible for the specific nature of this kind of decision-making and the various specific situations that may be involved. If a process approach is successfully implemented, the process result (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7577, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 429, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If a process approach is successfully implemented, the process result (i.e. the outcome of such an approach) will show a number of characteristics. In the first place, there will be due support for process result. Having exerted an influence on the results, the various stakeholders will often come to hold different (\u2018richer\u2019) views. Second, the process result will be substantially robust. That is to say: the outcome will be scientifically so well underpinned as to stand up to criticism. The stakeholders will have contributed their know-how and information and enriched the results with their knowledge and values, with due allowance being made as far as possible for the dynamics of new developments, innovation and so on. Third, the process will have been fair. All the stakeholders will have been able to contribute their problem definitions and solutions. These will all have been taken into due consideration in the decision-making process and a decision ultimately reached", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7578, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 429, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These will all have been taken into due consideration in the decision-making process and a decision ultimately reached. This process will have been transparent, allowing it to be validated by all parties.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7579, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 426, "book_page": 429, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Together, (1) support for a (2) substantially robust result after (3) a fair process may be sufficient to ensure that there is consensus among the stakeholders. In many cases, though, the interests of the stakeholders may differ so widely that consensus cannot reasonably be expected. A process may then well result in commitment to a particular product. Parties expressing commitment declare that they: commit themselves to the product of a process; perhaps distance themselves from certain elements of that product; are prepared to vouch for the product. 1.3.2 Decision-making based on a process approach The philosophy behind the process approach is that the outcome of a LCA will be authoritative only if the principal parties are duly involved in this analysis. This involvement should be structured in an orderly fashion and a process design is consequently essential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7580, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 430, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This involvement should be structured in an orderly fashion and a process design is consequently essential. This design should indicate: which parties (singular or plural) are to be involved in the analysis; at which points in the decision-making process these parties may exert their influence; how to proceed at such points in the process. Advantages In brief, the principal arguments in favour of a process approach are as follows: I. II. III. IV. V. Support Successful execution of an LCA requires the support of the stakeholders, and if they are to stand behind the outcome of the analysis they must be duly involved in the analysis process. Quality of data and other information The stakeholders can also make an important contribution to the quality of the information used to perform the LCA, for they dispose over factual data and other information (based on such data), in the form of data and know-how on recent and expected innovations, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7581, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 430, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Quality of the analysis Critical interrogation by stakeholders vis-\u00e0-vis the study and its outcome will bring into clear view the underlying values, the choices (regarding data and assumptions) made, and which results are robust and authoritative and which do not satisfy these criteria. Validation of stakeholder views and assumptions Conversely, in their meetings with researchers the stakeholders will have to expound on their own views and assumptions, some of which may not stand up to the scrutiny of scientific criticism. \u2018Enrichment\u2019 The stakeholders involved in the analysis will often be representing different interests. Confrontations between these interests may lead to enrichment: a mutual learning process. Basic preconditions If a process approach is to have any chance of success, three basic preconditions must be satisfied: Condition 1: Condition 2: There must be a sense of urgency. A process design demands a sense of urgency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7582, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 430, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A process design demands a sense of urgency. The stakeholders must, in other words, be convinced that: there is a problematic situation1 that must be resolved as a matter of priority; an LCA can help resolve this problematic situation; the stakeholders must somehow collaborate on designing the LCA. If these three conditions are not fulfilled, the process will have little chance of succeeding, for nobody will be prepared to commit themselves to a decisionmaking process. Phenomena like the \u2018participation paradox\u2019 as well as limited participation at the outset of the process (see Section 1.3.4) are especially likely if there is little sense of urgency. There is then a high major risk of the process breaking down. Stakeholders must be willing to commit themselves to a process design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7583, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 430, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is then a high major risk of the process breaking down. Stakeholders must be willing to commit themselves to a process design. It is important that the basic process agreements between parties are explicitly recorded in a process design, making clear which organisations may participate 1 The stakeholders may well, at the outset, have different perceptions of the problem. What matters, though, is that all parties see the need to arrive at a collective approach and decision.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7584, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 427, "book_page": 430, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background in the process, who are to represent them, what mandate these representatives are to have, and what rules of decision-making and what (substantial, financial) constraints are to hold. Although this may seem trivial, experience shows that process management is frequently implicit: talks are held with stakeholders, without a process design being properly thought out and elaborated in concreto. The transparency and integrity of the process may consequently suffer. Parties may be drawn into the process too late, be unclear about the status of the talks and how their contribution is reflected in the end result, have the impression that other parties are exerting undue influence, and so on. If there is a lack of transparency and/or integrity, a process may become \u2018messy\u2019 in the eyes of the participants and/or not give them a fair chance to influence the outcome. It will be clear that this will discredit the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7585, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It will be clear that this will discredit the process. The process design can be drawn up by a process architect, in due consultation with all the stakeholders. Once the latter have approved the design, the process can be steered and guided by a so-called process manager. A number of topics described in the following sections under \u2018process items\u2019 derive from this fundamental precondition. Condition 3: All process participants must possess a minimum level of substantial expertise. A third basic condition is that the representatives of the parties must be in possession of a minimum level of knowledge and expertise on LCAs. If this is not the case, pronounced asymmetry may arise among process participants, which frequently leads to the process breaking down. The mere fact that participants lacking due expertise will need to go through a learning process during the LCA process confirms this risk: the process will become unnecessarily protracted and consequently vulnerable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7586, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1.3.3 Designing the decision-making process The first thing to remember when designing a decision-making process is that a process approach in a situation of mandated science involves certain risks. A number of such risks can be identified and for these due allowance should be made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7587, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "stakeholders will have access to knowledge regarding project progress and may make opportunistic use of interim and final results; if the LCA results threaten to be unfavourable from their perspective, stakeholders may so accelerate or procrastinate decision-making that a misfit ensues (substantive, analytical results arrive too soon or too late); researchers have access to information about the progress of the decision-making process and may upset this process by publicising their opinions, incomplete (\u2018quick and dirty\u2019) research results, and so on; if the study results threaten to be unfavourable from their perspective, researchers, too, may so accelerate or procrastinate decision-making that a misfit ensues; at the very least, the stakeholders may be accused of taking a decision that is inadequately grounded in the research undertaken; stakeholders and researchers may be so concerned about reaching consensus that the quality of the LCA suffers as a result", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7588, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These risks are a clear indication that an explicit process design is a sine qua non for a successful process-type LCA, for it allows appropriate measures to be taken to limit the risks inherent in such a process. Focus on execution and use of the LCA In the second place it should be recognised that fair LCA-based decision-making requires that due allowance be made for how the LCA is conducted and how the analysis results are utilised by the various stakeholders. On the one hand, this relates to the actual analysis based on the LCA methodology. In this respect, the main aim of the process approach is to make sure the analysis is of sufficiently high quality and the results sufficiently authoritative for all the stakeholders. On the other hand, it relates to the practical implications of the analysis results, in the form of corporate or public decision-making, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7589, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, it relates to the practical implications of the analysis results, in the form of corporate or public decision-making, for example. In this respect, the process should be designed such that due justice is done to the analysis results in the corporate or public decision-making setting in question. This implies that the process design must cover more than merely the methodological rigour of the LCA project. For a process design to work", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7590, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 428, "book_page": 431, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background satisfactorily there must also be optimum interaction between project execution as such and the intended practical use of the analysis results. Matching the process goal Thirdly, the process must be designed in accordance with the goal. The reasons for conducting an LCA differ from case to case. For example, a company may perform or commission an LCA in order to decide - internally - what kind of new product is preferable from an environmental perspective, or to provide public accountability for the environmental burden caused by a current product. Alternatively, it may be a government commissioning or conducting an LCA, for any number of reasons. The study may serve to decide - internally - what kind of new policies are preferable from an environmental perspective, or to provide public accountability for (proposed) policies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7591, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 432, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The study may serve to decide - internally - what kind of new policies are preferable from an environmental perspective, or to provide public accountability for (proposed) policies. The motives for undertaking the LCA will determine the scope and substance of the decisions based on the LCA results (product development, policy development and implementation, accountability). It goes without saying that the potential scope of the LCA-based decision should constitute a major determining factor vis-\u00e0-vis the intensity of participation in the decision-making process by the various stakeholders. Interests Finally, it should be stressed that LCA-based decision-making may involve a substantial variety of domestic as well as foreign players with commercial, public or \u2018idealistic\u2019 interests. These may be the interests of the companies or government agencies commissioning the LCA (henceforth \u2018commissioners\u2019), third-party interests or the international legal and economic context", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7592, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 432, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These may be the interests of the companies or government agencies commissioning the LCA (henceforth \u2018commissioners\u2019), third-party interests or the international legal and economic context. The decisionmaking process should therefore be designed such that none of the relevant parties can be overlooked, to avoid implementation of inappropriate environmental measures, assertion of improper environmental claims and debatable competitive advantages. Based on our own experience in a variety of practical contexts and on information on other cases, we have undertaken a careful review of LCA-based decision-making, giving particular attention to the procedural embedding of LCA projects and subsequent processes. In doing so, we have focused on the kinds of situations arising in both the public and the corporate decision-making context. We have found that LCA-based decision-making is often embedded in a standing procedural framework, statutory or otherwise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7593, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 432, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We have found that LCA-based decision-making is often embedded in a standing procedural framework, statutory or otherwise. In a number of cases this was a broader procedural context explicitly allowing for possible execution of LCAs (Dutch Voluntary Agreement on Packaging, \u2018Eco-label\u2019). In other instances, such as LCAs performed as part of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures, this was not the case. In this report we do not reflect on the diversity of practical cases as such, but focus directly on the results of that reflection process. Against this background, the following sections present a number of general insights regarding those process aspects that have proved most relevant. With regard to the procedural embedding of LCA studies, we here distinguish a total of 15 dominant process characteristics (items), divided over four process aspects. For each process item one or more potential bottlenecks are identified, based on experience and theoretical understanding", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7594, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 432, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For each process item one or more potential bottlenecks are identified, based on experience and theoretical understanding. Due attention should be given to these bottlenecks, by anticipating the problems that are likely to arise.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7595, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 429, "book_page": 432, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background I. Implementation of LCA tasks process item 1 Overall process management process item 2 Role and duties of the process manager process item 3 Role and duties of the LCA practitioner process item 4 Role and duties of the reviewer(s) II. Representation of interests process item 5 Selection of process participants process item 6 Structures and interests to be respected process item 7 Participation process item 8 Commitment III. Process progress process item 9 Balance between content and process process item 10 Balance between speed and thoroughness process item 11 Outside influences process item 12 Honouring input IV", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7596, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 433, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process progress process item 9 Balance between content and process process item 10 Balance between speed and thoroughness process item 11 Outside influences process item 12 Honouring input IV. Process outcome process item 13 Clarity of purpose process item 14 Relation between LCA findings and process conclusions process item 15 Relation between process conclusions and implementation 1.3.4 Implementation of LCA tasks Satisfactory execution of the numerous activities involved in an LCA project requires a clearly delineated assignment of tasks among the various parties and tight overall management of responsibilities. Process item 1: Overall process management In most cases an LCA will not be executed by the initiating party but by one or more specialists, commissioned by one or more stakeholders. This may take a number of forms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7597, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 433, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This may take a number of forms. The simplest configuration involves a single person representing a company or organisation - with a clearly defined purpose - and fulfilling the role of commissioner as well as overall process manager. If there are several parties involved and it is deemed desirable to give the various parties a fair chance of making an optimum contribution and the contracting (i.e. paying) party or parties are also willing to provide that opportunity, the role of \u2018commissioner\u2019 may be shouldered jointly by the full compliment of stakeholders. In such cases responsibility for overall project management is assigned to an independent process manager. In practice, of course, there will be numerous variations between these two extremes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7598, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 433, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In such cases responsibility for overall project management is assigned to an independent process manager. In practice, of course, there will be numerous variations between these two extremes. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the commissioning party or parties have insufficient LCA know-how prior to their formulating the LCA assignment; the supervisory committees set up by the commissioners have an inadequate decision-making framework; this is particularly relevant when the commissioners have conflicting interests; financial responsibility for the LCA contract is undivorced from responsibility for overall project management.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7599, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 430, "book_page": 433, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Process item 2: Role and duties of the process manager To ensure optimum project progress and stakeholder involvement a process manager may be appointed. A process manager may in principle fulfil any number of duties, with a strong emphasis on substance or purely process-oriented, on behalf of a commissioning party or entirely independent, purely as a mediator or simultaneously managerial and directive. If there is ambiguity in this area or if roles and duties are interpreted differently by various parties to the process, the status of the process manager may suffer and with it the status of the process itself", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7600, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the role and duties of the process manager are not clearly delineated prior to the start of the process; inadequate attention is paid to communicating the process manager\u2019s specific role and duties to all process participants; there is insufficient scope for assessing the process manager\u2019s performance in the various stages of the process. Process item 3: Role and duties of the LCA practitioner The task of the person(s) and/or organisation executing the LCA (the \u2018LCA practitioner\u2019) is to perform all the activities necessary to deliver the end product agreed to in the relevant contract. Generally speaking, this end product will take the form of an LCA quantifying the environmental profile of one or more product systems. It has been found in practice that an LCA often takes longer to perform than schedules permit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7601, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It has been found in practice that an LCA often takes longer to perform than schedules permit. Interim revision of the contract is not unusual, particularly in the case of LCAs for use in comparative, public reviews. A well-conducted LCA does not automatically lead to a good process result (through lack of consensus or commitment, for example). Conversely, an LCA deficient in substance may be blamed - rightly or wrongly - on a problematic process. On this playing field a conflict may arise between the interests of the party executing the LCA and the best interests of the process. Another possible area of tension concerns the relation between the LCA practitioner on the one hand and the commissioning party and other stakeholders on the other. In the case of LCA-related conflict among stakeholders it may be the task of the LCA practitioner to expose fallacious thinking, signal inconsistencies and employ sensitivity analysis to quantify the effects of different assumptions, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7602, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In situations like these due care should be taken, however, to ensure that the LCA practitioner shows no \u2018bias\u2019. One thing that must be avoided, for instance, is that the interests of the commissioning party lead to the product systems under study being modeled to respect considerations of corporate strategy rather than the system requirements specified. (In an assessment of possible future strategies, disagreeable product systems could conceivably be torpedoed through adoption of unfavourable assumptions regarding service life (short), resource consumption (high, polluting) and transport and cleaning processes (polluting).) In such cases the LCA practitioner can all too easily become party to a conflict regarding system boundaries and assumptions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7603, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the LCA practitioner has not reflected sufficiently on the admissibility of the project terms and constraints as specified by the commissioning party; there is insufficient, diffuse regard for the role and responsibilities of the LCA practitioner in terms of both the LCA results and the overall process result; the LCA practitioner is insufficiently perceptive of the interests at stake and the conscientiousness this role demands; the LCA practitioner adopts an insufficiently independent stance, thus compromising the objectivity of the process. Process item 4: Role and duties of the reviewer(s) The aim of a (critical) review is to verify that an LCA study satisfies the set criteria with respect to such issues as methodology, system modeling, data selection and reporting mode", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7604, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If LCA-based decisionmaking is to be worthwhile, it is of the greatest importance that one or more rigorous reviews be carried out. This is illustrated by the inclusion in ISO 14040 of background considerations and process criteria with regard to such reviews.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7605, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 431, "book_page": 434, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the independent status of the critical review and/or panel review within the decision-making process is not guaranteed; review duties are undermined because the status of the review(s) in the overall process is unclear (in terms of planning, for example); there is no explicit distinction between the advisory and evaluatory responsibilities of the critical reviewer(s) and/or panel; there are no clear arrangements regarding the relationship between critical reviewer and panel duties and reporting by these parties; there is insufficient clarity regarding the scope of the scheduled review reports and any constraints imposed on the review, either prior to or during the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7606, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 435, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Representation of interests To ensure that decision-making is sufficiently transparent, it is essential that all relevant parties be involved in the decision-making process and that these parties can be confident that their interests are addressed as satisfactorily as possible within the adopted framework of the process. Process item 5: Selection of process participants It is of the utmost importance that the circle of participants engaged in the process be sufficiently wide. Although there may be an understandable urge to move forward, every endeavour should be made to avoid exclusion of relevant stakeholders and the loss of authoritativeness with which this is likely to be associated. In this context it should be borne in mind that those representing the parties involved must have sufficient \u2018commitment power\u2019. Those being represented should consider themselves sufficiently bound to the outcome of the process. Another point meriting due attention is balanced representation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7607, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 435, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Those being represented should consider themselves sufficiently bound to the outcome of the process. Another point meriting due attention is balanced representation. \u2018Impassioned\u2019 parties for whom the stakes are high will send a relatively heavy delegation with plenty of time and know-how, while less impassioned parties will send lighter-weight representatives. This may upset the symmetry of the process and complicate overall progress. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: inadequate prior consideration is given to the required breadth of representation, with no proper inventory of stakeholders; the stakeholder representatives recruited have insufficient commitment power; representation is unbalanced (inequality, asymmetry); process participants lack sufficient basic knowledge regarding LCA and the product systems under study; this is particularly important in the Goal and scope definition phase of the LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7608, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 435, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process item 6: Structures and interests to be respected A process may sometimes be structured in such a way that the issues at stake coincide with the vital interests of (some of) the parties involved. Jeopardisation of these interests may then disrupt the entire process. Companies often state that they are willing to participate in a process only on condition that sensitive corporate information need not be made available to other parties (or only confidentially). The core interest of many public interest groups is to fulfil their role as moulders of opinion. Consequently, they are not likely to take part in a process if this involves their not being allowed to publicise their positions in any way. Politicians, administrators and their representatives bear political responsibility and this is the key interest that they represent. LCA processes may not be designed such that this political accountability to representational bodies is compromised", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7609, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 435, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA processes may not be designed such that this political accountability to representational bodies is compromised. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: there is excessive discussion, prior to as well as during the process, about secrecy arrangements, through aversion to confidentiality on the one hand and insufficient explicit detailing and limitation of the scope of confidentiality on the other; 1.3.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7610, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 432, "book_page": 435, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background prior to the process, there is insufficient detailing of how maximum freedom of action for all parties to the process is to be guaranteed, at the same time ensuring the least damage to the process as such; the primacy of the political domain is inadequately respected, while the commitment of political representatives is rendered insufficiently explicit; there are deficiencies in the organisational structure linking the process participants/representatives to their \u2018constituency\u2019. Process item 7: Participation It is a well-known fact that at the outset of a process some parties take only a limited interest in the proceedings. The main reason is that it is not yet sufficiently clear to these parties what turn the process will take. Time and money must be invested in participation in a process whose outcome is still unclear", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7611, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Time and money must be invested in participation in a process whose outcome is still unclear. These actors therefore are insufficient motivated to participate in the process, even though they have every opportunity to influence the decision-making process. In the final stages of the process the picture is reversed. Certain actors will be particularly interested in continued participation, for the products of the process are becoming clearer all the time. At the same time the most important decisions will already have been taken, and the potential for influencing the process will be restricted accordingly. In short, there is major scope for influencing the decision-making process at its outset when participation is low, and far less scope for influence when participation is high. Another phenomenon that deserves mention is the so-called \u2018participation paradox\u2019. The aim of suitably broad-based participation is to improve the quality and support base of the decisions to be made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7612, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The aim of suitably broad-based participation is to improve the quality and support base of the decisions to be made. The paradox is that participation may have the opposite effect. Using the knowledge they have gained by participation in the process, parties are in a better position to oppose the decisions made once it is over. If they had acquiesced to a process outcome they were later to oppose, the party concerned might be accused of opportunistic conduct. For precisely this reason it might then be more appealing for the party to withdraw from the process before its termination", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7613, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For precisely this reason it might then be more appealing for the party to withdraw from the process before its termination. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: there is a lack of explicit prior commitment by the process participants; there is insufficiently rigorous implementation of the agreed rules of play; there is insufficient encouragement of input from hesitant participants in the preliminary and initial phases of the project; some participants exert a disproportionate influence in the final project phase, thereby prompting undue reiteration of already finalised process elements; participants are replaced by heavier \u2018fresh\u2019 delegates and use made of \u2018fully functional\u2019 deputies. Process item 8: Commitment The best way to guarantee participants\u2019 commitment to the process is to ensure they have confidence in its outcome", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7614, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process item 8: Commitment The best way to guarantee participants\u2019 commitment to the process is to ensure they have confidence in its outcome. To ensure participants feel sufficiently comfortable it is essential that their respective positions be duly protected. On the one hand, this has implications for process design: vital interests must be respected (cf. process item 6), while potential conflicts can be anticipated through wise design of the process structure. On the other hand, measures should be taken to limit the pressure exerted on parties during the process. In this respect it is important to provide due scope for postponing commitment wherever possible. It is not always wise to ask parties to commit themselves to all kinds of subsidiary decisions early in the process. Due allowance should be made for the complexity of LCAs: matters that at first seem crucial may later transpire to be mere details, while details may later prove quintessential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7615, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Due allowance should be made for the complexity of LCAs: matters that at first seem crucial may later transpire to be mere details, while details may later prove quintessential. Ultimately, commitment to the final outcome of the LCA and the associated process is only possible on the basis of due insight and understanding. In practice this means that participants must undergo a learning process vis-\u00e0-vis LCA execution or the product systems being analysed, or both. Learning processes may be hampered if commitments are to be made at an early stage of the proceedings. In this respect it should always be remembered that the LCA process can only serve as a learning process for participants if the didactics are not overly disturbed by apprehension about unforeseen consequences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7616, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: participants\u2019 knowledge and understanding on LCA execution and the product systems under analysis consistently lags behind; participants are insufficiently motivated to develop a consistent picture in terms of content;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7617, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 433, "book_page": 436, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background \u2019binding\u2019 decisions are scheduled too early in the process. 1.3.6 Progress of the decision-making process A process geared towards LCA-based decision-making can take a variety of different forms and the rate of progress will be determined in no small measure by how this process is designed. Process item 9: Balance between content and process The balance between content and process may be upset in two ways: 1. 2. \u2018Process drives out content\u2019: parties may be so focused on consensus that issues of substance are insufficiently addressed. 'Content drives out process': parties are overconcerned with details of substance that are irrelevant for achieving consensus", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7618, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "'Content drives out process': parties are overconcerned with details of substance that are irrelevant for achieving consensus. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: there is too much focus on consensus and too little in-depth treatment of substance; there is too much focus on content, although this has little or no relevance for the final process outcome; participants shy away from real differences and conflicts and lose themselves in detail; participants \u2018take refuge\u2019 from the content in the process, because they are insufficiently knowledgeable at the outset of the process, for example; participants \u2018take refuge\u2019 from the process in the content, embarking on unnecessarily detailed descriptions to gain time, for example. Process item 10: Balance between speed and thoroughness Much criticism of the process approach is grounded in the view that processes are slow and cost too much time to work through", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7619, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process item 10: Balance between speed and thoroughness Much criticism of the process approach is grounded in the view that processes are slow and cost too much time to work through. Due consultation of all the relevant stakeholders is a time-consuming process. As the process moves forward, parties moreover often learn a lot about their own conceptions and views, which become less secure as a result. This, too, may in turn affect the speed of the decisionmaking process. It is also true that LCA-based decision-making processes have often overshot their schedules, owing either to insufficient experience with LCA or underestimation of the complexity of the product systems and interests at stake. There is not always a willingness to accept \u2018lost time\u2019 for the sake of better-quality decision-making. Time considerations may, for example, tempt participants to focus early on in the process on certain issues or certain solutions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7620, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Time considerations may, for example, tempt participants to focus early on in the process on certain issues or certain solutions. One consequence of this may be inadequate coverage of the full range of issues and potential solutions (cf. process item 13). This may threaten the authoritativeness of the process, certain parties claiming that particular options were not addressed during the process, thus rendering the outcome of the process debatable a priori", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7621, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the desired quality of the LCA is not properly established at the outset, in terms of either content or process, nor is proper attention given to the possible implications of this for the project duration (this does not exclude the possibility of participants learning together during the process and subsequently reviewing quality criteria and schedules); there are deficiencies regarding one or more of the following points: adequate preliminary across-the-board consideration of relevant issues by all participants; collective agreement on and elaboration of the approach to be followed; appropriate detailing of process planning; ditto monitoring of progress; (this form of process design should not be too rigidly interpreted) during the process there is too little reflective evaluation vis-\u00e0-vis speed and thoroughness; there is inadequate scope for postponing the decision(s) if new insights", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7622, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "not be too rigidly interpreted) during the process there is too little reflective evaluation vis-\u00e0-vis speed and thoroughness; there is inadequate scope for postponing the decision(s) if new insights arise or parties learn from the process;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7623, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 434, "book_page": 437, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background there is insufficient consultation about and explicit reformulation of de facto revisions regarding quality criteria and/or completion date. Process item 11: Outside influences Even if the circle of participants has been cast sufficiently wide - against the backdrop of the process goal - there are often (external) parties with a different kind of interest in the outcome of the process. The process may then be affected by outside influences, i.e. influences from the wider process context. The outcome of an LCA project may, after all, extend beyond the environmental profile of a given product system. A new contribution may have been made to methodology, for example, there may be improved understanding of the (market) operation of a product system and/or product chain, or a new basis of comparison for other process results, etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7624, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 438, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the outside world, as well as for certain process participants, it may be very important to give these aspects of the project specific status as subsidiary goals. All this means additional risks as well as opportunities with respect to the success of the project. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: insufficient use is made of the advantages arising from the fact that process participants and outsiders recognise subsidiary process goals of greater or lesser importance; insufficient action is taken to combat the drawbacks arising from the fact that process participants and outsiders recognise subsidiary process goals of greater or lesser importance. Process item 12: Honouring input In principle, LCA-based decision-making should run its course as an open and transparent process. All the parties involved must be able to contribute their views and see them sufficiently honoured", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7625, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 438, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "All the parties involved must be able to contribute their views and see them sufficiently honoured. Some parties may also consider the process as a kind of trap, however: by participating in the process they become committed to its outcome, without having been able to make any contribution of substance. Perceptions of this nature will be manifested differently by each of the various parties. A different or additional problem may occur if there is too great a discrepancy between the actual process results and the actual value of the LCA results, on the one hand, and the impressions gained by the world outside. If some parties see their views reasonably well honoured but are meanwhile confronted with exaggerated \u2019image-building\u2019 efforts by other parties, they may be prompted to withdraw. This is particularly relevant when public relations departments gloss over or disregard participants\u2019 comments on the value of the LCA results and/or process results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7626, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 438, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is particularly relevant when public relations departments gloss over or disregard participants\u2019 comments on the value of the LCA results and/or process results. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: there is unfounded 'image-building' based on provisional/anticipated LCA and process results; there is insufficient respect for the wishes of some parties that announcement of provisional/anticipated LCA and process results should be accompanied by these parties\u2019 comments; there is no prior establishment of one or more opportunities for interim evaluation during which participants have an option to withdraw (giving their reasons for doing so). 1.3.7 Process outcome In the LCA-based decision-making context a distinction should be made between an LCA result, the process conclusion and the process result. An LCA result is the sum total of results yielded by a life cycle analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7627, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 438, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An LCA result is the sum total of results yielded by a life cycle analysis. The process conclusion is the conclusion drawn about a problem identified prior to the start of the project, motivated by an LCA result, or after comparison of one or more LCA results. The process result is the result the process conclusion being implemented. This section is concerned with the steps followed in moving from goal to LCA result, process conclusion and implementation. Process item 13: Clarity of purpose It is crucially important that the goal of an LCA study be formulated such that the ultimate results of the LCA are optimally suited for use in the framework of the process goal. In the first place, this means that before the LCA study is started there should be measured reflection on the potential significance of the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7628, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 435, "book_page": 438, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background LCA results within the established framework of system boundaries and assumptions vis-\u00e0-vis the product system. Second, it means that the LCA study must be carried out as an iterative process, with ongoing reflection throughout. It should be emphasised that considerable prior attention should be devoted to formulating a clear-cut goal for both the process result and the LCA result. It is better to define the product system as appropriately as possible at the outset than to patch up a deficient definition on the basis of supplementary sensitivity analyses and considered options for subsequent improvement. A misfit between the final LCA result and the intended process result is a waste of research time and process time, moreover", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7629, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A misfit between the final LCA result and the intended process result is a waste of research time and process time, moreover. Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: at the beginning of the LCA there is no critical, collective reflection on the goals of the commissioning party or of the LCA (with respect to adequacy and feasibility) by all the parties involved; during the process a lack of exchange between the LCA commissioner and practitioner prevents tightening or revising of established goals from being discussed where necessary. Process item 14: Relation between LCA findings and process conclusions The principal result of an LCA, or a series of comparative LCAs, is one or more environmental profiles: a review of the environmental scores of one or several product systems. LCA-based decision-making involves interpreting these profiles and drawing appropriate conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7630, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA-based decision-making involves interpreting these profiles and drawing appropriate conclusions. This interpretative step has several aspects: the value the decision-makers attach to the environmental scores as such, the margins of error to be considered in doing so, insights concerning possible options for improvement, the relative importance of the environmental themes considered, how the modeled product system conforms to pictures of reality, and so on. Ultimate process conclusions often prove to be based not only on LCAs, but also on considerations of corporate economics or general policy concerns, for example. It should be borne in mind that although both the interpretative step and the last-mentioned step are more difficult to objectify than the actual LCA process, it is feasible to design and implement appropriate procedural arrangements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7631, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: prior to the LCA process, there is no established decision-making procedure indicating as explicitly as possible how to deal with the issue of balancing considerations stemming from the LCA relative to considerations of corporate economics, policy and so on; insufficient prior consideration is given to procedures for handling the following issues in the conclusion phase: the margins of error in the environmental scores; the respective weighting of the environmental themes considered; insights obtained after considering options for improvement; insights obtained after performing sensitivity analyses (vis-\u00e0-vis assumptions in the modeled product systems, for example). Process item 15: Relation between process conclusions and implementation A key question in many decision-making contexts is how binding the process conclusion is to be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7632, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Process item 15: Relation between process conclusions and implementation A key question in many decision-making contexts is how binding the process conclusion is to be. Are all the conclusions to be implemented exactly as they stand? Or is there to be some leeway, with the party or parties implementing the conclusions operating under certain degrees of freedom? The advantage of the first option is that the conclusions bear major significance; parties can count on their findings being implemented. The drawback of a binding process conclusion is that it can loom as a threat over the conclusion process (and the preceding analysis), for if participants are aware that the process conclusions are to be implemented as they stand, there will be a strong incentive for certain parties to resist particular conclusions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7633, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Experience shows that overall progress of the LCA process may be hampered by several factors: the conclusions drawn during the process and the ultimate process conclusions are too binding with respect to subsequent measures; the opposite is true, permitting opportunistic use and abuse during the process; the process is insufficiently transparent, compounding these opportunities for process abuse;", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7634, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 436, "book_page": 439, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background no measures are taken to avoid opportunistic use and abuse of non-binding conclusions after termination of the process. 1.4 Stepwise structure for Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment As already mentioned in Chapter 0, this Guide adheres rigidly to the four main phases of LCA specified by ISO (see ). In this Guide we elaborate a logical, stepwise structure for each of these four phases, based on general practical experience of the logical sequence of actions undertaken in the course of an LCA study. In naming the steps we have taken the ISO phraseology1 as our point of departure wherever possible. No iterations are specified in the Guide, for in principle the outcome of any step may lead to a revision of previous steps. In practice, iteration between steps will be so frequent and manifest itself in so many different ways that it would be impossible to elaborate them all in a guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7635, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 437, "book_page": 440, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice, iteration between steps will be so frequent and manifest itself in so many different ways that it would be impossible to elaborate them all in a guide. In this sense, the described steps specify a logically ordered structure that allows for any degree of iteration desired. Procedural aspects with broader ramifications are specified for each phase separately. 1.4.1 Goal and scope definition ISO 14041 (1998E) breaks down the Goal and scope definition phase of an LCA into the following steps or elements (clause 5, p.4): Goal of the study; Scope of the study; Function, functional unit and reference flow; Initial system boundaries; Description of data categories; Criteria for initial inclusion of inputs and outputs; Data quality requirements; Critical review; Study report. Based on a review of steps and items proposed for the Goal and scope definition phase by ISO 14040 (1997E) ISO 14041 (1998E), Heijungs et al. (1992), Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Wenzel et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7636, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 437, "book_page": 440, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Based on a review of steps and items proposed for the Goal and scope definition phase by ISO 14040 (1997E) ISO 14041 (1998E), Heijungs et al. (1992), Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Wenzel et al. (1997), we propose to distinguish the following steps for Goal and scope definition: 1 This does not imply that the authors consider ISO phraseology to be the most appropriate in all cases. However, deviation from the ISO wording would probably not be helpful in achieving an understandable and widely acceptable Guide.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7637, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 437, "book_page": 440, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background [Procedures];1 Goal definition; Scope definition; Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows. Although the structure is broadly similar to ISO 14041 (1998E), there are several differences and additions: 1. Procedures covers the ISO element \u2018Critical review\u2019, but is a more general term indicating the possible usefulness of covering other procedural aspects like stakeholder participation in a particular LCA study. In the present Guide guidelines on this topic are given for each individual LCA phase and the Procedures step therefore also recurs in the Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation phases. However, in Part 3 - Scientific Background (this document) - Procedures are not discussed for each step separately but in a single, comprehensive section of this chapter (Section 1.3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7638, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, in Part 3 - Scientific Background (this document) - Procedures are not discussed for each step separately but in a single, comprehensive section of this chapter (Section 1.3). This is because \u2018Procedures\u2019 is a relatively new topic and it is not yet particularly useful to discuss developments since 1992 for each LCA phase individually. A separate background study has been devoted to the topic (De Bruijn & Van Duin, 1998; Van Duin & De Bruijn, 1998). To the ISO step \u2018Function, functional unit and reference flow\u2019 the choice of alternatives has been added in order to emphasise that it is here that selection of (product) systems for comparison takes place, if relevant in a given LCA study. Initial system boundaries, description of data categories, criteria for inclusion of inputs and outputs and data quality requirements now constitute elements of the Inventory analysis. In each step distinct guidelines are given for reporting and for issues for Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7639, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In each step distinct guidelines are given for reporting and for issues for Interpretation. Rather than devoting specific sections to these two items, which would lead to considerable double-wording, we have deemed it more useful to discuss them in context as they arose. The term \u2018issues for Interpretation\u2019 has been chosen to indicate that this step is related to the Interpretation phase. Identification of issues for Interpretation helps create a checklist of all Goal and scope, Inventory and Impact assessment issues of possible relevance for the Interpretation phase 2. 3. 4. The items procedures, reporting and issues for Interpretation are treated in the Inventory analysis and the Impact assessment phases, in the same way as described above for Goal and scope definition. Procedures and reporting are treated similarly in the Interpretation phase, too, but for obvious reasons issues for Interpretation is then a superfluous item", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7640, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Procedures and reporting are treated similarly in the Interpretation phase, too, but for obvious reasons issues for Interpretation is then a superfluous item. One remaining point is what the Scope definition step exactly comprises. It is not clear from the ISO standards what should be stated about the issues and/or steps in the Scope definition and what in the Inventory analysis and Impact assessment. The suggestions provided by ISO 14040 and 14041 on Scope definition are slightly different", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7641, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The suggestions provided by ISO 14040 and 14041 on Scope definition are slightly different. Under the heading \u2018scope of the study\u2019 a list of items is given in ISO 14040 (1997E), clause 5.1.2 (and referred to in ISO 14041, clause 5.3.1), which shall be considered and should be clearly described: the function of the system; the functional unit; the system to be studied; the system boundaries; allocation procedures; the types of impact and the methodology of Impact assessment and subsequent Interpretation to be used; data requirements; assumptions; limitations; the initial data quality requirements; the type of critical review, if any; and the type and format of the report required for the study. We suggest that these elements of the ISO Scope definition be split into three clusters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7642, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We suggest that these elements of the ISO Scope definition be split into three clusters. The first of these covers a number of basic choices for the entire study, including: temporal coverage (including infinite time horizon in modeling economic flows, environmental interventions and impacts); geographical coverage; Technology coverage; 1 \u201cProcedures\u201d is a separate step in Part 2a - Guide - but not in Part 3 - Scientific background.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7643, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 438, "book_page": 441, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background coverage of economic processes (initial system boundaries); coverage of environmental interventions and impacts; mode of analysis1; and level of sophistication. In this Guide these issues will be elaborated in the step \u2018Scope of the study\u2019. The second cluster covers basic choices regarding function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows. Here, a separate step of Goal and scope definition is devoted to these key issues of an LCA study. The third cluster comprises critical review and reporting, viz. of all the basic choices with respect to functional unit, systems compared, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. This socalled Goal and Scope Report is drafted for the purpose of critical review and stakeholder comments and, in comparison to ISO 14040 and 14041, is here extended to cover reporting on all the main choices of all the methodological steps distinguished", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7644, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 442, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For this reporting dimension, separate guidelines are given in each step of the Goal and scope definition. The relation between the steps of Goal and scope definition in this Guide and those derived from ISO 14041 is shown in Figure 1.4.1.1. 1 \u201cMode of analysis\u201d refers to a subject that is not (yet) treated in the ISO document but has become a key topic in the LCA debate. It concerns the distinction between descriptive and change-oriented applications, also known as the \u201cmarginal-average discussion\u201d (cf. Udo de Haes and Wrisberg, 1997; Frischknecht, 1998). The distinction between these two types of application appears to be extremely important, for two reasons: 1. it enables an explicit connection to be made with the application and hence with the Goal definition, the functional unit, etc.; 2. it may have major consequences for methodological details during Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7645, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 442, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "it may have major consequences for methodological details during Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. As indicated above, this Guide focuses on change-oriented analysis for long-term structural decisions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7646, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 439, "book_page": 442, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 1.4.2 Inventory analysis In ISO 14041 (1998E) the (Life Cycle) Inventory analysis phase (\u2018LCI\u2019) is broken down into the following operational steps (ISO 14041, clause 6.1, p.8): Preparing for data collection; Data collection; Validation of data; Relating data to unit process; Relating data to functional unit; Allocation and recycling; Data aggregation; Refining the system boundaries. In addition to these operational steps the topics \u2018limitation of LCI (interpreting LCI results)\u2019 and \u2018study report\u2019 are mentioned in ISO 14041 (1998E).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7647, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 440, "book_page": 443, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Based on ISO 14041 (1998E) and taking into account the steps distinguished in Heijungs et al. (1992), Lindfors et al. (1995a), Curran (1996) and Wenzel et al. (1997), in this Guide we distinguish the following steps of the Inventory analysis phase: [Procedures];1 Economy-environment system boundary; Flow diagram (one item of \u2018Preparing for data collection\u2019); Format and data categories (ISO step \u2018Data categories\u2019); Data quality; Data collection and relating data to unit processes (including \u2018Relating data to unit processes\u2019); Data validation; Cut-off and data estimation (= \u2018Initial system boundaries\u2019 and \u2018Criteria for initial inclusion of inputs and outputs\u2019; in ISO 14041 these steps are part of \u2018Goal and scope definition\u2019); Multifunctionality and allocation (= \u2018Allocation and recycling\u2019); Calculation method (= \u2018Relating data to functional unit\u2019 and \u2018Data aggregation\u2019)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7648, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 444, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The steps listed cover all ISO steps and elements, but they are here grouped and sequenced differently under slightly different headings. There are a number of reasons for these additions to and deviations from ISO: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. As the overall aim of this document is to provide a practical guide for LCA practitioners based on the ISO Standards, it is important to parallel the actual steps of a real-world LCA process as closely as possible. The procedural aspects of each LCA phase are treated in a separate \u2018Procedures\u2019 section in the description of each phase, to avoid cluttering up the technical steps. The ISO step \u2018Preparing for data collection\u2019 has been split into \u2018Flow diagram\u2018 and \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2018. The description of each unit process, units of measurement, data retrieval methods, etc. are all part of \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2018", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7649, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 444, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The description of each unit process, units of measurement, data retrieval methods, etc. are all part of \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2018. The ISO step \u2018Relating data to unit processes\u2019 is now part of the \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2018 step, as \u2018Relating data to unit processes\u2019 has too little substance to be treated as an individual step and is inextricably linked with the activity of data collection. \u2018Format\u2019 is lacking as a topic in the ISO framework and has been added here as part of the first data step: \u2018Format and data categories\u2018. Definition of the economy-environment system boundary is a step that is lacking in the ISO framework and it has therefore been added here. All calculation steps have been brought together under \u2018Calculation method\u2018, but with a distinction still being made between non-aggregated and aggregated inventory results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7650, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 444, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "All calculation steps have been brought together under \u2018Calculation method\u2018, but with a distinction still being made between non-aggregated and aggregated inventory results. Cut-offs are usually introduced because of data deficiency and general time and resource constraints on data retrieval. It is only after data collection that this problem becomes evident and it has therefore been put after data collection. As cut-off may often be avoided by data estimaton techniques such as input-output analysis (see Section 3.8), the name of this step has been extended to \u2018Cut-off and data estimation\u2018. The step \u2018Refining the system boundaries\u2019 is related to the iterative character of LCA execution and, as argued above, is not elaborated as a separate step here. Issues for Interpretation, reporting and procedures (including critical review) are treated in the same way as in the Goal and scope definition (see Section 1.4)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7651, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 444, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Issues for Interpretation, reporting and procedures (including critical review) are treated in the same way as in the Goal and scope definition (see Section 1.4). The ISO topics \u2018Limitation of LCI (interpreting LCI results)\u2019 and \u2018Study report\u2019 are not treated in this Guide as separate steps but as part of the items \u2018Issues for Interpretation\u2019 and \u2018Reporting\u2019, respectively. The relation between the steps distinguished in this guide and the steps of ISO 14041 (1998E) is shown in Figure 1.4.2.1. 1 Parallel to the treatment of this subject in the Goal and scope phase, \u201cProcedures\u201d is a separate step in Part 2a - Guide - but not in Part 3 - Scientific background.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7652, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 441, "book_page": 444, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7653, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 442, "book_page": 445, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 1.4.3 Impact assessment ISO 14042 (2000E) distinguishes the following steps In the (Life Cycle) Impact assessment phase (\u2018LCIA\u2019): Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models; Assignment of LCI results (Classification); Calculation of category indicator results (Characterisation); Calculating the magnitude of the category indicator results relative to reference information (Normalisation); Grouping; Weighting; Data quality analysis; Limitations of LCIA; Comparative assertions disclosed to the public; Reporting and critical review. The ISO framework is summarised in Figure 1.4.3.1. LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ISO 14042 distinguishes mandatory and optional elements. The first mandatory element is \u2018Selection and definition of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models\u2019. In this step impact categories (e.g. climate change) are identified along with appropriate category indicators (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7654, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 443, "book_page": 446, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this step impact categories (e.g. climate change) are identified along with appropriate category indicators (e.g. infrared radiative forcing) and the model used to derive the characterisation factors, i.e. the quantitative relationship between the interventions and the indicator, is established. The second mandatory element is \u2018Assignment of LCI results to category indicators (Classification)\u2019. In the final mandatory element, \u2018Calculation of category indicator results (Characterisation)\u2019, guidance and requirements are provided for calculating indicator results. Characterisation yields the \u2018environmental profile\u2019, consisting of a series of \u2018indicator results\u2019.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7655, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 443, "book_page": 446, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Besides the mandatory elements there are three optional elements. The first of these, \u2018Normalisation\u2019, covers calculation of the magnitude of category indicators relative to reference information. In the second optional element, \u2018Grouping of indicator results\u2019, impact categories are grouped into one or more sets involving a descriptive sorting or a prioritising ranking. The third optional element is \u2018Weighting\u2019, i.e. multiplication of indicator results or normalised results by numerical factors, with the aim of converting and possibly aggregating indicator results across impact categories into a single score or a small number of such scores. As a final optional element, \u2018Data quality analysis\u2019 may be performed to enhance understanding of the significance, uncertainty and sensitivity of the LCIA results. The mandatory and optional steps described above imply that different trajectories can be adopted en route to the final LCIA result", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7656, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 444, "book_page": 447, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The mandatory and optional steps described above imply that different trajectories can be adopted en route to the final LCIA result. These are illustrated in Figure 1.4.3.2.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7657, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 444, "book_page": 447, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Based on ISO 14042, in this new Guide we distinguish the following steps of the Impact assessment phase: [Procedures];1 Selection of impact categories; Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors; Classification; Characterisation; Normalisation; Grouping; Weighting. This structure is broadly similar to ISO 14042 (2000E). The main difference is that \u2018Limitations of LCIA\u2019 and \u2018Comparative assertions disclosed to the public\u2019 are not discussed here as separate steps of the LCIA phase. The limitations of LCIA are treated in the general introduction to this Guide, under Goal and scope definition and Interpretation: in the former, because the general limitations of LCA (including those of LCIA) should be duly appreciated before conducting the actual LCA study and in the latter because they put the conclusions into due perspective", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7658, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 448, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Comparative assertions are one possible application of LCA; this is determined in the Goal and scope definition phase and will steer several choices during the LCA study (including the choice of simplified versus detailed LCA, application of weighting methods, reporting guidelines, etc.). Issues for Interpretation (covering the ISO topic \u2018Data quality analysis\u2019), reporting (covering ISO\u2019s \u2018Reporting\u2019) and procedures (covering ISO\u2019s \u2018Critical review\u2019) are treated in the same way as in Goal and scope definition (see Section 1.4). The selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models has been broken down into two steps, moreover, because these are clearly sequential elements. Finally, this Guide does not entirely retain ISO\u2019s distinction between mandatory and optional steps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7659, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 448, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, this Guide does not entirely retain ISO\u2019s distinction between mandatory and optional steps. The Dutch LCA community feels that normalisation and data quality assessment (issues for Interpretation) constitute at least recommended, if not mandatory, steps and that these should be part of any LCA study. The relation between the steps distinguished in this guide and the steps of ISO 14042 (2000E) is shown in Figure 1.4.3.3. 1 Parallel to the treatment of this subject in the Goal and scope phase, \u201cProcedures\u201d is a separate step in Part 2a - Guide - but not in Part 3 - Scientific background.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7660, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 445, "book_page": 448, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7661, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 446, "book_page": 449, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 1.4.4 Interpretation In ISO 14043 (2000E) the Interpretation phase is broken down into three elements: Identification of significant issues, based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of LCA; Evaluation, comprising completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; Conclusions, recommendations and reporting. Other elements of analysis, including a critical review, are considered additionally in clause 9 of ISO 14043. Based on ISO 14043, in this Guide we distinguish the following steps of the Interpretation phase: [Procedures (Chapter 9 of ISO 14043)]1; Evaluation of results: consistency check completeness check Analysis of results: contribution analysis perturbation analysis sensitivity and uncertainty analysis Conclusion and recommendations. This structure is broadly similar to ISO 14043. The main difference is that \u2018Evaluation\u2019 has been split into two parts, one of which is placed before \u2018Identification of significant issues\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7662, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 450, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This structure is broadly similar to ISO 14043. The main difference is that \u2018Evaluation\u2019 has been split into two parts, one of which is placed before \u2018Identification of significant issues\u2019. The reason for this change is that if there are large inconsistencies or errors in the data or if the data is very incomplete, all further Interpretation steps become futile. A minor difference is the use of the term analysis instead of check for the sensitivity and uncertainty analysis2. \u2018Identification of significant issues\u2019 is here operationalised in two different steps: the contribution analysis and the perturbation analysis. Reporting and procedures are treated in the same way as for the Goal and scope definition (see Section 1.4). For obvious reasons, and to prevent endless iteration, issues for Interpretation is no longer included as an item in the Interpretation phase itself", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7663, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 450, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For obvious reasons, and to prevent endless iteration, issues for Interpretation is no longer included as an item in the Interpretation phase itself. The relation between the steps distinguished in this guide and the steps of ISO 14043 (2000E) is shown in Figure 1.4.4.1. There is an close relationship between the steps of the Interpretation phase and the other phases of the LCA. On the one hand, there is input from the other phases, because these identify relevant issues for Interpretation. On the other hand, the iterative nature of the LCA process allows for, and sometimes even demands, making changes in prior phases, as when errors are found or results prove to be \u2018too\u2019 sensitive to particular, debatable data, model choices, etc. during Interpretation. 1 Parallel to the treatment of this subject in the Goal and scope phase, \u201cProcedures\u201d is a separate step in Part 2a - Guidelines - but not in Part 3 - Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7664, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 450, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "during Interpretation. 1 Parallel to the treatment of this subject in the Goal and scope phase, \u201cProcedures\u201d is a separate step in Part 2a - Guidelines - but not in Part 3 - Scientific background. 2 Here, the term check is used to emphasise the fact that data or model choices are being checked, while the term analysis is used for more complex assessments requiring dedicated tools and so on.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7665, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 447, "book_page": 450, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 1.5 Further reading guidance In the following chapters the steps distinguished above are discussed for each phase of LCA, viz. Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation. Each step is discussed according to a fixed format: \u2018Topic\u2019, \u2018Developments in the last decade\u2019, \u2018Prospects\u2019, \u2018Conclusions\u2019 and \u2018Research recommendations\u2019. However, as \u2018Procedures\u2019 is a fairly new topic in LCA with few developments in the last decade to discuss, in this case this format is not particularly useful. The", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7666, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 448, "book_page": 451, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Procedures step is therefore not discussed in each phase individually, but as an integrated whole in Section 1.3. Another important issue to bear in mind while reading and using this Guide - and to stress once more at this point - is that it has become clear in the preceding introduction that there is no such thing as \u2018a correct LCA\u2019. The sophistication of an LCA and the way in which it is elaborated depend on the specific situation in which LCA is being used as a decision support tool. In theory this might imply a practitioner having to develop custom-tailored methods for each LCA study anew. From a practical angle, however, this is obviously out of the question. Most choices vis-\u00e0-vis methods have broad ramifications, restricting the choices available in other respects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7667, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From a practical angle, however, this is obviously out of the question. Most choices vis-\u00e0-vis methods have broad ramifications, restricting the choices available in other respects. One cannot first opt for a steady-state model and subsequently opt for a change in capacity utilisation to supply the required inputs, as short-term and longterm perspectives would then be mixed. Even if one agrees on the main purpose of the LCA study, assuming that structural questions are to be answered there are still hundreds of choices to be made before a well-founded LCA model has been constructed. This is clearly beyond the capabilities of most practitioners and beyond the budget of most commissioners. To permit broad application of LCA some degree of standardisation is therefore essential. The standardisation developed in this Guide goes beyond the ISO standards, as the latter specify only the general structure of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7668, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The standardisation developed in this Guide goes beyond the ISO standards, as the latter specify only the general structure of LCA. True operationalisation involves so many choices that one can hardly expect the world to agree on all of them and formulate them in an ISO standard. The basic question is therefore: how to arrive at an operational LCA which at the same time providing the flexibility required for widely differing applications. We have endeavoured to steer a \u2018middle\u2019 course, on the one hand excluding certain applications and on the other specifying a number of standardised types of LCA and a framework within which deviations from these can be accomplished in a transparent manner. The first restriction has already been explained: the prime focus of this Guide is to support structural decisions, using a long-term steady-state model for that purpose in the Inventory analysis phase and the most apt (but more diverse) models in the Impact assessment phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7669, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This does not mean that shortterm issues are deemed less important. It is merely our choice of focus, prompted by the aim of supporting long-term sustainability developments. Within these limitations, a wide variety of possible methods still remains available. We elaborate two basic options in more or less systematic fashion. The first is a detailed LCA , which we believe to be representative for studies typically requiring between 20 and 200 days of work. The detailed LCA is the baseline LCA elaborated in this Guide. The second is a simplified version of LCA, typically requiring between 1 and 20 days of work. In this Guide we prescribe neither one option or the other, merely providing them as a ready reference within the overall framework of issues and steps already specified. Appropriate sensitivity analyses are also suggested", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7670, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Appropriate sensitivity analyses are also suggested. Practitioners wishing to deviate from the guidelines provided in this Guide for a specific step are at liberty to do so, but should clearly justify their decision accordingly. One may, for example, deviate from the economy-environment system boundary specified for detailed LCA, or choose a different time horizon for leaching of landfill. Such options are not specifically supported in this Guide, however, and their implementation is entirely the responsibility of the LCA practitioner. It seems advisable, though, to introduce such deviations in the form of a sensitivity analysis of detailed LCA, in order to retain reference to a more or less standardised type of LCA. Note that in a detailed LCA certain steps may be performed at the simplified level, and within a single step, one may indeed even opt to apply detailed guidelines for some unit processes or impact categories and simplified guidelines for others", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7671, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, note that a simplified LCA is not simple in the sense of being easy. Finally, on some topics an indication is provided of possible extensions for improving the quality of detailed LCA in those respects where shortcomings are most obvious. A key example is the absence of economic mechanisms in the LCA model, an unfortunate feature in cases where there are extreme inelasticities of supply or demand. In the case of rechargeable batteries, for example, a shift to non-cadmium types of battery will not result in a smaller influx of cadmium to the economy and hence will not lead in the long run to reduced cadmium emissions. This is because the supply of primary cadmium is extremely inelastic. In such a situation, LCA may yield a misleading outcome. For a number of situations possible extensions are therefore specified, both within an adapted LCA framework and as an addition to detailed LCA in Figure 1.5.1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7672, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 449, "book_page": 452, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background In summary, simplified LCA and extensions build on detailed LCA, which is the baseline elaborated in this Guide. The guidelines for the various steps of LCA - the scientific background to which is provided in the present Part - have not all been elaborated at the same operational level. The guidelines for one step may imply that in each and every LCA study a number of actions should be actively performed, while those for another step may imply that one need generally only follow the baseline proposals given in this Guide. In the \u2018Flow diagram\u2018 step, for example, a representative diagram of processes pertinent to the given LCA study will have to be drawn up in each and every study, while in the \u2018Selection of impact categories\u2019 step the baseline proposal (see Section 4.2) can generally be followed time and time again", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7673, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 453, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the latter case, one will of course have to evaluate whether the baseline proposal is sufficient, or whether other categories beyond the baseline proposal should be added for the specific LCA study in question. Below we present a ready-reference overview of the methodological steps distinguished in this Guide for each phase of an LCA, with a reference to the section of the present Part dealing with each specific step (Table 1.5.1).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7674, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 450, "book_page": 453, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7675, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 451, "book_page": 454, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 2. Goal and scope definition 2.1 Introduction No explicit definition of the Goal and scope definition phase is given by ISO. A definition derived from ISO\u2019s work might run: The Goal and scope definition is the first phase of an LCA, stating the aim of an intended LCA study, the functional unit, the system alternatives considered, and the breadth and depth of the intended LCA study in relation to this aim (see also Figure 2.1.1). The Goal and scope definition anticipates the application, which might be to provide product information (e.g. by comparing product alternatives), \u2018public regulation\u2019 (e.g. product approval based on the results of comparison with a standard), product or process innovation (e.g. by identifying dominant processes in the environmental profile to obtain information about the potential effects of innovation) or as a tool for strategic studies based on policy scenarios", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7676, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 455, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "by identifying dominant processes in the environmental profile to obtain information about the potential effects of innovation) or as a tool for strategic studies based on policy scenarios. The scope of the study is also established at this stage, as a function of the time and money available and the intended application. Furthermore, the functional unit and the products to be investigated are defined. Finally, as in each phase (see Chapter 1), important issues relating to goal and scope are identified in and reporting guidelines established for each step (cf. Heijungs et al., 1992). The Goal and scope definition will largely be the result of discussions between the project commissioners, the practitioners and those with interests in the study results (interested parties or stakeholders). The procedural aspects of the goal and scope phase are therefore of particular importance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7677, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 455, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The procedural aspects of the goal and scope phase are therefore of particular importance. The result of goal definition is an accurate description of the goal and scope of the study, the functional unit to be used and the (product) system(s) to be investigated.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7678, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 452, "book_page": 455, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Thus, the Goal and scope definition phase comprises four steps: Procedures (no special section in this Part; see Chapter 1); Goal definition (Section 2.2, p. 456); Scope definition (Section 2.3, p. 459); Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flow (Section 2.4, p. 468). Further points of departure for elaborating these Goal and scope definition steps are ISO documents 14040 (1997E) and 14041 (1998E) particularly with regard to the methodological framework and issues for Goal and scope definition proposed there. In further operationalising the ISO proposals the work of SETAC Working Groups and relevant proposals by other authors have been taken into due account. Deviations from ISO have been introduced only when there is significant justification for doing so", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7679, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Deviations from ISO have been introduced only when there is significant justification for doing so. We shall now discuss the substance of each of the last three steps distinguished above, thereby following the fixed format: Topic, Developments in the last decade, Prospects, Conclusions and Research recommendations. As explained in Section 1.5, the Procedures step is not discussed separately in the present chapter but in integrated fashion, for all phases, in Section 1.3. 2.2 Goal definition In the first step of Goal and scope definition the goal of the LCA study is stated and justified, explaining the goal (aim or objective) of the study and specifying the intended use of the results (application), the initiator (and commissioner) of the study, the practitioner, the stakeholders1 and for whom the study results are intended (target audience). As this step provides the basic starting point for conducting the LCA study, it should make clear the reasons for undertaking the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7680, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As this step provides the basic starting point for conducting the LCA study, it should make clear the reasons for undertaking the study. This step is important and mandatory for each and every LCA study, not only because the stated application will affect the course of the entire study but also to guarantee clear external communications following completion of the study (Heijungs et al., 1992). TOPIC Note that recommendations for appropriate design of an LCA project are provided Part 2a, Chapter 1 . These should be duly studied before the actual LCA is commissioned and performed. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE ISO 14041, clause 5.2 states the following requirement for the goal of the study: \u201cThe goal of an LCA study shall unambiguously state the intended application, the reasons for carrying out the study and the intended audience, i.e., to whom the results of the study are intended to be communicated.\u201d Heijungs et al. (1992) The goal definition in Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7681, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) The goal definition in Heijungs et al. (1992) was considered to be part of the overall goal definition. The overall goal definition referred to that part of the study that established not only the environmental goals of the LCA study but also its economic, financial, product safety, social (e.g. employment) etc. goals. The \u201992 Guide was concerned solely with environmental LCA, as is this guide cf.Chapter 1). Heijungs et al. (1992) consequently focused on the environmental reasons for performing an LCA study. Although not formulated as a requirement under the goal of the study, the ISO standards make a distinction between comparative studies, in particular comparative assertions, and non-comparative studies. Specific (mandatory) requirements are formulated for LCA studies used to make a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7682, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Specific (mandatory) requirements are formulated for LCA studies used to make a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public. In ISO 14040 (1997E) a comparative assertion is defined as \u201can environmental claim regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing product which performs the same function\u201d. On several occasions ISO also mentions the importance of realising the possibilities and limitations of the LCA instrument, both in general and in relation to other environmental assessment tools. Once the type of application has been determined, it is important to establish whether LCA is the most appropriate instrument for answering the specific research question, or whether an alternative tool is perhaps more suitable for the purpose or may yield relevant additional information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7683, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This choice can be grounded in the possibilities and limitations of LCA in relation to those of other environmental assessment tools (see also 1 Referred to in ISO 14040 (1997E) as \u201cinterested parties\u201d. (", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7684, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 453, "book_page": 456, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background appendix B of the present Part; Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996; Finnveden, 1998; Finnveden, 2000; Wrisberg et al., in prep.). It has become increasingly clear that LCA is but one tool amongst many for environmental analysis. In some circumstances other instruments may be more appropriate: Risk Assessment, for example, if siting aspects are crucial to the issue under investigation. Other tools may be used in parallel to provide better insight into the environmental consequences of a given choice: Substance Flow Analysis (SFA), for example, if one specific flow is of prime importance in the product system investigated, as in the case of rechargeable cadmium batteries. The EU-concerted action CHAINET has dealt with this subject extensively (Wrisberg et al., in prep.). Other authors support the importance of the aforementioned issues, sometimes usefully expanding them into more detailed guidelines. For example, Lindfors et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7685, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 457, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other authors support the importance of the aforementioned issues, sometimes usefully expanding them into more detailed guidelines. For example, Lindfors et al. (1995a) argue that it is not sufficient merely to define the goal in terms of what is to be done, e.g. \u2018To compare the environmental impacts associated with paints used for wall decoration\u2019, but that the underlying reason, e.g. To \u2018provide information in the setting of criteria for ecolabeling\u2019, also needs to be addressed. They suggest including in the LCA report a clear statement of the intended applications and users. For the particular case of paint they give the following example: The results of the LCA will be used by the ecolabeling board to identify areas where criteria should be set in order to promote the most environmentally friendly products within this product group\u2019. Several authors note, furthermore, that it may be necessary to revise the initial objectives and intended decisions during the course of an LCA (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7686, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 457, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Several authors note, furthermore, that it may be necessary to revise the initial objectives and intended decisions during the course of an LCA (e.g. ISO 14041, 1998E; Lindfors et al., 1995a; Wenzel et al., 1997). Performing an LCA is an iterative rather than purely sequential process. Finally, various references distinguish between different categories of application (e.g. Heijungs et al., 1992; Weidema, 1993; Fleischer et al., 1995; Guin\u00e9e, 1995; Lindfors et al., 1995a; Braunschweig et al., 1996; UNEP, 1996; ISO 14040, 1997E; Cowell et al., 1997; UNEP, 1999; Wenzel, 1998). The differences between these various categorisation schemes are mainly a matter of taste and not examined as such here. The key question is, rather, whether it is possible to distinguish groups of applications differing in their impact on methodological choices or procedural arrangements in the course of an LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7687, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 457, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The key question is, rather, whether it is possible to distinguish groups of applications differing in their impact on methodological choices or procedural arrangements in the course of an LCA study. Some authors offer valuable suggestions for a classification of applications as they affect methodological choices (Frischknecht, 1997; Frischknecht, 1998; Clift et al., 1998; Weidema, 1998a; Wenzel, 1998). This subject will be discussed in more detail in Section 2.3 (\u2018Mode of analysis\u2019). This Guide distinguishes six types of decision situation in which LCA results may be applied (De Bruijn & Van Duin, 1998; Van Duin & De Bruijn, 1998): global exploration of options; company-internal innovation; sector-driven innovation; strategic planning; comparison; comparative assertion disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7688, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 457, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of comparison of product alternatives, it must be determined at some stage what differences in results are to be deemed significant for concluding that one alternative is environmentally sounder than another. For procedural reasons it seems wise to address this issue as part of the goal definition, at the very outset of the study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7689, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 454, "book_page": 457, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Clause 8 of ISO 14041 (1998E) specifies that the study report on the Goal and Scope definition should meet the following requirements (see textbox): The results of an LCI study shall be fairly, completely and accurately reported to the intended audience as described by the relevant parts of clause 6 of ISO 14040:1997E. If a third-party report is required, it shall cover all items marked with an asterisk. All additional items should be considered. a) Goal of the study reasons for carrying out the study *; its intended applications *; the target audiences *", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7690, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 458, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "b) Scope of the study: modifications together with their justification; function: Statement of performance characteristics *; ii) Any omission of additional functions in comparisons *; 3) functional unit: i) Consistency with goal and scope *; ii) Definition *; iii) Result of performance measurement *; 4) system boundaries: i) Inputs and outputs of the system as elementary flows; ii) Decision criteria iii) Omissions of life cycle stages, processes or data needs * iv) Initial description of the unit processes; v) Decision about allocation; 5) data categories: i) Decision about data categories; ii) Details about individual data categories iii) Quantification of energy inputs and outputs *; iv) Assumptions about electricity production *; v) Combustion heat *; vi) Inclusion of fugitive emissions; 6) criteriafor initial inclusion of inputs and outputs: i) Description of criteria and assumption *; ii) Effect of selection on result *; iii) Inclusion of mass, energy and environmental criteria", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7691, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 458, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "6) criteriafor initial inclusion of inputs and outputs: i) Description of criteria and assumption *; ii) Effect of selection on result *; iii) Inclusion of mass, energy and environmental criteria (comparisons *); 7) data quality requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7692, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 458, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. For Goal and Scope definition, Lindfors et al. (1995a) list the following reporting issues: The members of the reference panel or review group shall be reported, if relevant. A short resum\u00e9 of the discussions in the reference panel shall be given, with focus on conflicting views, or: a report from the reviewer(s) on the critical review, concerned party review, or validation, or: a statement that an external validation or review process has not been carried out, including a justification of that decision (e.g. since concerned parties have been involved in the conduct of the study). The commissioner of the study shall be stated. A presentation of the practitioners, including their background, shall be given (an LCA-oriented C.V.). The purpose shall be clearly and unambiguously stated, in terms of the reasons for carrying out the LCA. A clear statement on the decisions intended to be based on the findings should be made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7693, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 458, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The purpose shall be clearly and unambiguously stated, in terms of the reasons for carrying out the LCA. A clear statement on the decisions intended to be based on the findings should be made. A statement on the intended users or audience should be made. The main user function(s) (e.g. protection and/or colouring for paints) forming the basis for the LCA shall be clearly defined and reported. Any deviation from initial plans may be reported. Any other limitations or introduced assumptions relevant to the results of the study shall be reported. In its report, the SETAC-Europe Case studies Working Group (Meier et al., 1997) gives the following (minimum) reporting guidelines for the Goal and Scope phase: General study information 1) 2) 3) 1) 2) i)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7694, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 455, "book_page": 458, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background As much detail as possible should be included, i.e. authors, affiliations of authors, commissioning body, responsible person at commissioning body, availability, etc. Goal definition The overall objectives of the study should be given in a clear and concise statement with the reasons for carrying out the study and the intended use of the results detailed. The methodology employed should be clearly stated and transparent and any differences in methodology from a full LCA should be explained. All assumptions and value judgements should be clearly detailed along with the justification for the assumptions. These reporting guidelines have also been provided by the Working Group in the form of a practitioners\u2019 checklist. PROSPECTS It might be possible as well as useful to define categories of LCA applications leading to different choices vis-\u00e0-vis methodological procedures and for which different Guidelines would therefore be applicable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7695, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 456, "book_page": 459, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This might result in better and more consistent results, and in more time- and cost-effective LCA studies. CONCLUSIONS We recommend following the ISO 14041 requirements, supplemented by the suggestions of Lindfors et al. (1995a). In this Guide we furthermore distinguish six different types of decision situations: global exploration of options; company-internal innovation; sector-driven innovation; strategic planning; comparison; comparative assertion disclosed to the public. In the case of comparison of product alternatives, we recommend establishing in the Goal definition step what differences in results are to be deemed significant for concluding that one alternative is environmentally sounder than another. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research Definition of categories of applications, with preferred choices of LCA methodology and associated sets of methodological and procedural Guidelines", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7696, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 456, "book_page": 459, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research Definition of categories of applications, with preferred choices of LCA methodology and associated sets of methodological and procedural Guidelines. Standards-setting, possibly by government, regarding the quality and methodology for LCAs for each of these different applications (i.e. a code of practice for each application). 2.3 Scope definition TOPIC In the scope definition step the main characteristics of an intended LCA study are established, covering such issues as temporal, geographical and technology coverage, the mode of analysis employed and the overall level of sophistication of the study. A so-called goal and scope report may also be drafted for the sake of critical review and comments from interested parties. This report should justify all the main choices with respect to the step \u2018Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flow\u2018 and the phases of Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7697, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 456, "book_page": 459, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) scope definition did not yet constitute a separate method step. However, the level of sophistication, or depth of the study as it was then called, comprised a separate element of goal definition. A distinction was made between a more detailed and a more streamlined approach. A detailed LCA was considered to be appropriate for important applications such as government approvals or bans. A more simplified approach was considered to be appropriate for certain in-company applications and in LCAs relating to product improvement and design. Simplification was to be achieved by: concentrating on the differences between product alternatives; excluding certain elements of the LCA; limiting the number of processes; limiting the number of environmental effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7698, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 460, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It was noted that introducing simplifications might imply decreased reliability, particularly if it is decided to limit the number of processes or environmental effects examined, and that such reduced reliability should be in conformity with the importance of the application. In Heijungs et al. simplified methods were not elaborated in any further detail. The spatial and temporal dimension of the study goal were treated as separate steps in Heijungs et al. With regard to spatial representativeness it was noted that \u201cthis must be specified unless it is clear from the specification of the functional unit. The spatial representativeness could global, continental (e.g. European), regional (e.g. EU), national (e.g. the Netherlands) or at company level (e.g. brand X). Also, representativeness like \u2018in temperate climates\u2019 may be useful, e.g. in an LCA on insulation materials", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7699, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 460, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "EU), national (e.g. the Netherlands) or at company level (e.g. brand X). Also, representativeness like \u2018in temperate climates\u2019 may be useful, e.g. in an LCA on insulation materials. The particular spatial representativeness determines which alternative systems can usefully be considered in an LCA study for a specific application (e.g. an LCA study on milk packaging for ecolabeling in the Netherlands may involve different packaging alternatives from the same study for an EU ecolabel).\u201d With regard to temporal representativeness Heijungs et al. states that this should be determined similarly to spatial representativeness. Generally, a rough indication will suffice, for example '1998' or '2010'. Also, representativeness like \u2018during summer\u2019 may be useful, especially for seasonal products. Similarly to spatial representativeness, temporal representativeness determines which alternative systems may usefully be compared in an LCA study for a specific application. Finally, Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7700, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 460, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Similarly to spatial representativeness, temporal representativeness determines which alternative systems may usefully be compared in an LCA study for a specific application. Finally, Heijungs et al. already discussed a hot issue in the present LCA debate, which we shall henceforth refer to as the \u201cmode of analysis\u201d. A basic assumption made by Heijungs et al. (p. 12 of Backgrounds \u201992) is that the ceteris paribus principle is applied in product assessments, which means that the choice of the functional unit of the product alternative investigated has no influence on any other activities anywhere on the planet. For example, this means that the effects of the emissions due to the functional unit are assumed to be additional to the normal background concentration. The functional unit was also assumed to be marginal relative to other activities, allowing linear models to be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7701, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 460, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The functional unit was also assumed to be marginal relative to other activities, allowing linear models to be used. ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.1 states the following concerning the scope of the study (see textbox): The scope of the study shall consider all relevant items in accordance with ISO 14040: 1997, 5.1.2. It should be recognised that an LCA study is an iterative technique, and as data and information are collected, various aspects of the scope may require modification in order to meet the original goal of the study. In some cases, the goal of the study itself may be revised due to unforeseen limitations, constraints or as a result of additional information. Such modifications, together with their justification, should be duly documented. Source: ISO 14041, 1998. be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7702, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 457, "book_page": 460, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background ISO 14040 (1997E), clause 5.1.2 reads (see textbox): In defining the scope of an LCA study, the following items shall be considered and clearly described: the function of the system the functional unit the system to be studied the system boundaries allocation procedures the types of impact and the methodology of Impact assessment and subsequent Interpretation to be used data requirements assumptions limitations the initial data quality requirements the type of critical review, if any, and the type and format of the report required for the study. The scope should be sufficiently well defined to ensure that the breadth, the depth and the detail of the study are compatible and sufficient to address the stated goal. LCA is an iterative technique. Therefore, the scope of the study may need to be modified while the study is being conducted as additional information is collected. Source: ISO 14040, 1997E", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7703, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 461, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA is an iterative technique. Therefore, the scope of the study may need to be modified while the study is being conducted as additional information is collected. Source: ISO 14040, 1997E. The Scope definition is a relatively new step that has not yet received much attention in other LCA literature. As explained in Section 1.4 and taking into account the elements distinguished as part of Scope definition in ISO 14040 and 14041, we propose distinguishing two main elements of the scope of the study: Determining the main characteristics of an intended LCA study: temporal, geographical and technology coverage, coverage of economic processes, coverage of environmental interventions and impact categories, mode of analysis and level of sophistication of the study. Reporting of all the main choices to be made in the \u2018Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flow\u2018 step and the Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7704, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 461, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Reporting of all the main choices to be made in the \u2018Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flow\u2018 step and the Inventory analysis, Impact assessment and Interpretation phases. This yields a so-called Goal and Scope Report, drawn up for critical review and comments from interested parties. These two elements together cover all the ISO issues mentioned in the above text box. Below, the developments of the past decade are discussed as they relate to the main characteristics: temporal, geographical and technology coverage, mode of analysis and level of sophistication of the study. In Part 2a, guidelines are provided for drafting a Goal and Scope Report in Section 1.6 on reporting. Temporal coverage ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.6 states that temporal coverage refers to: The desired age of data (e.g. within the last five years) and the minimum length of time over which data should be collected (e.g. one year)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7705, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 461, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "within the last five years) and the minimum length of time over which data should be collected (e.g. one year). According to ISO 14041 (1998E) the temporal coverage shall be specified and appropriate data quality requirements defined. The latter point is treated in Section 3.5 of the Inventory analysis. Temporal coverage has become even more important in recent years, as there is a general feeling today that different modes of analysis should be employed for different temporal contexts (see also \u2018Mode of analysis\u2019, below). It is thus important to specify a base year or base period for the study, on which other choices can be based. Geographical coverage ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.6 states that geographical coverage refers to: Geographical area from which data for unit processes should be collected to satisfy the goal of the study (e.g. local, regional, national, continental, global)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7706, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 461, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "local, regional, national, continental, global). According to ISO 14041 (1998E) the geographical coverage shall be specified and appropriate data quality requirements defined. The latter point is treated in Section 3.5 of the Inventory analysis. In 1996 a \u2018Groupe des Sages\u2019 published a report on the use of LCA for ecolabeling applications in the EU. They stressed the need to explicitly establish the geographical coverage of an LCA study in certain cases, giving the example of regional differences in water hardness influencing detergent requirements. Regional differences might thus be taken into account in determining the amount of detergent needed to wash a certain amount of laundry optically white. Depending on the precise application of the LCA, this may be a very useful thing to do since it will indicate to consumers how they can minimise the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7707, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 458, "book_page": 461, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background environmental impact of their behaviour, taking into account the regional background (Udo de Haes et al., 1996). The usefulness of including this geographical context depends on the application in question, however. While this may be very useful in a national study, it may not be relevant for a European-average study. Technology coverage ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.6 states that technology coverage refers to: Technology mix (e.g. weighted average of the actual process mix, best available technology or worstoperating unit). According to ISO 14041 (1998E) the technology coverage shall be specified and appropriate data quality requirements defined. The latter point is treated again in Section 3.5 of the Inventory analysis. The technology coverage taken as the point of departure for data collection in the Inventory analysis should match the geographical and temporal coverage of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7708, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The technology coverage taken as the point of departure for data collection in the Inventory analysis should match the geographical and temporal coverage of the study. In a European-average study for the year 2000, for example, data on the European state-of-the-art technology being installed in 2000 should be taken; in a Dutch study for that year, the state-of-the-art in the Netherlands for the year 2000 should be used. Thus, for most structural, change-oriented decisions (see below) the data taken should be for the current state-of-the-art technology in the region or country with which the study is concerned (see also Section 3.6). If the LCA study concerns a futuristic system for which technologies are available only as prototypes, it is important to determine the criteria for allowing a prototype technology to be taken into account in the LCA study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7709, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For example, it may be important to establish that prototypes should have undergone a certain amount of testing before being eligible for the LCA study and that they are economically feasible1. With some applications it might also be useful for interested parties to come to arrangements for dealing with implementation of prototype technologies after the LCA study (see Section 1.3 on \u2018Management of LCA projects: procedures\u2019). As far as is known to the authors of this report, no guidelines have yet been formulated on this issue. Coverage of economic processes (initial system boundaries) Life cycle assessment is defined as a compilation and evaluation of the inputs and outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle (ISO 14040, 1997E). Ideally, the product system should be modeled in such a manner that all the inputs and outputs at its boundary are environmental interventions (ISO 14041,1998E)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7710, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Ideally, the product system should be modeled in such a manner that all the inputs and outputs at its boundary are environmental interventions (ISO 14041,1998E). However, if it is possible to narrow the scope of the life cycle to those stages or subsystems that really matter in relation to the goal of the study, a significant saving of the time and resources spent on an LCA study can be achieved. Todd et al. (1999) and also Christiansen et al. (1997) mention that such narrowing down is feasible within the ISO (quantitative) LCA framework by limiting or eliminating upstream and/or downstream stages (\u201cexclude parts of the life cycle system\u201d). A useful first step in any LCA study, whether simplified, detailed or extended, is to consider whether limiting or eliminating certain life cycle stages (without introducing a mere cut-off) is justified in relation to the goal of the LCA study. A \u2018mere cut-off\u2019 here refers to certain life cycle stages or subsystems, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7711, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A \u2018mere cut-off\u2019 here refers to certain life cycle stages or subsystems, e.g. capital goods or inputs contributing less that a certain percentage to a product or process, being excluded from a study because of time and resource constraints. This subject is treated below (\u2018Level of sophistication\u2019) and in Section 3.8, but it is not the subject of the present section. Limiting or eliminating life cycle stages may be permissible if the goal of the study allows for a narrower scope with respect to system boundaries without the reliability of the results being reduced. In a study aiming to supply data on a subsystem like aluminium or polyethylene production, for example, it may be justified to narrow the analysis to a cradle-to-gate analysis (i.e. an analysis not going beyond the aluminium or polyethylene production site). Similarly, a gate-to-gate analysis (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7712, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "an analysis not going beyond the aluminium or polyethylene production site). Similarly, a gate-to-gate analysis (i.e. an analysis of polyethylene film production from polyethylene granulate) can in some cases be performed, narrowing the boundaries even further. The various limitations of these partial LCA studies should obviously be fully realised by the practitioners and users of the ensuing results. Although these studies may serve as an important and useful source of data for other cradle-to-grave LCAs, in themselves they by no means constitute full LCAs. Any conclusions drawn on the basis of such partial LCAs should therefore be formulated with the greatest caution. It may be in order to narrow the boundaries of an LCA for quite different reasons, viz. in the type of LCA here referred to as \u2018difference analysis\u2019. In this case it may be opted to exclude from further analysis life cycle stages or subsystems that are similar for each of the (product) systems analysed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7713, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case it may be opted to exclude from further analysis life cycle stages or subsystems that are similar for each of the (product) systems analysed. This holds only for comparative LCAs, where the aim is to focus on and assess the differences between alternative (product) systems. For example, if the filling and distribution processes for two products are similar, these 1 What is meant by \u201ceconomically feasible\u201d should then also be established, of course.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7714, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 459, "book_page": 462, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background activities might be excluded from the analysis1. However, if one of the products requires refrigeration during filling and distribution activities, with higher energy consumption as a result, then these activities should clearly be addressed (Christiansen et al., 1997). An important condition here is thus that the subsystems excluded are precisely comparable with respect to technologies, properties, qualities and quantities of the flow supplied or produced. An example for which exclusion of subsystems is rather more debatable is food packaging. An item frequently excluded from comparative packaging studies is the product packaged. However, due care should be taken in excluding the product, particularly when product waste or actual consumption is influenced by the characteristics of the packaging (Kooijman, 1993; Heijungs & Guin\u00e9e, 1995; Christiansen et al., 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7715, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Coverage of environmental interventions and impact categories ISO 14040 (1997E), clause 5.1.2.2 states that \u201cthe selection of inputs and outputs [...] shall be consistent with the goal of the study\u201d. ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.4 states that \u201cindividual data categories [including environmental interventions - authors\u2019 addition] should be further detailed to satisfy the goal of the study\u201d. In addition ISO 14042 (2000E), clause 5.3 states that \u201cthe selection of impact categories shall reflect a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the product system being studied, taking the goal and scope into consideration\u201d. Although LCA, as defined in this Guide, in principle aims for a broad coverage of environmental interventions and impact categories (see Chapter 1), these ISO quotations leave some scope for restriction. Todd et al. (1999) as well as Christiansen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7716, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Todd et al. (1999) as well as Christiansen et al. (1997) mention two main options for narrowing the coverage of environmental interventions and impacts: focusing on specific environmental impacts or issues for example); establishing criteria to be used as \u2018showstoppers\u2019 or \u2018knockouts\u2019, e.g. criteria which can result in an immediate decision when encountered during the study (a black list chemical, for example). Focusing on certain inputs or outputs, in an energy analysis for example, or on certain environmental interventions and/or specific impact categories may be very practical and defensible in the context of a specific goal, but the drawback is that important environmental factors may thus be excluded. The most comprehensive approach is, of course, to include all environmental interventions and impact categories listed by the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment (Udo de Haes et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7717, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Those environmental interventions and impacts that cannot be quantified for lack of appropriate methodologies and/or data should then be handled in a qualitative manner (and flagged where relevant), developing additional methods and/or calculating additional factors where possible. For a number of categories practical methods are as yet lacking, however. Thus, the best available practical option is to include all impact categories for which practical methods are available and all associated environmental interventions for which factors are available. Environmental interventions encountered in a study for which factors are lacking but which are deemed important in relation to the impact category considered should be handled qualitatively. An extended option here is to calculate new factors for such environmental interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7718, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An extended option here is to calculate new factors for such environmental interventions. Mode of analysis In general, the term \u2018mode of analysis\u2019 might be taken to refer to the specific manner in which methods are employed to answer a particular question. For instance, one might address a certain problem scientifically, qualitatively, dynamically or whatever the case may be. In the context of LCA, however, we employ the term to refer to the two main choices described Section 1.12 change-oriented versus descriptive analysis; occasional versus structural versus strategic choices. In Section 1.1, we chose to focus the discussion and the resulting guidelines on change-oriented analysis in support of structural decisions. Relevant examples are a choice between packaging materials (for a company), a choice between means of transport (for a frequent traveller) and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7719, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Relevant examples are a choice between packaging materials (for a company), a choice between means of transport (for a frequent traveller) and so on. It was stated that the other modes of analysis, for occasional choices or by means of a descriptive analysis, for example, may be relevant in certain decision contexts. The emphasis on change-oriented analysis and structural decisions was motivated by the need to restrict the topic, on the one hand, and by the broad scope of our interest, on the other. In certain decision contexts this mode of analysis may be inappropriate. In others, it may provide a coarse approximation to the question the LCA is designed to answer. It is difficult to specify exactly what limitations this sets on the scope and validity of the theory developed in the present 1 Another example is waste management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7720, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is difficult to specify exactly what limitations this sets on the scope and validity of the theory developed in the present 1 Another example is waste management. If a waste stream for which two management techniques are being compared is exactly the same for both techniques, the upstream waste management processes may be excluded from further analysis. 2 In that section, we also listed a number of synonyms or related terms that can be found in literature, like prospective LCA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7721, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 460, "book_page": 463, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background documents and the derived guidelines. In most cases it will suffice for practitioners to provide a qualitative justification of how the study satisfies the terms of change-oriented, structural LCA elaborated in this Guide. With respect to the Scope definition phase, one practical consequence is that the assumptions behind such change-oriented analysis and structural decisions must be justified as being reasonable. It also means that a bad match vis-\u00e0-vis these assumptions may lead to results that are inaccurate and of only limited relevance. For instance, a question like \u2018Shall I take the car or train for my business trip tomorrow\u2019 is not related to a structural choice and the method described in this Guide may give an erroneous answer when applied to such a question. In the Scope definition it is therefore important to indicate relevant mismatches and effects that may potentially lead to reduced accuracy and restricted usefulness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7722, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the Scope definition it is therefore important to indicate relevant mismatches and effects that may potentially lead to reduced accuracy and restricted usefulness. This obviously cannot take the form of quantitative analysis complete with in-depth error analyses. It will be no more than a qualitative description of possible restrictions with uncertain consequences. However, it may also lead to recommendations to address particular gaps in knowledge. In certain cases, for instance, it might be argued that the topic is more amenable to short-term optimisation using the tools of operations research (e.g. linear programming, cf. Clift et al., 1998). Level of sophistication The fact that LCA is commonly perceived as being extremely complex, time-consuming and expensive may discourage potential users (Christiansen et al., 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7723, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Level of sophistication The fact that LCA is commonly perceived as being extremely complex, time-consuming and expensive may discourage potential users (Christiansen et al., 1997). However, it is generally acknowledged that LCA does not refer to one specific method but rather to a framework for systematic and comprehensive environmental assessment of (product) systems. The SETAC-Europe LCA Screening and Streamlining Working Group (Christiansen et al., 1997) and the SETAC North America Streamlined LCA Workgroup (Todd et al., 1999) have suggested that different levels of sophistication of LCA may be required for different decision situations. In line with these suggestions, and to promote broader application of LCA, guidelines might be developed for different levels of LCA sophistication. Christiansen et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7724, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In line with these suggestions, and to promote broader application of LCA, guidelines might be developed for different levels of LCA sophistication. Christiansen et al. (1997) suggest distinguishing between simplified LCA and detailed LCA, providing the following definitions: Simplified LCA: an LCA of reduced complexity produced by the procedure of simplification. Simplification: a procedure to reduce the complexity of an LCA and so reduce the cost, time and effort required to run it. This may entail exclusion of certain life cycle stages, system inputs or outputs, or impact categories, or the use of generic data modules rather than data specific to the system under study. Simplification was considered to consist of three steps: Screening: identification of elements of the LCA that can be omitted or for which generic data can be used without significantly affecting the accuracy of the final result1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7725, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Simplifying: application of the simplifying options identified in the screening step to produce a simplified LCA. Assessing reliability: ensuring that the results are reliable enough to justify the conclusions drawn. Streamlined LCA was considered to be synonymous with simplified LCA and streamlining was considered synonymous with simplification, which seems in line with the definitions of the North American Working Group (Todd et al., 1999)2: Using qualitative as well as quantitative data, for example constructing materials-flow diagrams for the processes and materials studied but not always quantifying flows. Using surrogate data (\u2018use of secondary data sources\u2019), for example using readily available data on a similar process when data on the particular process cannot be obtained. Limiting the process flows studied to those exceeding a certain threshold value. The first option for simplification is applicable to all LCA studies and has already been discussed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7726, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Limiting the process flows studied to those exceeding a certain threshold value. The first option for simplification is applicable to all LCA studies and has already been discussed. The remaining options relate basically to the problem of the inventory data. The use of surrogate data or, better, estimates, when process-specific data are lacking has recently been extended from use of public data reports and databases to use of data based on input-output analysis: IOA (Lave et al., 1995; 1 Screening was defined by Christiansen et al. (1997) as a procedure that identifies some particular characteristic or keyissue associated with the LCA that will normallybe the subject offurther, more intensive study. Such keyissues might be: the principal environmental inputs/outputs or environmental impacts associated with the particular life cycle; the stages of the life cycle giving rise to the most significant environmental inputs and outputs; major gaps in the available data. 2 Todd et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7727, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2 Todd et al. (1999) define screening LCA as an application of LCA used primarily to determine whether additional study is needed and the required focus of that study. They define streamlined LCA as the identification of elements of an LCA that can be omitted or for which surrogate or generic data can be used without significantly affecting the accuracy of the results.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7728, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 461, "book_page": 464, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Hendrickson et al., 1998). Since this possibility has been operationalised, there are in fact no longer any grounds for excluding any flows from an LCA study (for an extensive discussion, see Section 3.8). Flows for which specific data are lacking can now be estimated using IOA models. This implies that the main simplification with respect to inventory data is to reduce the number of processes for which specific (primary) data are to be collected. These processes will henceforth be referred to as \u2018foreground processes\u2019. Processes for which no specific (primary) data are collected but for which secondary data from databases, public references or lOA-based estimates are used will be referred to as \u2018background processes\u20191. The more foreground processes are included in a specific LCA study, the more \u2018detailed\u2019 the LCA will be", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7729, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The more foreground processes are included in a specific LCA study, the more \u2018detailed\u2019 the LCA will be. Impact assessment based on a tailor-made factor approach is so straightforward, except for factors and methods that are lacking, that the duration and cost of the LCA study will not be significantly affected. There are two other issues which are not mentioned by Christiansen et al. (1997) and Todd et al. (1999) but which are likely to co-determine the amount of time and resources spent on an LCA study: procedures, e.g. a critical review; reporting, e.g. the frequency of interim reporting and the level of detail of these reports. In this Guide, from this point onwards individual sets of guidelines will be developed for two levels of sophistication, acknowledging that more than two levels might, of course, be distinguished here2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7730, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Detailed LCA: an LCA based on practical guidelines complying with ISO standards, where time and resource constraints do not play a dominant role; detailed LCAs are based on the assumptions and simplifications described in Section 1.2.2.3. Simplified LCA: an LCA based on practical guidelines not fully complying with ISO standards, e.g. standards on data collection, data quality requirements, data validation and allocation, for reasons associated with time and resource constraints; the simplified level has been introduced to provide a basis for performing faster and cheaper LCAs than detailed LCAs. For detailed LCA there are also options for extension. Options for extension: options for extending a detailed LCA to include, for example, new but not yet fully operational technologies (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7731, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For detailed LCA there are also options for extension. Options for extension: options for extending a detailed LCA to include, for example, new but not yet fully operational technologies (i.e. sensitivity analyses on these), elaboration of new impact categories, development of new characterisation and normalisation methods and/or calculation of associated factors, partial uncertainty analyses and so on. Note that applying these options for extension implies a deviation from the assumptions and simplifications described in Section 1.2.2.3 and from the practical points of departure of each LCA phase, as described in Part 2a. There is no specific set of guidelines for extended LCA, as there is for simplified and detailed LCA, but certain additional guidelines or suggestions are here provided for extending several individual steps of a detailed LCA3. Note that the definitions used in this report differ from those of Christiansen et al. (1997) and Todd et al. (1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7732, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Note that the definitions used in this report differ from those of Christiansen et al. (1997) and Todd et al. (1999). This is because streamlined and simplified LCA as defined by these respective authors are not so much methods as procedures or applications of LCA. In this Guide we have aimed to develop different sets of methodological guidelines for these different types of LCA. The definitions have therefore been adapted somewhat. 1 These pragmatic definitions deviate from other definitions such as those in the report of the SETAC Working Group on Inventory enhancement (Clift et al., 1998). 2 Simplified LCA and detailed LCA with extensions are considered here to be reasonable extremes of the possible range of quantitative LCAs. Of course, further simplification is possible, e.g. a qualitative scanning LCA (used in some ecolabeling programmes) as well as further sophistication, e.g. an LCA study in combination with a Risk Assessment study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7733, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "a qualitative scanning LCA (used in some ecolabeling programmes) as well as further sophistication, e.g. an LCA study in combination with a Risk Assessment study. These levels of LCA levels are not addressed here further, however. 3 According to Christiansen et al. (1997), it is not possible to formulate specific guidelines for simplified LCA that are applicable to all types of product systems. Although this may be true, we deem it feasible to develop generic guidelines, which need to be elaborated further in each LCA study, on how to simplify certain methodological elements.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7734, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 462, "book_page": 465, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background For the six decision situations distinguished in Section 2.2, we make the following recommendations with respect to the preferred level of sophistication: Table 2.3.1 : Recommended level of sophistication for six different decision situations. Global exploration of options Company-internal innovation Sector-wide innovation Strategic planning Test/comparison Comparative assertion disclosed to the public simplified X X X X detailed X X X X extended X As well as steering the procedural part of a study (see Section 1.3 of this Part of the Guide and Part 1 and 2a), because it will largely determine the appropriate level of sophistication, the decision situation may also be of decisive influence on the methodological choices made within an LCA study. Clearly, Scope definition is a crucial step that has major technical and procedural consequences", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7735, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Clearly, Scope definition is a crucial step that has major technical and procedural consequences. Decisions taken during this step will have a huge bearing on the significance of the LCA results and it is therefore important to reflect accordingly on the issues for Interpretation. Whether the question to be answered by the LCA is related to Occasional, Structural or Strategic Choices is of major importance for the choices of models and data later on in the study (see Chapter 1 and Section 2.3 of this chapter). The model used and the data selected should reflect the strategic scope of the decision the LCA is intended to support. As starting points for this Guide, a number of simplifications have been made with respect to time (in model relations and in the specification of inventory results), geographical aspects (e.g. location of processes and impacts) and extent of the mechanisms included (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7736, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "location of processes and impacts) and extent of the mechanisms included (e.g. fixed input/output relations, technical production function, market and social mechanisms). If these simplifications would put severe constraints on the validity of the study results, they should be reconsidered and if possible adjusted. Thus, it should for example be validated whether spatial information can justifiably be excluded from the study. It should be duly validated whether temporal, geographical and technology coverage and coverage of economic processes, environmental interventions and impact categories are consistent with and sufficiently comprehensive in relation to the goal(s) defined. The main check to be made with respect to coverage of economic processes is whether phases or subsystems can justifiably be omitted in relation to the overall goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7737, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The main check to be made with respect to coverage of economic processes is whether phases or subsystems can justifiably be omitted in relation to the overall goal of the study. Furthermore, it should be checked whether the impact categories and environmental interventions selected are the relevant ones for the (product) systems studied and whether they are in line with the goal of the study. For six decision situations, we provide recommendations above on the most appropriate level of LCA sophistication (simplified, detailed, detailed and extensions). These decision situations are defined in broad terms and which of them matches the specific goal of the intended LCA study most closely should be duly examined. If it is opted to deviate from the recommended level of sophistication, sound reasons should be given for doing so", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7738, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If it is opted to deviate from the recommended level of sophistication, sound reasons should be given for doing so. For example, a simplified LCA approach should not be chosen in an LCA study geared to a comparative assertion unless it is explicitly defined as a preliminary study to a detailed one, with the latter designed to support the comparative assertion in question. For Goal and Scope definition Lindfors et al. (1995a) list the following reporting issues: Co-functions excluded from the analysis by use of partitioning (allocation) should be reported. Final system boundaries shall be justified in relation to the goal of the study. Temporal boundaries for impacts should be given and justified. The final choice of impact categories, level of assessment and omitted categories and flows shall be reported according to the classification list given in this guideline [in this Guide, see Section 4.2]. Maximum base-line data quality requirements should be justified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7739, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Maximum base-line data quality requirements should be justified. Any deviation from initial plans may be reported. Any other limitations or assumptions of relevance to the results of the study shall be reported. Meier et al., 1997 give the following reporting guidelines for the scope phase: The boundaries, methodology, data categories and assumptions should be clearly stated and understandable. The scope of the study should be defined in sufficient detail to enable the study to address the stated objectives including stages of the life cycle, system boundaries, methodology, data requirements and assumptions. Data quality goals and any variability of data considered in the study should be clearly established and detailed.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7740, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 463, "book_page": 466, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background The methodology used should be clearly and transparently stated and any differences in methodology from a full LCA should be explained. All assumptions and value judgements should be clearly detailed along with the justification for the assumptions. These authors also provide these reporting guidelines in the form of a practitioner\u2019s checklist. PROSPECTS The discussion on descriptive and change-oriented (retrospective \u2013 prospective) analysis is still continuing and it is expected that this will give rise to new ideas in the nearer and more distant future. No specific developments are foreseen in the other areas. CONCLUSIONS Two elements can be distinguished with respect to the Scope of the study: 1. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7741, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 467, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No specific developments are foreseen in the other areas. CONCLUSIONS Two elements can be distinguished with respect to the Scope of the study: 1. 2. the main characteristics of the study, including temporal, geographical and technology coverage, coverage of economic processes, coverage of environmental interventions and impact categories, mode of analysis and level of sophistication of the study; and reporting, resulting in a Goal and Scope Report. The step Scope definition deals only with the main characteristics of the intended LCA study. Issues to be covered by a Goal and Scope Report are discussed elsewhere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7742, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 467, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With respect to these main characteristics of an LCA the following recommendations are made: temporal coverage specify base year or period according to ISO 14041 geographical coverage specify geographical area according to ISO 14041 technology coverage specify technology coverage according to ISO 14041; take current state-of-the-art technology as the baseline coverage of economic processes include all economic processes; narrow the number of economic processes included in cradle-to-gate, gate-to-gate or a difference analysis coverage of environmental interventions and impact categories include all impact categories for which practical methods are available and all environmental interventions for which characterisation factors are available, unless the scope is explicitly narrowed to a few environmental interventions and/or impact categories; include remaining impact categories and interventions qualitatively as far as possible (\u2018flags\u2019) mode of analysis change-oriented analysis for", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7743, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 467, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "environmental interventions and/or impact categories; include remaining impact categories and interventions qualitatively as far as possible (\u2018flags\u2019) mode of analysis change-oriented analysis for structural decisions level of sophistication distinction between detailed, simplified and options for extensions RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No research recommended.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7744, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 464, "book_page": 467, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 2.4 Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows TOPIC In this step the function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows are defined. The functional unit describes the primary function(s) fulfilled by a (product) system, and indicates how much of this function is to be considered in the intended LCA study. It will be used as a basis for selecting one or more alternative (product) systems that might provide these function(s). The functional unit enables different systems to be treated as functionally equivalent and allows reference flows to be determined for each of them. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) this topic was treated under the heading \u201cDefining the subject of the study\u201d (section 1.3 of 1992 Guide)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7745, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 468, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) this topic was treated under the heading \u201cDefining the subject of the study\u201d (section 1.3 of 1992 Guide). It was stated there that quantitative terms can be included in the process tree once a functional unit has been selected, implying that quantification of the reference flow was considered to be part of the Inventory analysis. The selection of the (product) systems to be compared and considered equivalent on the basis of the functional unit defined, was also an explicit element of the step \u201cDefining the subject of the study\u201d in Heijungs et al. (1992). ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.2 states the following with regard to the topic of function and functional unit (see textbox): In defining the scope of an LCA study, a clear statement on the specification of the functions (performance characteristics) of the product shall be made. The functional unit defines the quantification of these identified functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7746, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 468, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The functional unit defines the quantification of these identified functions. The functional unit shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the study. One of the primary purposes of a functional unit is to provide a reference to which the input and output data can be normalised (in a mathematical sense). Therefore the functional unit shall be clearly defined and measurable. Having defined the functional unit, the amount of product, which is necessary to fulfil the function, shall be quantified. The result of this quantification is the reference flow. The reference flow is then used to calculate the input and outputs of the system. Comparisons between systems shall be done on the basis of the same function, quantified by the same functional unit in the form of their reference flows. If additional functions of any of the systems are not taken into account in the comparison of functional units, then these omissions shall be documented", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7747, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 468, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If additional functions of any of the systems are not taken into account in the comparison of functional units, then these omissions shall be documented. For example, systems A and B perform functions x and y which are represented by the selected functional unit, but system A also performs function z which is not represented in the functional unit. It shall then be documented that function z is excluded from this functional unit. As an alternative, systems associated with the delivery of function z may be added to the boundary of system B to make the systems more comparable. In these cases, the processes selected shall be documented and justified. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. Based on these ISO 14041 requirements, the following steps are distinguished in ISO/TR 14049 (1998) for defining a functional unit and determining the reference flows: identification of functions; selection of one or more functions as the relevant one(s); defining the functional unit; determining the reference flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7748, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 468, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Below these four steps are described, based largely on ISO/TR 14049 (1998). Identification of functions In this step the purpose served by the product system, i.e. its function or functions, is identified. The starting point for this procedure may be a specific product to be studied (e.g. wall paint) or it may be the final need or goal, which may sometimes be fulfilled by several distinct products (e.g. wall decoration, which may be fulfilled by both paint and wallpaper or a combination of these). The functions are related to specific product (e.g. packaging) or process properties (e.g. transport), each of which may:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7749, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 465, "book_page": 468, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background fulfil specific needs and thereby have a use value, which typically creates economic value to the supplier of the product, affect the functioning of other economic systems (e.g. wallpaper may have a - small - insulation effect, thus affecting the heat requirements of the building). Selection of function(s) In this step the relevant functions are selected, on the basis of which a functional unit will be defined and equivalent (product) systems selected in the case of a comparative study. The functions identified in the first step need not all be relevant for a particular LCA study. Thus, out of all the possible functions those that are relevant must be identified. For a solid interior wall, for example, surface protection may be unnecessary, while colouring is a relevant function of paint. See the textbox for more examples", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7750, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For a solid interior wall, for example, surface protection may be unnecessary, while colouring is a relevant function of paint. See the textbox for more examples. The result of this step will determine which system alternatives will have to be taken into account and which not in the specific LCA study. In a comparative study, particular care will therefore have to be taken to ensure that any additional functions of each alternative are duly identified and described, and that all relevant functions are taken into account. Beverage packaging Beverage bottles have a packaging and an image function. The latter might also be relevant to take into account in some cases. Leaving out the image function of the packaging may lead to comparison of packagings that are technically similar (i.e. containing the same volume of beverage) but which the producer or customer will not accept as comparable. Hand drying Hand drying systems have a drying and a hygienic function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7751, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "containing the same volume of beverage) but which the producer or customer will not accept as comparable. Hand drying Hand drying systems have a drying and a hygienic function. Both may be relevant to take into account. Leaving out the hygienic function may be regarded as unacceptable, e.g. in the food industry, where the bacteriaremoving ability of paper towels may be regarded as such an advantage that a comparison to electrical hand drying systems may not even be considered. Source: ISO/TR 14049 (1998). If a system fulfils just one specific function, the selection of function(s) step wilt be fairly straightforward. However, systems often fulfil more than one function. For instance, the primary function of shampoos is to clean hair but other important functions may include aesthetic (hair brightness) or hygienic (dandruff) concerns, or communicative functions (just smell how I washed my hair for you). Udo de Haes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7752, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Udo de Haes et al. (1996) distinguished two kinds of multifunctionality: the product system is defined by its primary function (e.g. washing), and all other functions of the product are facultative (e.g. anti-dandruff function); the product system is intrinsically multifunctional, with even the simplest \u2018design\u2019 not being able to be reduced to one function (e.g. a food product, see below). Basically, they proposed two alternative solutions to this multifunctionality problem1: a) b) monofunctional approach: \u2018only the primary function of the system is considered, with analysis restricted to (one or more) products fulfilling this function, regardless of any other functions they might fulfil; multifunctional approach: the primary as well as other functions of the system analysed are considered (e.g. normal shampoos, anti-dandruff shampoos etc.). In the mono-functional approach, more or less recommended as a baseline by Udo de Haes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7753, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "normal shampoos, anti-dandruff shampoos etc.). In the mono-functional approach, more or less recommended as a baseline by Udo de Haes et al. (1996), only the predominant function of the product system is taken into account. In the multifunctional approach one can define the function as precisely as one wishes. However, the more strictly the functional unit is described, the fewer alternatives will be left to compare. The functional unit \u2018watching TV for 1 hour\u2019 may be specified to include more and more functions, as in \u2018watching colour TV for 1 hour\u2019, \u2018watching large-screen colour TV for 1 hour\u2019, \u2018watching large-screen colour TV with remote control for 1 hour\u2019, etc., until there are no product alternatives left to compare. There will generally be various options for drafting an accurate definition of the functional unit which at the same time covers a range of slightly different alternatives and no hard and fast rules can therefore be given on this point", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7754, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO/TR 14049 (1998) states that \u201csome functions may be so intimately linked that separation is not possible, e.g., the heat generation of a light bulb cannot be detached from its primary function lighting. In other situations, separations of two linked functions may be technically possible, but due to other aspects, the two separate functions may still not be regarded as comparable to the joint functions. An example of 1 Originally proposed for application of LCA in the EU\u2019s ecolabeling programme, these two approaches have been adapted slightly by the authors of this Guide for use in general LCA applications.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7755, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 466, "book_page": 469, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background this is the combined freezer-refrigerator, which may or may not be compared to a freezer and separate refrigerator, depending on the acceptability of this choice to the consumer (the latter option will typically take up more space than a combined option with the same internal volumes)\u201d. Lindfors et al. (1995a) state that the multifunctionality problem should be addressed by either \u201cusing a multifunctional basis [for comparison] or by allocation, i.e. partitioning of resources, emissions etc. between the primary function and co-functions not included in the analysis. This shifts the problem to the Inventory analysis, i.e. the allocation.\u201c The conclusion here is that the multifunctionality problem can be solved in several ways: 1. 2. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7756, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 470, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This shifts the problem to the Inventory analysis, i.e. the allocation.\u201c The conclusion here is that the multifunctionality problem can be solved in several ways: 1. 2. 3. Take into account the primary function only and neglect all other functions; Take into account the primary function and all, or a selected number of, additional functions; Allocate between the primary function and the additional functions not included in the analysis. There is no further rationale for preferring one or other of these options; the appropriate choice simply depends on the goal of the study. Allocation (option 3) can be applied if the functions can be physically separated, as in the case of, say, combined heat and power (co-generation) plant. If separation is not feasible or appropriate, the additional function(s) can be neglected (option 1) or added to the primary function (option 2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7757, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 470, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If separation is not feasible or appropriate, the additional function(s) can be neglected (option 1) or added to the primary function (option 2). If the goal is to compare, say, the cleaning function of a shampoo and nothing else, option 1 should be chosen and all other functions neglected. If the goal is to compare both the cleaning and the anti-dandruff function, option 2 should be adopted and the additional (anti-dandruff) function included in the functional unit. In practice, a product system may fulfil numerous functions at the same time and these examples and options will therefore have to be juggled in such a way as to yield two (or more) primary functions, again permitting one either to allocate for the other functions (option 3) or neglect them (option 1). Whatever the case, it will be clear that the eventual choice is highly dependent on the goal of the study and that the choice made should be duly justified and reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7758, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 470, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whatever the case, it will be clear that the eventual choice is highly dependent on the goal of the study and that the choice made should be duly justified and reported. The procedural aspect of the \u2018selection of function(s)\u2019 step may be very important. A number of stakeholders may have to be explicitly involved in this step of the study, for otherwise the final results may encounter acceptance problems. For a further discussion of these procedural aspects, see Section 1.3. Definition of functional unit Subsequently, the relevant functions are quantified in the functional unit. There are two key issues here: unit and quantity. Unit definition is of course related to the function or goal of the study. Defining the functional unit in terms of mass, mass per surface area or mass per surface area for X years will give different units: respectively kg, and yr. Any combination of units is in fact possible, depending on the function defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7759, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 470, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Any combination of units is in fact possible, depending on the function defined. See the textbox for examples from ISO/TR 14049 (1998) and Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1996).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7760, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 467, "book_page": 470, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Wall colouring (ISO/TR 14049, 1998) For wall colouring, the functional unit will typically have to specify the area to be covered (e.g. the type of wall (especially regarding its absorption and binding properties), the ability of the paint to hide the underlying surface (e.g. 98% opacity), and its useful life (e.g. 5 years). In the case of multifunctional units, the different quantities are sometimes linked, e.g. a wall covering insulation material may be available with a pre-coloured surface, which makes colouring unnecessary, thus supplying both insulation and colouring. The functional unit might then be: wall covering with a thermal resistance of with a coloured surface of 98% opacity, not requiring any other colouring for 5 years\". Wheat (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996) An interesting discussion of units in relation to the goal of the study can be found in a methodology report on agricultural LCAs (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7761, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If two wheat cultivation methods are compared to assess which is the environmentally sounder, the functional unit might be expressed as kg of harvested wheat. However, if the aim of the comparison is to determine the most environmentally sound form of agriculture for a certain geographical area, a better functional unit might be ha.yr wheat cultivation. In the latter case the goal is not to achieve the most efficient form of ,production but the environmentally soundest use of agricultural soil per year in a given area. These two different goals result in different units. It is another question entirely, of course, whether LCA is at all useful for questions relating to spatial planning (see section 2.2 of this Part and see Part 1). Food LCAs (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996) Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1996) give a practical suggestion on how to deal with the multifunctionality problem in defining a functional unit in food LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7762, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Food LCAs (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996) Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1996) give a practical suggestion on how to deal with the multifunctionality problem in defining a functional unit in food LCAs. They state that foodstuffs often fulfil more than one function. They are frequently a source of nutrition and a source of enjoyment at one and the same time. In establishing the functional unit of a product with more than one function, real substitution should form the basis for defining an \u201cabstract multifunction\u201d: one functional unit of one product alternative should constitute a real substitute for one functional unit of another product alternative. In a comparison of, say, Wiener schnitzel and steak, it is important to find out how much Wiener schnitzel a consumer would eat in practice as a substitute for a given quantity of steak", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7763, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In a comparison of, say, Wiener schnitzel and steak, it is important to find out how much Wiener schnitzel a consumer would eat in practice as a substitute for a given quantity of steak. If, for example, it is found in practice that an average portion of steak weighs 100 grams and an average portion of Wiener schnitzel 150 grams, the obvious approach would be to compare a portion of steak (100 grams) with a portion of Wiener schnitzel (150 grams). If in practice meat purchase is based above all on mass, however, a comparison of 100 grams of steak with 100 grams of Wiener schnitzel is the more appropriate choice. The quantity refers to the amount of function or service analysed. Basically, any arbitrary quantity can be taken, since its meaning is only relative in a comparative LCA. For reasons of Interpretation, it may be attractive to make its meaning absolute, e.g. annual (or annual individual) demand for a certain function in the Netherlands1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7764, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For reasons of Interpretation, it may be attractive to make its meaning absolute, e.g. annual (or annual individual) demand for a certain function in the Netherlands1. It will be clear that in this case the function will first have to be defined in temporal terms. Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Wenzel et al. (1997) state that the durability or the life span of the product should be taken into consideration in relation to the quantity of function/service analysed. In other words, the duration of the function provided by the product system should be taken into account. They give the example of the life span of paint in relation to the time it should protect a specific area, which is comparable to the example of wall colouring in the textbox. If, in the selection of function(s), more than one function has been selected as being relevant for the comparison in question, a multifunctional unit must be defined. The quantities of the different functions are sometimes linked, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7765, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The quantities of the different functions are sometimes linked, e.g. a wall covering insulation material may be available with a pre-coloured surface, which makes colouring unnecessary, thus supplying both insulation and colouring. The functional unit might then be: wall covering with a thermal resistance of with a coloured surface of 98% opacity, not requiring any other colouring for 5 years\u2019 (ISO/TR 14049, 1998). As noted in ISO/TR 14049 (1998), the equivalence of two products is in many cases determined by user acceptance. This acceptance, and thus whether two products are to be deemed comparable or not, may be influenced by the price of the alternatives and by the additional information given along with the products, e.g. information on their environmental performance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7766, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "information on their environmental performance. Thus, for the purposes of product development or strategic management, it may be reasonable to compare two products not intuitively regarded as equivalent but assumed to be so under specific conditions of price and information. User satisfaction may also be determined by a complex of factors, as in the case of food. As this complex of factors is often hard to disentangle, pragmatic solutions are required, as suggested by Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1996), for example; see textbox. 1 It should be noted however, that this absolute meaning is generally not valid for all preceding processes.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7767, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 468, "book_page": 471, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Defining the reference flow Having defined a functional unit, the next task is to select alternative (product) systems that can provide this functional unit and quantify the performance of these systems using so-called reference flows. In comparative studies both tasks are relevant, while in non-comparative studies only the reference flow of the single (product) system studied need be established. ISO/TR 14049 (1998) does not explicitly discuss the selection of alternative product systems for analysis in a comparative LCA study. This is often a debating point in such studies, however, and the same frequently also holds for specification of certain key parameters of the reference flow or final product (e.g. trip rate, life span, mass and volume material specifications, etc.). Lindfors et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7768, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "trip rate, life span, mass and volume material specifications, etc.). Lindfors et al. (1995a) make an important addition to the ISO standards: in their view it should be mandatory to report not only the system alternatives studied, but also those not studied. As they say: \u201cThere might be other alternatives, which are not included in the study. To gain credibility it is important that relevant alternatives that are not studied are commented upon in the report. It is not necessary to list all product or service alternatives not covered by the study, but a minimum requirement is a comment that there are other alternatives and an explanation why these have not been considered.\u201d Furthermore, they argue that \u201cthe choice of the reference alternative in comparative studies is a critical issue. An improper choice is obviously likely to give misleading results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7769, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An improper choice is obviously likely to give misleading results. Comparison of one product, based on up-to-date information, with a reference product, based on 5\u201310 years old literature data is a classic example.\u201d Comparison of a new design with a reference product based on earlier technologies is similarly improper. In such cases it would be more appropriate to compare the new design to a \u2018redesigned\u2019 reference product, or at least to a reference product updated to up-to-date technology. It will be clear that the choice of the reference product will always affect the result of comparative studies. As Lindfors et al. (1995a) state, \u201cit is important that this choice is made in such a way, that it is as representative as possible and that particularly the data qualities of compared alternatives are reasonably consistent.\u201d System performance is quantified by means of a so-called reference flow, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7770, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u201ca measure of the needed outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfill the function expressed by the functional unit\u201d (ISO 14041, 1998). The reference flow is the connecting flow between the physical output of a system and the amount of function delivered by that system as quantified in the functional unit. It is the flow upon which the whole LCA is based, for example the amount of detergent required (= reference flow) for washing a certain amount of clothes optically white (= functional unit)1. Lindfors et al. (1995a) argue that a \u201cperformance quality standard (if any), e.g. a certain level of corrosion protection provided by an industrial paint system\u201d should be taken into account in quantifying the reference flow. This is supported by the work of Udo de Haes et al. (1996). In line with the proposal of Udo de Haes et al., three types of system performance can be distinguished: a) b) c) Standard performance refers to a known standard (national, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7771, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996). In line with the proposal of Udo de Haes et al., three types of system performance can be distinguished: a) b) c) Standard performance refers to a known standard (national, e.g. DIN, or international, e.g. CEN), describing a standardised test applicable to all equivalent products: for example, the amount of detergent required to wash to a certain degree of cleanness a certain quantity of clothes with a certain degree of soiledness at temperature X, at Y degrees of hardness, etc. Recommended performance refers to manufacturers\u2019 recommendations on product operating mode: for example, the detergent dosage indicated on the packaging. Actual performance refers to the actual performance which will often depend on the consumer behaviour, e.g. the average detergent dosage used by the consumer based on consumer studies. This actual performance can be taken as an average or as a range, which may a significant factor in the final LCA results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7772, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the average detergent dosage used by the consumer based on consumer studies. This actual performance can be taken as an average or as a range, which may a significant factor in the final LCA results. The latter might be used to provide environmental advice to consumers, etc. Several examples of reference flows are described In the textbox. 1 Note that the functional unit and reference flow are different quantities. On the basis of one functional unit, different reference flows will usually be quantified for each (product) system analysed. Only in exceptional cases will reference flows and functional unit be the same, but this will then generally limit the number of products that can be compared.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7773, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 469, "book_page": 472, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Paint Reference flows are typically expressed as the number of litres required for covering the surface area as defined by the functional unit. For example, in a standardised test, paint A may be determined to cover per litre, thus requiring 2.3 litres to cover the of the functional unit, provided the conditions in the standardised test are similar to those required by the functional unit (with regard to surface type and opacity). Hand-drying In a comparison of paper towels versus an electrical hand drier, it may be irrelevant to use a standardised test based on the technical properties of the paper such as mass, absorption power and tensile strength, if the actual weight of paper used depends on the dispenser design", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7774, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A more appropriate measure would then be data collected by weighing the paper stock at the start and end of a suitable period in which the number of hands dried are determined by electronic surveillance of actual wash basins located in relevant institutions. Similarly, technical specifications of an electrical hand-drier, such as the volume of air and its temperature, may be irrelevant as a basis for calculating the reference function, if the actual running time of the device is determined by other factors, e.g. a built-in timer. Then, all that is needed is the running time and the electrical capacity of the equipment. Refrigerators For long-lived products, such as refrigerators with lifetimes of 10 or 20 years, technology development may be a factor that cannot be disregarded. One refrigerator with a lifetime of 20 years cannot simply be compared to two successive, present-day refrigerators with a lifetime of 10 years", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7775, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One refrigerator with a lifetime of 20 years cannot simply be compared to two successive, present-day refrigerators with a lifetime of 10 years. The refrigerators available 10 years from now are certain to be more energy-efficient than current models; the energy efficiency of the second refrigerator in the 10+10 years option must be established by projecting trends, while that of the 20 years option is fixed. A comparison of refrigerators may be based on their internal and/or external volume. Although the primary function is obviously related to the internal volume, the external volume may a determining factor if the refrigerator is to be fitted in an existing kitchen. If an identical external volume is demanded, the internal volume may differ because of differences in insulation thickness. This can only be adjusted for by assuming differences in user behaviour (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7776, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This can only be adjusted for by assuming differences in user behaviour (e.g. more frequent shopping trips, storage of certain items outside the refrigerator, adding another, smaller refrigerator elsewhere in the house). Each of these changes in behaviour will involve changes in different processes, which will then have to be included in the study. If, on the other hand, an identical internal volume is demanded, a change in insulation thickness may require adjustments in the physical surroundings of the refrigerator (the other kitchen furniture). If both the internal and external volume must be equal, there is obviously no adjustment feasible to accommodate the change in insulation thickness. As this demonstrates, the choice of required functions also determines the possible alternatives to be included in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7777, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As this demonstrates, the choice of required functions also determines the possible alternatives to be included in the study. Beverage packaging 100,000 half-litre one-way bottles may technically fulfil the same function of protecting 50,000 litres of beverage as 125,000 0.4-litre returnable bottles with a reuse rate of 90%. For the consumer, however, the difference in volume may be indistinguishable. If the consumer takes \u2018a bottle to be a bottle\u2019, total consumption of the beverage will decrease when the returnable bottles are introduced. In this case, the packaging cannot be studied independent of its contents. In this example there should also be iteration back to the \u201cselection of relevant function(s)\u201d step, or, alternatively, the goal of the study should be redefined, allowing for a comparison of beverage plus packaging taking into account the changes in consumption. Source: ISO/TR 14049 (1998). For even more examples see also ISO/TR 14049 (1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7778, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: ISO/TR 14049 (1998). For even more examples see also ISO/TR 14049 (1998). In the case of a multifunctional unit, the reference flows must be quantified in such a way that they fulfil all the functions included in the functional unit. This may imply that, although one of the functions can already be fulfilled using smaller amounts of the reference flow, the amount of reference flow has to be further increased to fulfil the other functions. If this is not acceptable, to the commissioning or interested parties, for example, the multifunctional problem should be solved by allocation (including system expansion) rather than by including the extra functions in the functional unit. Although the examples and phrasing of ISO/TR 14049 certainly provide a degree of insight, they still do not pin down precisely what a reference flow is or how it relates to a functional unit. Let us therefore expand and focus the discussion a little more", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7779, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Let us therefore expand and focus the discussion a little more. Consider a comparison of two systems for lighting a room with the same amount of light: an incandescent lamp and a fluorescent lamp. Suppose we have defined the functional unit as lighting a standard room for 1 year with a certain flux of light. The flow diagrams of the two product alternatives then contain the two use processes as follows (see Figure 2.4.1).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7780, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 470, "book_page": 473, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Following the ISO examples, the reference flows would be 3 incandescent lamps for the first system and 2 fluorescent lamps for the second. However, lamps are only one of the input flows to the respective use processes, electricity being the other. It might therefore equally well be argued that the reference flow for the first system is 200 kWh of electricity, for the second 100 kWh. Or one could say there is a set of reference flows for each system. Another complication in this ISO-based procedure is that assignment of these numbers (3 incandescent lamps, 2 fluorescent lamps, etc.) depends on how the process data are specified and is therefore part of the Inventory analysis; thus, it cannot take place in the prior Goal and scope definition step. In this Guide the concept of reference flow has therefore been adapted somewhat. The use processes and quantified flows are specified in the Inventory analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7781, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 474, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this Guide the concept of reference flow has therefore been adapted somewhat. The use processes and quantified flows are specified in the Inventory analysis. Goal and scope definition is concerned with a different issue: in this case, the specification that 1000 hours of light with an incandescent lamp are to be compared with 1000 hours of light with a fluorescent lamp. These two items then constitute the reference flows for the two systems. They form two alternative ways of supplying the functional unit (1000 hours of light). These alternatives, and thus these two reference flows, may be referred to as \u2018products\u2019 in the generalised sense in which a barber or teacher supplies a product. In this sense, ISO's definition of a reference flow (\"the amount of product which is necessary to fulfill the function\")1 can even be retained. 1 Note that this definition of reference flow, on p. 5 of ISO 14041 (1998), differs from the definition on p. 2 of the same document.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7782, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 471, "book_page": 474, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Summarising, reference flows are product-specific flows having the functional unit as a common denominator: reference flow for system 1: 1000 hours of light with an incandescent lamp; reference flow for system 2: 1000 hours of light with a fluorescent lamp; functional unit: 1000 hours of light; process data (3 incandescent lamps, 2 fluorescent lamps, 200 kWh electricity, etc.): to be specified in the step \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2019, in the Inventory analysis phase. One interesting advantage of this modification is that it allows behavioural differences between the alternative systems to be explicitly incorporated in the specification of the reference flows. Tube lights, for instance, tend to be switched off less frequently than other lamps", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7783, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 475, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Tube lights, for instance, tend to be switched off less frequently than other lamps. The function \u2018lighting a kitchen for 365 evenings\u2019 may then well involve 3000 hours of tube light versus 1000 hours of light with a different lamp, with subsequent explicit consequences for the reference flows. The consequences further on in the Inventory analysis relate to well-defined flows for different amounts of light and electricity. Based on the above reasoning we come to the following definitions for the functional unit and the reference flow (adapted from ISO 14040): Functional unit: quantified service provided by the product system(s) under study for use as a reference basis in a life cycle assessment study. Reference flow: quantified flow generally associated with the use phase of a product system and representing one way (i.e. by a specific product alternative) of obtaining the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7784, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 475, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Reference flow: quantified flow generally associated with the use phase of a product system and representing one way (i.e. by a specific product alternative) of obtaining the functional unit. Given these adapted definitions, the discussion on actual, recommended and standard performance (and related issues) is an issue connected with the step \u2018Data collection and relating data to unit processes\u2019, in the Inventory analysis. Guidelines on this subject are therefore given in Part 2a, Section 3.3.6. With respect to reporting, Lindfors et al. (1995a) list the following issues for the step Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows: The main user function(s) forming the basis for the LCA shall be clearly defined and reported. The functional unit(s) of the studied system(s) shall properly describe the services provided and be clearly defined and reported. A brief description of the product group under study (functions) is recommended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7785, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 475, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A brief description of the product group under study (functions) is recommended. The studied product or service alternatives shall be described and the choice justified. Relevant alternatives not covered by the study should be commented upon or listed in the report. If no relevant alternative exists, it is equally important to make such a statement. Meier et al. (1997) give the following reporting guideline: The functional unit of the system under study should be unambiguously defined and should reflect the actual function of the system in a measurable and quantitative way. The functional unit should be relevant to the goal of the study. PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. CONCLUSIONS Concluding, we recommend following the stepwise structure proposed in ISO/TR 14049 (1998) with a minor addition: Identification of functions identify all relevant functions of the product systems studied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7786, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 475, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Selection of one or more functions as relevant select one or more functions as the relevant functions for comparison; if more than one function is relevant: take into account the primary function only and neglect all other functions, or take into account the primary function and (all) the additional functions, or allocate between the primary function and the additional functions, selecting the appropriate option for the particular goal of the study.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7787, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 472, "book_page": 475, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Defining the functional unit specify selected function(s) in relevant SI or SI-derived units; determine an arbitrary or absolute (e.g. annual) quantity. Determining equivalent alternative (product) systems and reference flows determine and specify the alternative systems studied in terms of the key parameters of the reference flow (e.g. trip rate, life span, mass and volume material specifications, etc). All four steps are relevant for comparative studies and comparative assertions. In non-comparative studies the first step is optional and may be omitted, since only one system is then considered regardless of the functions it fulfils. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research How to deal with the divergence between standard, recommended and actual use. Long-term research Incorporating monetarily defined functional units in the LCA framework. Describing \u2018lifestyles\u2019 in terms of operational functional units.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7788, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 473, "book_page": 476, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 3. Inventory analysis 3.1 General introduction In the Goal and scope definition phase of an LCA the basic groundplan for the study is established, as discussed in Chapter 2. The second phase of an LCA is the Inventory analysis (see Figure 3.1.1). According to ISO 14041 (1998E) this phase is concerned with \u201cthe collection of the data necessary to meet the goals of the defined study\u201d and with the associated \u201cdata collection and calculation procedures\u201d and \u201cis essentially an inventory of input/output data with respect to the system being studied.\u201d The aim is thus to prepare an inventory, first qualitative then quantitative,of all the processes involved in the life cycle of the product (or function) system(s) under study (herafter: \u2018product system\u2019), detailing all relevant interactions with the environment. The Inventory analysis is generally the most time and resource consuming phase of an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7789, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 477, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The Inventory analysis is generally the most time and resource consuming phase of an LCA. The product system, defined by ISO 14041 (1998E) as \u201ca collection of unit processes connected by flows of intermediate products which performs one or more defined functions\u201d, affects the environment via environmental interventions such as resource extractions or emissions of hazardous substances. The basic element of the Inventory analysis is thus the unit process. The term unit process refers to any kind of activity producing an economically valuable output such as steel, electricity or bread, or providing an economically valuable service such as transport or waste management. Products, services or resources, etc. are converted into other products, services and emissions. Every product and service used is fed by", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7790, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 474, "book_page": 477, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background other unit processes and every product and service produced (particularly waste to be processed) feeds in to other processes.1 These supply and consumption processes are by definition included as part of the product system when the complete life cycle is considered. Proceeding from the reference flow specified in the goal and scope phase (see Figure 2.4.1), upstream and downstream unit processes are identified based on the economic in- and outflows of a process. The first process is usually a use-related process, e.g. use of a refrigerator, watching television, etc. The processes collected in this way together constitute the life cycle of the product system investigated. If more product systems are studied in a given study, these operations are repeated for each system. The processes in the life cycle can be arranged in the form of a flow diagram. A flow diagram is a systematic arrangement of the main processes which make up the product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7791, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The processes in the life cycle can be arranged in the form of a flow diagram. A flow diagram is a systematic arrangement of the main processes which make up the product system. In drawing the flow diagram, first the boundary between the product system and the environment system needs to be determined. For example, it has to be decided whether landfill and agricultural production are to be included as unit processes within the system boundary. Next, the characteristics and data of each process included in the flow diagram have to be determined. Some processes and their characteristics are available in publicly accessible databases or literature. Nevertheless, many data will have to be collected in dedicated literature studies. Process modeling (e.g. process engineering models) may also be useful. Particular attention should be given to the quality of the data collected, by comparison with data from other, similar sources and by compiling mass and energy balances, for example", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7792, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Particular attention should be given to the quality of the data collected, by comparison with data from other, similar sources and by compiling mass and energy balances, for example. Next, the problem of processes supplying multiple functions needs to be addressed. The production of chlorine, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen by electrolysis of common salt is an example of a multiple process. Since these products are produced in fixed quantities and since product systems do not generally need both products, at least not precisely in the fixed quantities, an allocation step is required. In this allocation step the multiple process is often divided into two or more single processes, purely for analytical purposes. Finally, the quantity of each single function required by the product system is calculated for each single process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7793, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, the quantity of each single function required by the product system is calculated for each single process. All products and materials are balanced by multiplying each process by the appropriate number: the volume produced is exactly that required in the subsequent process and all that remains at a systems level is a service which is provided externally, that is, the functional unit. Their aggregation across all the processes produces the inventory table. The general operating procedure for the Inventory analysis as briefly introduced above is the one generally encountered in LCA software programs. To be complete, however, the Inventory analysis should include a number of additional steps, among them preparatory steps, to be performed before any data is entered or software calculations made, and several steps relating to procedures, reporting and other \u2018miscellaneous\u2019 issues", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7794, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As elaborated in this Guide, the Inventory analysis therefore distinguishes ten steps (see Section 1.4): Procedures (no special section in this Part; see Chapter 1); Compilation of flow diagram and process data Economy - environment system boundary (Section 3.2, p. 479); Flow diagram (Section 3.3, p. 483); Format and data categories (Section 3.4, p. 485); Data quality (Section 3.5, p. 491); Data collection and relating data to unit processes (Section 3.6, p. 495); Data validation (Section 3.7, p. 499); Cut-off (Section 3.8, p. 500); Allocation Multifunctionality and allocation (Section 3.9, p. 505); Calculation of inventory results Calculation method (Section 3.10, p. 522). Further points of departure in elaborating these Inventory analysis steps are ISO documents 14040 (1997E) and particularly ISO 14041 (1998E) with respect to the methodological framework and the issues for Inventory analysis proposed there", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7795, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Below, the ISO proposals are further operationalised, taking into account the work of the SETAC Working Group on Inventory enhancement (Clift et al., 1998) and relevant proposals by other authors. Deviations from ISO arise only if there are significant reasons for doing so. All steps distinguished above will be discussed according to a fixed format: \u2018Topic\u2019, \u2018Developments in the last decade\u2019, \u2018Prospects\u2019, \u2018Conclusions\u2019 and \u2018Research recommendations\u2019. As explained in Section 1.5 1 For brevity and readability, we shall often write \u2018process\u2019 instead of \u2018unit process\u2019.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7796, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 475, "book_page": 478, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background the step dealing with procedures is not discussed separately in this chapter, but in integrated fashion, for all phases, in Section 1.3. It should be noted once again that our focus here is the change-oriented type of LCA. Moreover, the steps elaborated below assume a number of simplifications in the modeling set-up, as discussed earlier in Section 1.2 of this Part of the Guide. The key simplifications introduced are: use of linear relations and exclusion of most economic, socio-cultural and technological mechanisms. Thus, fixed input/output relations and a \u2018technical\u2019 production function are employed. In this sense the inventory model specified here is a mechanical one. 3.2 Economy - environment system boundary TOPIC In LCA each and every flow should be followed until its economic inputs and outputs have all been translated into environmental interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7797, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 479, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.2 Economy - environment system boundary TOPIC In LCA each and every flow should be followed until its economic inputs and outputs have all been translated into environmental interventions. The term \u2018environmental interventions\u2019 refers to flows entering the (product) system (natural resources, for example, but also land use) which have been drawn from the environment without prior human transformation, or flows of materials leaving the (product) system which are discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation (Figure 3.2.1). Environmental interventions are thus flows crossing the boundary between the economy (= product system) and the environment. To create a clear distinction between the product system and the environment and between elementary and other flows, the economy-environment boundary should be explicitly defined. Whenever a system is studied, system boundaries are needed to separate the system from the rest of the world", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7798, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 479, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whenever a system is studied, system boundaries are needed to separate the system from the rest of the world. In LCA Inventory analysis three types of boundaries can be distinguished (Heijungs et al., 1992): 1. 2. 3. the boundary between the product system and the environment system; the boundary between processes that are relevant and irrelevant to the product system (cut-off); the boundary between the product system under consideration and other product systems (allocation). The first of these will be discussed here, the second under the heading \u2018Cut-off and data estimation\u2019 (Section 3.8) and the third under the heading \u2018Multifunctionality and allocation\u2019 (Section 3.9). Although some boundaries of the first type are very clear, there are major areas of ambiguity with regard to the boundary between the product and environment system, as is illustrated by the cases of landfill sites and agricultural soil. These issues of ambiguity will be examined below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7799, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 479, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These issues of ambiguity will be examined below. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE The issue of system boundary definition is treated in two different sections of ISO 14041: in \u2018Scope of the study\u2019: 5.3.3 Initial System boundaries, as part of the Goal and scope definition; in \u2018Calculation procedures\u2019: 6.4.5 Refining the system boundaries, as part of the Inventory analysis.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7800, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 476, "book_page": 479, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background The definition of the boundary between the product system and the environment system is Heijungs et al. (1992) The system boundary between the product system and the environment system is explicitly mentioned in the 1992 guide (pp. 27\u201328): a distinction is made between economic and environmental processes. It is stated that almost any activity incurring costs is an economic process; treatment steps occurring after a substance has been introduced into the environment (e.g. purification of river water to produce drinking water) should not be included in the product system causing the emission; landfilling of waste is to be considered an economic process; processes relating to agriculture, livestock management, forestry, etc. are to be considered economic processes; in processes involving personnel, consideration might be given to including additional physiological and economic processes (increased metabolism, eating and drinking, commuting etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7801, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "implied in the statement \u201cIdeally, the product system should be modeled in such a manner that inputs and outputs at [its] boundary are elementary flows\u201d (Section 5.3.3). An elementary flow is defined in ISO 14040 (1997E) as \u201cmaterial or energy entering the system being studied, which has been drawn from the environment without previous human transformation; material or energy leaving the system being studied, which is discarded into the environment without subsequent human transformation\u201d. ISO thus makes an explicit statement here as to how this boundary should be defined; the key distinction is \u201chuman transformation\u201d. In defining the product system-environment boundary there is no consideration for the \u2018grey\u2019 area ambiguity, however, with questions such as \u201cdoes the agricultural topsoil belong to the environment or to the product system studied\u201d remaining unanswered", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7802, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the Nordic Guidelines (Lindfors et al.,1995a,b), the boundaries between the Technosphere and the Biosphere are defined similarly to the boundaries between the product system and the environment system in Heijungs et al. (1992). The authors mention that \"any change in natural production rate caused by a technical activity should thus be accounted for\". Furthermore, \"natural biomass production as well as emissions from landfills should in principle be included in the inventory, whenever relevant\". According to these authors the time horizon for emissions from landfill should be set by the temporal boundary defined in the Scope definition. The report of the Dutch Platform \u2018LCA & Waste\u2019 (Udo de Haes et al., 1997) describes the results of discussions on modeling end-of-life processes in LCA among a group of some 30 Dutch LCA experts between November 1995 and September 1996", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7803, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The group of experts concluded that landfill sites could either be regarded as part of the product system or as part of the environment system. The choice depends on the degree of control at the site: a very well controlled, i.e. managed, site might be regarded as part of the product system, an uncontrolled site as part of the environment system. We conclude with respect to landfill sites that a useful distinction can be made between controlled and uncontrolled sites. The latter should be regarded as part of the environment system, with flows to them regarded entirely as emissions, while controlled sites form part of the product/function system. Actual estimation of landfill emissions is covered in Section 3.6 on data collection. Emissions from controlled landfills should be quantified to an infinite time horizon in detailed LCA studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7804, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Actual estimation of landfill emissions is covered in Section 3.6 on data collection. Emissions from controlled landfills should be quantified to an infinite time horizon in detailed LCA studies. However, the actual duration of relevant emissions will be far shorter than eternity, depending on the types of wastes involved and landfill site conditions. Following an initial period, all wastes exhibit a tendency towards reduced emission activity or, conversely, towards increased immobilisation. For household wastes, for example, a time horizon of 200 years seems to cover virtually all emissions, in temperate climates, as far as organic substances are concerned. In very dry and hot regions, this time horizon may be much longer. In the very long run, as considered in steady-state modeling, leaching will remove virtually all inorganics such as heavy metals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7805, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In very dry and hot regions, this time horizon may be much longer. In the very long run, as considered in steady-state modeling, leaching will remove virtually all inorganics such as heavy metals. For organic chemicals, emissions from landfill should therefore be integrated over 200 years and for inorganic chemicals, over infinity. The latter means that each input of inorganic chemicals to landfill is regarded as an emission to soil. As with fate modeling, it is questionable whether extremely long time horizons are entirely relevant for interpretation with respect to inorganics. Hence, it may be useful to perform a sensitivity analysis on emissions over the first 200 years only (\u2018cut-off\u2019) or to discount them in some, as yet unspecified, way (cf. Finnveden, 1999b). With respect to the economy-environment boundary in agriculture there have been several developments have in the past decade", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7806, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finnveden, 1999b). With respect to the economy-environment boundary in agriculture there have been several developments have in the past decade. The report \u2018Application of LCA to Agricultural Products\u2019 (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996) focused on LCAs for agricultural products. One of the subjects discussed in this report was the boundary between the product system and the environment. There it was opted to include the agricultural soil in the environment system, for the main reason that damage to the soil should be regarded as an", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7807, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 477, "book_page": 480, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background environmental impact in order to differentiate between systems differing in their impact on soil quality1. Furthermore, it was opted to regard the harvested portion of the crop as an economic output of arable farming and thus as part of the economic system, with the remaining portion being regarded as part of the environment system. A consequence of this choice is that use of pesticides is regarded as an emission to the environment, except for pesticides which end up on the harvested crop. Horticultural production in which no natural soil is used for production belongs entirely to the economy, except for the soil itself, which remains part of the environment system. Another argument for defining the soil as part of the environment stems from the principle of \u2018multifunctionality\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7808, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Another argument for defining the soil as part of the environment stems from the principle of \u2018multifunctionality\u2019. This principle, regularly applied in the context of public policy, implies that the quality of, say, agricultural soil should be maintained at such a level that it can also fulfil other functions, including ecological functions. If land is taken out of agricultural use, the quality of the soil should be such as to permit other types of land use. Other choices are possible here. Audsley et al. (1994), for example, opted to regard soil as part of the economy, right down to the depth of the water table, because soil is an integral part of farming systems. In specific agricultural studies, the analysis of the top layer may be of importance. In general LCA a simple system boundary excluding soil seems adequate enough. In this Guide the multifunctionality principle is followed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7809, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In general LCA a simple system boundary excluding soil seems adequate enough. In this Guide the multifunctionality principle is followed. Thus, agriculture and forestry are taken to be economic processes, agricultural and forestry soils remain part of the environment system, the harvested portion of the crop flows to other processes in the economic system while the non-harvested portion remains in the environment system. System boundary problems may also occur when pollutants are moved from one environmental compartment to another, as is the case when contaminated sediments from surface waters are transferred to adjacent land, i.e. soil (Gorree & Kleijn, 1996; Blonk & Van Ewijk, 1996) when waterways and harbours are dredged. Since no \u2018new\u2019 pollutants are added to the environment (no new emissions take place), the effects would not be visible in an LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7810, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since no \u2018new\u2019 pollutants are added to the environment (no new emissions take place), the effects would not be visible in an LCA. In the report of Gorree & Kleijn, however, it is proposed that sediment removal from surface waters be treated in the same way as uptake by production forests: as a negative emission (see textbox). The distribution of this sediment on the surrounding soil is subsequently treated as a \u2018positive\u2019 emission to the terrestrial environment. Carbon dioxide, as a naturally occurring compound or an anthropogenic emission, takes part in the so-called geochemical carbon cycle. Short and long carbon cycles can be distinguished. Reforestry, for example, is a process with a short carbon cycle: during tree growth a certain amount of atmospheric is fixed, but is ultimately released (as or when the wood is landfilled, incinerated or decays naturally", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7811, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The most appropriate way to treat short carbon cycles is to view them as cycles and thus, at the systems level, subtract the fixation of during tree growth from the emitted during waste treatment of discarded wood and to quantify the emitted (this balancing of carbon as an element in compounds such as and is necessary because and have different characterisation factors with respect to global warming A detailed elaboration of this kind of short carbon cycle has been developed by Virtanen and Nillson (1993) in their study on paper board. An example of a long carbon cycle is geochemical carbon fixation in fossil fuels and atmospheric release of carbon in the form of and when these fuels are burned. With long carbon cycles, carbon fixation is too slow a process and and emissions should be accounted for in their entirety, without further balancing against prior fixation. Source: Guin\u00e9e (1995)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7812, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With long carbon cycles, carbon fixation is too slow a process and and emissions should be accounted for in their entirety, without further balancing against prior fixation. Source: Guin\u00e9e (1995). Concluding, in agricultural LCAs a distinction between \u2019negative\u2019 and \u2018positive\u2019 emissions may be relevant. In every LCA, moreover, it is very important to ensure that system boundaries are defined consistently throughout, i.e. with respect to characterisation factors and normalisation factors (cf. Section 4.6). A final issue of possible ambiguity with respect to system boundaries concerns waste water treatment plants (WWTP). Bearing in mind the definition of unit process, a WWTP should be regarded as an economic process. This implies that releases to a sewage system are not considered as an emission into the environment, but as a flow to the unit process WWTP. Only the releases of treated waste water from the WWTP to surface (fresh) water are taken to be emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7813, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Only the releases of treated waste water from the WWTP to surface (fresh) water are taken to be emissions. Because WWTP process data are sometimes difficult to obtain, in practice waste water treatment will sometimes be omitted from the flow diagram. In such cases this should be clearly reported and justified, however. 1 An exception here is horticultural production, where production generally takes place on an artificial substrate rather than natural soil. Such production belongs entirely to the economy.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7814, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 478, "book_page": 481, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Clear and detailed reporting of choices, data and assumptions is crucial for the entire Inventory analysis. This is particularly important with respect to the definition of the economy-environment boundary, since sound decision-making demands clarity on what has been included in the environment and what not. General reporting guidance is provided by a number of documents. The general requirements of ISO 14040, clause 6, cited in Chapter 2, also apply here. In addition, ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 8 gives the following requirements for a third-party study report on Inventory analysis: \u201cThe results of an LCI study shall be fairly, completely and accurately reported to the intended audience as described by the relevant parts of clause 6 of ISO 14040 (1997E). If a third-party report is required, it shall cover all items marked with an asterisk", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7815, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 482, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If a third-party report is required, it shall cover all items marked with an asterisk. All additional items should be considered.\u201d More specifically with respect to system boundaries, we have the following recommendations by Lindfors et al. (1995a): The initial system boundaries chosen in relation to the goal and scope of the study shall be reported. The detailed system boundaries, viz. geographical, life-cycle and technosphere-biosphere boundaries, shall be described and justified in full. The SETAC-Europe Case studies Working Group (Meier et al., 1997) give the following (minimum) reporting guidelines: Systems and system boundaries should be clearly defined for all stages of the product system life cycle, including inputs, processing routes, spatial and temporal considerations. Ancillary data for the product system should be clearly defined. Exclusions should be stated and justified along with a consideration of the significance of any exclusions on the outcome of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7816, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 482, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Exclusions should be stated and justified along with a consideration of the significance of any exclusions on the outcome of the study. PROSPECTS If some degree of differentiation as to the time of impacts is to be included in the Impact assessment phase, this will have consequences for the Inventory analysis in terms of how the relevant time horizon is to be specified. How this is to be combined with steady-state modeling is a conceptually complex question. No other developments are foreseen for this topic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7817, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 482, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "How this is to be combined with steady-state modeling is a conceptually complex question. No other developments are foreseen for this topic. CONCLUSIONS Concluding, with respect to some of the principal ambiguities regarding the boundary between the economy and the environment we recommend the following: agricultural production soil and unharvested parts are allocated to the environment forestry soil and unharvested parts are allocated to the environment natural forests growth of natural forests is not part of the economy wild fish, game, fruits, herbs growth is not part of the economy The distinction between positive and negative emissions is relevant for chemicals absorbed from the environment or consituting an emission from a human activity, such as dredging or agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7818, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 482, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Dredging for specific purposes (shipping channels, clay for bricks or dykes) should be included as a negative emission (from the environment) , and as a positive emission when returned to the environment (particularly when this is to a different environmental compartment). In agriculture, and particularly in forestry (note : not natural forests), sequestering of in biomass should be considered a negative emission, while or released during waste processing of agricultural products should be taken as a positive emission. for controlled landfills, emissions of organics should be integrated over 200 years, emissions of inorganics ad infinitum; for uncontrolled landfills, all inputs of potentially hazardous chemicals should be considered as immediate emissions to the environment. As with fate modeling, it is questionable whether extremely long time horizons are entirely relevant for interpretation with respect to inorganics. Hence, it positive/negative emissions landfill emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7819, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 479, "book_page": 482, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background may be useful to perform a sensitivity analysis on emissions over the first 200 years only (\u2018cut-off\u2019) or to discount for them in some, as yet unspecified, way. mining tips to be treated in the same way as landfill waste water treatment plants WWTPs should be regarded as an economic process, implying that only the releases of treated waste water from the WWTP to surface (fresh) water are considered as emissions. Because WWTP process data are sometimes difficult to obtain, in practice waste water treatment will sometimes be omitted from the flow diagram. In such cases this should be clearly reported and justified, however. In the case of landfill and mining tips, when boundaries are still unclear we recommend adopting a pragmatic approach. Mining wastes disposed of in mines can be regarded as returning to the lithosphere and do not then constitute emissions (provided the mine is still as isolated from its biotic surroundings as it was before it was opened)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7820, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 483, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Regulated use of waste materials on soil substrates, as when mining wastes are applied under permit for the foundation of roads or buildings, do not constitute emissions either, although subsequent emissions from the new road structure should be duly recorded. At controlled landfill sites, only the emissions out of the site are recorded, in the way specified above. At non-regulated landfill sites, inflowing wastes are also treated in their entirety as emissions. For partially controlled sites, a mix may be applied. Finally, there is the question of how to treat short and long carbon cycles. Short carbon cycles should preferably be regarded as cycles and thus, at the systems level, the fixation of during tree growth should be subtracted from the emitted during waste treatment of discarded wood and any emissions should be quantified. For long carbon cycles, and emissions should be recorded in their entirety, without further balancing against prior fixation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7821, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 483, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For long carbon cycles, and emissions should be recorded in their entirety, without further balancing against prior fixation. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Elaborate the specification of temporal aspects in a steady-state modeling context, especially for landfill and long-cycle systems, inter alia in relation to temporal aspects of Impact assessment. Detail the boundaries between Technosphere, Biosphere and Lithosphere in a more systematic manner. 3.3 Flow diagram TOPIC The flow diagram provides an outline of all the major unit processes to be modeled, including their interrelationships. It is helpful in understanding and completing a system to describe the system using a process flow diagram. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7822, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 483, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is helpful in understanding and completing a system to describe the system using a process flow diagram. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The life cycle consists of interlinked economic processes, each process input coming either from another process or directly from the environment and each process output flowing either to another process or to the environment, at least after allocation. Economic processes are taken to comprise resource extraction, production of materials and components, product manufacture, product use and associated waste processing, including recycling and reuse, and a variety of ancillary processes, such as transport and electricity generation. Any processes omitted should also be specified. In practice a summary flow diagram will first be compiled that includes only the key processes of resource extraction, product manufacture and associated transport", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7823, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 483, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In practice a summary flow diagram will first be compiled that includes only the key processes of resource extraction, product manufacture and associated transport. The interconnected processes underlying each of these are then represented separately in partial flow diagrams, allowing the practitioner to \u2018zoom in\u2019 to the items of interest. With respect to the topic of flow diagram ISO states only that \u201cit is helpful to describe the system using a process flow diagram showing the unit processes and their interrelationships\u201d. In addition to this initial flow diagram, preparation of \u2018specific\u2019 flow diagrams is discussed as the first step in the paragraph on Preparing for data collection (6.2): \"drawing of specific process flow diagrams that outline all unit processes to be modeled, including interrelationships\".", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7824, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 480, "book_page": 483, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Drawing up an initial flow diagram can be regarded as a practical aid to data collection. As it will only become apparent which economic flows and delivering processes are relevant to a particular study as data are retrieved, compiling a definitive flow diagram will be a highly iterative process. Initially, the diagram will cover only the process delivering the functional unit and the adjacent processes supplying the main raw materials and treating the principal waste flows, and their respective interconnections. Even after all the relevant data have been collected, though, a truly comprehensive diagram will in practice be impossible to compile. Given the common occurrence of process loops and multi-outputs, such a diagram would simply include too many unit processes in overly complex interrelationship", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7825, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 484, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Given the common occurrence of process loops and multi-outputs, such a diagram would simply include too many unit processes in overly complex interrelationship. In most cases, then, the only workable solution is to draw up a basic flow diagram showing the main constituent unit processes, from which to \u2018zoom in\u2019 to the underlying unit processes, represented separately in partial flow diagrams of their own. Wegener Sleeswijk & Huppes (1994) propose the following conventions for constructing flow diagrams. unit processes are represented as boxes; economic flows are represented as arrows between such boxes; economic flows enter a unit process at the top of the box and leave a unit process at the bottom of the box; the main direction of flow through the flow diagram is top-down, although recursive flows are in the reverse direction; all boxes contain text labels with the name of the process, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7826, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 484, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u2018production of sulphuric acid\u2019; arrows are labeled only in so far as their name is required for an unambiguous understanding of the flow diagram; a flow diagram should preferably not contain more than 20 boxes; use of partial flow diagrams may be useful; for each box, it should then be clearly indicated whether it represents an undivided unit process or an aggregated unit process, possibly elaborated elsewhere in a partial flow diagram. These rules should be seen as recommendations for an optimum use of flow diagrams rather than as binding guidelines. For reporting flow diagrams Lindfors et al. (1995a) provide the following recommendations: The studied systems should be defined and reported using flow diagrams at the maximum level of detail used in the study. Sub-systems may be aggregated to higher levels if appropriate, as long as detailed descriptions are provided (e.g. in an appendix). On this issue Meier et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7827, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 484, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Sub-systems may be aggregated to higher levels if appropriate, as long as detailed descriptions are provided (e.g. in an appendix). On this issue Meier et al. (1997) recommend that the process flow diagrams reported describe the entire system under study and include system boundaries, major inputs, products and co-products, as well as the main production sequence, ancillary materials and energy/fuel production. PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen for this topic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7828, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 484, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen for this topic. CONCLUSIONS Concluding, we recommend: to distinguish between an initial flow diagram, at the level of aggregated processes for each life cycle stage, and a detailed flow diagram, at the level of (possibly) unit processes; to denote (aggregated) processes by boxes and economic flows by arrows and adopt the other recommendations of Wegener Sleeswijk & Huppes (1994); to exclude environmental flows from flow diagrams, for pragmatic reasons; and to draft the flow diagram or diagrams as an iterative process during the data collection step. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No specific research is recommended.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7829, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 481, "book_page": 484, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 3.4 Format and data categories TOPIC A key task of the Inventory phase is the collection of process data. This usually involves large quantities of data in electronic form, retrieved in part from databases set up by others. To render these comparable and mutually consistent a standard data format must be developed. All the various data categories should be assigned a specific place in this format and a general description given of each to facilitate and guide data entry and retrieval. Ideally, the data formats used for data exchange (paper version of technical software format) and for (software) processing should be identical. However, as software packages differ in terms of underlying data model (often unspecified), no overall format for data processing can be recommended. Such a format can be drawn up for data exchange, however, reducing substantially the efforts required for processing with specific software", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7830, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such a format can be drawn up for data exchange, however, reducing substantially the efforts required for processing with specific software. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Although ISO 14041 (1998E) does not distinguish a separate \u2018format\u2019 step, clause 5.3.4 covers \u2018Description of data categories\u2019 which is clearly related. This, in Annex A4 of ISO 14041 (1998E), an example is given of a Data Sheet for a Unit Process. This Annex is provided for purely illustrative purposes. In the accompanying text it is stressed that there are no fixed rules for either the number of data categories or the amount of additional information required on the quality and uncertainty margins of the data. The format given in the example has entry spaces for material, energy and water inputs, material outputs (including products) and emissions to air, water and land as well as other releases (e.g. noise, radiation, vibration, odour, waste heat, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7831, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "noise, radiation, vibration, odour, waste heat, etc.). There is also space for reporting other characteristic data on the process in question. On the topic of data categories ISO 14041 (1998E) clause 4.4 states, furthermore, that: \u201cthe major headings under which data can be classified include: energy inputs, raw material inputs, ancillary inputs, other physical inputs; products; emissions to air, emissions to water, emissions to land, other environmental aspects.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7832, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 482, "book_page": 485, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Other data categories for which input and output data may be collected include, for example, noise and vibration, land use, radiation, odour and waste heat.\u201d As mentioned, ISO 14041 has little to say on data format as such. It is nonetheless a very important issue, particularly when it comes to data exchange. Streamlining of data exchange can lead to substantial savings on both the time and resources required for an LCA study. A format is characterised by: 1. 2. 3. its conceptual, i.e. primary structure; the items it comprises: the spaces to be filled in by the user; the rules for filling the spaces: \u2018the cookbook\u2019. When drawing up a format, due allowance should be made for the fact that various different kinds of process data will be employed in any given LCA. Raw process data (from a variety of sources with their own data formats) can be processed by various procedures into four basic forms of process data; 1. 2. 3. 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7833, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Raw process data (from a variety of sources with their own data formats) can be processed by various procedures into four basic forms of process data; 1. 2. 3. 4. unallocated unit process data; allocated unit process data; (partial) system data retraceable to unit process data (partial) system data irreversibly aggregated. In principle, these various kinds of data set have different format requirements. In the case of 4. partial system data irreversibly aggregated, for example, it is necessary to indicate the allocation procedures and cut-offs employed and so on, while with unallocated unit processes these issues have no relevance. Another important point is the distinction between data and system. More particularly, the question is then whether and, if so, how the various processes (of whatever category) are interconnected within the database. A database may, for example, comprise data on a whole series of processes stored completely independently of one another", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7834, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A database may, for example, comprise data on a whole series of processes stored completely independently of one another. It may also contain data on process interlinkages, however, in which case there is in fact no longer any distinction between data and system. The way in which the processes are interlinked then forms the system; cf. 3, above, \u201csystem data retraceable to process data\u201d. In the LCA context, data and system should preferably not be combined until such time as an actual case study is to be performed. An LCA database may sometimes contain two different data sets for the same or comparable processes, for example when two literature sources report different data for the same process, or when there are two ways of producing a given material. In each specific case study one particular process, one particular literature source or one particular production method will have to be selected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7835, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In each specific case study one particular process, one particular literature source or one particular production method will have to be selected. What occurs in a case study is thus a stringing together of a series of selected processes. All this has consequences for the data format. Where a given process input goes to or where a given output comes from does not therefore belong in the process data format but in the description of the case study in question. In short, then, data and system should in principle be kept separate. This is seldom the case in current LCA databases, however. The format itself, a user data sheet with a certain structure, is in principle an entirely separate issue from how the data are stored. One of the standard methods for data storage is in a relational database (as in SPINE and in Huber, 1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7836, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One of the standard methods for data storage is in a relational database (as in SPINE and in Huber, 1996). The essential feature of a relational database is that all independent information is stored at a single location, which has the major advantage that updates need only be introduced at this one location. This is achieved by the data for a given process being stored in a great many different tables. This concept forms the basis of virtually all commercial database software, such as DBASE, ORACLE and MS-ACCESS, and has for years been the standard method for storing large amounts of data. Use of a relational database demands high standards of database integrity and the same holds for all the various elements of the user data sheet. Current data exchange formats like SPOLD have opted for easy readability and are not relational in design. When updating such nonrelational databases severe inconsistencies are to be expected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7837, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Current data exchange formats like SPOLD have opted for easy readability and are not relational in design. When updating such nonrelational databases severe inconsistencies are to be expected. If use is made of a relational database it would seem an obvious approach to employ it to store data not only data on individual unit processes but also on process interlinkages. As already mentioned, the latter kind of data relate to the system rather than to individual processes. As such, then, they do not belong in a discussion of the format for data on unit processes. Tables with data relating to Classification/Characteriserion and Evaluation may also be included. These data should also be independent of the Inventory data. Since 1992 a number of different data formats for LCA have been developed around the world, most of them in the form of tabular data sheets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7838, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since 1992 a number of different data formats for LCA have been developed around the world, most of them in the form of tabular data sheets. Some, such as SPOLD and SPINE (discussed below) have been implemented in database software, while others are available as a printed form only. A number of LCA databases have also been developed that store process data in a proprietary format (e.g. ETH, SimaPro, SAEFL). Here we restrict ourselves to a discussion of SPINE and SPOLD.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7839, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 483, "book_page": 487, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background SPINE SPINE, the Sustainable Product Information Network for the Environment, is a joint initiative of the Swedish organisation IVL and the Chalmers University of Technology established in the context of the Nordic project on Environmentally sound Product development (NEP). The SPINE report (Steen et al., 1995), has been adopted by ISO as a \u201cNew Work Item Proposal\u201d and is to be further elaborated. Although the proposal names SPOLD (see below) as a \u2018Liaison Organisation\u2019, the precise mutual status of these two formats is not yet entirely clear. At the time of writing of the present Guide, the outcome of the work based on this proposal was not known. SPINE is a relational database designed to permit communication between different software tools", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7840, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "SPINE is a relational database designed to permit communication between different software tools. The key question addressed during development of SPINE was: what kind of information is of value for LCA and how are the various data related? The key concept of the database is that of an activity, to be interpreted here as either a unit process or a (partial) system. An activity has quantifiable inputs and outputs. An important aspect of SPINE is that it stores not only actual the process data but also data on the flows between the various activities, thus creating a network-type model. The SPINE model is linear and homogeneous. The database has extensive capacity for storing qualitative information on all elements (flows, activities, substances, etc). This qualitative information is stored in separate tables, essentially independent of the quantitative data, and of little significance for the actual functioning of the database", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7841, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This qualitative information is stored in separate tables, essentially independent of the quantitative data, and of little significance for the actual functioning of the database. SPINE can be used to store not only inventory data but also Impact assessment data (equivalency factors and so on), although the designers note that the latter module is still under development. (The subject of \u2018Multifunctionality and allocation\u2019 is treated in Section 3.9 of this Guide.) Processes can be aggregated to \u2018mega-processes\u2019 by means of a hierarchical structure. Data input to SPINE is by means of a screen form, similar to the aforementioned printed forms, and is indeed also available as a printed form. It is to be concluded that SPINE has a solid, intrinsically consistent format. One potential drawback of SPINE is the rigidity resulting from using the relational database concept", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7842, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is to be concluded that SPINE has a solid, intrinsically consistent format. One potential drawback of SPINE is the rigidity resulting from using the relational database concept. SPOLD SPOLD, the Society for the Promotion Of Life-cycle assessment Development, seeks as one of its missions to establish a comprehensive database of commodity materials and services. An important aspect of SPOLD\u2019s work is the key focus on achieving consensus. In 1996 a SPOLD Status Report was published entitled Introduction into a Common Format for Life-Cycle Inventory Data\u2019 (Singhofen, 1996; cf. Singhofen et al., 1996). In contrast to SPINE, for example, this document describes a paper format and distinguishes between a descriptive and a prescriptive approach. Given the importance attached to consensus by SPOLD, it was ultimately opted to start with a descriptive approach, providing as much scope as possible for using existing data(bases) and including all information deemed relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7843, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An important feature of the SPOLD format is that it has space for data on both unit processes and partial systems (aggregated unit processes). Thus the first question users are asked during data input is whether the data relates to a unit process or a partial system. Although in theory information should obviously be collected at the unit process level, in practice data are often found to relate to (partial) systems and SPOLD consequently reserves due space for the latter. The SPOLD format has five components: A. B. C. D. E. identification of data set (who, what, how?) system description, in cases involving system data (what is included, what assumptions?) graphic presentation of the system (now abandoned by SPOLD) input and output data, plus space for mass and energy balances references", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7844, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part A: Identification of data set do the data relate to a unit process or a partial system (aggregated unit processes)? who entered the data, and when? geographical, temporal and technological representativeness sources Part B: System model subsystems cut-off criteria coproduction and associated allocation rules energy, transport and waste model other assumptions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7845, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 484, "book_page": 488, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Part C: System structure graphic presentation of the model (abandoned by SPOLD for mainly practical reasons) Part D: Inputs en outputs Inputs from the technosphere (economy): materials/fuels, electricity/heat from nature (environment): natural resources other Outputs to the technosphere (economy): (co-)products, waste to nature (environment): air, water, land, non-material other interventions Mass and energy balances Part E: References The aim of SPOLD is to use the aforementioned descriptive format to develop a second-generation format, this time prescriptive. The new format is intended for use with a dictionary (list of definitions) and a multi-user test, leading to an electronic format that can serve as a basis for a data exchange network. In the meantime the first-generation (descriptive) SPOLD format has also been made available electronically, downloadable from Internet", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7846, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 489, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the meantime the first-generation (descriptive) SPOLD format has also been made available electronically, downloadable from Internet. Goedkoop (1998) has developed a simplified version of the original SPOLD format, the main feature of which is that a large number of specific fields have been replaced by \u2018free\u2019 text fields with no fixed structure. This is most relevant in part B of the SPOLD format: system data (as opposed to unit process data). One benefit of the simplified format is that it is more user-friendly for LCA practitioners, while still dovetailing well with the original SPOLD format. A disadvantage is that use of a greater number of free text fields means it is no longer relatively straightforward to export data to the full SPOLD format. DALCA DALCA (Van Dam et al., 1996), implemented by TNO, stands for DAta for Life Cycle Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7847, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 489, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "DALCA DALCA (Van Dam et al., 1996), implemented by TNO, stands for DAta for Life Cycle Analysis. DALCA is a \"feasibility study on the future availability of universally accepted, reliable environmental data on processes (as \u2018building blocks\u2019 for environmentally oriented product information)\". DALCA focused on products manufactured by the plastics processing industry. A data format is presented in Appendix 2 of the report. It is largely in line with that provided in the \u201992 guide and consists of four tables: 1. 2. 3. 4. data identification data transport verification. The first table covers process identification, including process description, representativeness, author(s) and flow diagram. The second is for average data, with space provided for data margins and quality. The third provides dedicated space for transport data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7848, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 489, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The second is for average data, with space provided for data margins and quality. The third provides dedicated space for transport data. The fourth and last table is a proposal for presentation of process verification and includes such aspects as: comparison with external sources, completeness, internal consistency (incl. balances), reliability, status, data gaps and so on. The principal difference from the format of the \u201992 guide is the specific focus on transport and verification. It is noteworthy that the verification table asks for an explicit indication of who is responsible for verification: the company, an independent institute, the subcontractor or others. EDIP (Wenzel et al., 1997) stands for Environmental Design of Industrial Products and has been developed by the Institute for Product Development, the Technological University of Denmark, five Danish industries, the Confederation of Danish Industries and the Danish EPA. Wenzel et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7849, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 489, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Wenzel et al. 1997 briefly describe a paper format for use in LCAs. Although it is largely similar to the format of the \u201992 guide, one important difference is the attention given to characterising the geographical site of the process in question and the extent to which the data are specific to this site. There is even space for including location-specific data relating to characterisation, normalisation and evaluation. The format also has space for information on working conditions. Boguski (1996) provides a review of LCA, including inventory and data format. Chapter 2 of this work gives a basic data format that is again largely similar to that of the \u201992 guide, differing in the following main respects: less focus on qualitative information such as representativeness, and subcategorisation of economic inputs and outputs into transport, off-site energy purchases, autogenerated power and coproducts.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7850, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 485, "book_page": 489, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background As part of the Dutch MRPI project (\u2018Environmentally Relevant Product Information for the Construction Industry\u2019) a format has been developed for collecting data on processes such as those occurring in the construction sector (Anonymous, 1998). MRPI is concerned with \"validated information on the environmental aspects of building materials, building products or building elements, drawn up at the initiative of the producer or his representative (the trade association, for example) by means of an environmental life cycle analysis\" (Anonymous, 1998). The process data required for the LCA are collected together on a printed form. This format, however, is devoted specifically to the construction sector and building materials. Although the design of this form is too specific to serve as a general LCA format, it might serve as a useful aid in drawing up such a format", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7851, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although the design of this form is too specific to serve as a general LCA format, it might serve as a useful aid in drawing up such a format. Principal differences Each of the formats discussed above provides space for quantitative information on the economic and environmental inputs and outputs of the process under study. SPINE is the only format based on the relational database concept, which is a solid guarantee of database integrity. A key feature of SPINE is that it stores not only the actual process data but also provides space for including process interlinkages, i.e. system data. It is, of course, debatable whether this format is \u2018complete\u2019 and whether all the items included really belong there. Another important respect in which various formats differ is in the space provided for qualitative information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7852, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Another important respect in which various formats differ is in the space provided for qualitative information. This varies from single-line entry (the name of the process) to an extended list of items relating to data quality and representativeness and sometimes to (partial) system data such as allocation methods used, cut-off criteria and so on. They also differ in the space provided for indicating data error margins: some formats ignore this issue entirely, while others provide scope for including upper and lower bounds or spread for all data entered. In addition, most of the formats traced are paper formats, although there are plans to convert some of them to electronic form. Finally, the formats differ in the degree to which they break down economic and environmental inputs and outputs into such categories as transport, energy and materials: some formats have many such subcategories, while others have none", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7853, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PROSPECTS Although there is presently no ISO standard for data format, a Swedish application to develop a format on the basis of Spine and SPOLD was recently honoured by ISO. As the authors themselves state, the current version of the SPOLD form is based on a descriptive analysis of the formats currently used by LCA practitioners. This means that the format is not entirely homogeneous and that some of the items included are questionable. A second-generation SPOLD form is to be developed, based on a prescriptive format. With respect to data format a choice must be made from among the following options: 1. 2. 3. 4. one of the existing formats a modified version of an existing format a combination of several existing formats an entirely new format. The overriding aim in designing a data format is to guide LCA users in collecting process data, and not to establish how these data are to be stored and coupled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7854, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The overriding aim in designing a data format is to guide LCA users in collecting process data, and not to establish how these data are to be stored and coupled. The new Guide therefore includes a data sheet rather than a description of underlying data structure requirements. We would stress once again, though, that a data structure in the form of a relational database is a solid guarantee of database integrity. On the basis of the aforementioned and other criteria, a variety of forums including the SETAC Working Group on Data availability have expressed a preference for the SPOLD user form CONCLUSIONS The data sheet that is best supported by existing software is the SPOLD form. It is consequently recommended to use this form as long as there is no easy-to-implement alternative employing a relational database. It is to be noted that SPOLD and SPINE are meanwhile being combined by way of ISO/TR 14048 (in prep.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7855, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is to be noted that SPOLD and SPINE are meanwhile being combined by way of ISO/TR 14048 (in prep.). These developments, which had just begun when this Guide was being written, should therefore be followed closely. Once these efforts yield a practicable form(at), this should be used instead of the SPOLD format. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Research should focus on use of relational databases in LCA and on translating relational database requirements into a data format and data sheet. Relational databases appear to be a very promising tool for ensuring the integrity of the LCA database and, consequently, that of the LCA results. Especially promising in this respect is the initiative, in the ISO context, to combine SPOLD en SPINE: see ISO/TR 14048 (in prep.).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7856, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 486, "book_page": 490, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 3.5 Data quality TOPIC For LCA models, like any other model, it holds that \u2018garbage in = garbage out\u2019. In other words, data quality has a major influence on results and proper evaluation of data quality is therefore an important step in every LCA. Even if the quality of individual data is high, however, such data can still yield erroneous results if used to answer questions on which they have limited or no bearing. The data used in a given case study should, for instance, be representative for that particular study. Quality requirements thus refer to both the reliability and the validity of process data. As validity depends on the application in question, it is not validity requirements as such that are specified here but the data needed to assess that validity. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The '92 guide treats this topic in section 2.2.2, on the representativeness and quality of data, as part of the Inventory analysis (pp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7857, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The '92 guide treats this topic in section 2.2.2, on the representativeness and quality of data, as part of the Inventory analysis (pp. 32\u201333). The following sub-steps are distinguished: the representativeness of the processes; the quality of the process data; the overall assessment of the process data. In ISO 14041 (1998E), clause 5.3.6, where \u2018Data quality\u2019 is part of the \u2018Scope of the study\u2019, the following statements are made with regard to data quality issues (see textbox): Descriptions of data quality are important for understanding the reliability of the results of a study and properly interpreting its outcome. Data quality requirements shall be defined to enable the goal and scope of the study to be met. Data quality should be characterised in both quantitative and qualitative terms and with due reference to the methods used to collect and integrate the data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7858, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data quality should be characterised in both quantitative and qualitative terms and with due reference to the methods used to collect and integrate the data. Data quality requirements should be set for the following parameters: temporal coverage: the desired age of data (e.g. within the last five years) and the minimum period of time (e.g. annual) over which data should be collected; geographical coverage: geographical area from which data on unit processes should be collected to satisfy the goal of the study (e.g. local, regional, national, continental, global); technology coverage: technology mix (e.g. weighted average of the actual process mix, best available technology, or worst operating unit). Consideration shall also be given to additional descriptors defining the sort of data required, e.g. collected from specific sites versus data from published sources, and whether the data is to be measured, calculated or estimated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7859, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "collected from specific sites versus data from published sources, and whether the data is to be measured, calculated or estimated. Data from specific sites or representative averages should be used for those unit processes contributing the majority of the mass and energy flows in the systems under study, as determined in the sensitivity analysis performed in 5.3.5. Data from specific sites should also be used for unit processes deemed to have environmentally relevant emissions. In all studies, the following additional data quality requirements shall be considered at an appropriate level of detail depending on the Goal and scope definition: precision: measure of the variability of the data values for each data category expressed (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7860, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "variance); completeness: percentage of locations reporting primary data relative to the potential number in existence for each data category in a unit process; representativeness: qualitative assessment of the degree to which the data set reflects the true population of interest (i.e. geographical, temporal and technology coverage); consistency: qualitative assessment of how uniformly the study methodology is applied to the various components of the analysis; reproducibility: qualitative assessment of the extent to which information about the methodology and data values allows an independent practitioner to reproduce the results reported in the study. Where a study is used to support a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public, all data quality requirements described in this subclause shall be included in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7861, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Where a study is used to support a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public, all data quality requirements described in this subclause shall be included in the study. Where a study is used to support a comparative assertion that is disclosed to the public, all data quality requirements described in this subclause shall be included in the study. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. The aforementioned EDIP report (Wenzel et al., 1997) emphasises the importance of process characterisation. Data quality is described at two levels: the level of individual inputs and outputs and that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7862, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 487, "book_page": 491, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background of the whole process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7863, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 492, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "According to EDIP, data characterisation should generally cover the following items: Definition of the scope of the process1 description of operations included and excluded and of inputs and outputs not linked to other economic processes specification of co-products produced and method for allocating these Data characterisation description of known data gaps description of the data source how well do the data describe the process and how representative of the average are they? description of the representativeness of the process for the objective of the study description of the assessment/calculation of the coefficients of statistical variation for the environmental inputs and outputs mass balance: calculation of the mass balance for the process technological development description of technological developments and trends in the most important inputs and outputs description of the projection of the process2 Several remarks are in order", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7864, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 492, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the assessment of statistical variation, uncertainties in economic flows may be more important than those in environmental inputs and outputs. Furthermore, it may be useful to make a clear distinction between the overall validity and reliability of data (and other data quality aspects) at the process level, independent of the application involved (as given by database requirements, for example), and their validity and reliability in a specific application. Nordic Technical Report No. 9 (Lindfors et al., 1995b) starts out by referring to data collection as the most time-consuming and thus the most expensive element of LCA. In screening product LCAs the amount of time required for this task can be reduced by using readily accessible data. However, this data may be of inferior quality. The report mentions three aspects to which due attention should be paid when selecting data for use: level of technology; age of data; site specific vs. average data. Lindfors et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7865, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 492, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The report mentions three aspects to which due attention should be paid when selecting data for use: level of technology; age of data; site specific vs. average data. Lindfors et al. (1995b) consider all three aspects very important for the results of the study. A number of parameters are suggested for assessing the quality of databases used in LCA; correctness; reliability; integrity; usability; portability; maintainability; flexibility; testability. Building on Weidema (1994), Lindfors et al. (1995a) elaborate a detailed scheme of data quality parameters, represented as a \u2018data pedigree matrix\u2019 (Table 3.5.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7866, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 492, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Building on Weidema (1994), Lindfors et al. (1995a) elaborate a detailed scheme of data quality parameters, represented as a \u2018data pedigree matrix\u2019 (Table 3.5.1). They propose reporting data in the following format: 2.3 MJ - 0.1, %95 (2,2,3,1,1,1) A B C D (a,b,c,d,e,f) where A = the magnitude of the data as a numerical or descriptive expression (here: 2.3) B = the \u2018unit base operation\u2019 as a standard SI-unit and multiplier (here: Mega, C = the spread of the data as a percentage range or standard deviation (here: - 0.1) D = an assessment of the reliability of data, confidence interval or qualitative description (here: %95) 1 In the EDIP report the format is described in both table 22.5 and figure 9.1, which unfortunately use different titles and terminology. Here, the terminology from table 22.5 has been employed. 2 The term \u2018projection\u2019 in the EDIP book refers to the extrapolation of process data to the future year in which the newly developed product is to be launched on the market.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7867, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 488, "book_page": 492, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background and a,b,c,d,e,f represent the origin (pedigree) of the data and thus its representativeness (see Table 3.5.1 below). Weidema (1998b), building on Wesnaes & Weidema (1996), presents an adapted version of the pedigree matrix set up by Lindfors et al. (1995a). According to the author \"the objective of the pedigree matrix is to provide a data quality management tool, which makes it easy to survey the data quality, to point at possibilities for improvements in data quality and to trace back sources of uncertainty\".", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7868, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 489, "book_page": 493, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background It is not, as yet, feasible to reason backwards from a required level of confidence in the results of an LCA study to specification of requirements vis-\u00e0-vis the validity and reliability of the model and data to be employed. Nor is there yet a comprehensive method for establishing the overall quality of results on the basis of quantitative yardsticks of reliability and validity. Full statistical analysis, including analysis of error propagation, will not be available to LCA practitioners for a long time yet, if ever. The most one can do is trace back the factors determining the overall quality of the results, and make some semi-quantitative elements operational to aggregate the otherwise very substantial amount of data on quality aspects that accumulate in a study. A framework for this has been elaborated by Van den Berg et al. (1999) with some preliminary operationalisations. The main philosophy followed is that of Funtowicz & Ravetz (1990)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7869, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 494, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A framework for this has been elaborated by Van den Berg et al. (1999) with some preliminary operationalisations. The main philosophy followed is that of Funtowicz & Ravetz (1990). For some elements of this framework semi-quantitative approaches are available and may be applied (Weidema, 1998b; Van Oorschot, 1999; Van den Berg et al., 1999) In relation to reporting, Lindfors et al. (1995a) suggests that if risk of accident is signalled with a \u2018red flag\u2019, the criteria for such a flag shall be reported. They state, furthermore, that \u201cdata and data quality issues shall be reported giving: 1. 2. Information on the source of data used At least a qualitative declaration of data quality (specific or average, from what year, representativeness, estimate of variability (uncertainty). If not known, this should be stated.\u201d Meier et al., 1997 give the following reporting guideline: \u201call data sources for the study should be clearly identified and referenced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7870, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 494, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If not known, this should be stated.\u201d Meier et al., 1997 give the following reporting guideline: \u201call data sources for the study should be clearly identified and referenced. Key indicators of data quality should be reported, such that choices made are justified and transparent, including 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. age of data frequency of collection spatial/temporal considerations accuracy precision uncertainty etc. If data are presented in an aggregate form (i.e. for confidentiality reasons) the aggregation procedure should be fully described. A sensitivity analysis should also be performed on key data sets.\u201d PROSPECTS Significant progress may be expected in this area in the coming years, but a full traditional error analysis will probably never be possible in LCA since 1) there is no normal (gaussian) distribution, as processes are highly non-linear; and 2) there is also no normal distribution for the inter-process connecting flows.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7871, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 490, "book_page": 494, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background CONCLUSIONS Based on the above analysis of the state-of-the-art in the field of data quality assessment in LCA, we recommend as the best available practice for today: to follow the ISO 14041 (1998E) requirements (5.3.6) concerning data quality and optionally use a \u2018pedigree matrix\u2019 for reporting data quality assessments on individual processes; to trace back the factors determining the overall quality of the outcome by undertaking a Contribution analysis (see Section 5.4) and a Perturbation analysis (see Section 5.5), and to perform a sensitivity analysis on a number of key parameters (see Section 5.6); and (optionally) to apply a general framework for quality assessment of results (e.g. Van den Berg et al., 1999), and to apply semi-quantitative approaches, as available, for some of the elements of such a framework (e.g. Weidema, 1998b; Van Oorschot, 1999; Van den Berg et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7872, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Van den Berg et al., 1999), and to apply semi-quantitative approaches, as available, for some of the elements of such a framework (e.g. Weidema, 1998b; Van Oorschot, 1999; Van den Berg et al., 1999). Given this unsatisfactory state of affairs it is very important not only to present the results of the study in a transparent way (a quality aspect itself) but also to perform a quality assessment and report on it in an explicit and transparent manner, mentioning the desired as well as minimum data quality goals sought. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS It is not yet possible in LCA to elaborate a standardised method for overall assessment of data quality. For the process data used in the Inventory phase this would, for example, mean having to know the probability interval of every input and output of every process involved in the life cycle. Similarly, the validity of the inventory model and the environmental effect models would have to confirmed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7873, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Similarly, the validity of the inventory model and the environmental effect models would have to confirmed. At the moment appropriate yardsticks of statistical distribution and a validation procedure to quantitatively assess overall model validity are both lacking. 3.6 Data collection and relating data to unit processes TOPIC In this step of the Inventory analysis all relevant data on the unit processes are collected and all flows connected to the unit processes quantified in accordance with the format specified above (Section 3.4). The reference flow(s) (see Figure 2.4.1) defined in the Goal and scope definition phase of the study form(s) the point of departure for data collection. The process data available to the practitioner may be structured in any number of ways. In LCA databases process data is often organised around unit processes, relating a given economic output to economic inputs and environmental inputs and outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7874, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In LCA databases process data is often organised around unit processes, relating a given economic output to economic inputs and environmental inputs and outputs. Process data provided by companies are often also organised around unit processes, but given in terms of inputs and outputs per unit time, e.g. emission of 5 tonnes of per year, input of 1000 tonnes of wood per year, etc. In current LCA databases process data is almost always quantified in relation to some physical (reference) flow (e.g. one kg of material or 1 MJ of electricity). In ISO 14041 (1998E) this step of relating all inputs and outputs to one reference flow is described in paragraph 6.4.3 \u201cRelating data to unit processes\u201d. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The step Entering theprocess data in the \u201892 guide is more or less equivalentto ISO's data collection step. The former was divided into two sub-steps (pp", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7875, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) The step Entering theprocess data in the \u201892 guide is more or less equivalentto ISO's data collection step. The former was divided into two sub-steps (pp. 30\u201335): 1 ) quantification of the inputs and outputs (including format and quantification of data) 2) representativeness and quality of the data. The second topic has been discussed here in the previous section (see section 3.5). Under the first heading several topics were considered. The central topic, data format and data categories, is discussed here in section 3.4. Other items discussed included the non-linear characteristics of most economic processes. The solution adopted for this problem there was to work with long-term marginal process data. Here, this discussion has been further refined and can be found in section 1.2.3.4 and section 2.3. Furthermore, it was recommended to use SI units whenever possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7876, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Here, this discussion has been further refined and can be found in section 1.2.3.4 and section 2.3. Furthermore, it was recommended to use SI units whenever possible. In ISO 14041 (1998E) three steps appear to be distinguished: 1) preparing for data collection 2) data collection 3) validation of data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7877, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 491, "book_page": 495, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background These are mainly procedural steps. On preparing for data collection, ISO 14041 (1998E) states the following (see text box): The definition of the scope of an LCA study establishes the initial set of the unit processes and associated data categories. Since data collection may span several reporting locations and published references, several steps are helpful to ensure uniform and consistent understanding of the product systems to be modeled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7878, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since data collection may span several reporting locations and published references, several steps are helpful to ensure uniform and consistent understanding of the product systems to be modeled. These steps should include: drawing of specific process flow diagrams that outline all unit processes to be modeled, including interrelationships; description of each unit process in detail and listing of data categories associated with each unit process; development of a list that specifies the units of measurement; description of data collection techniques and calculation techniques for each data category, to assist personnel at the reporting locations to understand what information is needed for the LCA study; and provision of instructions to reporting locations to document clearly any special cases, irregularities or other items associated with the data provided. An example of a data collection sheet is provided in annex A. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7879, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An example of a data collection sheet is provided in annex A. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. With regard to data collection, ISO 14041 (1998E) states that \u201cthe procedures used for data collection vary with each unit process in the different systems modeled by an LCA study. Procedures may also vary due to the composition and qualification of the participants in the study and the need to satisfy both proprietary and confidentiality requirements. Such procedures and reasons should be documented.\u201d In clause 5.3.3 on initial system boundaries and clause 6.3 on data collection, ISO 14041 states (see text box): Each of the unit processes should be initially described to define: where the unit process begins, in terms of the receipt of raw materials or intermediate products; the nature of the transformations and operations that occur as part of the unit process; and where the unit process ends, in terms of the destination of the intermediate or final products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7880, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data collection requires thorough knowledge about each unit processes. To avoid double counting or gaps, the description of each unit process shall be recorded. This involves a quantitative and qualitative description of the inputs and outputs which are needed to determine where the process starts and ends, and the function of the unit process. Where the unit process has multiple inputs (e.g. multiple effluent streams to a water treatment plant) or multiple outputs, data relevant for allocation procedures shall be documented and reported. When data are collected from published literature, the source shall be specified. For those data collected from literature which are significant for the conclusions of the study, the published literature which supplies details about the relevant data collection process, about the time when data have been collected and about further data quality indicators, shall be specified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7881, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If such data do not meet the initial data quality requirements, this shall be stated. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. On the subject of relating data to unit processes, ISO 14041 (1998E) clause 6.4.3 states: \"For each unit process, an appropriate reference flow shall be determined (e.g. 1 kg of material or 1 MJ of energy). The quantitative input and output data of the unit process shall be calculated in relation to this reference flow.\"1 The EDIP books (Wenzel et al., 1997) explicitly mention the importance of a data check when electronic databases are used and distinguish several types of processes, based on the possible suppliers of such data: raw materials extraction and materials production: producers\u2019 associations and private companies; product manufacturing processes and use processes: private companies; disposal processes: public authorities, research institutes; transport processes and energy systems: specialized information centres; Wenzel et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7882, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1997), furthermore, mention the future need for so-called data networks in contrast to current static databases. In these data networks each individual expert body must handle and update its 1 Note that this \u2018reference flow\u2019 is different from that defined and used in section 2.4 on Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7883, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 492, "book_page": 496, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background part of the database on the product system. They mention, as s precondition for ensuring viability, that each body has an intrinsic commercial interest in participating. Another interesting item in the EDIP report is that they provide some basic guidelines for collecting data on the working environment. In this context four different impact categories are mentioned: chemical impacts; impacts of noise; impacts of monotonous repetitive work; risk of accident. Wegener Sleeswijk et al. (1996) mention several issues specific to Inventory analysis in LCAs on agricultural products. Such LCAs involve a number of problems connected with the production level to which the data to be gathered should relate. Compared with many other economic activities, agricultural production encompasses a relatively large number of production units (in this case: farms)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7884, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Compared with many other economic activities, agricultural production encompasses a relatively large number of production units (in this case: farms). The production processes - and consequently the associated environmental interventions, too - may differ markedly from farm to farm. Therefore the results of the LCA will be dependent on the type of data used: average or representative data, or data from individual farms. The type of data to be chosen depends on the Goal and scope of the study. For example, if the aim is to inform consumers about the environmental impacts of a certain product, such as a bottle of milk, one should, in principle, review the particular farm from which the milk in the given bottle originates. In practice, however, the bottle will contain milk from different farms, mixed at large production centres, and average data should therefore be used to describe the environmental impacts of the product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7885, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If a government is aiming to assess the variation in impact of current modes of milk production, data from individual operational farms should be used. If, on the other hand, the goal is to assess future scenarios based on current policy trends, use should be made of normative data (representative for modern farms). In principle this problem is not restricted to agricultural LCAs but may extend to all LCA studies. An interesting case in point is the modeling of waste management processes for long-lived products. In a study on water pipes, crash barriers and roof gutters by Kortman et al. (1996) waste management scenarios were developed for the year 2015. For communication reasons, it may be useful to make a distinction here between primary data (measured on-site) and secondary data (data from literature and databases, for example, or estimates from IOA models)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7886, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Additionally, a distinction is often made between so-called foreground systems and background systems (SETAC Clift et al., 1998; see also Anonymous, 1999). Clift et al. (1998) defined the foreground system as the set of processes whose selection or mode of operation is affected directly by decisions based on the study. The background system comprises all other processes interacting directly with the foreground system. It was stressed by Clift et al. (1998) that the distinction between foreground and background systems (or processes) has nothing to do with the environmental importance of their respective impacts; either the foreground or the background system may have the greater impact (Clift et al., 1998). For foreground processes primary data will normally be collected, while for background processes use will generally be made of secondary data sources. As Clift et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7887, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For foreground processes primary data will normally be collected, while for background processes use will generally be made of secondary data sources. As Clift et al. (1998) state, the distinction between foreground and background will frequently be clear, for example, when the decision-maker is the operator of a set of processes constituting the natural foreground. In other cases it will not be as clear, however, for example when LCA is used as a basis for purchasing decisions. Background processes may then be defined as those processes underlying a market seen as more or less homogeneous from the perspective of the process providing the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7888, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Background processes may then be defined as those processes underlying a market seen as more or less homogeneous from the perspective of the process providing the functional unit. In order to avoid these rather theoretical discussions, a more pragmatic definition will be used in this Guide: foreground systems or processes are those systems or processes for which primary, site-specific data are used in an LCA (for whatever reason); background systems or processes are those systems or processes for which secondary data from databases, public references or estimated data based on IOA models are used. The more foreground processes a specific LCA study includes, the more \u2018detailed\u2019 the LCA will be. In LCA practice the use of generic databases is almost indispensable for background processes. There are several databases available, differing in terms of status, spatial, temporal and technical representativeness, types of processes covered and data formats employed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7889, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are several databases available, differing in terms of status, spatial, temporal and technical representativeness, types of processes covered and data formats employed. It should be duly checked whether the unit process data in the database has already been subjected to allocation procedures. LCA practitioners should be aware that a choice for a particular database may greatly influence the ultimate results of the study (e.g. Copius Peereboom et al., 1998).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7890, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 493, "book_page": 497, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Due attention should also be given to the units in which the collected data are expressed, to ensure that all the processes can be mathematically connected once all the data is available. With respect to units, there are three issues to which particular attention should be paid: conversion of Bq to kg, and vice versa; conversion of dB to and calculation of \u2018land occupation\u2019 and \u2018land transformation\u2019 as data subcategories of \u2018land use\u2019. Practical tips are provided for all three issues in Part 2b, Section 3.6. One special issue in data collection is how data relate to unit processes. As Curran (1996) states, \"raw materials and energy data for production facilities are often expressed in terms of annual or monthly production\u201d. These numbers will therefore have to be translated to units per quantity of product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7891, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These numbers will therefore have to be translated to units per quantity of product. This presupposes a separate step translating time-related data to data per quantity of product (reference flow), which then form the input for LCA databases or case studies. For unallocated databases this involves the arbitrary choice of making one of the products into a reference flow. The need for such translation is debatable: it is an extra step that can be easily avoided by using a scaling factor that includes time as a dimension (Heijungs, 1998a). One can even argue that valuable information on the magnitude of a process is lost in the process of translation. Data from a number of important data sources such as corporate environmental plans and reports, emission registration systems and statistical information systems often include the time dimension", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7892, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data from a number of important data sources such as corporate environmental plans and reports, emission registration systems and statistical information systems often include the time dimension. If these data are transferred to (a) database(s) with no prior translation, the same database(s) can be used for LCA and for other environmental tools like Substance Flow Analysis (SFA), Material Flow Accounting (MFA), Risk Assessment (RA), etc. However, LCA software tools do not always permit use of process data that include a time dimension. Omitting this dimension in LCA calculations poses no problem, however, as it is the ratio between inputs and outputs that is used here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7893, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Omitting this dimension in LCA calculations poses no problem, however, as it is the ratio between inputs and outputs that is used here. Since there are strong arguments for having access to process data that include a time dimension and because most LCA data currently consist of data related to a reference flow, it is strongly recommended to develop LCA software and databases that allow both types of process data to be used (for an example of operational software that includes this option, cf. http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/cmlca.html). Finally, the issue of group or sum parameters needs to be discussed. Some chemicals, such as PAHs and CFCs, are recorded in the Inventory analysis as group parameters1, although characterisation factors are only available for individual chemical species, such as anthracene and chrysene, or CFC\u201311 and CFC\u201312", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7894, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other group parameters regularly encountered in inventories for which this problem occurs include Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), sulphur compounds, absorbable organic halogens (AOX) and hydrocarbons (CxHy). These group parameters should preferably be broken down into their individual chemical constituents and specified as such. If data on the \u2018real\u2019 constituents is not available, group parameters should be broken down into their individual chemical constituents using generic conversion factors like those published by Derwent et al. (1996) or used for Dutch Emission Registration. If these options are not feasible or do not cover the group of chemicals in question, one should take the arithmetic mean of the individual species of the group as a surrogate characterisation factor. If emission data are available for \u2018hydrocarbons\u2019 only, for example, a group POCP can be derived as the arithmetic mean of the POCPs of the individual hydrocarbons", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7895, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If emission data are available for \u2018hydrocarbons\u2019 only, for example, a group POCP can be derived as the arithmetic mean of the POCPs of the individual hydrocarbons. This approach is a method of last resort and, in this example, is only of value if the POCPs of the individual hydrocarbons vary within a \u2018reasonable\u2019 range. Because of the often large number of emissions encompassed in \u2018organic compounds\u2019 or \u2018AOX\u2019, however, and the major spread in characterisation factors, use of an arithmetic mean would introduce unacceptable uncertainties. In such cases a \u2018best estimate\u2019 should be used to specify the group parameter in terms of consistuent species for the purpose of characterisation. Although incomplete, any specification is better than none and also generally superior to an \u2018arithmetic mean\u2019 approach. PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen for this topic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7896, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although incomplete, any specification is better than none and also generally superior to an \u2018arithmetic mean\u2019 approach. PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen for this topic. CONCLUSIONS ISO 14041 requirements with respect to the description of unit processes, data categories and data collection procedures, etc. have been adopted in this Guide. Furthermore, it seems useful for communication reasons: to distinguish between primary data (measured on-site) and secondary data (from literature and databases, for example, or estimates from IOA models); and 1 Group parameters are valid parameters only if measured as such, not when calculated from measurements on individual chemicals.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7897, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 494, "book_page": 498, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background to distinguish between: foreground systems or processes: systems or processes for which primary, site-specific data are used (for whatever reason); background systems or processes: systems or processes for which secondary data are used. The more foreground processes a specific LCA study includes, the more \u2018detailed\u2019 the LCA will be. Finally, SI-based or -derived units should be used throughout and unit process data should preferably be collected in terms of annual flows in order to allow use of these data by other environmental tools. Note 1: as discussed in Section 2.4 on \u2018Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows\u2018, the issue of standard, recommended and actual performance should be dealt with here, although the discussion of developments on this topic was treated in Section 2.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7898, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 499, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The recommendation with respect to this subject is: quantify the key parameters of the system\u2019s reference flow, preferably based on: actual performance, and otherwise standard or recommended performance. Note 2: the issue of technology coverage has been discussed in Section 2.3 on \u2018Scope definition\u2019, where it is recommended to take current state-of-the-art technology as a starting point for data collection. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Since data availability is one of the most important problems in LCA practice, it is recommended to establish a project to construct a database comprising a set of reference processes with their corresponding interventions. Use of the Internet as a medium for sharing LCA data should also be developed further. Furthermore, LCA software should preferably allow scaling of data, including a time dimension. 3.7 Data validation TOPIC In this step the validity of the process data collected is checked", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7899, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 499, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, LCA software should preferably allow scaling of data, including a time dimension. 3.7 Data validation TOPIC In this step the validity of the process data collected is checked. Various tools are available for this purpose, including mass balances, energy balances and comparison with data from other sources (e.g. comparative analysis of emission factors). Any data found to be inadequate during the validation process should be replaced. Similarly, missing data should be identified in this step and a decision made on how these gaps are to be filled. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. 1992 Validation of process data is partly discussed in section 2.2.2 of Heijungs et al. \"The representativeness and quality of the data\". In the discussion on \"The quality of the process data\" verification of the data by means of mass and energy balances is mentioned, as well as a check on data completeness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7900, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 499, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the discussion on \"The quality of the process data\" verification of the data by means of mass and energy balances is mentioned, as well as a check on data completeness. With respect to \u2018data validation\u2019 ISO 14041 (1998E) states the following (see textbox): A check on data validity shall be conducted during the process of data collection. Validation may involve establishing, for example, mass balances, energy balances and/or comparative analysis of emission factors. Obvious anomalies in the data appearing from such validation procedures require alternative data values which comply with the data quality requirements as established according to 5.3.6. For each data category and for each reporting location where missing data are identified, the treatment of the missing data and data gaps should result in: a data value which is justified; a \"zero\" data value if justified; or a calculated value based on the reported values from unit processes employing similar technology", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7901, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 499, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The treatment of missing data shall be documented. Source: ISO 14041 (1998E). Although the general topics of data quality and data quality indicators are discussed in a number of publications, including Wenzel et al. (1997) and Lindfors et al. (1995a), the topic of data validation as described here is not found in the literature except in ISO 14041 (1998E), being subsumed elsewhere under general data quality assessment.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7902, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 495, "book_page": 499, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen for this topic. CONCLUSIONS Concluding, we recommend following the ISO 14041 requirement to check the validity of the process data collected by drafting mass balances and energy balances, by comparison with data from other sources (e.g. comparative analysis of emission factors). RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No specific research is recommended. 3.8 Cut-off and data estimation TOPIC In principle an LCA should track all the processes in the life cycle of a given product system, from the cradle to the grave. In practice this is impossible, however, and a number of flows1 must be either roughly estimated or cut off2 and subsequently ignored. The root problem behind the cut-off issue is a lack of readily accessible data, implying disproportionate expenditure of funds and effort on data collection. Cutoff may substantially influence the outcome of an LCA study, however, and means that \u2018easy\u2019 LCAs come at a price", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7903, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 500, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cutoff may substantially influence the outcome of an LCA study, however, and means that \u2018easy\u2019 LCAs come at a price. The cut-off criteria specified in the past, such as omitting mass flows under 1 (or 5)%, lead to the fallacy of disaggregation: by splitting up processes after a more detailed review, most flows can be reduced to less than the specified percentage. If the rule is that a cut-off can be introduced if contributions to impact assessment results are below a certain percentage, there is a danger of the same fallacy occurring. In addition, it seems odd to omit data from the computations having gone to all the effort of generating them. Thus, the cut-off problem can be reformulated as a problem of having to quantitatively estimate the environmental interventions associated with flows for which no readily accessible data are available. 1 In the cut-off discussion, the term \u201cflows\u201d refers specifically to all economic input flows and the output flow \u201cwaste to be treated\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7904, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 500, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 In the cut-off discussion, the term \u201cflows\u201d refers specifically to all economic input flows and the output flow \u201cwaste to be treated\u201d. 2 In section 2.3, on scope definition, one situation was noted in which a cut-off may be introduced on grounds other than those discussed below: a difference analysis.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7905, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 496, "book_page": 500, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungsetal. 1992 The \u201992 guide states the following with regard to the boundary between relevant and irrelevant processes: a boundary should be drawn somewhere to avoid the problem of infinite regression; it should be decided whether such items as capital goods or a staff canteen should be included in a process; the preferred criterion for excluding particular processes is a quantitative estimate of their relative contribution to environmental effects; the costs of maintenance and depreciation may provide another indicator; if these form a substantial part of the product price, the environmental intervention associated with capital goods should not be excluded a priori. In ISO 14041 (1998E) the subject of cut-off is given ample attention", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7906, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In ISO 14041 (1998E) the subject of cut-off is given ample attention. In clause 5.3.3 ISO 14041 states the following with respect to the definition of initial system boundaries (see text box): The systems boundary defines the unit processes which will be included in the system to be modeled. Ideally, the product system should be modeled in such a manner that inputs and outputs at its boundary are elementary flows. In many cases there will not be sufficient time, data, or resources to conduct such a comprehensive study. Decisions shall be made regarding which unit processes will be modeled by the study and the level of detail to which these unit processes shall be studied. Resources need not be expended on the quantification of such inputs and outputs that will not significantly change the overall conclusions of the study. Decisions shall also be made regarding which releases to the environment shall be evaluated and the level of detail of this evaluation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7907, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Decisions shall also be made regarding which releases to the environment shall be evaluated and the level of detail of this evaluation. In many instances those system boundaries defined initially will subsequently be refined on the basis of the outcome of the preliminary work (see 6.4.5). The decision rules used to assist in the choice of inputs and outputs should be clearly understood and described. Further guidance on this process is provided in 5.3.5. Any decisions to omit life cycle stages, processes or data needs shall be clearly stated and The systems boundary defines the unit processes which will be included in the system to be modeled. Ideally, the product system should be modeled in such a manner that inputs and outputs at its boundary are elementary flows. In many cases there will not be sufficient time, data, or resources to conduct such a comprehensive study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7908, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In many cases there will not be sufficient time, data, or resources to conduct such a comprehensive study. Decisions shall be made regarding which unit processes will be modeled by the study and the level of detail to which these unit processes shall be studied. Resources need not be expended on the quantification of such inputs and outputs that will not significantly change the overall conclusions of the study. Decisions shall also be made regarding which releases to the environment shall be evaluated and the level of detail of this evaluation. In many instances those system boundaries defined initially will subsequently be refined on the basis of the outcome of the preliminary work (see 6.4.5). The decision rules used to assist in the choice of inputs and outputs should be clearly understood and described. Further guidance on this process is provided in 5.3.5. Any decisions to omit life cycle stages, processes or inputs/outputs shall be clearly stated and justified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7909, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Further guidance on this process is provided in 5.3.5. Any decisions to omit life cycle stages, processes or inputs/outputs shall be clearly stated and justified. The criteria used in setting the system boundaries dictate the degree of confidence in ensuring that the results of the study have not been compromised and that the goal of a given study will be met. Several life cycle stages, unit processes and flows should be taken into consideration, e.g.: inputs and outputs in the main manufacturing/processing sequence; distribution/transportation; production and use of fuels, electricity and heat; use and maintenance of products; disposal of process wastes and products; recovery of used products (including reuse, recycling and energy recovery); manufacture of ancillary materials; manufacture, maintenance and decommissioning of capital equipment; additional operations such as lighting and heating; other considerations related to Impact assessment (if any)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7910, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is helpful to describe the system using a process flow diagram showing the unit processes and their interrelationships. Each of the unit processes should be initially described to define: where the unit process begins, in terms of the receipt of raw materials or intermediate products; the nature of the transformations and operations that occur as part of the unit process; and where the unit process ends, in terms of the destination of the intermediate or final products. It should be decided which input and output data should be traced to other product systems, including the decisions about allocation. The system should be described in sufficient detail and clarity to allow another practitioner to duplicate the Inventory analysis. Source: ISO 14041 (1998E); clause 5.3.3. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7911, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 497, "book_page": 501, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In clause 5.3.5 ISO 14041 (1998E) provides more detailed information on possible cut-off rules (see text box): During the scope definition, the initial set of inputs and outputs is selected for the inventory. This process recognizes that it is often not practical to model every input and output into the product system. It is an iterative process to identify the inputs and outputs which should be traced to the environment, i.e. to identify which unit processes producing the inputs or which unit processes receiving the outputs should be included in the product system under study. The initial identification is typically made using available data, and inputs and outputs should be more fully identified after additional data are collected during the course of the study, and then subjected to a sensitivity analysis (see 6.4.5). The criteria and the assumptions on which they are established shall be clearly described", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7912, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The criteria and the assumptions on which they are established shall be clearly described. The potential effect of the criteria selected on the outcome of the study shall also be assessed and described in the final report. For material inputs, the analysis begins with an initial selection of inputs to be studied. This selection should be based on an identification of the inputs associated with each of the unit processes to be modeled. This effort may be undertaken with data collected from specific sites or from published sources. The goal is to identify the significant inputs associated with each of the unit processes. Several criteria are used in LCA practice to decide which inputs to be studied, including a) mass, b) energy and c) environmental relevance. Making the initial identification of inputs based on mass contribution alone may result in important inputs being omitted from the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7913, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Making the initial identification of inputs based on mass contribution alone may result in important inputs being omitted from the study. Accordingly, energy and environmental relevance should also be used as criteria in this process: a) mass: an appropriate decision, when using mass as a criterion, would require the inclusion in the study of all inputs that cumulatively contribute more than a defined percentage to the mass input of the product system being modeled; b) energy: similarly, an appropriate decision, when using energy as a criterion, would require the inclusion in the study those inputs that cumulatively contribute more than a defined percentage of the product system\u2019s energy inputs; c) environmental relevance: decision on environmental relevance criteria should be made to include inputs that contribute more than an additional defined percentage to the estimated quantity of each individual data category of the product system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7914, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For example, if sulfur oxides were selected as a data category, a criterion could be established to include any inputs that contribute more than a predefined percentage to the total sulfur oxide emissions for the product system. These criteria can also be used to identify which outputs should be traced to the environment, i.e. by including final waste treatment processes. Where the study is intended to support a comparative assertion made to the public, the final sensitivity analysis of the inputs and outputs data shall include the mass, energy and environmental relevance criteria, as outlined in this subclause. All of the selected inputs identified by this process should be modeled as elementary flows. Source: ISO 14041 (1998E); clause 5.3.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7915, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "All of the selected inputs identified by this process should be modeled as elementary flows. Source: ISO 14041 (1998E); clause 5.3.5. Finally, clause 6.4.5 of ISO 14041 states (see textbox): Reflecting the iterative nature of LCA, decisions regarding the data to be included shall be based on a sensitivity analysis to determine their significance, thereby verifying the initial analysis outlined in 5.3.5. The initial product system boundaries shall be revised as appropriate in accordance with the cut-off criteria established in the scope definition. The sensitivity analysis may result in: exclusion of life cycle stages or unit processes when lack of significance can be shown by the sensitivity analysis; exclusion of inputs and outputs which lack significance to the results of study; inclusion of new unit processes, inputs and outputs that are shown to be significant in the sensitivity analysis. Source: ISO 14041 (1998E); clause 6.4.5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7916, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Source: ISO 14041 (1998E); clause 6.4.5. All these requirements are designed \"to limit subsequent data handling\". Their practicability is limited, however, for the data to be considered for cut-off must first be collected. Further data handling subsequent to data collection rarely poses a problem, in contrast to data collection itself. From the ISO requirements it can be concluded that the cut-off problem is primarily a problem of data availability, with data collection consequently involving disproportionate use of resources. In all cases where data are available, no cut-off should be made. If data are lacking, there is a cut-off problem and this should be duly addressed. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7917, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 498, "book_page": 502, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In today's LCA studies capital goods are often cut off. Although capital goods can in principle be cut off like any other inputs (or outputs), there is a definition problem, in that agreement is lacking on what exactly constitutes a capital good, under what circumstances. In an LCA on a utility building the building will be the primary focus of the study, while in other studies it will be regarded as a capital good. It would appear more consistent, however, to treat capital goods the same as any other input or output flow. This approach has the key implication that industrial plant and equipment, as capital goods should, in principle, be included within the bounds of every LCA study (i.e. the processes required to build, maintain and decommission them). We therefore recommend that the same rules be applied for the cut-off of capital goods as for any other input or output flow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7918, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the processes required to build, maintain and decommission them). We therefore recommend that the same rules be applied for the cut-off of capital goods as for any other input or output flow. In the past decade there have been a number of developments with regard to the issue of cut-off, beyond the terms of ISO. These can be divided into three categories: 1. avoiding cut-off by estimating flows using environmentally extended input-output modeling; 2. avoiding cut-off by estimating flows from similar flows for which data are known; 3. applying cut-off on the basis of predefined criteria. Methods will be discussed below for each category. 1. Avoiding cut-off by estimating flows using environmentally extended input-output modeling Economic input/output analysis (IOA) was developed by Leontief over fifty years ago. IOA proceeds from a so-called transaction table recording monetary flows between individual sectors of industry and the values added within each", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7919, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IOA proceeds from a so-called transaction table recording monetary flows between individual sectors of industry and the values added within each. In particular, such tables are used to represent the annual sales of each sector (to all others), offset by that sector's overall procurements (from all others). Transaction tables are converted into a matrix of coefficients in which each element of the table is expressed as a proportion of the total monetary output of the sector in question. Each column of this matrix represents the unique input characteristics required to produce the output in question. If it is assumed that coefficients are independent of production volume, the total direct and indirect inputs required for supplying a given external demand can be calculated by solving a system of linear equations. Under this assumption of linearity, the inputs required to meet $1,000 of external demand will be ten times greater than for $ 100 of demand", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7920, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Under this assumption of linearity, the inputs required to meet $1,000 of external demand will be ten times greater than for $ 100 of demand. Economic input-output models are applied in a variety of fields, including (economic) impact assessment, imputation assessment and energy analysis. Such models can be extended to include environmental data such as emissions and resource use per unit monetary output, on a sector-by-sector basis. The environmental interventions associated with satisfying a particular external demand can then be calculated by multiplying the interventions per unit sectoral output by the sum total of the direct and indirect inputs required for that demand. An environmental input-output database has been developed at Carnegie-Mellon University, using a 1992 US input-output table and 1996 Toxic Releases Inventory (TRI) data (Lave et al., 1995; Hendrickson et al., 1998). Both the data and method were available at a website", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7921, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both the data and method were available at a website. Unfortunately, several important sectors such as electricity generation, mining and solvent recycling were absent in the TRI data. Moreover, the online service is no longer available at the moment. We can only hope that this situation will be remedied soon and practitioners are encouraged to follow these developments closely. Suh has compiled an environmentally extended input-output table based on the most recent data sources available, including a 1996 US input-output table and TRI 98: Missing Inventory Estimation Tool (MIET). The data file is stored as an MS Excel spreadsheet in which all the direct and indirect environmental interventions are calculated by entering the estimated value of the flow in question. These results can be employed directly for estimating cut-off flows by adding them to the inventory. Support can be obtained online through http://www.Ieidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7922, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These results can be employed directly for estimating cut-off flows by adding them to the inventory. Support can be obtained online through http://www.Ieidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html. Alternatively, the hybrid model presented by Suh & Huppes (2000a) can be utilised for in-depth simulation. This hybrid model can be used to simulate full interactions between selected processes and the broader national economy embodied in the input-output table. Although IOA provides a method for estimating lacking data, it has its limitations. In particular, practitioners should be aware of the following major shortcomings (Suh & Huppes, 2000a; 2000b): Input-output models provide information in aggregated form only and it may therefore be difficult to identify appropriate sectors to represent the missing flows. An lOA-based inventory for \u2018aluminium can\u2019 will yield the same result as for \u2018tin can\u2019 or \u2018iron can\u2019, since both are classified under the same IO code, 390100: Metal cans", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7923, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An lOA-based inventory for \u2018aluminium can\u2019 will yield the same result as for \u2018tin can\u2019 or \u2018iron can\u2019, since both are classified under the same IO code, 390100: Metal cans. Matters will be even worse if the product in question is located under aggregated classifications such as 020503: Miscellaneous crops, 110900: Other construction, or 570300: Other electronic components. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7924, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 499, "book_page": 503, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IOA is based on assumed proportionality within the coefficient matrix, implying that economies of scale are ignored. Two scaling effects are relevant, however: input intensity and emission intensity per unit output, both of which generally decrease with increasing plant size. IOA gives the same amount of resource use and emissions per unit output regardless of scale. The base year of the latest version of the US input-output table is 1996. Given the dynamic nature of the modern economy, the economic structure of the day may no longer match that charted several years ago. Besides innovations in actual production technology, rapid development of environmental control technology and regulation are therefore also not taken into account. Although the errors due to this time lag have been reduced somewhat by using the latest (1996) input-output table, for some sectors this might be insufficient", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7925, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although the errors due to this time lag have been reduced somewhat by using the latest (1996) input-output table, for some sectors this might be insufficient. In input-output tables, capital goods such as buildings, plant and equipment are counted as net outputs rather than inputs. That is to say, if a chemicals company builds a new facility or acquires new plant, the environmental interventions caused by those capital goods are not included in the total direct and indirect environmental emissions per unit monetary output of the overall chemical industry. The results given by an input-output based inventory model will therefore not include the environmental burden associated with capital goods as inputs. Potential errors may also be introduced through representation of data in monetary terms. Any analysis using the monetary input-output table assumes that the monetary flows in the input-output table precisely represent the actual physical flows between industries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7926, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Any analysis using the monetary input-output table assumes that the monetary flows in the input-output table precisely represent the actual physical flows between industries. This assumption implies perfect price homogeneity, which is not the case in practice. Secondly, monetary values must be converted into physical units for the purpose of LCA, which requires accurate valuation considering such matters as inflation. In addition to these shortcomings, it should be noted that environmental IOA obviously cannot provide estimates where inventory data on the consumer use and/or post-consumer phase are lacking. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7927, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition to these shortcomings, it should be noted that environmental IOA obviously cannot provide estimates where inventory data on the consumer use and/or post-consumer phase are lacking. 2. Avoiding cut-off by estimating flows from similar flows for which data are known A second option for estimating the environmental effects associated with flows for which such data are lacking is to look at similar flows for which process data are available and determine the closest \u2018lookalikes\u2019 with respect to chemical structure, chemical properties, physical properties or other comparable properties. For example, missing data on an (in)organic catalyst used in a refinery process might be estimated from the process \u2018production of (in)organic chemicals\u2019 in the ETH database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7928, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Capital goods in general might be estimated by subtracting the electricity production data of the SAEFL database excluding capital goods (SAEFL, 1998), from the same electricity production data of the ETH database but including capital goods (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996). Another method for estimating the impacts1 arising from capital goods, particularly buildings, has been developed by Lindeijer (1998). In this method a rouigh estimate is made of the potential significance of the associated environmental impacts, using just a few data such as surface area, height, annual output and building lifetime. In this way an environmental impact profile is estimated by multiplying these figures by the individual profiles of reference construction parts, as calculated by the Eco-Quantum software. These kind of estimates can obviously be performed at various levels of sophistication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7929, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These kind of estimates can obviously be performed at various levels of sophistication. For example, a practitioner could consult an expert, a chemist say, on which flow is the most reasonable \u2018look-alike\u2019 to the flow for which the data are lacking with respect to chemical structure. The capital goods method developed by Lindeijer (1998) has also been developed at three different levels of sophistication. As there is no documented method for most of the options discussed above, it is difficult to discuss this issue in general terms. In general, non-documented options are likely to involve considerable arbitrariness, as expert opinions on what is \u2018reasonably similar\u2019 may differ significantly from case to case and practitioner to practitioner. In addition, the capital goods method described provides only a rough indication of actual environmental impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7930, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, the capital goods method described provides only a rough indication of actual environmental impact. The uncertainties associated with the various input data used in this approach have been assessed; for further details, see Lindeijer (1998) and Part 2b, Section 3.7 of this Guide. Another important practical drawback of this method is that it estimates environmental impact profiles using the Impact assessment methods proposed by Heijungs et al. (1992). As new Impact assessment methods are recommended in the present Guide, this implies that the capital goods method would yield results that are incompatible with the Impact assessment results of the remainder of the LCA in question. This method can therefore not be recommended here. 1 Note that these estimates would be given as environmental profiles, in terms of indicator results for abiotic depletion, global warming, ozone depletion, etc., and not as inventory results. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7931, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 500, "book_page": 504, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3. Cut-off based on predefined criteria Cut-off criteria like those mentioned in ISO 14041 (1998E) are in general use by LCA practitioners today to decide which flows will be studied and which to exclude. In the Nordic Guidelines (Lindfors et al., 1995a,b) three different principles are mentioned for introducing upstream cut-offs (i.e. those not involving waste management processes): cut-off at a predefined upstream stage of the lifecyle; cut-off at a predefined mass percentage of the input flows associated with each individual process; a slightly modified version of the second principle, with cut-off of upstream input flows only when they fall below a certain, predefined percentage of the total mass inputs of the product system (see ISO/TR 14049,1998). The authors mention that \u201cthese cut-off criteria should only be applied for common emissions for which associated environmental impacts mainly depend on mass flow and not on quality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7932, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The authors mention that \u201cthese cut-off criteria should only be applied for common emissions for which associated environmental impacts mainly depend on mass flow and not on quality. As a default approach this type of cut-off criteria may only be used for energy related emissions.\" For certain emissions a flagging procedure is proposed. In a report on application of LCA to agricultural products (Wegener Sleeswijk et al., 1996) discussion of the cut-off issue focused on capital goods. In the agricultural sector a variety of capital goods are employed with a relatively short service life (e.g. farming machinery) as well as capital goods requiring relatively large quantities of materials (e.g. farm tracks and roads). The authors argue that the environmental interventions associated with machinery production and maintenance as well as with farm tracks and roads should not therefore be omitted from LCAs on agricultural products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7933, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Farm buildings, on the other hand, can generally be excluded, except in the case of greenhouse horticulture and in studies where farm buildings constitute the main issue. PROSPECTS In a PhD project CML (See Suh & Huppes, 2000a) is working on a hybrid input-output model, which may be useful for estimating missing data in the LCA context. This hybrid model can be used to simulate full interactions between selected processes and the broader economy. However, the limitations of preparing inventories on the basis of input-output analysis should be clearly recognised by users and this type of estimate should be kept to a minimum, particularly if estimated flows prove to be significant. Developments on this issue will therefore need to be updated in this Guide in due course", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7934, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Developments on this issue will therefore need to be updated in this Guide in due course. CONCLUSIONS If data on specific process flows are lacking, arbitrary cut-offs should be avoided wherever possible by using suitable methods of approximation: This allows an initial estimate to be made, permitting a more reasoned decision on whether to collect process-specific data for the flows in question or subsequently ignore them. Environmentally extended Input-Output Analysis (IOA) is generally recommended as an approximation method, because of its broad applicability (almost all flows) and completeness in terms of system approach. If comparison to a similar process (based on expert judgement, for example) is anticipated to provide a better estimate than IOA or if IOA is not applicable (use and waste management phases), this may be used alongside or instead of IOA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7935, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS To avoid mere cut-off with respect to the boundary between processes to be included and those to be ignored, appropriate procedures need to be developed based on estimates of the environmental interventions associated with these processes. Input-output analysis is one of the most promising avenues of research here. Since the Carnegie Mellon and the Suh and Huppes (2000a; 2000b) models are based solely on US input-output data, there is a need to develop a more general (average-world) model or at least regional (e.g. European and Asian) submodels. 3.9 Multifunctionality and allocation TOPIC Most industrial processes are multifunctional. Their output generally comprises more than a single product, and raw material inputs often include intermediates or discarded products. In other ways, too, production processes are dynamically interlinked with other processes, technologically, behaviourally, and otherwise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7936, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In other ways, too, production processes are dynamically interlinked with other processes, technologically, behaviourally, and otherwise. LCA practitioners are thus faced with the problem that the product system or systems Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7937, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 501, "book_page": 505, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Within these headings, individual data categories shall be further detailed to satisfy the goal of the study. Heijungs et al. (1992) In the \u201992 guide the data categories are discussed in 2.2.1 Quantification of the inputs and outputs. It is stated that since all economic outputs of processes are connected to economic inputs of other processes these input and output categories should be fully symmetrical. For both inputs and outputs a distinction is made between goods, services, materials, energy and waste for treatment. Environmental inputs and outputs are not symmetrical. In the \u201992 guide the following inputs from the environment were distinguished: abiotic resources, biotic resources, energy resources and space. The environmental outputs were as follows: emissions to air, water and soil, radiation, noise, heat, light and accidents", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7938, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The environmental outputs were as follows: emissions to air, water and soil, radiation, noise, heat, light and accidents. It is also mentioned that some environmental outputs may be of a more qualitative nature, such as ecosystem fragmentation due to road-building programmes. \u201cNegative emissions\u201d are also mentioned, occurring mainly in processes on the boundary between the environment and the economy, e.g. the uptake (negative emission) of by forests and crops. Section 2.2.1 of the \u201992 guide also introduces the term format in relation to the manner in which LCA Inventory data are to be stored and processed. A distinction is made between the conceptual format and the technical (i.e. software) format. The conceptual format relates to the main structure (see Figure 3.2.1), the technical format to the rules for filling in the process data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7939, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "software) format. The conceptual format relates to the main structure (see Figure 3.2.1), the technical format to the rules for filling in the process data. The main structure indicates the input and output categories of the process: economic inputs and outputs, and environmental inputs and outputs (see Figure 3.2.1) and also Appendix A.1. of Heijungs et al., 1992). The \u201992 guide does not elaborate the technical format in any further detail (although CML later drew up a such a format based on the conceptual format). Besides the economic and environmental inputs and outputs, the conceptual format also includes the following aspects: who entered the data, and when representativeness of the data (scale, dating, duration, status) quality of the data (clarity, accuracy, completeness) source of the data mass and energy balance of the process. There is also reference to the fact that unquantifiable aspects may be important for some processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7940, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is also reference to the fact that unquantifiable aspects may be important for some processes. The conceptual format explicitly provides space for this purpose. The background to the \u201992 guide (section 2.3.1) specifies a number of general requirements the format should meet: Methodological delineation: The format will have to be particularly oriented towards those environmental interventions ultimately of importance for Classification. The format will have to be oriented toward the \u201cpotentially relevant\u201d economic inputs and outputs. Other requirements: The format shall be geared to practical data availability. The format shall be in line with current practice wherever possible The format shall be readily comprehensible and suitable for international use. The format shall be such as to prevent LCAs being swamped by having to fill in an excessive number of process data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7941, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The format shall be such as to prevent LCAs being swamped by having to fill in an excessive number of process data. For example, under emissions to air, data categories such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, etc. can be separately identified.\u201d In clause 5.3.4 ISO 14041 continues: \u201cThe data required for an LCA study are dependent on the goal of the study. Such data may be collected from the production sites associated with the unit processes within the systems boundaries, or they may be obtained or calculated from published sources. In practice, all data categories may include a mixture of measured, calculated or estimated data. Subclause 4.4 [see above] outlines the major headings for the inputs and outputs that are quantified for each unit process within the systems boundary. These data categories should be considered when deciding which data categories are used in the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7942, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These data categories should be considered when deciding which data categories are used in the study. The individual data categories should be further detailed to satisfy the goal of the study. Energy inputs and outputs shall be treated as any other input or output to an LCA1. The various types of energy inputs and outputs shall include inputs and outputs relevant for the production and delivery of fuels, feedstock energy and process energy used within the system being modeled. Emissions to air, water and land represent discharges from point or diffuse sources, after passing through emissions control devices. The category should also include, when significant, fugitive emissions. Indicator parameters, e.g. biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), may also be used. 1 In many contexts there is a special interest in the extraction of energy resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7943, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Indicator parameters, e.g. biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), may also be used. 1 In many contexts there is a special interest in the extraction of energy resources. As the depletion of energy resources is treated in the Impact assessment as part of general abiotic depletion, energy resource use may be specified in terms of the total energy content of all the abiotic energy resources involved, e.g. using the heat values as specified in the ETH database on energy transformation processes. This information does not enter the computations in the Impact assessment, however. [Addition from authors of this Guide.]", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7944, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 502, "book_page": 486, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "under study provide more functions than the one investigated in the functional unit of interest. An appropriate decision must therefore be made as to which of the economic flows and environmental interventions associated with the product system under study are to be allocated to (the functional unit provided by) that system. Decisions on the specifics of allocation will obviously be determined by the precise nature of the system boundaries as previously defined (see Section 3.2), for these determine which inputs and outputs are to be taken as being associated with the function of interest. An appropriate allocation procedure is thus required to partition the inputs and outputs of all relevant processes to the appropriate product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7945, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An appropriate allocation procedure is thus required to partition the inputs and outputs of all relevant processes to the appropriate product systems. In comparative LCAs, the problem is compounded, for any comparison of alternative product systems for fulfilling the function of interest is hampered by the fact that each of these alternatives will be associated with a variety of different additional functions, in addition to the function of interest. As an example, cadmium production from zinc ore yields zinc as a co-product, while production from phosphate ore yields phosphorus as a co-product. The aim of the allocation step is then to render the two production systems \u2018equivalent\u2019, for which two basic methods are available. Equivalence can be achieved either by subtracting those parts of the systems that function for other product systems, resulting in a system providing a single function (viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7946, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Equivalence can be achieved either by subtracting those parts of the systems that function for other product systems, resulting in a system providing a single function (viz. the primary function), or by adding further subsystems such that the two systems provide the same set of functions. Viewed from this angle allocation is essentially a process-level problem, closely related to the definition of system boundaries. At the same time the issue of multifunctionality is far broader, however, having a bearing on the entire issue of inventory modeling at the core of LCA. In attempting to map the complexities of the production, consumption and waste management systems embedded in the dynamic real-world economy, the models employed in LCA inevitably introduce a host of simplifications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7947, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At present the chief goal is still to model basic process-technological interlinkage, using fixed input-output coefficients and steady-state inventory models and provisionally ignoring any further relations of a social, cultural and political nature. Although progress is being made on incorporating some economic mechanisms, the issue is a complex one that raises basic questions about modeling choices. In this sense, then, process multifunctionality can be regarded as a modeling problem at the systems level. In more technical terms, and assuming purely linear relationships,, there is then an imbalance between the number of equations and the number of variables in the model, to be solved by adding or subtracting equations or variables", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7948, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are thus two aspects to what is loosely referred to as allocation: an \u2018allocation problem\u2019, in the narrow sense of partitioning (the inputs and outputs of) unit processes among product systems, and a \u2018multifunctionality problem\u2019, a broader issue cutting right across LCA inventory modeling. These problem definitions are aligned with basic choices about where physical causality is to be incorporated in the LCA procedure: during modeling, or at the allocation stage. As inventory models are further refined to more broadly mirror real-world causality and hence become more complex, the problem of multifunctionality will be compounded. Then, too, Some form of allocation will therefore remain unavoidable and an appropriate, pragmatic procedure will have to be adopted. Given the additional fact that much of the work on allocation is closely allied with developments in LCA modeling, the topics of allocation and multifunctionality are treated together in this section", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7949, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Below we first summarise relevant sections of ISO Standard 14041 (ISO, 1998E), which provides a stepwise allocation procedure for practitioners. Next we turn to the 1992 guide (Heijungs et al., 1992), which is oriented more towards multifunctionality as a systems (i.e. modeling) problem. In these introductory paragraphs we also outline the basic contours of the problem in its dual perspective and consider some ambiguities of terminology. There follows an analytical and strategic review of recent developments in LCA modeling and allocation. This serves as a stepping stone to a statement of the principal choices made in this Guide, which are then related to the ISO allocation framework. The recommended procedures are described in greater detail in the \u2018conclusions\u2019 of this section, where some of the main options available for sensitivity analysis are also indicated. The topic of multifunctionality and allocation is also treated separately in Appendix C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7950, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The topic of multifunctionality and allocation is also treated separately in Appendix C. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE ISO The topic of allocation is treated in ISO 14041(ISO, 1998E). In clause 6.5.1 the basic terms of the issue are set out as follows: \"Life cycle inventory analysis relies on being able to link unit processes within a product system by simple material and energy flows. In practice, few industrial processes yield a single output or are based on a Part 3 : Scihentific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7951, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 503, "book_page": 506, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "linearity of raw materials inputs and outputs. In fact, most industrial processes yield more than one product, and they recycle intermediate or discarded products as raw materials. Therefore, the materials and energy flows as well as associated environmental releases shall be allocated to the different products according to clearly stated procedures.\" In the terms of the present Guide: in the case of multifunctional processes, the associated environmental interventions are to be appropriately allocated to the product systems under study. In Section 6.5.2 of ISO 14041 several principles for allocation are then stated. In the first place, allocation procedures are to approximate fundamental input-output relationships as closely as possible. Second, the sums of the inputs or outputs of a multifunctional unit process allocated to its various goods and services are to equal the unallocated inputs or outputs of that process. This is known as the \u2018100% rule\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7952, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is known as the \u2018100% rule\u2019. Where several alternative options for allocation are available, finally, a sensitivity analysis is to be conducted to illustrate the consequences of the particular choices made. Section 6.5.3 lays down an allocation procedure comprising three steps. Step 1 does not, strictly speaking, belong to the allocation procedure, as its aim is to avoid allocation \u201cwherever possible\u201d, by either of two options: division of multifunctional processes into two or more monofunctional subprocesses (step 1a), or expansion of the product system to include the additional functions related to the coproducts (step 1b). The latter step essentially means redefining the functional unit and the system boundaries, and must therefore be conducted in accordance with the provisions for defining these basic parameters. Where allocation is unavoidable, ISO prescribes one of two alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7953, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Where allocation is unavoidable, ISO prescribes one of two alternatives. Step 2 states that system inputs and outputs should be \u201cpartitioned on the basis of the underlying physical relationships between them\u201d, i.e. reflect the way in which the inputs and outputs are affected by quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system If this is not feasible or does not provide a full solution, step 3 of ISO 14041 is to be followed, with partitioning being based on \u201cother relationships\u201d between inputs and outputs, most notably relationships of economic value. Avoidance of allocation, the first step of the ISO procedure, is quite simple in variant 1a, as when truly independent processes are lumped together into one unit process. Specifying these underlying single processes then solves the problem. In variant 1b, system expansion, the solution is more problematical than it may seem at first glance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7954, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Specifying these underlying single processes then solves the problem. In variant 1b, system expansion, the solution is more problematical than it may seem at first glance. Consider the case of a comparison between product system alternatives (as opposed to a single alternative LCA). To create 'equivalence' between the functions provided by these alternatives, in principle one may simply add to each alternative all the additional functions pertinent to the other alternatives. With a large number of alternatives, and with more detailed analysis of underlying multifunctional processes, however, such 'system expansion' will lead to a new de facto functional unit comprising a vast number of extraneous functions. The system as a whole may thus become inordinately large and be quantitatively dominated by all the added processes, with all their attendant uncertainties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7955, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The system as a whole may thus become inordinately large and be quantitatively dominated by all the added processes, with all their attendant uncertainties. One partial solution to this problem is not to add functions to the various alternatives but to subtract them from those alternatives providing additional functions. This approach to ISO's system expansion is also known as the 'substitution method' or \u2018avoided burden method\u2019 and is discussed in greater detail below. Thus, in a comparison of, say, alternatives for soap production from caustic soda, the upstream monofunctional chlorine production chain is not added to all the alternative product systems, but is subtracted from the former. From an economic perspective, however, this procedure can be regarded as product substitution, the additional chlorine from soap production replacing monofunctional chlorine production elsewhere", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7956, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From an economic perspective, however, this procedure can be regarded as product substitution, the additional chlorine from soap production replacing monofunctional chlorine production elsewhere. It thus involves a number of implicit assumptions on which material production is replaced, on the absence of new market demand arising through substitution (i.e. only substitution within existing markets) and on the feasibility of other multiple outputs within the system being able to be dealt with in the same way. If these assumptions are unfounded, i.e. if such substitution is unlikely to occur in reality, subtraction becomes an artificial procedure, adopted solely to yield a monofunctional system. This is indeed the case in the soap example, for in reality there is no such thing as a monofunctional chlorine process. Thus, there is considerable ambiguity between the terms of ISO's step 1b: system expansion and step 3: allocation based on \"other relationships\", viz. economic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7957, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Thus, there is considerable ambiguity between the terms of ISO's step 1b: system expansion and step 3: allocation based on \"other relationships\", viz. economic. These issues will be considered in more detail below. The requirements set by ISO on this kind of subtraction procedure are that the alternative systems to be subtracted should be \u201cknown\u201d and that assumptions about what is actually replaced by its output be \u201cwelldocumented\u201d (ISO 14041, 1998E; B.2). As we have seen, though, this is often problematical, for with many joint products there is no independent production process to add or subtract. Moreover, if the substitution system is itself multifunctional, the multifunctionality problem remains, in the line of reasoning of ISO step 1b, again to be tackled by subtraction, for each of the multiple flows. Even if applied only partially, in cases where realistic alternatives are indeed known, system expansion would lead to endless Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7958, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 504, "book_page": 507, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "regress, involving virtually all the world\u2019s production processes, for the simple reason that virtually any substitution system is itself a complex multifunction system. It should be reiterated here that we shall interpret the ISO procedure within the dual framework discussed earlier: in the context of the empirical modeling of all kinds of process multifunctionality, and as a solution to the multifunctionality problem, which by definition then is not empirical modeling, although it may of course reflect empirical relationships in a looser sense. Most ISO steps may be interpreted either as modeling or as partitioning, as a solution to the multifunctionality problem. Division of multifunctional processes (ISO step 1a) means taking a closer look at empirical relationships and is clearly part of modeling. Given the implications for redefinition of the functional unit and system boundaries, system expansion (step 1b) is also treated by ISO implicitly as a modeling step", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7959, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Given the implications for redefinition of the functional unit and system boundaries, system expansion (step 1b) is also treated by ISO implicitly as a modeling step. It represents the acceptance of multifunctionality. If viewed as a solution to the multifunctionality problem, expansion of the functional unit to include the functions of the co-products means that these latter functions must be incorporated as separate production chains in all the product alternatives that are not associated with these co-products. Particularly if there are several alternatives, each with several but different coproducts, the perspective on the original functional unit soon becomes clouded as the system is expanded to include ever more functions. The situation is illustrated in Table 3.9.1. System expansion renders systems comparable by adding to the respective product systems co-products that are deemed 'equivalent' (A' for A, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7960, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The situation is illustrated in Table 3.9.1. System expansion renders systems comparable by adding to the respective product systems co-products that are deemed 'equivalent' (A' for A, etc.). This yields a series of hypothetical systems providing the same, multiple functions. Since subtracting a constant factor from (the functions associated with) each alternative leaves the differences between the alternatives mathematically unaltered, one way of reducing complexity is to simply deduct from each alternative the sum total of all the \u2018extra\u2019 functions (the set A\u2019+ B\u2019 + C\u2019), yielding product systems assumed to be monofunctional, with just a single co-product (system) subtracted. As already mentioned, the problem with this kind of subtraction is that it can be interpreted not as a solution to the multifunctionality problem but as a step in modeling. It is then not \u2018subtraction\u2019 but \u2018substitution\u2019, i.e. a modeling of the economic substitution of processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7961, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is then not \u2018subtraction\u2019 but \u2018substitution\u2019, i.e. a modeling of the economic substitution of processes. The implicit logic is that if electrical power is generated as a co-product in some waste management process this will lead to reduced power generation elsewhere. There is unjustified optimism about (system) expansion and (function) subtraction as a solution to the allocation problem. There are two main drawbacks. First, system expansion generally means adding new multi-functional processes, thus merely increasing the number of processes that need to be partitioned. Second, this procedure may often constitute an artificial solution to the multifunctionality problem, if the functions taken for expansion and subtraction are known in reality not to be the relevant ones. This is not a very elegant solution, as such imaginary solutions may introduce large and unknown uncertainties in outcomes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7962, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is not a very elegant solution, as such imaginary solutions may introduce large and unknown uncertainties in outcomes. A practical solution is to employ system expansion as a proxy type of modeling, expanding the system using processes that are not precisely equivalent but are similar enough for them to be taken as reasonable approximations. These processes should already have been rendered monofunctional by means of some allocation procedure, in a prior study, for example. For simplified LCA studies this may indeed represent a useful mixed solution: system expansion on the basis of previous allocation. A frequently employed option for subtraction is to use the allocated cradle-to-gate (partial) LCAs in the ETH energy production database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7963, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A frequently employed option for subtraction is to use the allocated cradle-to-gate (partial) LCAs in the ETH energy production database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996). Allocation based on physical relationships (step 2 of the ISO procedure) is part of modeling if these relationships are indeed specified, as when a waste management model specifies emissions as a function of the input of some waste. This is a cle\u00e5r example of modeling in which the multifunctionality problem does not arise. (Whether this type of modeling is adequate for all or even most LCA purposes is another question.) If such empirical relationships are not modeled, some physical relationship may still be used for partitioning, as a somewhat artificial solution. The same holds for the final ISO step, partitioning on the basis of \"other relationships\", such as economic value. Market mechanisms may be modeled, and are then part of the modeling leading to the multifunctionality problem, or they may be ignored", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7964, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Market mechanisms may be modeled, and are then part of the modeling leading to the multifunctionality problem, or they may be ignored. Table 3.9.1 : Expansion and subtraction as solutions to the multi-functionality problem. Intended FU (X) alternative system alternative system alternative system co-product A B C expanded system : multiple but equivalent functions subtracted system : one function only Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7965, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 505, "book_page": 508, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The point here is that if there is relevant real-world knowledge available on empirical relationships, it should be used not only for allocating multifunctional processes, but also, at a primary level, for constructing a more accurate and consistent inventory model. \u2018System expansion\u2019, in the real world, is part of a broader class of economic substitution mechanisms, involving market mechanisms, income effects, investment decisions, etc. As economic mechanisms are clearly fundamental to industrial processes, model quality would be greatly improved if market mechanisms were somehow incorporated. At the same time, though, introducing economic mechanisms would increase the complexity of LCA inventory modeling enormously and compound the problem of multifunctionality still further. It may even be questioned whether such modeling can be reconciled with certain key features of LCA, such as an arbitrary amount of the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7966, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It may even be questioned whether such modeling can be reconciled with certain key features of LCA, such as an arbitrary amount of the functional unit. The steps of the ISO allocation procedure and their interpretations in this Guide are summarised in . Table 3.9.2: ISO terminology and its interpretation in this Guide. ISO terminology: allocation problem: at process level solution Step 1 : avoiding allocation: 1 a division of unit processes 1 b system expansion Step 2: otherwise, allocation reflecting physical relationships Step 3: otherwise, allocation reflecting other relationships interpretation in this Guide: multifunctionality problem: at unit process level or at systems level modeling modeling of broader functional unit, or: modeling of economic substitution or: non-empirical, artificialsolution modeling, or: allocation as partitioning of unit processes modeling, or: allocation as partitioning of unit processes Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7967, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) The multifunctionality problem was treated at length in the 1992 guide and background document (Heijungs et al., 1992; pp. 22-34). Several problem definitions were given and potential solutions discussed. Although the problem was defined at a systems level, solutions were discussed at the process level, in conformity with ISO. System expansion was not deemed a satisfactory solution, for incorporating ever more processes, themselves multifunctional, leads to highly unwieldy systems that are extremely difficult to compare. Individual processes were described in terms of inflows and outflows, some of which were to be allocated and others allocated to. Although \"social causality\" was stated to be the guiding principle, it is not always applicable, for practical or theoretical reasons", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7968, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although \"social causality\" was stated to be the guiding principle, it is not always applicable, for practical or theoretical reasons. Social causality refers to the aims of operators, who adjust operations to shifts in demand and more generally to supply and demand mechanisms, influencing the product mix of multifunctional processes. The 1992 guide defines the multifunctionality problem in relation to system boundary definition. Coproducts not intrinsic to the system under study need not be followed further: they cross the system boundary. However, if outputs are produced in a waste management system that can usefully be applied in other systems, as with some kinds of fly ash and sewage sludge, there is no multifunctionality problem; the flows should then be followed further in the processes where they are applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7969, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Open-loop recycling is treated at the systems level: primary production is assigned to the first system of use, with all upgrading processes being considered part of the second system of use. Final waste processing, including landfill, is assigned to the process where it actually occurs, which is generally multifunctional. Although allocation rules for multiple waste processing were discussed in the 1 992 background document, no clear procedural guidelines were given in the guide. Compared to the 1992 guide, the current Guide has more precise rules for setting systems boundaries, in relation to the economic value of flows. It is also more explicit with respect to the allocation rules to be applied, as elaborated below. Moreover, the rules for solving the multifunctionality problem are now more uniform across the three situations distinguished in 1992: co-production, combined waste processing and open-loop recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7970, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other methods A general survey of developments in the field of allocation is provided by Lindeijer and Huppes (see Appendix C) and specifically for open-loop recycling by Ekvall & Tillman (1997), Kim et al. (1997) and Kl\u00f6pffer (1996). We shall not discuss all these developments individually but review the field from a more strategic and analytical perspective, for unfortunately we are here not dealing with refinements of existing positions, paving the way to ever better, more detailed solutions. In Kuhnian terms: there is still no dominant \u2018normal science\u2019 paradigm in LCA, but several competing paradigms, all rather imprecisely defined. These paradigms are not reflected or defined solely at the level of allocation. As already indicated, the multifunctionality problem is intimately related to the more fundamental issue of inventory modeling. The following analysis of developments in the last decade therefore covers both allocation-asPart 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7971, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 506, "book_page": 509, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "partitioning and inventory modeling. As the various approaches to the problem involve paradigmatic choices, they have one feature in common: they tend to lead to improvements in one area while creating new problems in others. A second issue is that causal relationships which have been incorporated in modeling cannot be used once more in allocation. Consequently, choosing a method for tackling the multifunctionality and allocation problem is not merely a question of single-step improvements. Analytic survey: trends This review concerns allocation and modeling. The more general subject of modeling for LCA and, still more general, for Industrial Ecology, is touched upon only in relation to the multifunctionality problem as specific to LCA. Certain broader topics relating to LCA modeling have been treated in Section 1.2.2 above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7972, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Certain broader topics relating to LCA modeling have been treated in Section 1.2.2 above. LCA inventory analysis has progressed in two main ways over the past decade: more specific methods and models have been developed, and there are now clearer ideas on how to interpret and compare their results. The basic aim of all this work has been to include more causal mechanisms of known relevance in inventory models. At the same time, though, there is a general conviction that LCA should be simplified, enabling easier and hence broader application. Up to a point, the conflicting aims of making LCA both \u2018better\u2019 and \u2018simpler\u2019 can be practically resolved by using better databases and software. These may reflect enhanced methods, on the one hand, and are easy to apply, on the other. At the methods level the conflict remains, however. For this reason, in this Guide a distinction has been introduced between \u2018simplified\u2019 and \u2018detailed\u2019 LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7973, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the methods level the conflict remains, however. For this reason, in this Guide a distinction has been introduced between \u2018simplified\u2019 and \u2018detailed\u2019 LCA. Below, we first consider detailed LCA, which employs more sophisticated modeling and allocation methods. After this fairly lengthy treatment, a simplified form of analysis is derived that still retains as much realism as possible. Certain simple types of modeling may even avoid the problem entirely, as when economic processes are characterized in monetary terms only, using sectoral input-output models with environmental extensions, for example (Lave et al., 1995; Hendrickson et al., 1998). As a gross simplification, this type of modeling may be used in LCA, thus rendering the multifunctionality problem invisible. We regard the application of such IO models as useful for estimating missing data but not as a general modeling approach (see Section 3.8), nor as a solution to the allocation problem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7974, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We regard the application of such IO models as useful for estimating missing data but not as a general modeling approach (see Section 3.8), nor as a solution to the allocation problem. It is sometimes proposed to include exergy analysis in LCA inventory modeling and solve the allocation problem by means of this single measure on product flows (and even environmental flows), as seems to be advocated by Ayres (1998) and, to a lesser extent, by Cornelissen (1997). Exergy analysis may constitute a useful tool for identifying strategies for improving energy efficiency, as improved system alternatives. If such a strategy has then indeed been effective in reducing various forms of energy resource use (e.g. oil, coal, uranium) is a matter of LCA inventory modeling of the alternatives concerned, comparing these, and other, environmental interventions. In the present discussion of multifunctionality and allocation we give no further consideration to the issue of exergy analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7975, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the present discussion of multifunctionality and allocation we give no further consideration to the issue of exergy analysis. Other types of model may aggravate the allocation problem substantially, as is the case with most partialequilibrium economic models. Substitution, for example, is in reality always only partial. Shifts in volumes and prices in one process will thus lead to adjustments in the volumes and prices of all related processes, and so on. If processes are defined at the level of detail required for environmental analysis, the 'full system' can never be modeled. Increased modeling complexity is therefore combined with incompleteness, apart from compounding the allocation problem. One solution to the multifunctionality problem is to simply accept the fact that systems are multifunctional and thus avoid the additional artificiality of allocation. This solution comes at a price, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7976, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This solution comes at a price, however. It will then be harder to compare product system alternatives, as differences in a multitude of other functions will have to allowed for when interpreting the modeling results. This amounts to abandoning the functional unit: the very essence of what constitutes an LCA. Most current LCA inventory modeling relies on three basic simplifications, all more or less directly related to ease of use. First, unit processes are treated as \u2018black boxes\u2019, with constant and linear input-output coefficients, in which the actual variability of process parameters and operating conditions are thus implicitly disregarded. A second, related simplification is that no attempt is made to incorporate the actual objectives of process operators, i.e. plant owners, managers and investors. As a consequence, changes in exogenous circumstances do not lead to endogenous changes in process parameters", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7977, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "plant owners, managers and investors. As a consequence, changes in exogenous circumstances do not lead to endogenous changes in process parameters. Third, and again related to the previous simplifications, the inter-connectedness of processes is also modeled very mechanically and statically, in a steady-state model, ignoring all (or most) market mechanisms, as well as all other social, cultural, and political relations. These basic simplifications are obvious limitations, and overcoming them is a worthy endeavour, though by no means a straightforward one. As most recent efforts to elaborate a more sophisticated allocation Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7978, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 507, "book_page": 510, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "method have been closely bound up with the goal of improving LCA inventory modeling, recent developments can usefully be discussed in terms of efforts to tackle the respective simplifying assumptions. We shall therefore consider, successively, efforts aimed at incorporating the following three classes of mechanisms in inventory modeling: technical relations; aims of process operators; market relations. 1. 2. 3. Technical relations Today there is a vast body of technological knowledge that can be usefully incorporated in LCA. Systems engineering models of complex systems have become increasingly accurate and a variety of sophisticated databases and software are now available, very similar to LCA software, such as Chemsys (Chemstations Inc., 1997). Generally, they comprise a mixture of physical (\u2019natural science type\u2019) causality with operational practice based on technical and economic aims", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7979, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Generally, they comprise a mixture of physical (\u2019natural science type\u2019) causality with operational practice based on technical and economic aims. In the field of waste management, process models with \u2018internal relations\u2019 have been developed to determine the effects of processing an extra amount of a particular waste flow; for a review, see Sundberg et al. (1998). A number of technological models have also been developed for specific use in LCA; see, for example, Eggels & van der Ven (1995). Such models have also been incorporated in LCA software. In models permitting independent variation of useful functions, these technical specifications may help solve the multifunctionality problem or, better, avoid it altogether. A change in one of the outputs associated with a functional unit can then be related to changes in the overall process, leaving all other functional outputs constant. It is then these changes that are due to the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7980, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is then these changes that are due to the functional unit. If the co-products cannot be varied independently, i.e. if it is a joint (rather than just combined) process, the multifunctionality problem of course remains. There is one major problem with recent developments along these lines. Most available models indicate the results of short-term changes only, computing effects on capacity utilisation while leaving installed capacity unchanged. While such models may be very useful in optimising use of existing installations, most of the questions posed in LCA relate to the medium and long term, in which, conversely, installed capacities change, with capacity use more or less given. This partial \u2018solution\u2019 to the allocation problem therefore comes at the price of an unrealistic model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7981, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This partial \u2018solution\u2019 to the allocation problem therefore comes at the price of an unrealistic model. The obvious but by no means straightforward solution is to model long-term technical relations, incorporating changes in installed capacities and in operational utilisation due to particular choices of product system. Both the short- and the long-term analysis are forms of marginal systems analysis; in the short-term analysis it is marginal changes in capacity use that are relevant, with installed capacities remaining constant; in the long-term, it is marginal changes in installed capacities, at intended capacity use, that are relevant. So long term marginal analysis specifies the changes in average functioning. See also Section 1.2.3.4. There is wide debate on how best to model causality within process relationships, treated in the context of allocation in ISO 14041 only partially under the heading \u2018physical relationships\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7982, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is wide debate on how best to model causality within process relationships, treated in the context of allocation in ISO 14041 only partially under the heading \u2018physical relationships\u2019. These relationships define the input and output coefficients of all the processes included in the LCA inventory. However, these \u2018technical\u2019 coefficients also reflect the aims of process operators, and these are mainly economic. Furthermore, \u2018physical causality\u2019 is generally in the wrong direction when applied in LCA: in a physically determined system it is the inputs and system conditions that cause the output, while LCA is concerned with how the multiple products delivered by a given process, as outputs, affect its functioning, including inputs of raw materials and intermediate products. From this perspective, the actual 'physical relationships' embodied in the technological plant are generally of no more than secondary influence", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7983, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From this perspective, the actual 'physical relationships' embodied in the technological plant are generally of no more than secondary influence. There may be one exception here: where the \u2018cause\u2019 coincides with the \u2018function\u2019, as in waste processing, where the wastes imported are the precise cause of the emissions and other outflows of the plant in question. Even in this case, though, the inputs of capital and ancillary goods are not physically determined but induced by regulations and a variety of socio-economic factors. Pure physical causality can never fully explain the functioning of even waste management systems. In mixed waste treatment, in particular, the rationale for co-processing often lies in economies of scale, with consequent acceptance of inferior (because unspecialised) treatment. From this broader perspective, there is good reason to use economic allocation, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7984, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From this broader perspective, there is good reason to use economic allocation, i.e. the share in the total proceeds of the waste management process represented by sum paid for processing this specific waste. As already discussed, there are thus two conflicting options here: to incorporate physical, i.e. technical causality in modeling, thereby possibly resolving the multifunctionality problem, or to resolve the problem as part of an allocation procedure. The solution proposed by Eggels & van der Ven (1995) is a mixed one. It distinguishes between product-related and process-related flows and emissions. Product-related emissions indicate what would happen if the specific waste flow were not part of the total waste flow (incremental change, with fixed installed capacity) Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7985, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 508, "book_page": 511, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "or if a unit more or less were processed (marginal change, also with fixed installed capacity). This modeling is generally done on theoretical grounds, e.g. explaining cadmium emissions to air in terms of the cadmium content of the waste products being processed. By relating all emissions to their sources in specific waste products, only part of total emissions are explained, termed by them \u2018product-related emissions\u2019. Stopping here would mean violation of the 100% rule, i.e. total allocated emissions would not equal total emissions. In a following step, then, the remaining unallocated emissions, termed \u2018processrelated emissions\u2019, are allocated on a different basis: by mass, for example. The situation becomes slightly more complex if, say, electricity is generated alongside the waste processing function. By first substituting a stand-alone electrical power plant for the co-produced energy, the same procedure can be applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7986, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "By first substituting a stand-alone electrical power plant for the co-produced energy, the same procedure can be applied. First the product-related emissions are established and then the process-related emissions, which may now be negative, and both allocated to the various waste flows being processed. One drawback of this method is that in most cases the physical-causal analysis used to establish the product-related emissions relates to the short term, with fixed capacity and variable capacity utilisation, while LCA is concerned primarily with the longer term, with fixed capacity utilization and variable installed capacity. Even if one were to accept the validity of a short-term analysis as a proxy for the long term, the ins and outs of that analysis remains unclear. How to tackle the PVC contribution to dioxins emissions from a waste incinerator in which other chlorine-containing wastes (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7987, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "How to tackle the PVC contribution to dioxins emissions from a waste incinerator in which other chlorine-containing wastes (e.g. kitchen wastes) are also being processed? Current models indicate that the marginal contribution is negligible, as the chlorine input required to produce all the dioxins is much lower than the actual input, from either PVC or kitchen wastes. The marginal contribution to dioxin formation, the basic method for establishing physical causality, is therefore virtually zero. Clearly, more work needs to be done before process models properly reflect the underlying internal technical relations. The task then is to elucidate both the modeling principles required to handle long-term capacity adjustment and the precise empirical relationships that need to be incorporated in the model. For the time being, realistic modeling of physical relationships within the process is an option in exceptional cases only, relating to waste management", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7988, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the time being, realistic modeling of physical relationships within the process is an option in exceptional cases only, relating to waste management. For establishing long-term relationships involving changes in installed capacities, no clear approaches to improved modeling as yet exist. Thus, the multifunctionality problem must be resolved mainly as part of the allocation procedure, rather than on the basis of physical relations. Aims of process operators Most industrial processes have many degrees of operational freedom, over the shorter term but particularly in the long term, as investments in new capacity may fundamentally change the nature and scale of operations. To incorporate the aims of process operators in LCA therefore appears to be a promising methodological extension. There is indeed a wealth of knowledge on the aims of business enterprises, which might be expressed in terms of a mixture of goals as e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7989, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is indeed a wealth of knowledge on the aims of business enterprises, which might be expressed in terms of a mixture of goals as e.g. market share, cash flow, profits, shareholder value and long-term viability, as defined by the firm in question. Combined in a goal function, an optimum can be defined for the functioning of the process (or set of processes) operated by a firm, by maximising its goal function. It is process operators, usually the owners or their representatives, who decide how processes are operated. Their aims are primarily economic, viz. to minimise cost or maximise net proceeds or profits. Such types of model are sensible only if used in tandem with models having specified internal technical relations. Assuming some goal function which operationally specifies the aims, an optimum system can be developed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7990, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Assuming some goal function which operationally specifies the aims, an optimum system can be developed. The first assumption here is that there is one operator for the entire system, the second that the relations specifying the system include options for capacity adjustment, to allow for the long-term perspective relevant in LCA. Then, during optimisation, capacity use is set at the desired optimum in all installations. Adding one functional unit gives the long-term marginal effect required in LCA. For all combined processes, but not for joint processes, the multifunctionality problem is then, in principle, solved. However, there are few situations in which there is just one operator maximising his goal function, and the vast majority of processes are at least partly joint in nature. An example in a relatively simple situation is that of a mining industry", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7991, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An example in a relatively simple situation is that of a mining industry. Azapagic (1996) and Azapagic & Clift (1998, 1999, 2000) internalise in the model the aims of process operators using the methods employed by economists in operations research and, more generally, in production function theory (Heijungs, 1998b). Given currently available technologies, an optimum input and output mix is chosen on the basis of the assumed goal function of the operators. Because short-term technological relationships are employed, there is real progress towards solving the multifunctionality problem, as the model specifies the effects of providing an additional amount of function. For the very same reason, however, all system responses are calculated within the constraints of installed capacities, while the question of Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7992, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 509, "book_page": 512, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "interest in LCA usually is how the world would be changed by adjusting those capacities. There is little experience with this approach in the context of long-term studies, moreover. Unfortunately, then, this kind of optimisation model has only limited relevance for most kinds of LCA. As the variations due to extra unit production of one of the products now result from investments in real production plant through added installed capacity, the multifunctionality problem remains much the same. The short-term optimisation models now available represent an initial step towards realistic short-term modeling of dynamic markets. Having laid down technical, i.e. plant parameters and a goal function, supply functions can in principle be specified. Although a number of large companies dispose over such models, they comprise little technological detail (publicly at least)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7993, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although a number of large companies dispose over such models, they comprise little technological detail (publicly at least). The optimisation models used for allocation assume that all decisions regarding process adjustments are made by a single operator, based on his own particular goal function. In reality, of course, product systems have a multitude of different operators, each with their own goal function, and a multi-actor model is required. As the choices of each actor are influenced by those of all the others, model complexity soon spirals as the number of actors grows. The goal function and the process conditions may cover the long term, as is generally required in LCA. As long-term models employ technological averages, however, they do little to help resolve the multifunctionality problem. First, there are vastly more aggregated processes requiring subsequent allocation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7994, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "First, there are vastly more aggregated processes requiring subsequent allocation. Second, in a given situation any change in overall output will affect only a limited number of constituent processes (under the simplifying assumption of linear relations). If this assumption of a single actor is abandoned, several new problems of a game-theoretical nature arise, for the choices of any one actor are influenced by those of all the others. Although economists are developing such multi-actor models, their level of technological specification is too general for the purposes of LCA. Technology-specific, multi-actor models become feasible if, e.g. an assumption of fixed prices is introduced. Then interdependency is very much reduced. If such simplified multi-actor systems are optimised economically, e.g. in terms of minimal costs, combined (but not joint) processes can be analysed as to optimal functioning", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7995, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If such simplified multi-actor systems are optimised economically, e.g. in terms of minimal costs, combined (but not joint) processes can be analysed as to optimal functioning. For each alternative for the functional unit, the model would indicate installed capacities and the optimum ratio between the various product outputs given this installed capacity. This means modeling large systems, as the co-products are then also modeled. In such models, the number of allocation problems might be reduced somewhat. For primarily joint processes there would still be no solution, as the ratio between product outputs is then more or less fixed. In the context of LCA there is no systematic work currently in progress in this direction. When adjusting installed capacities, there are usually several technological options available; see, for example, the many options for electrical power production", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7996, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When adjusting installed capacities, there are usually several technological options available; see, for example, the many options for electrical power production. Endogenising such choices based on optimisation rules is an endeavour that has not yet been undertaken in LCA. There is an ongoing debate on the more limited subject of the marginal process choice. Clearly, a process type that cannot be extended, as in many places hydropower, is not a relevant option for additional capacity. Only nonconstrained processes are relevant, with state-of-the-art processes as a further focus. Such technology can be viewed as a proxy for the processes that will be functioning in the not too distant future. Processes that have been introduced on an experimental basis only, like chlorine-free polycarbonate production or fast-breeder nuclear power generation, are excluded, as are older technologies that are still operational but no longer the object of investment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7997, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A similar position is adopted by Weidema et al. (1999) in their notion of the \u2018marginal process\u2019, which likewise limits the set of potentially relevant processes to include only those that can with certainty be perpetuated in the longer term. Even though there are currently no limitations on installing hydroelectric power plant, for example, use of hydropower cannot be extended indefinitely because of the limited supply of water for this purpose. In both these approaches the choice of process is exogenous. Modeling which processes are current state-of-the-art is not yet possible, for. such information is currently only exogenously given. There is no particular reason to assume that state-of-theart processes are single function processes. On the contrary, modern processes will tend to avoid waste and produce additional products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7998, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is no particular reason to assume that state-of-theart processes are single function processes. On the contrary, modern processes will tend to avoid waste and produce additional products. This brings modeling of the marginal process back to the position adopted in Heijungs et al., 1992, where the marginal process was defined as the current\u2013state-of-the-art process (then named: modal modern process). Such a marginal process choice is not related to the aims of the process operators. No progress is made in resolving the allocation problem, however, for a marginal or current state-of-the-art process is as multifunctional as any other (if not more so, given the aim of industrial ecology to integrate waste flows into production processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 7999, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One special case of optimisation at the systems level is where it is not linked to the goal function of the firm or firms involved, but to a social goal function such as a \u2018sustainable emission level\u2019 (Azapagic, 1996; Frischknecht, 1998; Frischknecht, 2000), involving social, economic and environmental goals. Two interpretations are then possible. One is that the answer given specifies the socially most attractive option. This answer does not indicate what will happen, or, more low key, in which direction developments will take place. It indicates a most reasonable environmental potential of some set of Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8000, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 510, "book_page": 513, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "technological options. The second interpretation (as in Frischknecht) is that, in the longer run, public policy will be adequate and society will arrive near the optimum for any technology chosen. The model then has an empirical predictive value, taking into account politico-administrative mechanisms as yet unspecified. Again, as with optimisation based on the goal of the firm, long-term models of this kind may give some empirical insight but have little to contribute to resolving the multifunctionality problem. Finally, there is the option not to expand model mechanisms with real-life goal functions of firms or society, but to include one, simplified goal of the firm, not in empirical modeling but in the interpretative allocation procedure (Huppes, 1993). As most goals of process operators relate to sales, the share of each product in total sales of the firm indicates its share in bringing about the existence of the full (unallocated) process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8001, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As most goals of process operators relate to sales, the share of each product in total sales of the firm indicates its share in bringing about the existence of the full (unallocated) process. These shares in proceeds may be used as allocation factors, allocating all flows to each of the products/functions, proportionally to their share in overall monetary proceeds. This \u2018economic\u2019 allocation procedure does not indicate the partial effect of solely delivering some extra amount of the product under investigation; it indicates its share in overall effects. Modeling is thus concerned with establishing the overall multifunctional effect of a change in demand for the functional unit, and allocation with establishing the share of each product in that overall effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8002, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Market relations Given the crucial role of market relations in the systems-level effects of the technological choices being analysed in LCA, use of a market model comprising inter-process market relations would represent a major step forward. There are a number of developments of interest, originating both within LCA and from the field of (ecological) economics, and these will be surveyed in turn. First, however, let us recapitulate on the extent to which market relations have already been incorporated in inventory modeling and how this relates to resolution of the allocation problem. The system expansion step in ISO can be interpreted as economic substitution, being the special case of full substitution. Economists are well aware that there is rarely full substitution, as implicitly assumed in the avoided burden method (as explained in the discussion of ISO 14041, above). Only if demand is extremely elastic will changes in supply not lead to market adjustments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8003, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Only if demand is extremely elastic will changes in supply not lead to market adjustments . And even if there is a \"known alternative\" available (as required by ISO), to assume full substitution is still unrealistic. It is hard to assess whether partial addition of a real mechanism (substitution in only a limited number of multifunctional situations) in a rather unrealistic manner (by assuming 100% substitution) will lead overall to more valid LCA results. As the outcome of the exercise is still virtually always a multifunctional system, some form of allocation procedure is still required. What might be said is that application of substitution to all the main processes might have the advantage of avoiding the arbitrariness of applying substitution in some cases and allocation in others. Several LCA theorists, have developed proposals for handling market relations in LCA inventory modeling more satisfactorily", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8004, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Several LCA theorists, have developed proposals for handling market relations in LCA inventory modeling more satisfactorily. In particular Ekvall (1999) has developed methods for handling elasticities in LCA and Weidema (2001) has developed a substitution method which solves the problem of regress, where each 'substitution system' is itself multifunctional, requiring substitution, etc. A recent development that could no longer be included in this Guide but that deserves further assessment is the value-corrected substitution method, as described in Werner & Richter (2000) and Werner (2000). It expands the applicability of the substitution method to situations of recycling where the secondary material has a lower value than the primary. Then substitution is assumed not to be to the full amount but only a fraction, given by the ratio between secondary and primary price", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8005, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Then substitution is assumed not to be to the full amount but only a fraction, given by the ratio between secondary and primary price. Ekvall, rather than unrealistically assuming full substitution (as in the avoided burden method) or zero substitution, advocates using realistic default values for elasticities of supply and demand. From a practical angle, Ekvall\u2019s proposal brings with it the problem of massive system expansion, as ever more processes partially adjust to the changes in demand resulting from some choice introduced in the product system(s) under study. Weidema (2001), for his part, advocates adhering to \u2018extreme\u2019 elasticities which, while fairly unrealistic, can at least be handled systematically. His method assumes that there is one output from every multifunctional process, a change in demand for which will lead to full adjustment of the production volume of that process. In other words, supply of that product by the process is assumed to be fully elastic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8006, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In other words, supply of that product by the process is assumed to be fully elastic. Demand for all the co-products is then taken to be fully inelastic, so that depressed demand causes no decline in production but is offset by reduced production elsewhere in some other process delivering the same product. However, any increase in demand for the elastic product will lead to increased production of all the co-products. Combination with similar assumptions on the demand side leads to a number of extremes. If demand is fully inelastic, as is assumed for some near-waste products, extra supply will not reach the market and will become waste. If demand for the co-product is fully elastic - the other option - the extra co-product will fully replace production in some other process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8007, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If demand for the co-product is fully elastic - the other option - the extra co-product will fully replace production in some other process. On this rather unrealistic basis, Weidema defines a substitution procedure that can resolve the problem of endless regress, at least in some cases, by limiting the regress to two processes which symmetrically substitute Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8008, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 511, "book_page": 514, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "for each other in ever smaller amounts. We hence refer to his variant of the substitution method as the \u2018symmetrical substitution method\u2019. It is not entirely clear how universally applicable this method is, nor if all the problems of multifunctionality can thus be resolved (for waste processing, for example). For a fuller description, we refer the reader to the refinery example elaborated by Weidema in Part 2b. Assuming broad applicability for the moment, however, how are these two methods to be evaluated? The key problem with the symmetrical substitution method is that the techniques employed are of the market modeling type, while the specified market responses are not in line with available empirical knowledge. However, it does solve the multifunctionality problem, at least to some extent. We therefore tend to regard Weidema's method not as part of inventory modeling, but as a type of allocation, i.e. as a procedure for resolving the partitioning problem defined by prior modeling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8009, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We therefore tend to regard Weidema's method not as part of inventory modeling, but as a type of allocation, i.e. as a procedure for resolving the partitioning problem defined by prior modeling. If a relatively simple and generally applicable allocation method is available, as we believe to be the case with economic allocation, there are no good reasons to opt for the complex and rather unrealistic method of Weidema. Ekvall attempts to be more realistic in the elasticities involved in substitution. For lack of a complete data set, however, here too simplifying assumptions must be introduced. If indeed applied broadly, an ever increasing number of processes would become part of the system analysed, still requiring a separate allocation step. Further research on how to operationally introduce a market modeling step such as that advocated by Ekvall (1999) is in itself interesting, but not for solving the multifunctionality problem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8010, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Further research on how to operationally introduce a market modeling step such as that advocated by Ekvall (1999) is in itself interesting, but not for solving the multifunctionality problem. To gain an indication of the possible effects of substitution the symmetrical substitution method of Weidema may be used as a form of sensitivity analysis. The other approach to incorporating market relations in LCA starts from general economics. As the marketing programmes of most firms show, there is a wealth of empirical economic knowledge available on market relations, backed up by increasingly sophisticated models. The general structure of these models is wholly compatible with the interests of industrial ecology, moreover, as they specify the overall adjustment at the systems level as induced by a specific technology or volume change. When it comes to their potential application in LCA, however, market models have two serious drawbacks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8011, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When it comes to their potential application in LCA, however, market models have two serious drawbacks. In the first place they require use of applied general equilibrium (AGE) models at a micro-level, while such models are still barely operational at an aggregated, meso-level. General application of market models at the level of technological detail required in LCA is consequently not yet feasible. There is a second, equally fundamental problem. Increased demand for a given product (and process) never results in a full adjustment of supply. Because of the price rise induced by extra demand, demand for other goods and services will be depressed and their functions delivered to a lesser extent. This means that any switch to an alternative product will induce a virtually endless series of small changes in all other functions. Because of the price rise induced by extra demand, demand for other processes will be reduced, as will be the production volume of these other processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8012, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Because of the price rise induced by extra demand, demand for other processes will be reduced, as will be the production volume of these other processes. The induced shift in volumes and prices is virtually endless. In each round an ever greater circle of processes will be influenced, involving ever more product systems, albeit affected to a diminishing extent. Although perhaps more realistic, this kind of analysis is not feasible as a method for comparing alternative product systems for equivalent functions, as in LCA. So why not skip LCA, then, and simply switch to this more realistic kind of market analysis, thereby abandoning this central restriction of LCA: the functional unit as the lynchpin of inventory calculations? There is a simple reason", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8013, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Contemporary market analysis does not go into the kind of detail required for tying economic activities to environmental effects, for the complex task of accurately modeling all the various kinds of processes is beyond current data gathering and modeling capacity. The systems involved in market modeling generally span the globe, as does LCA, but now at a very high level of aggregation only. The option of combining economic and environmental analysis in a non-LCA framework does, in principle, hold a certain appeal, though. If the key problem of evaluating combined changes in production and environmental effects could be solved, it might become a viable alternative to LCA. Bouman et al. (2000) have developed a stylised market model for use in LCA-type decision situations. With its rigorous simplifications, it is still a long way from being a realistic market model suitable for LCA-type questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8014, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With its rigorous simplifications, it is still a long way from being a realistic market model suitable for LCA-type questions. Experimental application of this market model and a typical LCA model to the same simplified case showed that the two approaches yielded very different conclusions. If market models, stylised and simplified as in LCA, could be applied more easily, the combined use of the two model types, each with their strengths and weaknesses, might be a better option than shifting from LCA to the market type of modeling. As yet, market mechanisms have been incorporated only incidentally in inventory modeling, in the special case of substitution. If the assumption of fixed prices in the previous paragraph is removed considerable realism can again be added, as market processes are all around us. Including technical relations as well Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8015, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 512, "book_page": 515, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "as process operators\u2019 aims in inventory models would provide an immediate specification of production functions. Again, for LCA purposes it is long-term technical relations, including long-term investments, that are relevant, and so it is long-term production functions that are relevant. Production functions specify the supply functions of the products involved. The combination of final demand and production functions specifies markets as combining supply and demand. Market models are widely used, but not in LCA. The models used by economists are rarely technology-specific. Supply functions are based on technologies and on past investment decisions. If concrete knowledge is available, it often is confidential. Even without technological specifications, though, models are of only limited value as the complexity of market relations spirals with the number of processes involved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8016, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Even without technological specifications, though, models are of only limited value as the complexity of market relations spirals with the number of processes involved. As a consequence, current operational models generally focus on a very restricted part of the system relevant in LCA; they are partial equilibrium models. Although economists have also developed more comprehensive Applied General Equilibrium (AGE) models, these are so aggregated that they have no part to play in the technology-specific decisions examined in LCA. In what way, then, might incorporation of market mechanisms in inventory models contribute to LCA-type of analysis in the not too distant future? To reduce the attendant complexities, application might be restricted to just the main processes. When comparing high-speed trains and aircraft as two alternative modes of transport on a 500-km route, for example, market analysis could be used to determine the long-term supply and demand elasticities of each", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8017, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Additional investments in railways would lead to a reduction in air ticket prices adequate to maintain a desired utilisation of adjusted air transport capacity. An expansion of rail transport capacity, by whatever mechanism, will not therefore lead to an equal reduction in air transport volume. Roughly speaking, the reduction in the latter would be about half the increase in actually used rail capacity, a midpoint between full substitution and no substitution at all. An increase in air transport capacity will have a similar but quantitatively different knock-on effect on rail transport volume. Car and bus transport volumes would also be affected, of course. In this way LCA could provide more realistic information for decision support on traffic modalities. At the same time, though, the analysis would also become far more complex", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8018, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this way LCA could provide more realistic information for decision support on traffic modalities. At the same time, though, the analysis would also become far more complex. Assuming non-market inventory modeling to refer to single-function systems only (train or plane), the market-based analysis would show that besides a shift towards the extra train kilometres resulting from the investment decision in rail, air traffic would not be reduced by the same amount but substantially less. Overall transport would increase. After such an analysis it hardly seems sensible to allocate this extra air travel 'away' from the train system. This would effectively remove the extra information on the market mechanism. A very different option for incorporating market dynamics is partial economic modeling, to set parameters for the system analysed, as Kandelaars (1999) has done (cf. 1.2.3.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8019, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A very different option for incorporating market dynamics is partial economic modeling, to set parameters for the system analysed, as Kandelaars (1999) has done (cf. 1.2.3.2). She gives the example of a policyinduced market shift from zinc gutters to PVC gutters, in which a new equilibrium is attained in the housing stock once all the old zinc gutters have been replaced. This kind of dynamic substitution can be included in the system model, with integration over time leading to the \u201caverage\u201d inventory system. This is a deviation from standard LCA, as the functional unit is being supplied by a dynamic rather than steadystate system. Beyond the realm of LCA, particularly for the purposes of energy analysis, larger models have been developed that not only incorporate technical (i.e. process) relations and the aims of process operators but also include dynamic path analysis, complex market mechanisms and/or macro-economic dynamics", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8020, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "process) relations and the aims of process operators but also include dynamic path analysis, complex market mechanisms and/or macro-economic dynamics. One such model is the MARKAL model developed by ECN, which has been adapted for broadbrushstroke environmental analysis (Gielen et al., 1998; Seebregts et al. 1999). In principle, this model is also suitable for the decision-support domain of LCA. Its broad coverage of mechanisms constitutes its evident strength, but also its weakness: its complexity is such that practitioners must dispose over specialised modeling knowledge, for otherwise the model soon becomes an impenetrable black box. For larger-scale decisions, on future energy supply systems for example, it might nonetheless be a good option to include MARKAL-type models in the toolbox, not to replace but to augment LCA (or vice versa). These models provide no specific solution to the allocation problem, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8021, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These models provide no specific solution to the allocation problem, however. In highly aggregated versions in which each sector is assumed to produce just one product, the allocation problem does not arise. As such models are not particularly technology-specific either, they provide little scope for supporting the technology choices for which LCA is designed. Finally, for the purpose of environmental decision support Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) can be applied, especially for investment decisions. Some CBAs may be formulated in terms of a functional unit, as when considering different options for expanding electricity production in CBA. It is usual but by no means necessary to weigh environmental effects in CBA by quantifying some measure relating to consumer preference. If this is not done, LCA impact assessment can be made into a separate chapter of CBA, Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8022, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 513, "book_page": 516, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "leaving the economic part of it very similar to the inventory phase of LCA. It is now usual in CBA to specify the environmental aspects of the In this environmental sense CBA is not a systems analysis. In principle CBA could be transformed into a systems analysis for environmental aspects as well if the upstream and downstream processes were specified at the detailed technological level then required. Market models are now used in CBA for such processes, but at an aggregate level only. Transforming CBA into an LCA-like systems analysis would involve the same problems as introducing market relations into LCA. The problems would be further compounded by another characteristic of CBA: its time-specific nature, at least for the main activities in the life cycle of the investment involved. Such a time-specific analysis cannot be incorporated in steady-state LCA as developed in this Guide. However, it is more compatible with the economic analysis for business decisions on product systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8023, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, it is more compatible with the economic analysis for business decisions on product systems. What can we conclude on incorporating market relations in LCA and how can this help solve allocation problems? Starting with the first question, the symmetrical substitution method of Weidema, still difficult to understand, is so unrealistic that it cannot be seen as a serious contribution to modeling, although technically it may solve the multifunctionality problem in a number of cases. The approach of Ekvall, while possibly more realistic, draws an ever larger number of processes into the system, as substitution is usually partial substitution. The use of market modeling to simulate shifts between product systems, as proposed by Kandelaars, may yield additional insight but does not touch on the multifunctionality problem itself", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8024, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The use of market modeling to simulate shifts between product systems, as proposed by Kandelaars, may yield additional insight but does not touch on the multifunctionality problem itself. Larger models such as the MATTER/MARKAL models may have a role to play, but their complexity would seem to limit their general applicability to major studies on complex issues. Further work may allow market relations to be incorporated in LCA in some fashion, albeit at the cost of aggravating multifunctionality problems, which must then still be resolved in a separate allocation step. Can market models help resolve or avoid the multifunctionality problem, then? Including substitution processes in inventory modeling is sometimes regarded as a solution, as a means of avoiding the multifunctionality problem altogether. This is indeed the case when the additional function(s) delivered by a combined production process can be substituted, fully, by (a) single cradle-to-gate system(s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8025, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is indeed the case when the additional function(s) delivered by a combined production process can be substituted, fully, by (a) single cradle-to-gate system(s). Such cases are extremely rare, however. Growing application of the principles of industrial ecology will lead to ever greater process multifunctionality. In general, incorporating market mechanisms will cause a massive expansion of co-functions. In the example on transport, above, any capacity increase in one mode of transport to some degree influences all other modes. The system would therefore be multifunctional even if all the various functions involved were delivered entirely by monofunctional processes. As the vast majority of real-world processes are multifunctional, market modeling would increase multifunctionality to such an extent as to effectively preclude a solution through allocation. One solution would be to simply accept multifunctionality", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8026, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One solution would be to simply accept multifunctionality. As market prices are available in this economic context, the additional functions at the systems level could be expressed in monetary terms and aggregated into a single figure. This solution has the beauty of simplicity, in that it covers the sum total of additional functions in a comprehensive and comprehensible fashion. Its drawback, though, is that the resultant environmental profile is that of the combined system of target function and all the additional functions. To compare alternatives having different overall amounts of additional function in monetary terms, the share of the target function in this total must be established, and the only way to do so is to value the function in monetary terms, too. Its share in the total economic value of the system is then its share in the overall environmental burden, as specified. This, effectively, is economic allocation at the systems level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8027, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Its share in the total economic value of the system is then its share in the overall environmental burden, as specified. This, effectively, is economic allocation at the systems level. As argued presently, allocation at the process level is then to be preferred. For practical and probably also theoretical reasons, then, full market modeling is not an option for the environmental decision support where LCA now is used for. Integrating real market modeling in LCA is even more difficult. Some additional market modeling, next to LCA, may be a best option, thus using a number of different models to indicate main mechanisms in the effects of choices. Review conclusions The first conclusion is that nobody advocates the formerly preferred options of allocation based on simple measures like mass or energy. The limited relevance of approaches grounded in \u2018physical relationships\u2019 is indeed explicitly stated in ISO 14041", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8028, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The limited relevance of approaches grounded in \u2018physical relationships\u2019 is indeed explicitly stated in ISO 14041. At best, they can be used as a proxy for allocation based on economic value. There is also general agreement that allocation, if performed, should be done at the unit process rather than systems level. Many developments combine modeling adaptations and solutions to the multifunctionality problem. Keeping these steps apart would benefit modeling and would lead to clearer approaches to allocation. As to improved specification of technical relations within processes, in the field of combined waste processing allocation procedures have been developed that distinguish between waste-specific Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8029, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 514, "book_page": 517, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "emissions, reflecting physical causalities and hence belonging to the realm of modeling, and other process-related emissions, which cannot be related to specific inputs and which are allocated on a mass or energy basis, for example. The models employed partition some of the chemical elements in emissions to individual waste inflows according to the share of the latter in the total mass input of those elements. For the time being, and for these specific elements, this appears to be the best method available. However, it is at odds with the conventional thrust of causal modeling, which is based on marginal modeling, viz. varying the input and then seeing how the output varies. Also, this modeling approach may reflect short-term causal relations better than long-term", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8030, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "varying the input and then seeing how the output varies. Also, this modeling approach may reflect short-term causal relations better than long-term. For the \u2018process-related emissions\u2019 (as distinguished by Eggels & van der Ven (1995); see above), which still need to be allocated to the different waste inflows, the solution chosen is more dubious and not in line with current notions of allocation. Inclusion of more specific causal mechanisms is to be regarded as a modeling improvement, preferably in tandem with inclusion of those long-term mechanisms relevant to LCA. As to including the aims of process operators, this field is still largely open, although there is one exception. In combined (but not joint) processes, short-term optimisation modeling has been developed for systems operated by one owner. In this case it may indeed also help resolve the multifunctionality problem. However, short-term analysis is not generally that relevant to most LCA questions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8031, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case it may indeed also help resolve the multifunctionality problem. However, short-term analysis is not generally that relevant to most LCA questions. Incorporating the aims of process operators and technical relations over the longer term in models remains an appealing goal that should be pursued further. Although proven for the short term, such optimisation methods require conceptual and empirical adjustment before they can be applied to the longer-term issues with which LCA is generally concerned. In most systems, furthermore, there will be a multitude of process operators. Straightforward optimisation is then not feasible. Optimisation in terms of minimising social costs seems more relevant to developing alternatives in LCA than as a modeling improvement or allocation procedure. The relationship between social cost assessment methods and LCA has been touched upon but not yet elaborated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8032, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The relationship between social cost assessment methods and LCA has been touched upon but not yet elaborated. Although optimisation models may someday be useful in applications in an LCA context, like environmentally specific market models they can by no means yet be defined as state of the art. As to including market relations in LCA, attempts have not yet yielded operational methods. Starting from LCA, substitution, full or zero substitution is too far away from economic reality. It seems that introduction of such artificial and unrealistic modeling assumptions may indeed \u2018solve\u2019 some multifunctionality problems in a technical sense. As with other types of allocation, part of the multifunctional process then is subtracted from the full process. However, this should better not be seen as modeling, but as a specific means of allocation on the multifunctional model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8033, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, this should better not be seen as modeling, but as a specific means of allocation on the multifunctional model. As the additional insight gained is at the expense of unreal assumptions, it seems better not to use such methods in general practice but only additionally, in a sensitivity analysis, especially when the assumptions are not too far from reality. If progress towards more realistic modeling in LCA is made, the problem of multifunctionality is not solved, not even partly, but increased. Thus, developments in the last decade have cleared the ground for improved modeling but not for a more elaborate solution to the multifunctionality problem. ISO options in terms of avoiding allocation and allocation based on physical causalities, when made operational, tend to become part of modeling, and do not then reduce multifunctionality. So the only remaining, more or less universally applicable option for allocating inputs and outputs among products (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8034, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "So the only remaining, more or less universally applicable option for allocating inputs and outputs among products (i.e. functions) is therefore to partition on the basis of their economic values, the main driving force behind economic processes. This option will be described in more detail below, and with operational detail in Part 2b of this Guide. An alternative and more refined approach to allocation would be to use market prices that have been adjusted so as to incorporate negative environmental impacts and other social, or external costs. This option requires an adequate, i.e. social optimum regulatory regime, however, and is not elaborated here. Allocation would then not reflect the motives of process operators but objectives for society at large, including environmental objectives. Such a shift would mean a substantial deviation from the set-up of LCA, where environmental aspects are specified and evaluated independently from economic aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8035, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such a shift would mean a substantial deviation from the set-up of LCA, where environmental aspects are specified and evaluated independently from economic aspects. PROSPECTS As outlined, recent work has been concerned not so much with the specifics of allocation as with extending inventory modeling to overcome the traditional limitations of \u2018black-box\u2019 processes with fixed input-output coefficients, with subsequent implications for allocation constituting our prime interest here. In the coming years model refinement is likely to continue along the same three main lines of investigation, viz. inclusion of technical relations, aims of process operators, and market relations. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8036, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 515, "book_page": 518, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Allocation based on economic value can be applied systematically and needs practical application to see how operational problems can be solved. Further specification of technical relations is to be expected, one possible source of impetus being incorporation of some of the modeling tools used in engineering design. Most engineering models are concerned with short-term relations, however, based on short-term physical and other causalities. If such models could be extended to incorporate variations in installed capacities endogenously, they might be extremely useful in LCA. This kind of modeling tool could then effectively be used to examine alternative investment options. It would certainly reinvigorate the still rather open debate on which processes to include in the analysis, a choice essentially between marginal, non-constrained Including current state-ofthe-art) processes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8037, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Knowledge demands would be enormous, however, and would oblige LCA practitioners to keep abreast of innovations in each and every process involved. In addition, investment functions are hardly a technical affair only, for investment decisions are based primarily on economic considerations. If such models are to be operationalised for use in LCA, therefore, they must be extended to include the aims of process operators. This also holds for combined waste treatment processes. Assuming (steady-state) functioning of such a process at some optimum level, long-term analysis of some additional amount of waste to be processed would indicate a need to install new capacity. Establishing the effects of processing the waste would then involve a comparison of the system flows with and without the functional unit. Economic considerations play a role in waste processing, too, albeit somewhat less well-defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8038, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Economic considerations play a role in waste processing, too, albeit somewhat less well-defined. Here too, then, analysis shifts into the second group, with operators' aims being included in the inventory model. Overall, then, it is to be concluded that purely technical model specifications do not facilitate LCA modeling to any great degree. Even if such types of model became available for long-term analysis of waste management, they would still not resolve the allocation problem. Incorporating the goals of process operators in models, as a first step towards market modeling, seems feasible in situations where one or just a few process operators dominate the system. Given some additional unit of function, the new optimum for the system could be specified, under the simplifying assumption of constant prices. Such models are quite common in operations research but are then concerned with short-term rather than long-term optimisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8039, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such models are quite common in operations research but are then concerned with short-term rather than long-term optimisation. Such optimisation models could to some extent resolve the multifunctionality problem, in cases of combined but not joint processes. Optimising from a collective point of view, as in minimising social cost, is not empirical modeling but may be useful in specifying attractive alternatives, which should be subsequently investigated by means of inventory modeling. Incorporating the full complexity of market relations interlinking all the processes in the system is not operationally feasible at the level of technological detail required in LCA-type decision situations. If applied to the main processes only, it may become feasible. However, it doubtful whether allocation makes sense as a subsequent step, after modeling, as substantial information on market effects would then be lost. Without allocation we would leave the realm of functional unit-based LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8040, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Without allocation we would leave the realm of functional unit-based LCA. CONCLUSIONS We now return to our original question: how to model the system and how to resolve the resultant multifunctionality problems? In order to maintain a clear relation to ISO 14041 certain modeling aspects must be included, as can be seen above. The basic principles to be adopted in inventory modeling are summarised in Table 3.9.3. See further explanations in Sections 1.1, 2.3 and 3.1. What starting points are there as requirements for allocation? The first main principle, a basic requirement of the allocation procedure, is that the sum of the allocated values of all product flows equals the total value of the flows of the unallocated process: the \u2018100% rule\u2019. Optimisation models do not generally satisfy this requirement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8041, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Optimisation models do not generally satisfy this requirement. Allocation does not involve the principle of mass balance, which may hold for the unallocated, multifunctional process, but not for the monofunctional processes resulting from allocation. As most process descriptions do not include the consumption of oxygen or any other form of respiration, even unallocated processes do not in fact massbalance. A second principle is that allocation should be at the level of multifunctional unit processes only. It is at that level that the clearest view is possible on technical relations, and on the values of the coproducts. A third, more methodological principle relates to reasonableness. In particular, results should be unaffected by the sequence of application of the allocation procedure (cf. Sen, 1969), i.e. which of the coproducts is taken as the initial point of departure. Also, if processes are first allocated and then placed in Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8042, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 516, "book_page": 519, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the system scaled to the functional unit, the result should be the same as when they are first scaled, prior to the allocation step. The fourth requirement is that the same principles should be applied to all the categories of coproduction: combined and joint production, combined waste processing, re-use and recycling. The definition of the multifunction problem as modeled does not distinguish different types of multifunctionality, as the term \u2018product\u2019 covers both goods and services, allocation is necessary if more than one product is produced by a unit process. Waste having a negative value is not a product; nobody buys it. Processing waste is a service provided to the party supplying the waste, to be allocated to the products of the process producing them. That service relieves the producer of his waste; he pays for that service, being a product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8043, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 520, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "That service relieves the producer of his waste; he pays for that service, being a product. Hence, the different situations for combined production, co-production, combined waste handling and recycling do not differ in their basic definition. In each case the same allocation principles should hence apply. A fifth, more practical principle is that multifunctional processes associated with more than one of the product alternatives being compared should be allocated consistently. If different options for allocation are available, the same option should be applied to all the alternatives compared. Otherwise, any resultant differences between alternatives would be due both to real differences and to differences in the allocation methods applied. Of course in that situation a sensitivity analysis on the different options is due, to see how outcomes differ if one option for allocation is applied to all alternatives, or the other. Table 3.9.3: Inventory modeling and allocation principles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8044, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 520, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 3.9.3: Inventory modeling and allocation principles. Resum\u00e9 of modeling principles use fixed input-output coefficient process definitions wherever possible detail processes until a truly multifunctional core is reached (ISO 1a) include all processes implied in fulfilling the function definesystem boundarieswhereflows are being paidforbyotherproductsystems define system boundaries where environmental interventions enter or leave the system do not cut off flows that cannot be specified further but estimate them, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8045, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 520, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "using environmentally extended input-output analysis do not use market mechanisms in detailed LCA, but possibly in extended LCA make a clear distinction between system modeling and allocation allocation principles \u2018100% rule\u2019 allocate at the level of unit processes only independence of sequence of application consistent principles for all varieties of co-production consistent allocation procedure and results for multifunctional processes associated with different product alternatives The guidelines for dealing with the multifunctionality problem have been elaborated primarily on the basis of economic allocation, in both an extended and a simplified version. These guidelines were codeveloped with Lindeijer, and their background and more detailed formulations are elaborated in Appendix C. As the substitution method is regarded by some as a promising approach to the multifunctionality/allocation problem, we here present its best elaboration as an option for extended LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8046, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 520, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As the substitution method is regarded by some as a promising approach to the multifunctionality/allocation problem, we here present its best elaboration as an option for extended LCA. It does not constitute a recommended method, however, for the theoretical reasons discussed above and also because it is not entirely clear how operational choices for long-term change-oriented LCA are to be reasoned and made in the substitution approach. The method is illustrated with an example elaborated by Weidema for this Guide (see Part 2b, Section 3.9.3.2). Economic allocation is defined as partitioning of all non-product inputs and outputs proportionally to the share of each product from the unit process in total proceeds, see Figure 3.9.1 below. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8047, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 517, "book_page": 520, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The steps in inventory modeling to avoid the multifunctionality problem, and the solutions to the multifunctionality problem through allocation are now surveyed. The framework for this survey is the two levels of LCA distinguished in this Guide, simplified and detailed analysis, with additional options for extensions. The latter are not in line with the starting points adopted here, however. The relationship of these steps to the framework of ISO 14041 is indicated, if they are included there. As ISO does not distinguish between simplified and a detailed LCA, some ISO elements are in either option, or ISO steps occur in different versions. Also, as ISO now does not fully distinguish between modeling as a possible cause of the multifunctionality problem and the available solutions to that problem, some steps are part of modeling in the Inventory analysis and some in the solution, through some sort of allocation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8048, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 521, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In due course such further differentiation might be incorporated in revisions of ISO 14040 and 14041. The respective steps to be followed are summarised in general terms below, showing their equivalence, or otherwise, to the steps provided in ISO 14041 (Table 3.9.4). The steps \u2018economic allocation\u2019, in detailed and simplified LCA, and \u2018symmetrical substitution method\u2019 (termed \u2018avoiding allocation\u2019 by Weidema, 2001), as an option for extension, are elaborated in greater detail in Volume 2b. Table 3.9.4: Recommended procedure for handling multifunctionality in detailed version inventory dm1. Divide processes modeling that are not really multifunctional into monofunctional unit processes (ISO step 1a) dm2. For waste processing: model longtermtechnical relations, assuming simple aims of process operators (ISO step 2, extended) allocation da1. Apply economic allocation based on market value or constructed marketvalue (ISO step 3, interpreted economically) simplified version sm1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8049, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 521, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Apply economic allocation based on market value or constructed marketvalue (ISO step 3, interpreted economically) simplified version sm1. Use made-single databases(correspondence with ISOdifferentperdatabase and process) or use environmentally extended inputoutput data sm2.As a proxy, treat openloopco-production asclosedloop co-production (after ISO), with quality adjustment sm3. Use available waste management models based on physical causality (ISO step 2, simplified) sa1. Apply economic allocation where readily feasible, if not at unit process level then at full system level sa2. Use substitution with already made-single cradle-togate database data (ISO step 1b, simplified) sa3.Applythe most readily available physical product parameter related to value, e.g. mass, volume, energy content (not in line with ISO) sa4. For all remaining multifunctional processes: use some 'quick-and-dirty' measure: e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8050, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 521, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "mass, volume, energy content (not in line with ISO) sa4. For all remaining multifunctional processes: use some 'quick-and-dirty' measure: e.g. forrecycling,'50% reduction of primary production' ( not generally in line with ISO) inventory modeling and allocation. options for extension em1. Apply market analysis to main co-products, as a realistic system expansion (after ISO step 1 b, extended) em2. Set up a linear programming model of the main processes if operated by a single organisation (no ISO correspondence) ea1. Applythe symmetrical substitution method (further interpretation and extension of ISO step 1b) Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8051, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 518, "book_page": 521, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Distinguishing more clearly between modeling and allocation opens new perspectives on improved inventory modeling. With this distinction clearer, the respective merits of LCA and other tools and models for empirical analysis of environmental impacts will be easier to clarify and hence improve. Modeling internal relations in processes from a long-term perspective is a challenge. This will require systems modeling to some degree and requires the explicit introduction of the aims of process operators. By incorporating certain economic mechanisms in the inventory model, particularly in cases involving extremely high or low elasticities, inventory modeling might be made more realistic and some of the principal defects of LCA redressed. Developing parallel models for decision support (e.g. LCA, market modeling, SFA, CBA), each indicating a key effect mechanism, is seen as a more fruitful route than incorporating ever more mechanisms in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8052, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 522, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA, market modeling, SFA, CBA), each indicating a key effect mechanism, is seen as a more fruitful route than incorporating ever more mechanisms in LCA. If such parallel modeling options become available, interpretation of results cannot be restricted to LCA but will involve the full set of available analytical tools. In this connection, research is specifically recommended on how LCA relates to Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), which avoids allocation problems by accepting inter-system differences in function and expressing these in terms of monetary value. The relative merits of these two methods are as yet unclear. It is recommended, furthermore, to deepen understanding of the precise relationship between system boundaries and allocation, the definitions of which are closely related; Research is also recommended on how substitution can be more systematically integrated in inventory modeling than is currently feasible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8053, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 522, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3.10 Calculation method TOPIC Collection of process data yields a database of processes. The act of quantitatively relating these processes to one another, scaled to the reference flow following from the functional unit, is referred to here as the calculation method. The calculation result is a set of linked and scaled processes, each with scaled environmental interventions, which are usually aggregated. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE In ISO 14041 (1998E) several steps are distinguished under the heading of calculation procedures: validation of data; relating data to the unit process; relating data to functional unit and data aggregation; refining the system boundaries. Heijungs et al. (1992) In the 1992 guide scaling of process data, there termed \u201cCreating the inventory table\u201d, consisted of two steps (pp. 37\u201340): \u201cquantification of the environmental interventions\u201d and \u201crepresentation of the qualitative environmental interventions\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8054, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 522, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "37\u201340): \u201cquantification of the environmental interventions\u201d and \u201crepresentation of the qualitative environmental interventions\u201d. Two calculation procedures were discussed in the 1992 Backgrounds document: the sequential method and the matrix method. The first is still widely used. However, with this method there is no quick and accurate way of dealing with processes which are mutually related (recursion). The matrix method allows feedback to be dealt with immediately. The remarks on data validation in ISO 14041 have already been cited in Section 3.5. Relating data to unit process has been discussed in this Guide under the heading of data collection (Section 3.6). Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8055, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 519, "book_page": 522, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On relating data to the functional unit and data aggregation ISO 14041 clause 6.4.4 states:: Based on the flow chart and system boundaries, unit processes are interconnected to allow calculations on the complete system. This is accomplished by normalizing the flows of all unit processes in the system to the functional unit. The calculation should result in all system input and output data being referenced to the functional unit. Care should be taken when aggregating the inputs and outputs in the product system. The level of aggregation should be sufficient to satisfy the goal of the study. Data categories should only be aggregated if they are related to equivalent substances and to similar environmental impacts. If more detailed aggregation rules are required, they should be justified in the goal-and-scope-definition phase of the study or should be left to a subsequent impact-assessment phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8056, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If more detailed aggregation rules are required, they should be justified in the goal-and-scope-definition phase of the study or should be left to a subsequent impact-assessment phase. (Source: ISO 14041, 1998E) ISO 14041 (1998E) clause 6.4.1 states (see textbox): When determining the elementary flows associated with production of electricity, account shall be taken of the production mix and the efficiencies of combustion, conversion, transmission and distribution. The assumptions made shall be clearly stated and justified. Whenever possible, the actual production mix should be used in order to reflect the various types of fuel that are consumed. Inputs and outputs related to a combustible material, e.g. oil, gas or coal, can be transformed into an energy input or output by multiplying it by the relevant heat of combustion. In this case it shall be reported if the higher heating value or the lower value is used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8057, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case it shall be reported if the higher heating value or the lower value is used. The same calculation procedure should be consistently applied throughout the study. [...]. All calculation procedures shall be explicitly documented. Source: ISO 14041, 1998E. A distinction between aggregated and non-aggregated inventory results may be useful. In the \u201cContribution analysis\u201d part of the Interpretation phase, one of the recommendation is to determine the contribution of each process to the total inventory results, for instance. This implies that options enabling such analysis must be provided in the calculation step. ISO sets no restrictions on calculation methods. Currently available methods include matrix inversion (Heijungs et al.,1992; M\u00f6ller, 1992; Heijungs & Frischknecht, 1998), (simultaneous) sequential calculation of the inputs and outputs of each unit process of the system, with or without a number of iterations, and linear programming", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8058, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As most LCA studies to date have not specified the calculation methods employed, there may be even more methods in use. The main difference between these different calculation methods concerns the handling of loops, e.g. in the (frequently occurring) case that coal is needed for electricity production and electricity is needed for the extraction of coal. Such loops can be handled by matrix inversion techniques, but cannot be dealt with appropriately by most sequential calculation methods. In the latter the simplification is made to cut out loops altogether, by setting certain input flows to zero.1 Although this is a very common approach, it is generally left implicit. LCA studies are generally performed using dedicated LCA software programs. Several programs are available; for a software review see e.g. Rice (1996), Rice et al. (1997), Menke et al. (1996) and Siegenthaler et al. (1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8059, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Several programs are available; for a software review see e.g. Rice (1996), Rice et al. (1997), Menke et al. (1996) and Siegenthaler et al. (1997). The ISO text on refining the system boundaries focuses on sensitivity analysis and may be regarded as an issue for Interpretation, here treated in Section 5.6. The result of the calculation step is termed the inventory table, which comprises all the environmental interventions related to the reference flow (of reference process) specified in the goal and scope of the study (see Figure 2.4.1). Furthermore, all economic flows not followed to the system boundary should be reported directly below the inventory table. PROSPECTS As mentioned in Section 3.6, LCA software should preferably allow scaling of data, including a time dimension. On this topic no further specific developments are foreseen", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8060, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PROSPECTS As mentioned in Section 3.6, LCA software should preferably allow scaling of data, including a time dimension. On this topic no further specific developments are foreseen. 1 Sequential calculation techniques can, in principle, handle loops by iterating a given number of times, but most LCA software programs do not include this type of sequential calculation method. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8061, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 520, "book_page": 523, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CONCLUSIONS We conclude that the best available practice with respect to calculation methods is matrix inversion, although this is not included in most software. If a different calculation method is employed, its precise nature should be specified as well as the differences from matrix inversion. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS LCA software should preferably allow scaling of data, including a time dimension. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8062, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 521, "book_page": 524, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4. Impact assessment 4.1 General introduction According to ISO 14040 (1997E) Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), the third phase of life cycle assessment, \u201cis aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts of a product system\u201d. In a similar vein, the first SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment (WIA\u20131) defines LCIA as \u201ca quantitative and/or qualitative process to identify, characterise and assess the potential impacts of the environmental interventions identified in the Inventory analysis\u201d (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996). To this end the individual data of the inventory table, or LCI results, are translated into contributions to selected impact categories, such as \u2018depletion of abiotic resources\u2019, \u2018climate change\u2019 or \u2018acidification\u2019. These contributions are calculated using characterisation models, in which relevant environmental processes are modeled to a so-called category endpoint", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8063, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 525, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These contributions are calculated using characterisation models, in which relevant environmental processes are modeled to a so-called category endpoint. To aggregate the results for each category, these are expressed in terms of a common parameter called a category indicator: \u2018infrared radiative forcing\u2019 for climate change, for example. ISO 14042 (2000E) puts it as follows: \u201cThe LCIA phase models selected environmental issues, called impact categories, and uses category indicators to condense and explain the LCI results. Category indicators are intended to reflect the aggregate emissions or resource use for each impact category. These category indicators represent the \u2018potential environmental impacts\u2019 discussed in ISO 14040. In addition, LCIA prepares for the life cycle Interpretation phase\u201d. (See Figure 4.1.1)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8064, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 525, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These category indicators represent the \u2018potential environmental impacts\u2019 discussed in ISO 14040. In addition, LCIA prepares for the life cycle Interpretation phase\u201d. (See Figure 4.1.1). ISO goes on to note that LCIA can assist in various decision situations, but that \u201cparties should recognise that a complete product system assessment is difficult and may require the use of several different environmental Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8065, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 522, "book_page": 525, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "assessment techniques\u201d. The latter means that it may sometimes be useful to apply other tools in addition to LC(I)A (see also Sections 2.4 and 2.5 of Part 1 of this Guide and Appendix B of this Part). As elaborated in this Guide, Impact assessment comprises eight steps (see Section 1.4): Procedures (no special section in this Part; see Chapter 1); Selection of impact categories (Section 4.2, p. 529); Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models (Section 4.3, p. 538); Classification (Section 4.4, p. 622); Characterisation (Section 4.5, p. 624); Normalisation (Section 4.6, p. 625); Grouping (Section 4.7, p. 628); Weighting (Section 4.8, p. 630). In elaborating these Impact assessment steps a further point of departure was ISO 14042 (2000E), with respect to the methodological framework and the issues for Impact assessment proposed there", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8066, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In elaborating these Impact assessment steps a further point of departure was ISO 14042 (2000E), with respect to the methodological framework and the issues for Impact assessment proposed there. Here the ISO proposals have been further operationalised taking into account the work of WIA\u20131 (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996 and Udo de Haes et al., 1999) and relevant proposals by other authors. Deviations from ISO have been introduced only in cases where there are significant arguments for doing so. In discussing the substance of the eight steps as well as the individual impact categories themselves, a fixed format has generally been employed below: \u2018Topic\u2019, \u2018Developments in the last decade\u2019, \u2018Prospects\u2019, \u2018Conclusions\u2019 and \u2018Research recommendations\u2019. Where this format was less appropriate, as with the rubrics \u2018Interventions \u2018 and \u2018Economic flows not followed to system boundary\u2019, it has not been strictly adhered to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8067, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Where this format was less appropriate, as with the rubrics \u2018Interventions \u2018 and \u2018Economic flows not followed to system boundary\u2019, it has not been strictly adhered to. As explained in Section 1.5 the step dealing with procedures is not discussed separately in this chapter, but in an integrated manner for all the various phases in Section 1.3. We first provide a short resum\u00e9 of the international organisations involved in work on Impact assessment, the main ISO requirements and the relation between ISO and SETAC, as a springboard for discussing the substance of the individual steps of LCIA. 4.1.1 International organisations involved Since 1992, two organisation in particular have been involved in work on LCIA: ISO; SETAC, including specifically the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996) and the SETAC-US Work Group on Impact assessment (Barnthouse et al., 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8068, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In 1993 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established a technical committee (TC 207) concerned with standardisation of a number of environmental management tools, including a subcommittee on LCA (SC5). One of the Working Groups formed under SC5 has dealt with LCIA (ISO/TC 207/SC 5 /WG 4). The main tasks were: to define concepts, to define a technical framework for LCIA and to specify general methodological requirements and procedural requirements. These include requirements for \u2018comparative assertions disclosed to the public\u2019, which are much stricter than for other (either internal or non-comparative) applications. This work resulted in the International standard on LCIA (ISO 14042, 2000E)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8069, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This work resulted in the International standard on LCIA (ISO 14042, 2000E). Through its North American and European branches, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) has played a leading role in bringing LCA practitioners, users and methodology developers together to collaborate on the continuous improvement and harmonisation of LCA methodology. SETAC focuses on the scientific development of LCA methodology. In 1993 a \u2018Code of Practice\u2019 was published (Consoli et al., 1993). From then on specific activities were taken up by a series of working groups, including the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment (WIA) and the SETAC North America Work Group on Impact assessment. Initial reports have meanwhile been published independently (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996; Barnthouse et al., 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8070, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Initial reports have meanwhile been published independently (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996; Barnthouse et al., 1997). The European report \u2018Towards a methodology for Life Cycle Impact assessment\u2019 (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996) provides an up-to-date, comprehensive review and critical analysis of existing thinking on LCIA. The principal methodological choices made in each phase of LCIA are analysed. The successor to this first WIA (WIA\u20132) has already started its work, again in Europe. The goal of WIA\u20132 is to establish a list of recommended impact categories, together with category indicators to be used in LCIA. This list should, as far as possible, be in line with ISO 14042, which, according to WIA\u20132, means it should have maximum scientific and technical validity. Furthermore, it should be practicable in terms of number of categories, characterisation methods and inventory data requirements (Udo de Haes et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8071, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, it should be practicable in terms of number of categories, characterisation methods and inventory data requirements (Udo de Haes et al., 1999). The North American report is principally a critical review of the LCIA framework, scrutinising the accuracy of the various methods available and their applicability in various circumstances. Both the WIA and the SETAC Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8072, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 523, "book_page": 526, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "North America Work Group have made significant inputs to the ISO process vis-\u00e0-vis development of an LCIA standard. A major new task is the cooperation between SETAC and UNEP on establishing \u2018best available practice\u2019 in the field of life cycle Impact assessment, as a follow-up to the work of WIA\u20132. More specifically, such practice is to be established with respect to (a list of) impact categories, and category indicators and characterisation factors for each of these. It is anticipated that an appropriate form of cooperative organisation will be defined for this task in the year 2001 and possibly also established. Besides these international developments and standardisation activities, there have been numerous proposals for defining impact categories, category indicators and models; these are discussed in Sections 4.2 and 4.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8073, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 527, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.1.2 ISO 14042 requirements ISO 14042 (2000E) describes procedures rather than specific methodologies or models for life cycle Impact assessment, implying that any methodology or model is acceptable as long as it satisfies the general ISO criteria. Figure 4.1.2.1 summarises the overall framework of LCIA, showing the relationship between life cycle inventory results, impact categories, category indicators and category endpoint(s), and illustrating these concepts with reference to the impact category \u2018Acidification\u2019. ISO 14042 also defines the term \u2018environmental mechanism\u2019: \u201ca system of physical, chemical and biological processes for a given impact category, linking the LCI results to category indicators and to category endpoints\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8074, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 527, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this Guide we have opted to refine this definition, to distinguish more categorically between the terms of the \u2018real world\u2019 and those of the characterisation models used to simulate certain partially underststood environmental processes.1 Thus, the term \u2018environmental process\u2019 has been adopted here for the chain of physical, chemical and biological events in the natural environment that link a particular environmental intervention to a particular impact; typical examples include pollutant accumulation or leaching. For a given impact category, these environmental processes then together form the \u2018environmental mechanism\u2019, which is modeled to a greater or lesser extent by the characterisation model, up to one or more category endpoints. 1 In preparing this Guide the ISO terminology proved to be rather inconsistent on a variety of points and for this reason we have here refined the definitions of certain ISO terms. In the Glossary these are specifically indicated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8075, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 527, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the Glossary these are specifically indicated. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8076, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 524, "book_page": 527, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "According to ISO 14042, category indicators may be chosen anywhere along the environmental mechanism between intervention and endpoint. Operationalisation of each of the chosen impact categories then comprises the following elements: identification of one or more category endpoints; definition of a category indicator for each of these endpoints; identification of the LCI results to be assigned to each category indicator, taking into account the selected category endpoint(s); and identification of the characterisation model and characterisation factors to be used. ISO 14042 states that this procedure \u201cfacilitates the collection, assignment, and modeling of appropriate LCI results\u201d and \u201chelps to highlight the scientific and technical validity, assumptions, value-choices and degree of accuracy in the model\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8077, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With respect to the selection of impact categories, category indicators and models, ISO sets the following requirements (see textbox): the selection of impact categories, indicators and models shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study the sources for impact categories, indicators and models shall be referenced; the selection of impact categories, indicators and models shall be justified; accurate and descriptive names shall be provided for the impact categories and category indicators; the selection of impact categories shall reflect a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the product system being studied taking the goal and scope into consideration; the environmental mechanism and model which relate the LCI results and indicator as a basis for characterisation factors shall be described; the appropriateness of the use of the characterisation model for deriving the category indicator in context of the goal and scope of the study shall be described", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8078, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition a number of recommendations is given for the selection of impact categories, indicators and models: the impact categories, indicators and models should be internationally accepted i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8079, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "based on an international agreement or approved by an international body; the impact categories should represent the aggregated emissions or resource use of the product system on the category endpoint(s) through the indicators; value-choices and assumptions made during the selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models should be minimised; the impact categories, category indicators and characterisation models should avoid double counting unless required by the Goal and scope definition, for example when the study includes both human health and carcinogenicity; the characterisation model for each category indicator should be scientifically and technically valid, and based upon a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism and/or reproducible empirical observation; the impact categories and indicators should be environmentally relevant; it should be identified to what extent the characterisation model and the characterisation factors are", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8080, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "empirical observation; the impact categories and indicators should be environmentally relevant; it should be identified to what extent the characterisation model and the characterisation factors are scientifically and technically valid", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8081, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Depending on the environmental mechanism and the goal and scope, spatial and temporal differentiation of the characterisation model relating the LCI results to the indicator should be considered. The fate and transport of the substances should be part of the model. LCI results other than mass and energy flow data included in an LCA study, e.g. land use, shall be identified and their relationship to corresponding indicators shall be determined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8082, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "land use, shall be identified and their relationship to corresponding indicators shall be determined. The environmental relevance of the category indicator or characterisation model should be clearly stated in terms of the following criteria: a) the ability of the category indicator to reflect the consequences of the LCI results in the category endpoint(s) at least qualitatively; b) the addition of environmental data or information to the characterisation model with respect to the category endpoint (S), including the condition of the category endpoint(s), the relative magnitude of the assessed change in the category endpoints, the spatial aspects, such as the area and scale, the temporal aspects, such as duration, residence time, persistence, timing, etc., the reversibility of the environmental mechanism, and the uncertainty of the linkages between the characterisation model and the changes in the category endpoints", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8083, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background a) b) c) d) e) f) g) a) b) c) d) e) f) g)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8084, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 525, "book_page": 528, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.1.3 Relation between ISO and SETAC Working Group on LCIA Since ISO 14042 describes no specific methodologies or models for use in Impact assessment, there is a need to specify LCIA methodologies and models that satisfy the broader ISO requirements. This is where the work of the SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment comes in, for WIA\u20132 is seeking to draw up an authorised, recommended list of impact categories complete with category indicators and characterisation factors. Proceeding from the ISO requirements, WIA\u20132 aims to establish a best available practical method for each impact category distinguished. At the time of writing, the work had yielded a list of recommendations for individual impact categories as well as an overall framework for these categories (Udo de Haes et al., 1999). As stated in Chapter 1, the aim of this new Guide is to operationalise the ISO standards, and in particular ISO 14042, by updating and expanding the Guide of Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8085, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As stated in Chapter 1, the aim of this new Guide is to operationalise the ISO standards, and in particular ISO 14042, by updating and expanding the Guide of Heijungs et al. (1992) to incorporate all relevant developments since publication of the latter, taking the ISO standards as the basic point of departure and with particular reference to ongoing work within the SETAC community. For the LCIA phase, this means that the work of WIA\u20132 (Udo de Haes et al., 1999) has been taken as a starting point. WIA\u20132 was established in the knowledge that its mission would be taken over at the global level by the scheduled cooperation between SETAC and UNEP. The WIA\u20132 work on best available practice has not yet been completed and this Guide can therefore do no more than make recommendations on best available practice as understood at the present time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8086, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The WIA\u20132 work on best available practice has not yet been completed and this Guide can therefore do no more than make recommendations on best available practice as understood at the present time. Thus, the present Guide goes beyond the work of WIA\u20132, taking into account as far as possible all relevant developments in LCIA during the last decade. 4.2 Selection of impact categories TOPIC In the Impact assessment phase the results of the Inventory analysis are translated into contributions to relevant impact categories, such as depletion of abiotic resources, climate change, acidification, etc. To this end, relevant impact categories must be identified. The text of ISO 14042 might be interpreted as indicating that these impact categories are to be defined anew for each study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8087, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To this end, relevant impact categories must be identified. The text of ISO 14042 might be interpreted as indicating that these impact categories are to be defined anew for each study. To facilitate the work of practitioners a default list of impact categories has here been elaborated, thereby distinguishing between 'baseline' impact categories, 'study-specific' impact categories and 'other' impact categories. In this step of the LCA, then, practitioners are still obliged to select those categories relevant to the goal of his or her particular study, supported by the preliminary selection made in this Guide. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE ISO 14042 does not provide a default list of impact categories for inclusion in LCIA. The starting points of ISO and WIA\u20132 regarding the selection and definition of impact categories are summarised in Table 4.2.1. For the underlying argumentation the reader is referred to ISO 14042 and Udo de Haes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8088, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For the underlying argumentation the reader is referred to ISO 14042 and Udo de Haes et al. (1999), respectively.1 Table 4.2.1: Starting points for definition and selection of impact categories in general and for a specific LCA study. General starting point for the framework of impact categories and category indicators: a framework shall be developed which is open to further scientific progress and further detailing of information (WIA\u20132) General starting points for the total set of impact categories: 1. the categories shall together permit an all-encompassing assessment of relevant impacts, as currently understood (completeness) (ISO/WIA\u20132) 2. the categories should have minimum overlap and avoid double counting unless so required by the goal and scope (ISO/WIA\u20132) 3. the categories should be internationally accepted, i.e. based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body (ISO) 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8089, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the categories should be internationally accepted, i.e. based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body (ISO) 4. the total number of impact categories should not be too high (WIA\u20132) Starting points for the selection of categories in a specific LCA study: 1. the selected impact categories shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study (ISO) 2. the selected impact categories shall form a comprehensive set of environmental issues related to the goal and scope of the LCA study (ISO) 1 Furthermore, ISO sets several requirements regarding the description and documentation of categories. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8090, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 526, "book_page": 529, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Choice of overall impact assesment method Within the ISO framework the environmental profile resulting from the characterisation step is an important LCA result in its own right, with the grouping and weighting steps (which are more value-based) constituting distinct, optional elements. Some existing methods deviate in this respect, however, weighting interventions directly. One example is the Ecopoints method, in which emissions and extractions are weighted using a distance-to-target method, i.e. based on policy targets (Ahbe et al., 1990). Consequently, this method does not include a separate characterisation step. A second major defining aspect of Impact assessment methods is the point in the environmental mechanism at which the category indicators are defined. They may be defined close to the intervention (the midpoint, or problem-oriented approach, e.g. Heijungs et al., 1992; Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996; Haas, 1997; Wenzel et al., 1997; Beetstra, 1998; Udo de Haes et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8091, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 530, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs et al., 1992; Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996; Haas, 1997; Wenzel et al., 1997; Beetstra, 1998; Udo de Haes et al., 1999). Alternatively, they may be defined at the level of category endpoints (the endpoint, or damage approach, e.g. EPS: Steen & Ryding, 1992; Steen, 1996; ExternE: EC, 1995a; Eco-indicator 99: Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). A cluster of category endpoints of recognisable value to society is referred to as an \u201carea of protection\u201d. Here, we distinguish four: human health, natural resources, the natural environment and the man-made environment. Despite its name, the midpoint approach still allows definition of category indicators anywhere along the environmental mechanism in question (cf. Udo de Haes et al., 1999), including the endpoint level. This permits use of the best indicator available for each impact category, regardless of where it is located in the environmental mechanism", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8092, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 530, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Udo de Haes et al., 1999), including the endpoint level. This permits use of the best indicator available for each impact category, regardless of where it is located in the environmental mechanism. If indicators are chosen at midpoint level their relationship with the category endpoints should be clearly defined. This will generally be in qualitative terms. In ISO 14042 (2000E) the degree of linkage between the chosen category indicator and the category endpoint is referred to as the \u201cenvironmental relevance\u201d of the indicator. The environmental relevance is to be clearly stated in terms of the following criteria: 1. the ability of the category indicator to reflect the consequences of the LCI results on the category endpoint(s), at least qualitatively; 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8093, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 530, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the ability of the category indicator to reflect the consequences of the LCI results on the category endpoint(s), at least qualitatively; 2. the addition of environmental data or information to the characterisation model with respect to the category endpoint(s), including the condition of the category endpoint(s), the relative magnitude of the assessed change in the category endpoint(s), the spatial aspects, such as area and scale, the temporal aspects, such as duration, residence time, persistence, timing, etc., the reversibility of the environmental mechanism, and the uncertainty of the linkages between the characterisation model and the changes in the category endpoints (ISO 14042, 2000E). In the second case category indicators are defined at endpoint level. The advantage of this approach is that the environmental relevance of the category indicators is high: it is this level which ultimately matters to society and which enables a direct link to be made with weighting methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8094, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 530, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, these kinds of endpoint indicators are still under development and the associated models do not yet include all the relevant effects of common interventions (see textbox below). Since 1992 considerable efforts have been devoted to developing models and category indicators based on the endpoint approach (e.g. EC, 1995a; Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999; M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1997; Hofstetter, 1998). The most comprehensive and recent work in this area is the Eco-indicator 99 by Goedkoop & Spriensma (1999). This approach is reviewed in the textbox and compared with the midpoint, i.e. problem-oriented approach. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8095, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 527, "book_page": 530, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the Netherlands two Impact assessment methods have been developed in the last decade, both grounded in the \u2018environmental themes\u2019 formulated by the Dutch Government in 1989 (VROM, 1989; RIVM, 1991). Both have the same basic structure, with the indicator results obtained by multiplying the inventory results by the appropriate characterisation factor together forming the so-called environmental profile, which is then normalised (see section 4.6), before serving as input for a possible weighting step. Where the two methods vary is with respect to the characterisation models and characterisation factors developed and proposed for the individual themes. In terms of their operationalisation there are also several clear differences between the methods. The first method, often referred to as the problem-oriented approach and first presented by Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8096, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 531, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The first method, often referred to as the problem-oriented approach and first presented by Heijungs et al. (1992), operationalised models and characterisation factors for a number of impact categories, but did not operationalise the weighting step. The second Dutch method is the Eco-indicator approach, developed primarily for the purposes of \u2018eco-design\u2019. Designers were deemed unable to work with 10\u201320 indicator results, and the Eco-indicator therefore employs only 1 to 3 weighted indices. Thus, there is greater emphasis on weighting than in the approach of Heijungs et al . In the first version of the Eco-indicator (Eco-indicator 95; Goedkoop, 1995) weighting was based partly on a damage approach, partly on a distance-to-target approach (i.e. based on predefined damage targets). Most of the impact categories identified were adopted from Heijungs et al., although the two toxicity themes were defined rather more narrowly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8097, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 531, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "based on predefined damage targets). Most of the impact categories identified were adopted from Heijungs et al., although the two toxicity themes were defined rather more narrowly. Originally conceived as an experiment, the Eco-indicator method has since been improved. In the latest version (Eco-indicator 99; Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999) a completely different approach to Impact assessment has been adopted in which a limited number of damage categories are weighted (by a panel, for example). Three types of damage are distinguished, for which weighting is taken to be more readily feasible: damage to resources; damage to ecosystem quality; damage to human health. As in the problem-oriented approach, the natural sciences are used to calculate the relation between the impacts of a (product) system\u2019s life cycle and the resultant damages", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8098, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 531, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As in the problem-oriented approach, the natural sciences are used to calculate the relation between the impacts of a (product) system\u2019s life cycle and the resultant damages. The Eco-indicator methodology thus consists of two parts: scientific calculation of the three forms of damage due to the life cycle of the product under study; a valuation procedure to establish the significance of these damages. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8099, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 528, "book_page": 531, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method has a modular structure (Figure 4.2.1; source: Goedkoop, 1997) in which the building blocks of the natural science component can be modified or replaced to reflect different value systems (viz. Egalitarian, Individualist, Hierarchist). The authors recommend using the Hierarchist version of the model as the default method, with the other two being run as a form of sensitivity analysis (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). In the Eco-indicator 99 approach, \u2018damage to health\u2019 is operationalised using the notion of DALYs: DisabilityAdjusted Life Years. This indicator is said to measure \u201cthe total amount of ill health, due to disability and premature death, attributable to specific diseases and injuries. The DALY concept thus compares time lived with disability (YLD: Years Lived Disabled) ands time lost due to premature mortality (YLL: Years of Life Lost). Health is simply added across individuals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8100, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 532, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The DALY concept thus compares time lived with disability (YLD: Years Lived Disabled) ands time lost due to premature mortality (YLL: Years of Life Lost). Health is simply added across individuals. That is, two people each losing 10 years of disability-free life are treated as the same loss as one person losing 20 years\u201d (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). For the technical details of the DALY concept, the reader is referred to (Box 4.1) of this publication. Both the problem-oriented approach and the Eco-indicator approach conform to the ISO 14042 (2000E) framework, as reflected in ISO/TS 14047 in prep.), since both clearly distinguish the characterisation and weighting steps. Although the Eco-indicator 99 approach is very promising and certainly appealing as an avenue for further research, the problem-oriented approach is currently considered the \u2018best available practice\u2019 for Impact assessment and has therefore been adopted in this Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8101, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 532, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The Eco-indicator method still has several serious shortcomings. It includes far fewer inventory items and provides only very limited coverage of human-toxic impacts (carcinogeneity only, thus ignoring a wide range of other health impacts). Some of the constituent models are outdated compared with those now used in the problem-oriented approach, while others involve major uncertainties. Thus, the terrestrial acidification and eutrophication models are based on the local, Dutch situation, while the problem-oriented approach now uses a European model (Huijbregts, 1999b); the data and assumptions of the toxicity model can be improved (cf. Huijbregts 1999a); and linkage of GWP and ODP and other universally accepted factors to damage parameters is still very incomplete and uncertain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8102, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 532, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Huijbregts 1999a); and linkage of GWP and ODP and other universally accepted factors to damage parameters is still very incomplete and uncertain. Finally, aggregation of ecotoxicological impacts with eutrophying, acidifying and land use impacts is still very preliminary, and the ecosystem impacts of climate change, increased UV radiation and photochemical smog are not yet included. The key feature of the problem-oriented approach is that the category indicators are defined at midpoints along the environmental mechanism, congruent with current environmental policy themes, and can therefore be modeled relatively accurately. The approach has the added advantage of permitting flexible choice of characterisation model and position of category indicator in the environmental mechanism, since for many impact categories more than one model is defensible and available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8103, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 532, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, midpoints (wherever their precise position in the mechanism) are a difficult input for weighting and in the problem-oriented approach there is thus still no set of weighting factors covering all impact categories (see section 4.8). The main advantage of the Eco-indicator 99 is that category indicators are defined at the endpoint level, giving them greater environmental relevance. As it is this level that ultimately matters to society, the object of the weighting procedure is more immediate. The major uncertainties associated with modeling from midpoints to endpoints constitute a serious drawback, however. It would be very useful to collaborate and examine whether the advantages of the Eco-indicator 99 and the problem-oriented approaches can be combined into a still better and more comprehensive Impact assessment methodology. Part 3 : Scientific background (", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8104, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 529, "book_page": 532, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although the Eco-indicator 99 approach is very promising and is certainly appealing as an avenue for further research, the problem-oriented approach is currently deemed the \u2018best practice\u2019 for Impact assessment and has therefore been adopted in this Guide. As discussed in the text box, the former approach does not employ reliable endpoint indicators for all relevant impacts and has a number of other shortcomings, and cannot yet therefore be used to generate a comprehensive environmental profile. As things stand, therefore, we here recommend the problem-oriented approach, with impact categories defined at the midpoint level. This allows the best available indicator to be used for each impact category, regardless of where in the environmental mechanism between intervention and endpoint this category indicator is defined", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8105, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This allows the best available indicator to be used for each impact category, regardless of where in the environmental mechanism between intervention and endpoint this category indicator is defined. In the future, when more complete endpoint indicators are available, an approach based on categories defined at endpoint level, such as the Eco-indicator 99, may well become the preferred approach (see also textbox). In this Guide, the problem-oriented (midpoint) approach will now be elaborated further as a baseline. The Eco-indicator 99 approach can be used for the purpose of sensitivity analysis, since it is presently the most comprehensive method based entirely on endpoint indicators. The models used to calculate the indicator results for the various impact categories are more up to date and complete than comparable foreign approaches such as the ExternE and Environmental Priority Strategies, or EPS, methods (EC, 1995a; Steen, 1993 & 19961)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8106, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "By using the Eco-indicator 99 approach as a sensitivity analysis, LCA practitioners can familiarise themselves with the kind of results yielded by this approach and compare them with the results obtained with the problem-oriented approach adopted in this Guide as a baseline. Choice of impact categories In elaborating the problem-oriented approach, a default list of impact categories first needs to be defined. Table 4.2.2 presents such a list, based mainly on the work of the WIA\u20132 Working Group on Impact assessment and earlier work (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996; Udo de Haes et al., 1999)2, on more recent developments in the LCA field and, of course, on the basic starting points of Table 4.2.1. This default list acknowledges three groups of impact category. Group A: \u2018Baseline impact categories\u2019 comprises those of the categories distinguished and discussed in Udo de Haes et al. (1999) for which a baseline characterisation method3 is selected below, in Section 4.3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8107, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1999) for which a baseline characterisation method3 is selected below, in Section 4.3. Group A impact categories are included in almost all LCA studies. Two revisions have been introduced relative to Udo de Haes et al. (1999): \u2018extraction\u2019 of abiotic resources is now \u2018depletion\u2019 of abiotic resources, the latter term being more impact-oriented; and the category \u2018ecotoxicity\u2019 has been broken down into five subcategories, three of which are included in Group A: freshwater aquatic, marine and terrestrial ecotoxicity. Group B: \u2018Study-specific impact categories\u2019 comprises categories that may merit inclusion, depending on the Goal and scope of the LCA study and whether appropriate data are available, and for which a baseline and/or alternative characterisation method is proposed in this Guide. Most of these categories are mentioned by Udo de Haes (ed.;1996) or Udo de Haes et al. (1999), although some have been defined more recently (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8108, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Most of these categories are mentioned by Udo de Haes (ed.;1996) or Udo de Haes et al. (1999), although some have been defined more recently (e.g. the subcategories \u2018freshwater sediment ecotoxicity\u2019 and \u2018marine sediment ecotoxicity\u2019). Group C: \u2018Other impact categories\u2019 comprises the categories mentioned by Heijungs et al. (1992), Udo de Haes (ed. 1996) and/or Udo de Haes et al. (1999) for which no baseline characterisation method is proposed in this Guide. These impact categories require further elaboration before they can be used in LCA studies, with research still in progress. Desiccation, for instance, is an issue that is receiving considerable attention in the Netherlands (collaboration between KIWA and RIZA) and Australia (CRC)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8109, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Desiccation, for instance, is an issue that is receiving considerable attention in the Netherlands (collaboration between KIWA and RIZA) and Australia (CRC). Besides the impact categories distinguished below in Table 4.2.2, this Guide also identifies two additional rubrics: \u2018Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\u2018 and \u2018Economic flows not followed to system boundary\u2019, discussed in Sections 4.3.17 and 4.3.18, respectively. These two rubrics should be included in the results of every LCA study. 1 A new version of the EPS method has recently been published (Steen, 1999). This version could not be evaluated in the present Guide, however. 2 Historically, the list of impact catepories has its origins in the \u2018environmental themes\u2019 defined in the Netherlands\u2019 first National Environmental Policy Plan (VROM, 1989); it has since been revised and refined for the LCA (and other) purposes", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8110, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3 A \u2018characterisation method\u2019 for an impact category comprises a category indicator, a characterisation model and characterisation factors derived from that model. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8111, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 530, "book_page": 533, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.2.2: Default list of impact categories and subcategories impact category A. Baseline impact categories Depletion of abiotic resources Impacts of land use land competition Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion Human toxicity Ecotoxicity freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity marine aquatic ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity Photo-oxidant formation Acidification Eutrophication B. Study-specific impact categories Impacts of land use loss of life support functions loss of biodiversity Ecotoxicity freshwater sediment ecotoxicity marine sediment ecotoxicity Impacts of ionising radiation Odour malodourous air Noise Waste heat Casualties C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8112, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 531, "book_page": 534, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Other impact categories Depletion of biotic resources Desiccation Odour malodourous water single baseline characterisation method provided in this Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no other characterisation method(s) available in the Guide? yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no yes no no In some LCA methodologies - for example, that given in the scientific background to the EDIP method (Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998) and the Nordic report (Lindfors et al., 1995c) - other default lists are used. Here, however, we proceed from the list of Table 4.2.2, which is based mainly on the work of WIA\u20132, because of the international support it enjoys. Currently modeled (midpoint) category indicators for the baseline impact categories recommended in this Guide with an indication of their environmental relevance are illustrated in Figure 4.2.2, freely adapted from Udo de Haes et al.(1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8113, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 531, "book_page": 534, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although in certain contexts it may also be relevant to have information about the total energy consumed by a product system, in practice this may prove to be quite a complex issue. What precise energy requirements are to be taken, for example? The total energy used by the unit processes? The energy that can potentially be supplied by the energy resource, as originally extracted? What energy can be supplied by a particular grade of coal? If there is additional assessment of energy resources in MJ, every effort must be made to ensure that these are not subsequently double-counted in the weighting step. Part 3 : Scientific background ... ... ...", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8114, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 531, "book_page": 534, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8115, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 532, "book_page": 535, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With respect to the reporting of the various aspects of Impact assessment, the general requirements of If a third party report according to ISO 14040 (1997E), clause 6, is prepared, the report shall include the following items: a) the LCIA procedures, calculations, and results for the study; b) limitations of the LCIA results relative to the defined goal and scope of the study; c) the relationship of the LCIA results to the defined goal and scope, see annex A; d) the relationship of the LCIA to the LCI results, see annex A; e) impact categories considered, including rationale for their selection and a reference to their source; f) descriptions of or reference to all characterisation models, characterisation factors and methods used, including all assumptions and limitations; g) descriptions of or reference to all value-choices used in relation to impact categories, characterisation models, characterisation factors, normalisation, grouping, weighting, and elsewhere in the LCIA a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8116, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "of or reference to all value-choices used in relation to impact categories, characterisation models, characterisation factors, normalisation, grouping, weighting, and elsewhere in the LCIA a justification for their use and their influence on the results, conclusions and recommendations; h) a statement that the LCIA results are relative expressions and do not predict impacts on category endpoints, exceedence of thresholds, safety margins, or risks", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8117, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When included as part of the LCA study the following items shall also be included if a third party report according to ISO 14040 (1997E), clause 6, is prepared: a) a description and justification of the definition and description of any new impact categories, category indicators or characterisation models used for the LCIA; b) a statement and justification of any grouping of the impact categories; c) any further procedures that transform the indicator results, and a justification of the selected references, weighting factors, etc.; d) any analysis of the indicator results, for example sensitivity and uncertainty analysis or the use of environmental data including any implication for the results; e) data and indicator results reached prior to any normalisation, grouping or weighting shall be made available together with the normalised, grouped or weighted results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8118, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, for comparative assertions disclosed to the public the report shall include the following items: a) an evaluation of the completeness of the LCA; b) a statement as to whether or not international acceptance exists for the selected category indicators and a justification for their use; c) a justification for the scientific and technical validity and environmental relevance of the category indicators used in the study d) the results of the uncertainty and sensitivity analysis; e) an evaluation of the significance of the differences found; f) if included in the LCA study: the procedures and results used for grouping; a statement that conclusions and recommendations derived from grouping are based on value-choices; a justification of the criteria used for the normalisation and grouping (these can be personal, organisational or national value-choices); a statement when grouping is used that \u201cThe ISO 14042 standard does not specify any specific methodology or support the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8119, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "and grouping (these can be personal, organisational or national value-choices); a statement when grouping is used that \u201cThe ISO 14042 standard does not specify any specific methodology or support the underlying value-choices used to group the impact categories\"\u201d a statement when grouping is used that \u201cThe value-choices and judgements within the grouping procedures are the sole responsibilities of the commissioner of the study (e.g., government, community, organisation, etc)\"", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8120, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Where relevant, the items listed in this subclause should also be considered in the elaboration of other kinds of reports where LCIA results are used Note 1 : A graphical presentation of LCIA results as part of the report may be useful but one should consider the fact that this invites implicit comparisons and conclusions. Note 2: Due to the inherent complexity of the LCIA phase, the aforementioned additional documentation beyond the requirements stated in ISO 14040 may be desirable for internal and two party reports. ISO 14040, clause 6, apply here (see Chapter 2). In addition, ISO 14042 (2000E), clause 10, lays down the following requirements for third party study reports on Impact assessment: Lindfors et al. (1995a) list the following reporting issues for Impact assessment: \u201cThe list of the impact categories considered in the study shall be reported. Whether the category is handled in a quantitative or qualitative way should also be noted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8121, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whether the category is handled in a quantitative or qualitative way should also be noted. Deviations from the list in Table 7.1 [in Lindfors et al. (1995a)] should be highlighted and justified. This can be regarded as a part of the Goal definition and Scoping component [...]. Under the heading of each impact category all inputs and outputs that cancontribute to the impact shall be noted. Inputs and outputs for which no quantitative information is available shall also be Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8122, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 533, "book_page": 536, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "noted. If desired, as an alternative, the result of the classification can be reported together with the characterisation subcomponent. If a \u2018red-flag\u2019 classification of chemicals is performed, reference to the relevant list(s) shall be made. A report should contain a brief description of the background to the list(s), the criteria used in the list(s) and the motivation for the choice of the list(s). If a \u2018red-flag\u2019 classification of risks of accidents is performed, the criteria used for the flags shall be reported. [...] The reader shall be given sufficient information to be able to reproduce the results and check the data sources. Explanations of all methodological choices should be presented. This may be done by referring to another available document where the choices are justified. In cases where the results are a function of the chosen method(s), an explicit reference to the used method(s) shall be made where results and conclusions are reported", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8123, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In cases where the results are a function of the chosen method(s), an explicit reference to the used method(s) shall be made where results and conclusions are reported. Not only the total contribution to each impact category should be presented, but also the contribution from each parameter considered in the classification. Results from the characterisation shall be presented in the form of tables and/or matrixes. A discussion on what differences in the results are regarded as significant should be included. As a part of an initial valuation, the characterisation results may be presented in a qualitative manner, using signs to indicate differences and significance of differences in tables and/or matrixes. Justifications for conclusions shall be presented where appropriate. If a normalisation is performed, documentation of methods and data (with adequate references), and explanations for chosen reference areas shall be included in the report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8124, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If a normalisation is performed, documentation of methods and data (with adequate references), and explanations for chosen reference areas shall be included in the report. If valuation methods are used, the method(s) shall be described, weighting factors (including data gaps) shall be presented with references [and] arguments for the choice of method(s) should be presented. [..]\u201d More detailed reporting recommendations for the various impact categories are presented in Chapter 7 of Lindfors et al. (1995a). In its report, the SETAC-Europe Case studies Working Group (Meier et aI., 1997) gives the following (minimum) reporting guidelines for the Impact assessment phase: \u201cIf an Impact assessment has been carried out then the methodology used should be clearly detailed in the report. The reasons for notcarrying out an Impact assessment should be detailed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8125, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The reasons for notcarrying out an Impact assessment should be detailed. If the CML/SETAC approach has been used then details under the following headings should be included: Classification The selection of impact categories should reflect the goals of the study and should be justified. Any specific exclusion or inclusion of impact categories should be clearly detailed and justified. Characterisation The characterisation methodology should be detailed and explained. If any normalisation has been carried out the methodology adopted should be clearly justified including geographic and temporal considerations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8126, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If any normalisation has been carried out the methodology adopted should be clearly justified including geographic and temporal considerations. Valuation If a valuation has been undertaken the methodology should be clearly explained and justified, both for quantitative and qualitative approaches.\u201d In this Guide the name and sequence of some of the steps of Impact assessment deviate slightly from those used in the ISO standards (see Section 1.4.3), and the ISO reporting issues have therefore not been adopted precisely as they stand. However, all the ISO issues are covered in the reporting Guidelines provided in Part 2a. Furthermore, where possible and useful the ISO guidelines have been rendered more explicit, based on the guidelines provided by Lindfors et al. (1995a) and Meier et al. (1997). PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. CONCLUSIONS In this Guide the problem-oriented (midpoint) approach has been elaborated as a baseline for Impact assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8127, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1997). PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. CONCLUSIONS In this Guide the problem-oriented (midpoint) approach has been elaborated as a baseline for Impact assessment. The Eco-indicator 99 approach may be used as a sensitivity analysis. A default list of impact categories is furthermore proposed, distinguishing between: Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8128, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 534, "book_page": 537, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Group A: Baseline impact categories Group B: Study-specific impact categories Group C: Other impact categories baseline characterisation method to be selected in Section 4.3 \u2013 to be included in (almost) all LCA studies \u2013 to be included if appropriate to the topic of study and if data are available baseline and/or alternative characterisation methods available \u2013 no baseline characterisation method available \u2013 require further elaboration for inclusion in LCA RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No specific research is recommended. 4.3 Selection of characterisation methods: category indicators, characterisation models and factors TOPIC The interventions recorded in the inventory table are quantified in terms of a common category indicator. To this end characterisation models are used, from which characterisation factors are derived for individual pollutants and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8129, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 538, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To this end characterisation models are used, from which characterisation factors are derived for individual pollutants and so on. For a given impact category, a characterisation method comprises a category indicator, a characterisation model and characterisation factors derived from the model. The impact categories distinguished in this Guide (see Table 4.2.2) are treated individually in Sections 4.3.1 to 4.3.16, below, thereby discussing the models, factors and indicators available for the category in question. Wherever feasible a baseline characterisation method is recommended which in our view represents the current best available practice. In cases where a choice of methods was available, the arguments in favour of the preferred baseline method are presented, designating one or more of these other methods as an alternative or additional method as relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8130, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 538, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These choices are based on selection criteria distilled from the relevant ISO standards and the work of the second SETAC-Europe Working Group on Impact assessment, WIA\u20132 and these criteria will be discussed in this section. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE With respect to the selection of characterisation methods, ISO has set out a number of starting points (see earlier textbox) for comparative assertions, as has been done more generally by SETAC WIA\u20131 (Udo de Haes (ed.; 1996). Combining the input from these two sources and adding further starting points related to the fact that the present Guide goes beyond the work of WIA\u20132, a list of relevant criteria has been drafted for the selection of the baseline characterisation methods recommended in the present Guide (see Table 4.3.1). The criteria based on the (marginally modified) WIA\u20131 starting points and the additional criteria adopted in this Guide are discussed immediately after Table 4.3.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8131, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 538, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The criteria based on the (marginally modified) WIA\u20131 starting points and the additional criteria adopted in this Guide are discussed immediately after Table 4.3.1. In the tables evaluating the baseline method recommended for each impact category (Sections 4.3.1 to 4.3.16) these selection criteria are referred to in abbreviated form, as indicated in italics in Table 4.3.1. Part 3 : Scientific background \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8132, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 535, "book_page": 538, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.1: Selection criteria for the baseline characterisation method recommended in this Guide, with reference to ISO and WIA\u20132 starting points. ISO starting points the category indicator should (shall for comparative assertions) be modeled in a scientifically and technically valid way in relation to the environmental interventions, i.e., using a distinct identifiable environmental mechanism and/or reproducible empirical observation the category indicators and models shall be environmentally relevant, i.e. shall be sufficiently clearly related to the category endpoints, at least qualitatively the category indicators and models should be internationally accepted, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8133, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "based on an international agreement or approved by a competent international body value-choices and assumptions should be minimised category indicators can be chosen anywhere in the environmental mechanism of an impact category, from environmental interventions to category endpoints (focal point in environmental mechanism) not included not included not included not included not included not included not included WIA\u20132 starting points included included not explicitly included included included it should be possible to multiply characterisation factors by mass or other units indicating the magnitude of the environmental interventions the preferred time span for fate and effects is eternity, with 100 years as a second option; all effects of the emission/ extraction occurring now and in the future should be taken into account the category indicators and models should include the modeling of fate,exposure/intake and effects, as relevant the category indicators and models should include", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8134, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "future should be taken into account the category indicators and models should include the modeling of fate,exposure/intake and effects, as relevant the category indicators and models should include effects below thresholds (\u2018less is better\u2019 approach) selection criteria for baseline method recommended in this Guide included included included included included modified: the baseline category indicators should be linear (linearity) included included included it should be possible to perform Impact assessment without information on time or location (time- and locationindependent) the method should be operational for a sufficient number of environmental interventions the uncertainty margins of the baseline indicator result should be as small as possible Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8135, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 536, "book_page": 12, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Criterion 6: the baseline category indicators should be linear In this context, linearity means that characterisation is based on characterisation factors that are independent of the magnitude of the environmental intervention. This has been adopted as a selection criterion for the baseline category indicators for two reasons: in this way the general structure of LCA is not altered: and the quantity chosen in the definition of the functional unit, which is often arbitrary, does not influence the mutual relationship between the results for different categories. Criterion 10: it should be possible to perform Impact assessment without information on time or location There is broad ongoing debate on whether the location of emissions (or extractions) and receptors should be taken into account in LCIA. One of the classic examples concerns the emission of salt to the sea; the same may hold true for the and emissions of ships sailing in open sea", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8136, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One of the classic examples concerns the emission of salt to the sea; the same may hold true for the and emissions of ships sailing in open sea. It would seem logical to introduce spatial information to resolve the problem of possible overestimation of impacts. If one knows the location of a given emission, one can determine whether effects are likely to occur, using information on the sensitivity of the location or the region. Similar considerations hold with respect to the fate of emissions. There are four main approaches to location-dependent characterisation: 1. No such characterisation. LCA is regarded as a macroscopic tool of particular value for indicating the overall (potential) environmental impacts of a (product) system. 2. Distinction between sensitive and non-sensitive areas, with emissions being ignored only when nonsensitive areas are clearly involved. No fate modeling is performed. 3. Introduction of an effect-oriented site factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8137, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No fate modeling is performed. 3. Introduction of an effect-oriented site factor. The EDIP programme proposes consistent introduction of a site factor of between 1 and 0, depending on the projected sensitivity of the area in which the substance is emitted (Wenzel et al., 1997). No fate modeling is performed. 4. Introduction of location-dependent characterisation factors based on fate and effect modeling. Potting et al. (1998) and Huijbregts (1999b) propose an approach including both fate and regional sensitivity, based on a dispersion model and a model predicting the sensitivity to acidification. For some LCA applications this may be a useful approach, but the additional inventory data required constitute a significant drawback. These four approaches focus principally on the location of effects, with only Potting et al. (1998) and Huijbregts (1999b) proposing a location-dependent approach that integrates fate and effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8138, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These four approaches focus principally on the location of effects, with only Potting et al. (1998) and Huijbregts (1999b) proposing a location-dependent approach that integrates fate and effect. For a further discussion on integrated fate and effect modeling, see Section 1.2.3.3 and Wegener Sleeswijk (in prep.). Location-dependent characterisation suffers from a number of general problems and limitations. Although methods and models often allow for location-dependent elaboration, such elaboration increases the quantity of inventory data required, making the inventory table more complex, as data on different locations cannot be aggregated. Data requirements may even become prohibitive, for example when different sites are distinguished for each impact category. Until now location-dependent factors have been proposed for different impact categories independently", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8139, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Until now location-dependent factors have been proposed for different impact categories independently. A comprehensive approach distinguishing the same, limited number of regions for all impact categories would be preferable, to keep the locational differentiation in the inventory manageable. In many LCA studies, however, no information is available on the location of emissions and/or extractions. Our baseline category indicators must therefore be able to assess at least locationindependent inventory data. If, in addition, location-specific information can also be assessed with the same category indicator this is then, of course, an advantage. Besides spatial differentiation, differentiation in the temporal domain may also be relevant for certain impact categories; see the general discussion in Section 1.2.3.3. Examples of impact categories for which temporal differentiation might be useful are day- and nighttime noise and summer and winter smog", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8140, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Examples of impact categories for which temporal differentiation might be useful are day- and nighttime noise and summer and winter smog. The same reasoning can be applied to temporal as to spatial differentiation. For many interventions and unit processes there will be no temporal information available, and it should therefore at least be possible to apply non-time-specific characterisation factors. It is not only the time of occurrence of interventions and/or impacts that may be of interest, but also their duration; see Section 1.2.2.3. In the case of the Inventory analysis, opting for a cradle-to-grave analysis already implies a basic perspective of infinite time. For impact assessment the situation is arguably different. Ecosystems are slow to adapt to changes in environmental conditions, for instance. It might Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8141, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 537, "book_page": 540, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "therefore be argued that impacts with a very long time horizon require form of time-discounting or cut-off beyond, say, 100 or 1000 years (Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996). Criterion 11: The method should be operational for a sufficient number of environmental interventions A qualitatively excellent category indicator operational for only a small fraction of relevant environmental interventions is not a good choice for the baseline method, because the results obtained with the indicator should represent all the interventions contributing to the category in question. Criterion 12 (+2): The uncertainty margins of the baseline indicator result should be as small as possible (while the indicator remains as environmentally relevant as possible) Criterion 12 is often in conflict with criterion 2: endpoint indicators often lead to greater uncertainties in results than midpoint indicators, for example, but they have more environmental relevance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8142, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A balance should therefore be sought between these two selection criteria: indicators should be as environmentally relevant as possible without introducing undue uncertainty into the results. Whether a method is based on a proportional or a marginal approach plays no role in the choice of baseline. As current characterisation models employ either linear relationships (e.g. for toxicity, acidification) or non-linear relationships, it is not possible to derive both proportional and marginal characterisation factors. While such a theoretical distinction can be made, then, this choice rarely presents itself in practice and we shall have to work with the (heterogeneous) factors we have", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8143, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "While such a theoretical distinction can be made, then, this choice rarely presents itself in practice and we shall have to work with the (heterogeneous) factors we have. (See Section 1.2.3.4 for a more extensive discussion of this and related topics.) PROSPECTS The new SETAC-Europe Working Group on life cycle Impact assessment (WIA\u20132) and the forthcoming SETAC/UNEP cooperation have been charged with preparing an authorised, recommended list of impact categories with respective category indicators and characterisation factors. These may differ from the categories, indicators and factors adopted here, in which case these documents will need to be updated in due course (in about 3\u20134 years). CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the selection criteria presenter above, in this Guide a distinction has been made between: a baseline characterisation method, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8144, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the selection criteria presenter above, in this Guide a distinction has been made between: a baseline characterisation method, i.e. the method recommended here as the current best available practice for the impact category in question; alternative characterisation methods, which may be adopted instead of the baseline method if duly justified and documented, or may be used in tandem with the baseline method, as a sensitivity analysis; additional characterisation methods, which may be applied similarly to alternative methods, but requiring additional effort (e.g. collection of additional data, development of additional models); variant characterisation methods, which start from entirely different principles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8145, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "collection of additional data, development of additional models); variant characterisation methods, which start from entirely different principles. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research It is recommended to investigate the usefulness and feasibility of category indicators for the impact categories \u2018human toxicological impacts\u2019 and \u2018ecotoxicological impacts\u2019 calculated using the damage approach. The marginal and proportional category indicators currently used in LCIA should be inventoried. A comprehensive site- or location-dependent approach should be developed (although the relevant level of differentiation might vary among impact categories). Appropriate time horizons for LCIA should be examined in more detail. Long-term research It is recommended to investigate the potential for developing category indicators for impact categories within an overall framework based on a damage approach", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8146, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Long-term research It is recommended to investigate the potential for developing category indicators for impact categories within an overall framework based on a damage approach. As a start, the scope could be investigated for developing category indicators for human and ecosystem health, including not only toxicological impacts but also such other impacts as casualties, smog, etc. It is recommended to study, for several impact categories, the differences between LCIA results based on proportional and a marginal modeling and the influence of including/excluding background concentrations. The scope for fully integrating fate in the characterisation factor for each impact category should be investigated. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8147, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 538, "book_page": 541, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Because of the wide variation in the dilution volume of substances, the scope for including this parameter in multimedia models should be investigated. In the following sections each of the impact categories listed in Table 4.2.2 is described and documented and a baseline characterisation method recommended. 4.3.1 Depletion of abiotic resources TOPIC \u2018Abiotic resources\u2019 are natural resources (including energy resources) such as iron ore, crude oil and wind energy which are regarded as non-living. Abiotic resource depletion is one of the most frequently discussed impact categories and there is consequently a wide variety of methods available for characterising contributions to this category. To a large extent these different methodologies reflect differences in problem definition. Depending on the definition, this impact category has only natural resources, or natural resources, human health and the natural environment as areas of protection (see Figure 4.2.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8148, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Depending on the definition, this impact category has only natural resources, or natural resources, human health and the natural environment as areas of protection (see Figure 4.2.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Three types of abiotic resources can be distinguished: deposits, funds and flows. Deposits are resources that are not regenerated within human lifetimes. Examples of deposits are fossil fuels, minerals, sediments, clay, etc. Funds are resources that can be regenerated within human lifetimes. Groundwater and soil are examples of funds. Flows are resources that are constantly regenerated, such as wind, river water and solar energy (Finnveden, 1996a). It is debatable whether all three types of abiotic resources can or should be aggregated into one measure for abiotic depletion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8149, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is debatable whether all three types of abiotic resources can or should be aggregated into one measure for abiotic depletion. It will be difficult to combine Impact assessment for flows, for which there is no reserve to be depleted but rather a maximum utilisable flow, with that for deposits and funds (Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995). Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) for a given resource i, abiotic depletion was defined as the ratio between the quantity of resource extracted and the recoverable reserves of that resource yielding a dimensionless indicator result. The units used for both extractions and reserves could thus be freely selected, as long as this was consistent for a given resource. Ores were normally expressed in kg and natural gas in although MJ could be used as an alternative. \u201cAbiotic depletion\u201d also covered depletion of some energy resources such as fossil fuels. Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8150, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u201cAbiotic depletion\u201d also covered depletion of some energy resources such as fossil fuels. Heijungs et al. (1992) observed that this is a simplified method and that it should ultimately be extended to include the extraction rate, expressed in kg/yr or Heijungs et al. (1997) make a distinction between resources that can be depleted and those that are competitively used, stating that deposits fall into the former category and flows into the latter, while funds may fall into either category. They state that the two categories should be assessed using two different methods: resources that are depleted should be assessed by a method based on depletion, those that are competitively used by a method based on competition. One implication of this is that aggregation of abiotic resources into a single measure is not meaningful. Reviews of existing Impact assessment methods for the depletion of abiotic resources are provided in several publications, in particular Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8151, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Reviews of existing Impact assessment methods for the depletion of abiotic resources are provided in several publications, in particular Heijungs et al. (1992), Fava et al. (1993), Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs (1995), Lindfors et al. (1995a,c), Lindfors (1996), Finnveden (1996a) and Heijungs et al. (1997). Broadly speaking, the available methods fall into six groups, reviewed very briefly below (mainly Finnveden, 1996a, and Lindfors et al., 1995c, supplemented with more recently developed methods). 1. No assessment or aggregation (e.g Lindfors, 1996). 2. Aggregation of natural resource extractions on a mass basis (e.g. Lindfors et al., 1995c). 3. Aggregation and assessment based either on a) \u2018ultimate reserves\u2019, i.e. the quantity of resource (as a chemical element or compound) that is ultimately available, estimated by multiplying the average natural concentration of the resource in the primary extraction media (e.g. the earth\u2019s crust) by the mass or volume of these media (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8152, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the earth\u2019s crust) by the mass or volume of these media (e.g. the mass of the crust) (Guin\u00e9e, 1995); or b) on \u2018economic Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8153, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 539, "book_page": 542, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "reserves\u2019, i.e. that part of the reserve base1 which can be economically extracted at the time of determination (United States Department of the Interior - Bureau of Mines, 1993) and/or current extraction rate. The method of Heijungs et al. (1992) is an example of assessment based on reserves. Alternative assessment methods proceed from resource extraction rates relative to reserves (see Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995 and Ekvall et al., 1997), from extraction rates only (Goedkoop, 1995) or from per capita reserves (see Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998) Aggregation and assessment based on the cost of \u2018restoring\u2019 the resource to its original, natural state, or on the costs associated with substituting current extraction processes by presumed \u2018sustainable\u2019 processes. Pedersen (1991) and Steen (1995) describe such methods. Aggregation and assessment based on energy content or exergy content or consumption (e.g. Finnveden, 1996b; see also Ayres et al., 1996 and Ayres, 1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8154, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Aggregation and assessment based on energy content or exergy content or consumption (e.g. Finnveden, 1996b; see also Ayres et al., 1996 and Ayres, 1998). Exergy is the amount of energy that can be obtained when matter is brought reversibly into equilibrium with its surroundings. It is the fraction of the energy content that can be used for work (= available energy). The exergy consumed is the exergy of the resources extracted as input minus the exergy of the outputs (Finnveden, 1996b). Finnveden suggests that the potential exergy of an ore might be used as a measure for depletion of abiotic resources in LCA. Aggregation and assessment based on the change in, the anticipated environmental impact of the resource extraction process due to lower-grade deposits having to be mined in the future. This method is described by Blonk et al. (1997a) and M\u00fcller-Wenk (1998) among others. It has been operationalised for metal ores and energy resources", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8155, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This method is described by Blonk et al. (1997a) and M\u00fcller-Wenk (1998) among others. It has been operationalised for metal ores and energy resources. In the case of metal ores, the virtual additional energy that will be required for future extraction processes is estimated. This additional energy, and the energy content of energy resources, are converted into the weighting indices of the Eco-indicator 95 approach by performing an LCA for the transformation of 1 kg \u2018heavy-grade\u2019 oil into thermal energy. Within the Eco-indicator 99 methodology a method has been developed based on that of M\u00fcller-Wenk (1998) (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). The authors differ in their conclusions as to the best method for characterising abiotic resource depletion. Lindfors (1996), for instance, recommends not aggregating abiotic recources at all in the characterisation phase of LCAs conducted under the ecolabeling programme (= method group 1, above)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8156, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lindfors (1996), for instance, recommends not aggregating abiotic recources at all in the characterisation phase of LCAs conducted under the ecolabeling programme (= method group 1, above). He states that all characterisation methods introduce value-based judgement and that there is no consensus on this point. Finnveden (1996a) states that further discussion is necessary before one particular methods can be selected. A major debating point will be problem definition. In our view, however, the current lack of any aggregation of abiotic resources at all has the disadvantage that the outcome of the characterisation phase comprises many separate scores for this impact category, which the LCA practitioner will probably not put to any use. The implication is that the problem is thus neglected. Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) also advise against applying aggregation in the characterisation phase, proposing use of weighting at a later stage, after normalisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8157, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) also advise against applying aggregation in the characterisation phase, proposing use of weighting at a later stage, after normalisation. In their weighting method resource depletion is specified as a fraction of known per capita economic reserves in 1990. They eventually therefore recommend using a method from group 3, above. The only difference from other methods in group 3 is that they advise aggregating in a later phase of the LCA, during weighting rather than characterisation. In their review, Heijungs et al. (1997) employ five criteria to assess all the methods then available. They conclude that there is no \u2018perfect\u2019 method meeting all their criteria. The main conclusion here is that there is as yet no consensus about what constitutes the best category indicator for \u2018abiotic depletion\u2019, the choice depending crucially on the definition of this term", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8158, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although in most publications the problem of abiotic depletion is not precisely defined, four groups of definitions can be broadly distinguished, based on what is seen as the key problem: 4. 5. 6. 1 The reserve base is that part of an identified resource that meets specified minimum physical and chemical criteria related to current mining practice (United States Department of the Interior - Bureau of Mines, 1993). the decrease of the resource itself \u2013 method groups 2 and 3 the decreasing reserves of useful energy/exergy in the world \u2013method group 5 the contribution of current extraction processes, or possible \u2018restoration\u2019 of the resource, to other impact categories (in the first case, this means that resource depletion is not in fact regarded as a separate environmental problem at all, as the environmental impacts of extraction processes are already included in LCAs (cf", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8159, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finnveden, 1996a) \u2013 method groups 1 and 4 the change in the environmental impact of extraction processes at some point in the future (e.g. as a result of having to extract lower-grade ores or recover materials from scrap) \u2013 method groups 4 and 6. Depending on the problem definition, this impact category is associated with various areas of protection: natural resources (option A and B), human health and the natural and man-made environment, now (option C), or natural resources, human health and the natural and man-made environment, in the future (option D). A. B. C. D. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8160, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 540, "book_page": 543, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In order to select a baseline method it is first necessary to opt for one of the available definitions. Option D is not consistent with the methods adopted for the other impact categories, where the concern is consistently not with the impact of future changes in processes and interventions, but with those of current interventions. Future changes in processes and interventions constitute changes in the product system and should be accounted for in the Goal and scope and Inventory phases, not during Impact assessment for a particular impact category. Under option D all impacts would be based on the changed product system, and not only abiotic depletion. Option C means that abiotic depletion is not deemed a relevant impact category. No separate assessment is then necessary, for if the Inventory analysis is correctly performed all environmental impacts should already be included within other impact categories. Thus, options C and D are rejected, leaving options A and B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8161, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 544, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Thus, options C and D are rejected, leaving options A and B. If the decrease of the resource itself is taken as the key problem (option A), assessment based on reserves and/or current extraction rates appears to be the best available method (method group 3). This method relates resource extractions obtained from the Inventory analysis directly to existing reserves and/or (annual) extraction rates. There is still room for debate on several points, however: Which of the many types of reserves do we consider: economic reserves, ultimate reserves in primary media (ore, fossil fuels) or also reserves in the economy (in products, scrap)? Should we focus on reserves or on extraction rate, or should both be included? Should we take into account the economic value of the resource? According to Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs (1995) a method based on ultimate reserves and rates of extraction is the best option, as these parameters best indicate the seriousness of resource depletion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8162, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 544, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As the notion of \u2018economic reserves\u2019 involves a variety of economic considerations not directly related to the environmental problem of resource depletion, \u2018ultimate reserves\u2019 appears to be a more appropriate yardstick. In their proposed method the indicator result is expressed in kg of a reference resource (antimony): and: Abiotic Depletion Potential of resource i (generally dimensionless); quantity of resource i extracted (kg); ultimate reserve of resource I (kg); extraction rate of resource i ultimate reserve of the reference resource, antimony (kg) extraction rate of The indicator result is expressed in kg of the reference resource, viz. antimony. This method is partly operational. Guin\u00e9e ( 1995) has developed ADPs for many elements, using antimony as the reference element. Thus far, only ultimate reserves have been included. However, these ADPs for elements need to be updated and converted to ADPs for resources, as it is these that are documented in the Inventory analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8163, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 544, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, these ADPs for elements need to be updated and converted to ADPs for resources, as it is these that are documented in the Inventory analysis. These resources are mainly compositions of several elements. The method is suitable for depletion, but not for competitive use, i.e. use of a resource that restricts the potential for others to use that same resource. If the scarcity of useful energy/exergy in the world is taken as the key problem (option B), it should be borne in mind that the resources will be \u2018valued\u2019 on the basis of exergy content only. However, it is debatable whether the value of the metals used in a particular process is dependent on the exergy content of the ore in question. Separate indicators for energy resources As discussed in Section 4.2, it may sometimes be relevant to add information about the total amount of (fossil) energy consumed by a system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8164, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 544, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Separate indicators for energy resources As discussed in Section 4.2, it may sometimes be relevant to add information about the total amount of (fossil) energy consumed by a system. One common approach is then simply to aggregate all forms of energy consumption, by multiplying the energy resources extracted from the environment by their respective (gross) heating value, this being the best indication of the extent to which the energy reserve is actually depleted (see Frischknecht et al., 1998). Frischknecht et al. (1998) propose including not only fossil fuels but also biofuels (wood, etc.), solar and wind energy, etc. as well as nuclear resources with: Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8165, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 541, "book_page": 544, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(uranium, etc.). These energy resources obviously cannot be aggregated on the basis of heating value alone, and this is therefore not recommended as an additional method in this Guide. If practitioners nonetheless opt to undertake additional assessment of energy resources in MJ, due care should be taken to avoid double-counting in the weighting step. PROSPECTS The subject of abiotic resource depletion is still being widely debated and much research is still in progress on developing indicators for this impact category, especially within method groups 5 and 6, above. CONCLUSIONS In this Guide we consider resource depletion to be an environmental problem in its own right, while recognising that views differ as to the precise definition of the resource problem. As argued, though, we consider that ultimate reserves and extraction rates together best reflect the seriousness of resource depletion (see Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8166, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As argued, though, we consider that ultimate reserves and extraction rates together best reflect the seriousness of resource depletion (see Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995). We therefore recommend as a baseline the method employing these parameters developed by Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs (1995; see also Guin\u00e9e, 1995). As mentioned above, there is still a need to convert the ADPs for elements to ADPs for composite resources. It should also be borne in mind that this method covers depletion but not competitive use. Table 4.3.1.1 indicates how this method scores with regard to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. Table 4.3.1.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for abiotic depletion, using the characterisation factor ADP, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1 . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8167, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientificallyandtechnicallyvalid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation not relevant; no environmental mechanism involved (actual resource extraction is assessed) yes, if problem definition A is adopted no; method not authorised by an international body yes; problem definition implies a value-choice not relevant; no environmental mechanism involved yes not relevant not relevant yes, no threshold yes partly; factors still to be worked up from elements to resources considerable uncertainty about magnitude of current reserves Three alternative methods are included in this Guide as options for sensitivity analysis, viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8168, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "methods using: a characterisation factor based on extraction rates and economic (rather than ultimate) reserves, i.e. that part of the reserve base which can be economically extracted at the time of calculation; a characterisation factor based only on ultimate or economic reserves (R) and not on extraction rates: characterisation factor = 1/R; the factors based on exergy content developed by Finnveden (1996b) or Ayres et al. (1996), useful when focusing on declining global energy/exergy content. Recommendation for extended LCAs: recalculate ADPs for minerals (i.e. compositions) rather than chemical elements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8169, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996), useful when focusing on declining global energy/exergy content. Recommendation for extended LCAs: recalculate ADPs for minerals (i.e. compositions) rather than chemical elements. method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 additional variant characterisation method/factor based on ultimate reserves and extraction rates based on economic reserves and extraction rates basedonultimateoreconomicreservesonly based on exergy content \u2013 \u2013 reference Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995 Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995, adapted Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs, 1995, adapted Finnveden, 1996b; Ayres et al., 1996 \u2013 \u2013 Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8170, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 542, "book_page": 545, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Additional remark Because of the difference between flows on the one hand and deposits and funds on the other, it is not possible to aggregate all abiotic resources into one measure using any of the methods currently available. Until such time as a method for competitive use has been developed, it will not be possible to incorporate flows in the method. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research: To develop up-to-date ADPs research should be undertaken to establish contemporary data on reserves of abiotic resources and extraction rates. Using these data the ADPs for chemical elements of Guin\u00e9e (1995) should be updated and extrapolated to yield ADPs for minerals and composite ores (see also: Recommendations for extended LCAs)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8171, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 546, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Using these data the ADPs for chemical elements of Guin\u00e9e (1995) should be updated and extrapolated to yield ADPs for minerals and composite ores (see also: Recommendations for extended LCAs). It should be investigated whether abiotic depletion can be split into two subcategories: depletion of energy resources and of other resources, operationalising a dual methodology and subsequently reaggregating the results (among other requirements, the same units must then of course be used). Long-term research: Continued debate is required on defining the problem of abiotic depletion in LCA. Once a conclusion has been reached, the best available method based on the chosen definition should be further developed, for most methods are as yet only partly operational. It might be useful to develop a method covering competitive use of flows (and funds) and to investigate the scope for aggregating flows, deposits and funds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8172, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 546, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It might be useful to develop a method covering competitive use of flows (and funds) and to investigate the scope for aggregating flows, deposits and funds. The scope for distinguishing between competitive use and depletion in LCA should also be investigated. Some of the methods described above have potential for including competitive use, especially for minerals that accumulate in the economy (methods based on reserves, for instance). Methods based on total availability of reserves, including those in the economy, cover competitive use rather than depletion. Methods based on changes in future environmental impact might also be applied to competitive use if they were amended to incorporate extraction from scrap, etc., in addition to extraction from lower-grade ore. 4.3.2 Depletion of biotic resources TOPIC \u2018Biotic resources\u2019 are material resources (including energy resources) regarded as living, e.g. rainforests, elephants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8173, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 546, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.2 Depletion of biotic resources TOPIC \u2018Biotic resources\u2019 are material resources (including energy resources) regarded as living, e.g. rainforests, elephants. Depending on the precise definition adopted, this impact category has only natural resources, or natural resources, human health and the natural and the man-made environment as areas of protection (see Figure 4.2.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The method used by Heijungs et al. (1992) to characterise biotic resources considers reserves and deaccumulation rates (see below): The indicator result is expressed in BDFi or is the Biotic Depletion Factor of resource i, is the quantity of resource i extracted, (kg, number or is the reserve of resource i and is the deaccumulation rate of resource i, which is defined as the extraction rate, expressed in kg/yr, number/yr or minus the regeneration rate, expressed in the same units. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8174, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 543, "book_page": 546, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Most developments since 1992 in the area of resource depletion have already been discussed in Section 4.3.1. Most of these tend to focus on abiotic resources. Heijungs et al. (1997) provide an overview focused particularly on biotic resources. Based on these reviews, supplemented with several methods developed since, three groups of methods can be distinguished for characterising biotic resources: no aggregation (Lindfors, 1996) aggregation based on reserves and deaccumulation rates (see Heijungs et al. (1992) as described in the textbox) and aggregation based on (regional) production rates divided by (regional) regeneration rates. methods that also cover impacts on biodiversity and life support functions. This approach is explored by Sas et al. (1997), who propose three types of indicator results: 1. 2. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8175, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 547, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "methods that also cover impacts on biodiversity and life support functions. This approach is explored by Sas et al. (1997), who propose three types of indicator results: 1. 2. 3. to indicate the risk of species extinction by harvesting an individual; to indicate the risk of species extinction by disrupting an ecosystem; and to indicate the decrease in life support functions, i.e. ecological structures and processes that sustain the productivity, adaptability and capacity for renewal of lands, water and/or the biosphere as a whole (after IUCN/WWF/UNEP, 1991). In these equations is the quantity of biomass of species i extracted (in kg fresh weight or units), the reproduction (regeneration) time of species i (yr), the recovery time for species density or primary production in ecosystem i (yr), the species density within ecosystem i (number of species per standard unit of area), the area of ecosystem i disrupted and the net primary production of that ecosystem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8176, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 547, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "According to Heijungs et al. (1997) the method of Heijungs et al. (1992), based on reserves and deaccumulation rates (= method group 2) still appears to the most practicable, while the method of Sas et al. (1997; method group 3) is the most promising, although not yet operational. However, the last two formulae proposed by Sas et al. (1997) belong more to the impact category \u2018Impacts of land use\u2019, subcategory \u2018Loss of biodiversity and life support functions\u2019 employed in this Guide (Section 4.3.3.2). They are very similar to the formulae developed for land use by Lindeijer et al. (1998). The first formula of Sas et al. (1997) in fact represents a method based on reserves, boiling down to assessment based on the inverse of maximum regeneration, viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8177, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 547, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1998). The first formula of Sas et al. (1997) in fact represents a method based on reserves, boiling down to assessment based on the inverse of maximum regeneration, viz. divided by regeneration,, the latter in An entirely different approach would be to collect four types of inventory data: timber with a Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certificate (in kg); timber without an FSC certificate (in kg); fish with a certificate for marine stewardship (in kg); and fish without a certificate for marine stewardship (in kg). These four groups could than be assessed and aggregated into a single category indicator providing an overall indication of the sustainability of harvest. Concluding, once again a choice of \u2018best available procedure\u2019 depends on the definitions adopted. In the case of biotic depletion there are, broadly speaking, two groups of definitions1: A. definitions focusing on the decrease of the resource itself as the main problem \u2013 method group 2 B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8178, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 547, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of biotic depletion there are, broadly speaking, two groups of definitions1: A. definitions focusing on the decrease of the resource itself as the main problem \u2013 method group 2 B. definitions focusing on the environmental impacts of resource extraction processes \u2013method groups 1 and 3. Depending on the definition adopted, this impact category has natural resources (option A) or natural resources, human health and the natural and man-made environment (option B) as areas of protection. Option B would mean that all relevant impacts are accounted for under other impact categories (land use, for example), leaving no separate impact category \u2018biotic depletion\u2019. We therefore focus on the decrease 1 The other two types of definitions discussed above for abiotic depletion are not considered for biotic depletion. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8179, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 544, "book_page": 547, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "of the resource itself as the main problem (option A). Assessment based on reserves and/or current deaccumulation rates appears to be the best available method for this problem definition (method group 2). This method relates resource extraction directly to current reserves and/or depletion rate. There still remain several debatable issues, however: Which reserves are to be considered: only those \u2018in the wild\u2019 or also reserves in zoos? Should the focus be solely on reserves or also on deaccumulation rate, i.e. including regeneration? Because biotic resources generally behave more like funds than deposits, the regeneration part of the deaccumulation rate is here a particularly important topic to consider. Should we take into account the economic value or intrinsic value of the resource? The first formula of Sas et al. (1997) does not include deaccumulation rate but only maximum annual regeneration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8180, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 548, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Should we take into account the economic value or intrinsic value of the resource? The first formula of Sas et al. (1997) does not include deaccumulation rate but only maximum annual regeneration. In the view of Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs (1995) the following method is the best within this group, because it considers both reserves and rates of deaccumulation: Biotic Depletion Potential of resource i, (generally dimensionless); quantity of resource i extracted (kg or number) reserve of resource i (kg or number) deaccumulation rate of resource i or number. reserve of African elephants, the reference resource (kg or number) deaccumulation rate of or number The indicator result is expressed in numbers of the reference resource, e.g. the African elephant. PROSPECTS The subject of biotic resource depletion is still being widely debated and there is sure to be additional research on developing indicators for this impact category", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8181, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 548, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the African elephant. PROSPECTS The subject of biotic resource depletion is still being widely debated and there is sure to be additional research on developing indicators for this impact category. CONCLUSIONS Neither of the aforementioned methods has yet been operationalised for more than a handful of species. Guin\u00e9e (1995) has developed BDPs for a few biotic resources, using the African Elephant as a reference resource. Sas et al. (1997) have developed factors for timber and fish only (selection criterion 12, Table 4.3.1). No baseline method can therefore be recommended for this impact category. For extended LCAs in which biotic depletion is anticipated to play a significant role, it may be useful to calculate characterisation factors according to the method of Guin\u00e9e (1995). This Guide recommends no particular methods for sensitivity analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8182, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 548, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This Guide recommends no particular methods for sensitivity analysis. Recommendations for extended LCAs: In extended LCAs in which biotic depletion is likely to be relatively prominent, characterisation factors may be calculated according to Guin\u00e9e (1995). A category indicator based on the certification of timber and fish might be developed. with: Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8183, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 545, "book_page": 548, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/actor based on reserves and deaccumulation rate reference Guin\u00e9e, 1995 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research: BDPs based on reserves and/or deaccumulation rates should be developed. To develop these factors, research should be undertaken to establish the most recent values for reserves, extraction rates and regeneration rates. 4.3.3 Impacts of land use The category \u2018Impacts of land use\u2019 covers a range of consequences of human land use. It is a relatively new topic in LCIA and still being debated and developed. In the cited SETAC-Europe WIA\u20131 report (Udo de Haes,1996) a distinction was made between use of land with impacts on the resource aspect and use of land with impacts on biodiversity, life support functions, etc. On the intervention side a distinction is often made between land occupation1 (i.e. occupancy and use) and land transformation (i.e. changing its quality )", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8184, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 549, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the intervention side a distinction is often made between land occupation1 (i.e. occupancy and use) and land transformation (i.e. changing its quality ). On the impact side Guin\u00e9e & Heijungs (1997) distinguish between competition (reducing the total stock of available land regardless of its quality) and depletion (exhausting the total reserve of a specific class of land quality). Occupation is then associated with competition, and transformation with depletion. These different aspects of intervention and impact have not yet been integrated into a single conceptual scheme for land use for use in Impact Assessment. This topic is presently being addressed by SETAC WIA\u20132, in the subgroup on land use impacts (Lindeijer, 2000). We first describe the conceptual framework now under discussion in SETAC WIA\u20132. Given its developmental status, there are still several key areas of debate, some of which will be addressed towards the end of this section", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8185, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 549, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Given its developmental status, there are still several key areas of debate, some of which will be addressed towards the end of this section. Despite its open-ended nature and potential shortcomings, the conceptual scheme of SETAC WIA\u20132 has here been adopted for the principal reason that the majority of experts working in the field of land use impacts participate in this forum. The operational methods for assessing land use impacts described in Sections 4.3.3.1 and 4.3.3.2 will be evaluated within this SETAC WIA\u20132 framework. SETAC WIA\u20132 framework for assessment of land use impacts On the intervention side the SETAC WIA\u20132 framework distinguishes two aspects of land use: occupation and transformation. Occupation versus transformation Land use is a direct physical intervention in the environment, attributable to a unit process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8186, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 549, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Occupation versus transformation Land use is a direct physical intervention in the environment, attributable to a unit process. Two aspects can be distinguished: the associated changes in the quality of the land: transformation, typically expressed in terms of biodiversity and/or life support functions; and the length of time for which the land is used: occupation. 1 The term \u2018occupation\u2019 is intended solely in the neutral sense of \u2018occupancy\u2019, with no political implications, to mean human use of a particular area of land for a given duration. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8187, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 546, "book_page": 549, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Figure 4.3.3.1 illustrates these two aspects of land use. Transformation Land transformation is the process of changing aspects of biodiversity and life support functions, e.g. the flora, fauna, soil or soil surface from its initial state to an altered state. The altered state (level B in Figure 4.3.3.1, which may represent a state of lower or higher quality than the initial level A) may be temporary. After the termination of human activity (at the flora, fauna, soil or soil may undergo a certain degree of recovery (with or without human intervention), eventually attaining a new steady state: level C in Figure 4.3.3.1, which may represent a state of lower, higher or identical quality than or to the original level A1. The difference between level A and level C is the net impact of transformation. The net transformation impact represents (the effects of) the permanent or irreversible changes in the quality of an area of land", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8188, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 550, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The net transformation impact represents (the effects of) the permanent or irreversible changes in the quality of an area of land. The transformation impact is expressed in units of quality*area The unit of this aspect of the intervention is thus square metres only. Occupation Occupation refers to the time period during which the land is unavailable for other uses, i.e. the duration of the change of quality, how long the altered state is maintained. It thus includes both the duration of human land use and also the time taken for a new steady state to be reached, i.e. the recovery time2. In Figure 4.3.3.1 the occupation impact is shown as a shaded area between the curve and the final level C against which the change is measured. The occupation impact represents (the effects of) the temporary changes in the quality of an area of land. The occupation impact can be expressed in units of quality*area*time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8189, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 550, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The occupation impact represents (the effects of) the temporary changes in the quality of an area of land. The occupation impact can be expressed in units of quality*area*time. This aspect of the intervention can be expressed in terms of quality*area*time and the unit is therefore square (kilo)metres*years. Points of discussion Figure 4.3.3.1, above, does not distinguish between the interventions and impacts associated with human land use, while such a distinction is necessary for the purposes both of discussion and of actual Inventory analysis and Impact assessment. From the perspective of interventions, four aspects should be distinguished instead of two: - a change of state due to the activity (transformation) a state during the activity (occupation); the area required by the activity; the time required by the activity. 1 If there is no such recovery, B is the final state in Figure 4.3.3.1. 2 A human activity of no duration, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8190, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 550, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 If there is no such recovery, B is the final state in Figure 4.3.3.1. 2 A human activity of no duration, i.e. involving only a transformation at time t1, thus still has both transformation and occupation impacts. A human activity with a certain duration, and which changes the current state but does not affect the level of the final steady state, has no transformation impact but only an occupation impact. 1. 2. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8191, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 547, "book_page": 550, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Observe that the time and area aspects can be expressed as a cardinal variable (100 days, whereas the (change of ) state requires nominal variables (from state A to state B). As is the case with noise, time and area aspects can be combined into a single parameter, areaxtime (e.g. The change of state can also be combined with the area from state A to state B). Thus, it is possible to describe a unit process with reference to two intervention items: change in state\u00d7area (transformation); statexarea\u00d7time (occupation). In a discussion of the inventory-related issues, \u2019state\u2019 is perhaps a better concept than \u2019quality\u2019. Note that the term \u2018state\u2019 is not a state in terms of state indicators (e.g. concentrations, plant density, etc.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8192, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Note that the term \u2018state\u2019 is not a state in terms of state indicators (e.g. concentrations, plant density, etc.). In this context, the term \u2018state\u2019 stands merely for the type of land use, a nominal term with no quality aspects, deliberately omitted from the present inventory-based exposition because assessment of quality is an aspect of impact assessment. Types of land use include \u2018natural forest\u2019, \u2018silvicultural plantation\u2019, \u2018pasture\u2019, \u2018arable land\u2019, \u2018roadway\u2019 and \u2018built-up area\u2019. Choice of the final state for measuring transformation and occupation impacts Above, the transformation impact was defined as the difference between the initial and the final steady state (level C in Figure 4.3.3.1). Lindeijer (2000.) state that the (temporary) occupation impact should therefore be defined in such a way as to avoid any overlap with the irreversible transformation impact, while covering all impacts not captured in the transformation impact", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8193, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "According to Lindeijer (2000) this can only be done by relating the current state to the final steady state: level C in Figure 4.3.3.1, representing the final steady state to which the land would recover (with or without human aid) if occupation were to end immediately: the current recovery potential, Thus, the occupation impact is measured as the product of the duration of the change (incl. recovery time) and the current recovery potential, times the area. As the SETAC WIA\u20132 workgroup states, data availability may prove to be a limiting factor for using a final steady state as a reference, however. Points of discussion In Figure 4.3.3.1 the assumption that human activity is of finite duration is an essential prerequisite for modeling the impacts of land use. Both the transformation and the occupation impact are defined with reference to a final steady state, the recovery potential or relaxation potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8194, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both the transformation and the occupation impact are defined with reference to a final steady state, the recovery potential or relaxation potential. As stated by the SETAC WIA\u20132 workgroup, data availability and data uncertainty may prove to be a limiting factor for using a final steady state as a reference, however. The method assumes that, for any type of land use in any kind of initial state, a final state can be estimated to which the particular area of land will recover after termination of the activity in question. If not in principle impossible, the choice of a certain final state will at least lead to speculations and/or major uncertainties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8195, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If not in principle impossible, the choice of a certain final state will at least lead to speculations and/or major uncertainties. Allocating land transformation Attributing land transformation to functional units is problematical, as the relationship between the two is Attribution of land transformation and occupation to a functional unit: an example from SETAC WIA\u20132 Assume that a plot of land measuring is utilised for a period of 10 years, thereby delivering 5 functional units. For 1 functional unit the intervention associated with transformation is then and that associated with occupation The occupation can also be calculated using the annual figures. Use of for 1 year (i.e. an occupation of delivers 0.5 f.u. So for 1 functional unit the occupation is generally anything but transparent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8196, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Use of for 1 year (i.e. an occupation of delivers 0.5 f.u. So for 1 functional unit the occupation is generally anything but transparent. What will be the agricultural output from an area of cleared forest, and what proportion of the clearing is to be attributed to one kilogram of any one of these crops? How many cars and trucks will use a new rural road and what share of the associated land transformation should be allocated to a functional unit of traffic or transport? One approach to this problem is as follows In many cases an activity performed in the service of a given functional unit is not be accompanied by any significant degree of land transformation, merely occupying land, as in the case of road traffic, sustainable silviculture and agriculture", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8197, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the macro level, however, the area of land made available for that activity in a particular country may change over time, according to policy or private initiative, and there will then be a quantitative increase or decrease in the man-made resource \u2018land type X\u2019. The transformation associated with this change in land use can then be attributed to a trend (rise or decline) in the economic output of \u2018land type X\u2019 over a particular number of years. In the Netherlands, for example, over a particular 10-year period of agricultural land was", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8198, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 548, "book_page": 551, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background converted into (9500 km of) roadway, while in the same period domestic road transport grew by car-kilometres and tonne-kilometres. In such cases where reliable statistics are available, land transformation can thus be allocated to a functional unit of traffic/transport in the same way as land occupation. For activities of finite duration such as mining, the activities associated with both transformation and occupation can be more readily attributed to a functional unit, as the aggregate output over this period is generally known or at least estimable. An increase in a certain land type area can also be seen as a core process to be analysed (building a road on agricultural land, converting tropical forest into a silvicultural plantation, or either of the latter into agricultural land). This process includes land transformation as one of the main impacts and transportation capacity as the main economic outflow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8199, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This process includes land transformation as one of the main impacts and transportation capacity as the main economic outflow. Whether this local transformation is part of a generic trend may not be immediately obvious, but regarding it as such may be the only way to solve the allocation problem within the framework of LCA, especially when the future economic output of the activity in question cannot be established with any certainty. The other approach to the problem of local land transformation is to abandon the life cycle perspective altogether and mark land transformation as a major environmental aspect that is simply not compatible with the principles of LCA. This approach, which implies \u2018forgetting\u2019 that the service-delivering activity (involving transformation, e.g. the forest or the road) is not only produced but also used for an indefinite amount of time, may be adequate for an environmental impact assessment, EIA, of the activity (rather than an LCA)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8200, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the forest or the road) is not only produced but also used for an indefinite amount of time, may be adequate for an environmental impact assessment, EIA, of the activity (rather than an LCA). From a life cycle perspective, however, attributing all local transformation to that particular activity is an overestimate as it ignores the temporal aspect of the \u2018use phase\u2019. Points of discussion As mentioned earlier, an essential assumption of the model used for assessing the impact of land use (Figure 4.3.3.1) is that the human activity in question is of finite duration, implying that the duration of each activity can be estimated beforehand. If not in principle impossible, this will at least lead to speculations and/or major uncertainties. In the example of allocating land transformation to vehiclekilometres: on relatively quiet roads, too, traffic volume has risen over the past 10 years, so national trends are not a good measure", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8201, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the example of allocating land transformation to vehiclekilometres: on relatively quiet roads, too, traffic volume has risen over the past 10 years, so national trends are not a good measure. Particular roads may even have been closed, although total vehiclekilometres have risen. Allocating land occupation Land occupation must also be allocated to the functional unit. This is probably less problematical then in the case of land transformation, however, as annual occupation and annual economic output are generally both known quantities. Thus, occupation can readily be attributed to economic output. Reversibility of land transformation A related problem with respect to land transformation is its reversibility. In the above approach to allocating transformation to land-occupying activities, the past trend is extrapolated, yielding either a net positive or net negative transformation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8202, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the above approach to allocating transformation to land-occupying activities, the past trend is extrapolated, yielding either a net positive or net negative transformation. Future natural recovery and/or human rehabilitation efforts are thereby incorporated only in as far as proven in the past and then converted to an average trend. If, on the other hand, the planned level of rehabilitation is also known in addition to the future output (mainly the case for modern mining activities), both can be taken into account in determining the net transformation due to the activity. This net transformation may again be either positive or negative. Thus, following the principle of distinguishing net transformation from occupation, we use the term \u2018net transformations\u2019 to refer to changes in land use perceived as \u2018not reversed\u2019 or, more loosely, \u2018not compensated\u2019. This is not the same as \u2018irreversible\u2019 or \u2018impossible to compensate\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8203, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is not the same as \u2018irreversible\u2019 or \u2018impossible to compensate\u2019. Points of discussion Just as metals extraction may be \u2018compensated\u2019 by recovery from waste, it is to be queried whether theoretical recovery processes should be taken into account, such as returning land to a near-to-natural state (as is done in the ETH database developed by Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/19961). After all, if one does so in the inventory, why not also for other types of interventions (resource extractions, emissions)? If this course is not adopted, it is better to treat \u2018irreversible\u2019 transformations merely as 1 At present the ETH database is virtually the only LCA data source for land use data. It is based on estimates of the time involved for all transformations and occupations, and includes both occupation and (often theoretical) recovery times. In 1994, however, no distinction was made between the concept of net transformation and that of occupation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8204, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In 1994, however, no distinction was made between the concept of net transformation and that of occupation. In practice, only the occupation related to a certain type of land use or occurring during a transformation process is given (in and a full and instantaneous recovery to the original state is implied. Reliable net transformation data for LCA purposes is thus still lacking.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8205, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 549, "book_page": 552, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background factually unreversed transformations, also to avoid complex discussions as to when a transformation is truly irreversible. Estimating recovery times to arrive at fully reversed transformations, as in the ETH database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996) is therefore not recommended. It is better to estimate and account for net transformations as interventions separate from land occupation. Impacts of occupation One direct impact of land occupation for a particular use is to limit or even curtail the scope for other people to use that land for the period of use. Land thus becomes scarcer, leading to greater human competition for land resources. Impacts of land occupation will be discussed as a separate subcategory in Section 4.3.3.1. Points of discussion There is, hence, an analogy with abiotic resources (see Section 4.3.1). This analogy can be made more vivid by recalling the distinction between flows and deposits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8206, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Points of discussion There is, hence, an analogy with abiotic resources (see Section 4.3.1). This analogy can be made more vivid by recalling the distinction between flows and deposits. Occupation may be seen as affecting land as a flow; transformation as affecting land as a deposit. For most abiotic resources, in addition to competition there will also be depletion. However, in the case of flows such as land (rather than deposits and funds) competition does not concern the future availability of a natural resource (which is depletion), but to the present scarcity of the stock as experienced by man1 (see also Section 4.3.1). Another direct impact of land occupation may be the imposition of certain characteristics on the area of land in question, at least for the duration of occupation. Depending on the reference situation to which they are compared, implicitly or explicitly, these characteristics may be perceived as positive or negative", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8207, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Depending on the reference situation to which they are compared, implicitly or explicitly, these characteristics may be perceived as positive or negative. Set off against \u2018average contemporary European land quality\u2019, organic agriculture is to be deemed positive, for example. From a perspective of more afforestation being better for the \u2018naturalness\u2019 of the European land mass or permitting greater biodiversity, though, it may be judged rather less positively. But if \u2018naturalness\u2019 is taken as a reference point, virtually all the land used for human activity must be deemed of \u2018inferior\u2019 quality. What is to be understood by the term \u2018occupation impact\u2019 is thus highly dependent on the defined reference situation. This issue is discussed in more detail below, in Section 4.3.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8208, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "What is to be understood by the term \u2018occupation impact\u2019 is thus highly dependent on the defined reference situation. This issue is discussed in more detail below, in Section 4.3.3.2. Certain forms of land occupation may, furthermore, have an indirect impact by perpetuating the stress on the natural environment associated with previous habitat destruction and fragmentation in the area or region around the land in question. In stressed areas (with high population densities) this may lead to continued loss of biodiversity (see M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1998, p.18). In this sense, occupation of land in one part of an ecosystem may render another part more vulnerable. The indirect impacts of occupation on life support functions are less evident. Ensuing changes in the \u2018albedo effect\u2019 (the capacity of the earth\u2019s surface to reflect solar radiation) or in evaporation rates may significantly affect climate regulation, but as yet no assessment methods have been developed for such impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8209, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Impacts of transformation The primary impact of net transformation is a reduction of land area with a high nature quality (for instance in terms of biodiversity and life support functions2; see the discussion under these subcategories in Section 4.3.3.2 for a closer examination of these issues), with replacement by land of lower quality (or the reverse). Here, too, this quality depends on the desired reference quality, although one might also assess differences before and after the transformation, ignoring the reference situation. This replacement implies direct habitat destruction and attendant reduction of life support functions and biodiversity in the surrounding area, too. In terms of areas of protection, then, we are concerned explicitly with the natural environment. Large biodiversity losses in Europe are said to be caused by transformations (see e.g. RIVM, 1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8210, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In terms of areas of protection, then, we are concerned explicitly with the natural environment. Large biodiversity losses in Europe are said to be caused by transformations (see e.g. RIVM, 1992). Summary Concluding, land occupation leads to an increase in land competition and to institution of a certain (generally low) quality for a particular period of time due to an economic process/activity and depending on the reference situation of the interpreter and selected indirect impacts. Land transformation changes the quality of the land itself as well as that of the surrounding area or region. Data relating to land transformation are of very poor quality and due attention should be paid to whether and how reversibility is accounted for. 1 As this scarcity is relevant solely to man, it might even be said that land competition impacts only on human welfare, not on the natural environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8211, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 As this scarcity is relevant solely to man, it might even be said that land competition impacts only on human welfare, not on the natural environment. 2 Besides increase of land competition Lindeijer (2000) lists the following subcategories: degradation of biodiversity, degradation of life support functions and degradation of cultural values. The last of these is not discussed in any detail for lack of methods.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8212, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 550, "book_page": 553, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background The difference between land transformation and occupation shows certain parallells with that between depletion and competetive use, as discussed under abiotic depletion (Section 4.3.1). The impact of competition for land is an impact on natural resources and, perhaps, man-made environment. The impact of decreasing quality of land can have meaning for the natural environment (ecosystems) and man-made environment. Biodiversity and life support functions are well known indicators for these endpoints. Therefore three subcategories are discerned: increase of land competition; loss of biodiversity; loss of life support functions Impact assessment approaches for these three subcategories are discussed in the following two subsections: Section 4.3.3.1 for land competition and Section 4.3.3.2 for loss of biodiversity and loss of life support function", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8213, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 554, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "General discussion of the SET AC WIA\u20132 framework In the above description some main discussion points on the SETAC framework for land use impacts were spotted. In these discussion points some suggestions were made, which are summarised below. In the example given below much attention is given to a stricter separation of the intervention aspects and impact aspects of land use. Description of a unit process in relation to land use Imagine an area of land, described as being in a state A (e.g. \u2018forest\u2019). At time t1 a human activity (e.g. crop cultivation) is initiated on the land, leading to a new state B. At time t2 the activity ends and a new state C emerges (e.g. grassland). We assume, provisionally, that the human activity starts and ends abruptly, and that no preparatory or clearing (up) activities are required before the human activity starts or after it ends. See Figure 4.3.3.2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8214, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 554, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "See Figure 4.3.3.2. How might one describe human activity as a unit process in the Inventory analysis? Let us consider some concrete hypothetical data: a plot of land with an area of 100 square metres producing 1000 kg of crops a year, on which 1 kg/y of pesticides is used. Dividing out the year dimension, we could then attribute the following data items to this unit process: input of 1 kg pesticides; output of 1000 kg crops; occupation of land in state B; transformation of land from state A to state C.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8215, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 551, "book_page": 554, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Note that we consistently speak of state A rather than quality A, because the quality aspect is to be assessed in Impact assessment only. Lindeijer (2000) provides a similar picture, except that it is geared towards Impact assessment. Discussion in terms of state rather than quality implies that the cardinally defined quality scale in Lindeijer et al. has been replaced here by a nominally defined state scale, in which the order of and the difference between states makes no sense, and in which an integral is also undefined. Another difference is that the relaxation period has been added, while it has been postponed here", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8216, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Another difference is that the relaxation period has been added, while it has been postponed here. One final difference is that the finite duration of the human activity is essential in the discussion by Lindeijer et al., while, as is shown above, an accounting of the yearly production and the land use aspects leads to sensible expressions for both the occupation of land (of state B) and the transformation of land (from state A to state C) regardless of whether the activity is of finite or infinite duration. Attribution of land use to a functional unit In LCA the interventions associated with the unit processes need to be attributed to a functional unit. Suppose that the functional unit here is related to 1 kg crop. The environmental interventions per kg crop are then: occupation of land in state B; transformation of land from state A to state C", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8217, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Suppose that the functional unit here is related to 1 kg crop. The environmental interventions per kg crop are then: occupation of land in state B; transformation of land from state A to state C. This procedure can be repeated for all unit processes in the product life cycle and will lead to many types of land use, of the occupation type (state A, state B, ..., state Z, in and of the transformation type (state A to B, state B to A, ..., state Z to Y, in Interventions of identical types can then be added over the life cycle, e.g. all occupations of land of state A can be added and all transformations of land from state A to state B can be added. Definition of impact categories In the literature three different impact categories recur, relating to competition for land as a resource and to impacts on life support functions and biodiversity. Here, these will be referred to by the following names: competition; loss of life support functions; loss of biodiversity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8218, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Here, these will be referred to by the following names: competition; loss of life support functions; loss of biodiversity. \u2018Competition\u2019 is concerned with land as a scarce resource. In contrast to most types of resource, this is a resource of the flow type: every year a certain amount of of land is available, and every activity that occupies land means there is less left for other activities. Therefore, competition is related to occupation. The other impact categories are related to transformation, as it is changes in land quality that may have implications for life support functions and for biodiversity. The link between interventions and impact categories for land use Note that in the SET AC framework this exclusive link between the type of intervention and the type of impact category is not made", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8219, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The link between interventions and impact categories for land use Note that in the SET AC framework this exclusive link between the type of intervention and the type of impact category is not made. In the suggestion presented above the intervention type \u2018occupation\u2019 is linked to the impact category \u2018competition\u2019 and the intervention type \u2018transformation\u2019 is linked to the impact category \u2018depletion in terms of loss of biodiversity and/or loss of life support functions\u2019. In the SETAC framework and in the operational methods, which will be described in Section 4.3.3.2, both the \u2018transformation\u2019 and \u2018occupation\u2019 type of intervention are linked to \u2018depletion\u2019 (loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions) (see Table 4.3.3.1). In the SETAC framework the \u2018occupation type of intervention\u2019 can be characterised as \u2018loss of biodiversity\u2019 because the framework provides a model in which the quality (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8220, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the SETAC framework the \u2018occupation type of intervention\u2019 can be characterised as \u2018loss of biodiversity\u2019 because the framework provides a model in which the quality (e.g. in terms of biodiversity) during occupation is related to a recovery potential, i.e. the quality (biodiversity) at the final steady state if the occupation were to end immediately and the land fully recover (with or without human aid), i.e. a change from to In the suggestion made above the state during occupation is not compared to a reference state in terms of biodiversity or life support functions but is compared to the total area available in the model in order to derive characterisation factors for competition. Table 4.3.3.1 provides an overview of the methods that have been proposed for linking interventions to impact categories in the context of land use. The details of these methods are discussed in Sections 4.3.3.1 and 4.3.3.2.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8221, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 552, "book_page": 555, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Table 4.3.3.1: Overview of the relationship between land use related intervention types and impact categories, with the panoply of available methods. Observe that, given the proposed exclusive link between occupation and competition on the one hand and between transformation and depletion on the other, the cell at the juncture of occupation and depletion appears to be spurious. Intervention type Impact category Depletion (loss of biodiversity, loss of life support functions) competition occupation SETACWIA\u20132 Lindeijer, 1998 K\u00f6llner, 2000 Proposal in this guide (SETAC WIA\u20132) transformation Proposal in this guide SETAC WIA\u20132 Lindeijer, 1998 K\u00f6llner, 2000 Conversion of interventions into impact category results For almost all impact categories, the concept of characterisation factors makes sense", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8222, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 556, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In an abstract sense, the structure of the formulae for calculating impact category results is as follows: Let us then apply this formula to the impact categories: competition; loss of life support functions; and loss of biodiversity. There are two categories of intervention, with several types within each category: occupation, of state A, state B, etc.; transformation, from state A to state B, from state B to state A, from state A to state C, etc. Since occupation contributes only to competition and transformation only to decrease of life support functions and decrease of biodiversity, characterisation factors must be defined for linking several types of occupation to competition and for linking several types of transformation to decrease of life support functions and decrease of biodiversity. In the following sections, some specific proposals for deriving these factors are discussed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8223, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 556, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the following sections, some specific proposals for deriving these factors are discussed. Consistency with other impact categories The ISO standards stress the need for consistency among the various elements of LCA. One of the issues of concern is therefore the consistency between the classification methods adopted for the various impact categories. Including fate modeling in toxicity models but not in models of acidification is inconsistent, for example, and might bias results. This does not imply that fate should be omitted from the toxicity model but that it should, in principle at least, also be developed for acidification and that due care should be taken when employing the models as they currently stand. The category \u2018impacts of land use\u2019 differs in many fundamental respects from other impact categories. For instance, while the pathway of chemical emissions can be described in fate models, there is no such thing as a \u2018pathway\u2019 of land occupation or transformation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8224, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 556, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, while the pathway of chemical emissions can be described in fate models, there is no such thing as a \u2018pathway\u2019 of land occupation or transformation. In certain respects, there are analogies, however. In change-oriented LCA, the starting point is a permanent marginal change of demand, with marginal effects on production and emission characteristics. In modeling the resultant impacts steady-state assumptions are then made. In discussing land use, one might now proceed from a permanent marginal change in land use required for extra production. Then, there is no t2 at which the land use stops, and there is no final state. This means that the concept of transformation is perhaps less suitable in the context of permanent marginal changes. It is clear that a consistent point-wise comparison of the models for land use and other impact categories might lead to new insights and recommendations for both groups of models. This requires a major research project, however.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8225, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 553, "book_page": 556, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 4.3.3.1 Land competition TOPIC This subcategory of land use impacts is concerned with the loss of land as a resource, in the sense of being temporarily unavailable. The areas of protection are natural resources and the man-made environment. \u2018Loss of biodiversity\u2019 and \u2018loss of life support functions\u2019, the other two subcategories, are treated in the next section (Section 4.3.3.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE It was not yet recognised by Heijungs et al. (1992) that all changes land use are in fact transformations from one quality to another followed by an occupation. Their formula (see textbox) can now be seen as consisting of two parts, one describing transformation (in transformed to built or degraded systems), the other occupation (in of land occupied as built or degraded systems). Only the latter would now be regarded as leading to an increase of land competition, as well as possibly to impacts on biodiversity in already stressed areas", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8226, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 557, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Only the latter would now be regarded as leading to an increase of land competition, as well as possibly to impacts on biodiversity in already stressed areas. Transformation has an impact on both biodiversity and life support functions. Since 1992 there has been a lot of work on the topic of land use. Most has been concerned with Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs etal. (1992) no distinction was made between occupation and transformation impacts, norwas the concept of competition then recognised. Land use impacts were therefore expressed in terms of of land transformed from one land quality category to another. They recommended a provisional solution for characterising land use. Five types of ecosystems were defined: I) natural systems, II) modified systems, III) cultivated systems, IV) built systems and V) degraded systems. This was based on the Hemerobie-stufen concept proposed by IUCN in 1991. The land use qualities were defined according to an approximate notion of \u2018naturalness\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8227, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 557, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This was based on the Hemerobie-stufen concept proposed by IUCN in 1991. The land use qualities were defined according to an approximate notion of \u2018naturalness\u2019. The five types of ecosystems were then aggregated into two main categories: \"natural\" (type I, II and III) and \"non-natural\" (type IV and V). This fairly arbitrary solution was considered no more than temporary. The provisional assessment was then expressed as: Thus all changes from I, II and III to IV and V were weighted with a factor 1, all other changes with 0. The total indicator result was expressed in R follows from the inventory and represents the quantity in each category. developing transformation and occupation indicators for various types of land use (in terms of \u2018naturalness\u2019), including indicators for loss of biodiversity and life support functions (see, for example, Knoepfel, 1995; Blonk & Lindeijer, 1995; Heijungs et al., 1997 and Lindeijer et al., 1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8228, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 557, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, since the latter are treated here as separate subcategories, they will not be discussed here. With regard to the topic of land competition, developments have been sparse. Simple aggregation of land occupation, in or is obviously the least sophisticated approach. When the focus is solely on competition for land as a \u2018resource\u2019, it would be preferable to use the same method as for abiotic and biotic depletion. This would imply use of the deaccumulation and reserves formulae or quality reduction relationships proposed for depletion of mineral resources. This approach would also enable a distinction to be made between different land qualities from the perspective of competition (thus quality is here meant \u2018for human use\u2019, in contrast to ecosystem quality); we would have to assess how large the resource of each land quality type is, and how fast this is decreasing or increasing1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8229, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 557, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is one problem with this approach, however: there is as yet no agreement on how the \u2018total land resource\u2019 is to be defined. Among the options under discussion are: the total area of land potentially available to man, in the total area of land currently used by man, in the total area of land potentially available to man, in (first option multiplied by the time the land will be available to man). Of these proposals the last is most in line with the definition for abiotic resources but it is hard to operationalise, given the likely difficulty of reaching agreement on the period deemed relevant (how long will humans populate the earth?). PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. 1 A priority indicator for this quality may be land fertility.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8230, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 554, "book_page": 557, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background CONCLUSIONS Given the lack of agreement on a more sophisticated indicator for land competition, we recommend simple aggregation of the area of land used (in is the land use of state (or quality) s attributable to the functional unit, expressed in The total indicator result is expressed in This method is evaluated against the (ISO-based) criteria in Table 4.3.3.1.1. Table 4.3.3.1.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for land competition, characterisation factor = 1 , with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1 . criteria 1. scientifically and technically valid 2. environmentally relevant 3. internationally accepted 4. value-choices and assumptions 5. focal point in environmental mechanism 6. linearity 7. time span 8. fate, exposure/intake and effects 9. less is better 10. time- and location-independent 11. operational 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8231, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 558, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "focal point in environmental mechanism 6. linearity 7. time span 8. fate, exposure/intake and effects 9. less is better 10. time- and location-independent 11. operational 12. uncertainty margins evaluation not relevant category indicator is close to intervention no no close to intervention yes not relevant not relevant yes yes yes none No methods are included in the Guide as options for sensitivity analyses. No additional methods are recommended for extended LCAs. characterisation method baseline alternative additional variant characterisation model unweighted aggregation \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 reference Heijungs et al., 1992 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: It might be useful to develop a method to account for competitive use of flows (and funds) and investigate the potential for aggregating flows, deposits and funds, including the impacts of land occupation on land competition", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8232, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 558, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Research is recommend to examine how the difference between competitive use and depletion might be accounted for in LCA and how land competition might be included in the category \u2018abiotic depletion\u2019 (see also Section 4.3.1). It might be interesting to try to incorporate the differences in the quality of the land that is occupied. However, this would require a definition of the \u2018reserves\u2019 of each land use type, at least if formulae similar to those discussed under abiotic depletion are used. Besides the problem of defining the reserves in or other problems are to be resolved, for instance, relating to the effects of national land use policies in determining the degree of competition. 4.3.3.2 Loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions TOPIC These two subcategories are discussed here together in one section because this is generally the case in the literature and it is difficult to separate the strands of the associated discussions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8233, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 558, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The topic 1 Note that the composite notation A\u00d7t is sometimes used in the literature instead of U. This suggests, however, that the area A and time t attributable to a functional unit are known separately, while in fact only the composite quantity is known.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8234, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 555, "book_page": 558, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background encompasses the entire range of impacts on biodiversity and life support functions of physical interventions due to a particular form of land use, involving destruction or alteration of land for economic purposes, for example, or the harvesting of biotic resources, probably in areas already under biodiversity stress. These two subcategories have the natural environment and, indirectly, natural resources as areas of protection. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Methods for dealing with loss of biodiversity and life support functions as a result of land use or use of Heijungs et al. (1992) These impact categories were not included in Heijungs et al. (1992). biotic resources in LCA have been put forward in many recent publications, including Knoepfel (1995), Lindfors et al. (1995c), Blonk & Lindeijer (1995), Sas et al. (1996), Heijungs et al. (1997), Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8235, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1995c), Blonk & Lindeijer (1995), Sas et al. (1996), Heijungs et al. (1997), Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000). The methods proposed by the various authors fall broadly into three groups, as described below (mainly from Heijungs et al., 1997 and Lindeijer et al., 1998). 1. 2. 3. Ecosystem classes Classes of ecosystem are distinguished and transformations from one class to another and the occupation of each class are collected in the inventory. The classes are then weighted. Knoepfel et al. (1995) and Lindeijer et al. (1998) present overviews of such classifications, including weighting methods (based on panel preference, biodiversity or other properties of the land). Beetstra (1998) has added a monetary weighting method to the classes proposed by Knoepfel et al. (1995). Biodiversity and life support function indicators Examples are the last two formulae of Sas et al. (1996), described in Section 4.3.2 on biotic resources. Lindeijer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8236, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1995). Biodiversity and life support function indicators Examples are the last two formulae of Sas et al. (1996), described in Section 4.3.2 on biotic resources. Lindeijer et al. (1998) propose a similar approach in which the (change in) free Net Primary Production (fNPP; i.e. the Net Primary Production minus the Net Primary Production for human use, where Net Primary Production is defined as the net increase in the dry weight weight of plants) or species density is compared with a reference situation. K\u00f6llner (2000) has elaborated the basic biodiversity indicator to include impacts on the region surrounding the assessed area and a marginal assessment of indicator results. Functional aspects Baitz (1998) has developed a method in which several characterisation factors are calculated, for the quality of an area before, during and after an intervention. These are based on the capacity of the land to fulfil ecosystem and human life support functions and are expressed in physical terms", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8237, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These are based on the capacity of the land to fulfil ecosystem and human life support functions and are expressed in physical terms. The method has been elaborated for a single caseat a specific location. In this method a set of eight characterisation factors are proposed for land use. These can be calculated for concrete local situations and will in the future be able to be estimated for generic processes using GIS systems and other readily available data. Such generic information is not presently available, however, nor is a set of local data suitable for extrapolating to the generic level. Schweinle (1998) has developed a similar approach for the forestry sector, but omits the area parameter in his Impact assessment formulae. It is not clear what the relationship is between these three groups and the aforementioned three types of indicators for biodiversity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8238, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is not clear what the relationship is between these three groups and the aforementioned three types of indicators for biodiversity. It can be expected that the methods designed to describe loss of biodiversity and life support functions (group 2) are presently the best available practical methods for these impact categories. Some of the indicators using classes (group 1) are also based on biodiversity or life support function parameters (e.g. species density and NPP). However, a disadvantage of any method based on classes is that it can only describe rough categories of land use. Such methods do not permit detailed description of changes in biodiversity or life support functions, nor do they allow for regionalisation. The methods based on functional aspects (group 3) are not aimed specifically at biodiversity or ecosystem life support functions, but at a large number of mid-point indicators", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8239, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The methods based on functional aspects (group 3) are not aimed specifically at biodiversity or ecosystem life support functions, but at a large number of mid-point indicators. Moreover, there is currently insufficient data available for this method to be operationalised. Concluding, we shall focus on the methods considering loss of biodiversity and life support functions (group 2), these being the most appropriate for present characterisation of loss of biodiversity and life support functions. Of quite a different nature is the approach to loss of biodiversity adopted by Anonymous (1997b; 2000a; 2000b). Two pressure indicators are defined: one for the environmental pressure on the area of interest due to the present activity and one for general pressure on the region. It is a nominal approach having a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8240, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 556, "book_page": 559, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background large overlap with other impact categories such as ecotoxicity and eutrophication. Moreover, it assumes a fairly detailed knowledge of local aspects and requires data on the previous history of land conversion. Last, the concept of characterisation factors does not appear to be applicable. All these features lead us to conclude that it may be an interesting approach for certification but is not presently suitable for application in LCA. Finally, the connection with other types of impact such as biotic depletion, desiccation and ecotoxicity should be mentioned. These impact categories are discussed in separate sections (see Sections 4.3.2, 4.3.4 and 4.3.8), but it is clear that biodiversity and life support functions are closely related to these other impact categories. To the best of our knowledge, three methods are currently available for biodiversity and life support functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8241, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "To the best of our knowledge, three methods are currently available for biodiversity and life support functions. All three are based on the category indicators plant species density and Net Primary Production (NPP) of biomass for specific regions or ecosystems. These methods have been developed by Sas et al.(1996), Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000). For the Eco-lndicator 99 Goedkoop & Spriensma (1999) use a slightly adapted verison of K\u00f6llner (2000). Lindeijer et al. (1998) have reviewed all land use methods developed to date and included K\u00f6llner (2000) and others in a later review (Lindeijer, 2000). Some general aspects of biodiversity and life support functions and their indicators Before examining the methods available for life cycle impact assessment of loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions, it is appropriate to look at these two types of loss in further detail in a more general sense, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8242, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "not in relation to LCA Indicators for biodiversity In the literature three aspects of biodiversity are generally distinguished: type of species (the intrinsic value of a unique genetic code); type of ecosystem (a unique combination of types of species and their interrelationships); species density (the number of different species per unit area, independent of the type of species or ecosystem). On this basis, the loss of biodiversity in a given area might, in principle, be expressed in terms of three, related category indicators: loss of species, loss of types of ecosystem and reduction of species density. These indicators require information on overall species and ecosystem diversity, present occurrence (at least biomass) and current rate of disappearance. There is a paucity of knowledge on all these elements, however, and for this reason \u2018loss of biodiversity\u2019 is frequently expressed solely in terms of reduction of species density", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8243, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There is a paucity of knowledge on all these elements, however, and for this reason \u2018loss of biodiversity\u2019 is frequently expressed solely in terms of reduction of species density. However, this is a highly abstract indicator that says nothing about the types of species and types of ecosystems that are vanishing. Indicators for life support functions For life support functions, too, a variety of indicators are conceivable. That most commonly used is Net Primary Production (NPP), i.e. the net increase in the dry weight of plant matter. The assumption then made is that if current biomass production on an area A is high, then soil quality will be stable, freshwater cycling intact and rainfall adequately absorbed by the soil. However, high biomass production under the influence of man (agriculture and silviculture) may be associated with high rates of erosion and low quality freshwater run-off", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8244, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, high biomass production under the influence of man (agriculture and silviculture) may be associated with high rates of erosion and low quality freshwater run-off. Due consideration should therefore be given to the fraction of biomass remaining to support non-human life forms. This may also give an indication of the long-term capacity for life support. An alternative parameter is free Net Primary Production fNPP (also referred to as biomass appropriateness), i.e. total NPP minus the portion of NPP removed from area A as an agricultural or silvicultural product. Table 4.3.3.2.1 reviews the characteristics of the three methods, which are briefly described below.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8245, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 557, "book_page": 560, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Table 4.3.3.2.1: Characteristics of three operational methods to assess impacts on biodiversity and life support functions. method Lindeijer et al. Sas et al. K\u00f6llner NPP fNPP type of intervention Transf. Occ. + + + + + category indicator biodiversity plant species density species density plant species density correction factor life support functions fNPP NPP regional impacts operational for regions? world climate zones ecosystems; sea and forest Swiss lowland Net Primary Production free Net Primary Production = NPP minus NPP for human consumption recovery time to the original biodiversity or biomass, a weighting factor expressing the vulnerability of the ecosystem. Method of Lindeijer et al. The method of Lindeijer et al. (1998) operationalises one indicator for biodiversity and one for life support, and makes a distinction between occupation and transformation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8246, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 561, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method of Lindeijer et al. (1998) operationalises one indicator for biodiversity and one for life support, and makes a distinction between occupation and transformation. The following formulae are used:1 For net ecosystem transformation, the change in the quality of an area of land following recovery from a land use intervention is compared with that prior to that intervention: For ecosystem occupation the quality during occupation (including recovery) is compared with the quality in the reference, i.e. unoccupied state: In which: A t fNPP ini fin act is the area of land used, is the occupation time2, is the free Net Primary Production3, is the number of plant4 species per calibrated to a reference measurement area5", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8247, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 561, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "stands for initial, the situation before the intervention, for final, the situation after the recovery period, when the intervention has stopped for actual, the situations during the intervention and 1 Note that most of the formulae that follow, from Lindeijer et al., Sas et al. and K\u00f6llner, have no summation over different types of land, ecosystems, species, etc. although such summation will in most cases be intended. Another feature is that Lindeijer et al. and Sas et al. do not explicitly introduce characterisation factors, while K\u00f6llner does so in the form of the SPEP. 2 Note that in the impact assessment of an LCA A is the attributed area of the land use activity to the functional unit and t is the attributed time period. These two quantities are often not known separately, but only in composite form", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8248, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 561, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These two quantities are often not known separately, but only in composite form. 3 There is however still some uncertainty as to how fNPP is determined (especially as this measure is relatively high for tropical rainforests, which is unexpected for the Net Primary Production in an ecosystem in equilibrium). 4 The general indicator on the basis of species density is thus approximated by an indicator on the basis of plant species density. 5 This calibration is necessary because the area-species relationship is not linear. When biodiversity mapping data are used to express the reference, initial, actual or final situation all these data should be calibrated to the same standard (reference cell) on this curve. For this procedure the following formula is used: For the small changes considered in LCA linearity is assumed. In other words: the land change assessment method is only valid for non-critical changes (such as the last area available for rhino\u2019s)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8249, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 561, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In other words: the land change assessment method is only valid for non-critical changes (such as the last area available for rhino\u2019s). Also, only local biodiversity changes are assessed; the area around the land use change is in first instance assumed to allow for reversibility of the local impact in principle.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8250, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 558, "book_page": 561, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background ref for reference, the present most \u2018natural\u2019 situation in the region where the land use takes place (see also Figure 4.3.3.2.1). In Figure 4.3.3.2.1 the model for the calculation of the transformation and occupation impact according to the method on Lindeijer et al. (1998) is illustrated. In this figure also the proposed method by SETAC WIA\u20132 (Lindeijer, 2000) is given. Illustration for the impact category \u201closs of biodiversity\u201d based on the intervention \u201ctransformation\u201d. The category indicator for biodiversity is plant species density. Assume two interventions with the same magnitude of area (e.g. Starting from a natural situation, changing from 100 to 20 species per in a tropical rainforest is considered equal to changing from 10 to 2 species per in boreal rain forests. A change of 8 species per in tropical forest will cause less impact than a change of 8 species per in boreal forest", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8251, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 562, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A change of 8 species per in tropical forest will cause less impact than a change of 8 species per in boreal forest. A same relative change as above due to industry in former intensive agricultural land (e.g. from 5 to 1 species per yields a lower impact than coming from a natural situation (i.e. 10 species per This is because for an impact due to transformation the initial situation is expressed relative to the most natural situation. Meaning that a relative change in a non natural situation, e.g. intense agriculture, is considered less problematic than a same relative change in a natural ecosystem. The method for ecosystem occupation accounts for occupation time, the method for ecosystem transformation only for net changes. The method for occupation relates the actual situation to the reference situation 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8252, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 562, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method for occupation relates the actual situation to the reference situation 1. The method for transformation relates the changed situation to the situation before change For biodiversity, expressed in terms of plant species density, the absolute terms are expressed as relative to the reference state to correct for spatial differentiation of plant species density between regions, due to differences in ecosystems and climate zones etc., all over the world. So changes in plant species density are expressed relative to a reference to ensure the intrinsic value of each ecosystem type The reference is defined as the highest species density currently found in the 1 Note that this definition is not in line with the proposal of the SETAC WIA\u20132, which has proposed to use instead of to derive the occupation impact. Illustration", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8253, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 559, "book_page": 562, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background region (generally). The region is on the level of physiotopes, large regions related to climate zones on a world level. In the approach of Lindeijer et al. aggregation of occupation and transformation is discouraged, as this would require the assumption that all land transformations are reversed within a certain (to be estimated) recovery time. The method for occupation thus focuses on the maintenance of biodiversity and biomass characteristics due to land occupation relative to a near-natural reference. Indirect impacts on biodiversity via stress on the surrounding environment is not assessed. Remarks on the reference situation Lindeijer et al. (in prep.) provide no guidelines on a choice of reference situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8254, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 563, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Remarks on the reference situation Lindeijer et al. (in prep.) provide no guidelines on a choice of reference situation. Should this be at the level of physiotopes (tropical, boreal, etc.), continents (Europe, Asia, etc.), countries (Netherlands, Switzerland etc.) or ecosystems (heathland, meadow, forest)? Should it be the maximum biodiversity of the region, the near-natural situation in the absence of human activity or the maximum biodiversity in recent history (for Europe around 1900)? As yet, the choice of the reference situation thus seems rather arbitrary. For biodiversity, measured in terms of species density, Lindeijer (1998) has chosen to take the \u201cmaximum biodiversity of the region\u201d, with the region defined in terms of its physiotope (tropical, desert, boreal, etc.). This is contrast to K\u00f6llner (2000), who opts for the maximum biodiversity in recent history at the national level (for Switzerland around 1900)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8255, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 563, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is contrast to K\u00f6llner (2000), who opts for the maximum biodiversity in recent history at the national level (for Switzerland around 1900). Note that the indicator \u201cspecies density\u201d says nothing about loss of unique species or ecosystems. For example, consider an activity on heathland (an ecosystem with few species, say 5 a level artificially maintained below the level to be expected in a near-natural state in this geographical region, say 15 After discontinuation of the activity the area will return to a new steady state. In terms of species density this final state is likely to be closer to the near-natural state then the initial state of the heathland (say 10 The transformation impact for the impact category \u201closs of biodiversity\u201d based on species density is therefore \u20131/3 (i.e. 5 minus 10, divided by 15), which is a negative value, signifying an increase in biodiversity (read species density)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8256, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 563, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5 minus 10, divided by 15), which is a negative value, signifying an increase in biodiversity (read species density). Although the activity is thus beneficial for the number of plant species, then, an ecosystem is lost (viz. heathland) and the intrinsic value of that ecosystem is therefore not respected. For the same reason, conversion of an area of desert (low species density) into a meadow (higher species density) would be considered beneficial for biodiversity (represented by plant density), although the overall impact is in fact destruction of a desert ecosystem. Lindeijer et al. (1998) have calculated characterisation factors for seven combinations of land use and region. However, the authors stress that the data on fNPP and after the intervention (=act or fin) are rough estimates based on rather scanty data. For other combinations of land use and region, characterisation factors must be developed case by case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8257, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 563, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For other combinations of land use and region, characterisation factors must be developed case by case. The and fNNP in the reference situations for different regions worldwide required for calculation of these factors are already available in the form of two maps and two tables. These maps are based on empirical data and expert judgement. Data on and fNNP resulting from land use other than the seven types mentioned (Lindeijer et al. state that these data on and fNNP after intervention are generally applicable) should be collected on a case by case basis. This may be very time consuming. On the other hand, Lindeijer et al. state that these seven types of land use are the most important and that most LCAs can be satisfactorily performed using the data (see also under data availability).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8258, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 560, "book_page": 563, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Method of Sas et al. The method of Sas et al. was originally developed for biotic depletion and is described in Section 4.3.2. The formulae used there for biodiversity and life support impacts on ecosystems were (rewritten for this section): to indicate the risk on the extinction of species by destroying an ecosystem and to indicate the loss of life support functions, with: S recovery time to original biodiversity or biomass, initial species diversity for a fixed area and NPP (not subtracting the amount of biomass used by humans, as in fNPP). Remarks on Net Primary Production Not excluding human biomass consumption makes a big difference, for instance for commercial forestry. The majority of biomass in silviculture is wood which will not contribute to the carbon cycling via natural degradation; other contributions to substance cycles are either taken into account in good LCAs (for instance for or are disturbed by the forestry activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8259, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 564, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Therefore, we consider NPP not as good an indicator for life support as fNPP. This method implicitly only assesses transformation and not occupation. The recovery time is here a weighting factor, expressing the vulnerability of the ecosystem. It is different for S and for NPP. The method of Sas et al. (1996) is only partly operational. They give some rough data on species density, NNP and regeneration time for forest ecosystems and a marine ecosystem. Method of K\u00f6llner The method of K\u00f6llner (2000) assesses only biodiversity and not life support functions. The category indicator used for biodiversity is plant species density. Besides transformation and occupation the method also incorporates a correction factor for regional impacts of the land use in the region surrounding the local area where the actual intervention takes place. The characterisation factor for the impact on biodiversity is SPEP, which stands for Species-Pool Effect Potential", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8260, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 564, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The characterisation factor for the impact on biodiversity is SPEP, which stands for Species-Pool Effect Potential. Each type of land use has its own which is based on the ratio between the number of plant species found in the area occupied for a specific type of land use and the average number of plant species found in the region as a reference. The relationship between SPEP and the relative number of species for a land use type is described as a negative log-curve. The method is thus a marginal approach, determining the slope of a species-area curve for each land use type. Characterisation factor for occupation The characterisation factor for local occupation through an activity associated with a specific land use type is defined as follows: with: Species-Pool Effect Potential on the local scale for occupying a specific land use type species number on specific land use type (e.g. industrial area, intensive meadow) average species number in the region (reference)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8261, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 564, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "industrial area, intensive meadow) average species number in the region (reference). The parameters a and b are set to a = 0.8 and b = 0.9 to get a SPEP curve which has the following characteristics: SPEP is 0 when about 30% of the regional species richness is present on the specific land use type. This type of land use is assumed to be a moderate condition. SPEP is 1, when about 10% of regional species richness is observed for the specific land use type. This type of land use is assumed to be a bad condition.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8262, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 561, "book_page": 564, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background If less than 30% of the regional species are found for the land use type the SPEP is positive, indicating damage. If more than 30% of the regional species are found for the land use type SPEP turns negative, indicating benefit. The SPEP curve steeply decreases for types of land use with less than 30% of the regional species and smoothes out for types of land use with more than 30% of the regional species. The log-function arises from references stating that the relationship between species richness and ecosystem functions have this form. Characterisation factor for transformation For transformation of a specific land use type I into a land use type II a can be defined by relating of land use type I to of land use type II. Land use types I and II are nominal classes, e.g. intensive meadow, organic meadow", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8263, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 565, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Land use types I and II are nominal classes, e.g. intensive meadow, organic meadow. The local effect factor for transformation is defined as: with: Species-Pool Effect Potential on the local scale for occupying a specific land use type Species-Pool Effect Potential on the local scale for transforming land use type I into land use type II species number on specific land use type (e.g. type I or II) average species number in the region (reference) Weighting factor for regional impact The local effect factor is weighted with a regional effect factor, which is the same for occupation and transformation. The reasoning behind the weighting factor proceeds from the assumption that, for example, transforming natural forests is more damaging to the region if there are only few in the region left and less damaging to the region if large areas in the region are covered with natural forests", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8264, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 565, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "So a relative high intensity land use in the surrounding region makes the region more vulnerable for the local interventions. As a result, greater weight should be attached to the local intervention. The regional effect factor again considers marginal changes, given as the derivative of a species-area relationship1 in an area with low land use intensity (LI), calibrated with the species number: 1 Instead of the log-function used for the species-area function in Lindeijer et al. (1998), Koellner (1999) uses the Arrhenius formula: In this formula a is a parameter for species richness and b is a parameter for species accumulation rates. These are different parameters from the a and b used in the formulae for local land use impacts. These a and b can be in the range of 10 to 270 and 0.1 to 0.5 (0.9 for continuous urban land use) respectively.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8265, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 562, "book_page": 565, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background with: Species-pool Effect Potential on the regional scale average species number in the region first derivative of the equation to derive LI is the proportion of low-intensity land use in the region dLI Thus, as the proportion of high-intensity land use in the region increases, LI will decrease and as the correction factor therefore increase. Relatively high-intensity land use in the surrounding region therefore renders the regional area more vulnerable", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8266, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 566, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Relatively high-intensity land use in the surrounding region therefore renders the regional area more vulnerable. The occupation impact of a land use activity is now defined as: and the transformation impact of a land use activity as: with: A T potential impact of land occupation (hectare\u2013year) potential impact of land transformation ([hectare) area occupied or transformed (hectare) duration of occupation (year) Species Pool Effect Potential for occupying a specific land-use type on the local scale Species Pool Effect Potential for transformation of land-use type I into type II on the local scale Species Pool Effect Potential for the regional scale Data were gathered on and for 16 land use types, taking the average species richness of the present Swiss Lowlands as a reference. Some land use types score positively, to be interpreted as a positive effect on (present) species richness", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8267, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 566, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Some land use types score positively, to be interpreted as a positive effect on (present) species richness. The main advantage of K\u00f6llner\u2019s method is that it appreciates the marginal nature of impacts on biodiversity. Comparison of the transformation and occupation impacts of SETAC-WIA and K\u00f6llner In Figure 4.3.3.2.3 the occupation and transformation impact according to K\u00f6llner and SETAC-WIA (Lindeijer, 2000) are compared. The quality Q represents the biodiversity indicator, viz. plant species density. In K\u00f6llner's method the SPEP of a specific land use type is 0 when about 30% of the regional species richness is present on the specific land use type. This type of land use is assumed to be a moderate condition. So implicitly for the occupation impact an actual quality due to a certain land use type (in Figure 4.3.3.2.3, land use type II) is compared to a moderate quality, defined as 30% of the average quality in the region", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8268, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 566, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this respect K\u00f6llner's method differs from that of SETAC WIA\u20132, which states that the impact should be based on the difference between the actual level (level B) and the level of the current recovery potential, i.e. the final steady state if the occupation were to end immediately and the land recover (with or without human aid) (level C). In other words, K\u00f6llner assumes one final steady state independent of the type of actual land use from which the area should recover and independent of the initial type of land use before the intervention took place. As shown in Figure 4.3.3.2.3 the definition of the transformation impact also differs from the proposal of Lindeijer (2000).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8269, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 563, "book_page": 566, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Regionalisation Potential for applying the method on a global scale is a general starting point for the selection of category indicators (see Section 1.2.2.3 and Section 1.2.3.3). However, for the assessment of the impact of land use on biodiversity and life support functions regionalisation might well be inevitable. In a global (rather than regionalised) LCA it would be necessary to employ an and fNNP for the 'average' global ecosystem. Using the maps produced by Lindeijer et al. (1998) this would already introduce a major variation: and most land use transformations would fall within this variation. In fact, the data used by Lindeijer et al. (1998) to arrive at this average already contain an uncertainty of 50\u2013100% due to natural variability. This suggests that it may be of no value to try to assess land use impacts in the absence of regionalisation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8270, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 567, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This suggests that it may be of no value to try to assess land use impacts in the absence of regionalisation. In K\u00f6llners method regionalisation is not yet operational; at present the Swiss Lowlands constitute the sole reference, i.e. no reference values are yet available for other regions of the world. Data availability The methods of Lindeijer et al. (1998) and Sas (1996) are based on a regional LCA approach and need a regionalised inventory. The latter method only assesses transformations and requires very specific data. It is necessary to know in which ecosystem the land is used. The method of Lindeijer et al. (1998) allows for a rough but worldwide regionalisation for occupation, operationalised with maps on reference data. For the inventory, this means that it should be known in which of the four regions of Europe European production processes, say, take place; generally the mid-European region can be taken as baseline", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8271, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 567, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In general, by taking into account which type of activity (process) is responsible for the land use, the actual state for occupation can be taken into account. The reference state can only be taken into account in a general way, by assessing where on earth which percentage of the activity takes place. In Lindeijer et al. (1998) this was done roughly for most mining, agriculture and silviculture activities. K\u00f6llner (2000) has published at least two articles that include characterisation factors for over ten land use types. These data have been used in the Eco-lndicator 99. However, at present the EI 99 database does not yet fully include land occupation (status March 2000). The IVAM ER database has incorporated land occupation data for all processes based on the method of Lindeijer et al. (1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8272, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 567, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The IVAM ER database has incorporated land occupation data for all processes based on the method of Lindeijer et al. (1998). The land occupation data has also been translated into land use types used in the Eco-lndicator 99 method, thereby allowing the IVAM ER database also to be assessed with the method of K\u00f6llner (2000).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8273, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 564, "book_page": 567, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background For transformation data on the initial and final states are also required. This has only been attempted in the ETH database (Frischknecht et al., 1993/1995/1996), and then in a very generic and non-transparent fashion. In fact, no meaningful transformation data can be extracted from this database. This means that no transformation data are available, other than the data for several specific cases mentioned in Lindeijer et al. (1998). Transformation data will therefore have to be gathered on a case-by-case basis. Issues to be addressed The above formulae have been derived from the concept presented by SETAC WIA\u20132. Note, however, that this concept is still under development and that many issues are still the subject of discussion. Some of these issues are presented below. The absolute change in plant density is expressed as relative to the reference state", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8274, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Some of these issues are presented below. The absolute change in plant density is expressed as relative to the reference state. The motive is to correct for spatial differentiation of plant species density between regions, due to differences in ecosystems and climate zones, etc., all over the world. However, the question is: how detailed should this spatial differentiation be: ecosystems, nations, continents, climate zones? Another issue is what quality of the region is to be taken as a reference: the situation 100 years ago, the natural climax vegetation, ...? In practice, derivation of the initial and final quality of the area may also be rather problematical. Only the actual quality of the area will generally be known and assumptions will therefore have to be made on the situation prior to land use. Furthermore, little information is available on the quality level to which an area will recover after a certain type of land use in a certain type of region has stopped", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8275, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, little information is available on the quality level to which an area will recover after a certain type of land use in a certain type of region has stopped. In practice a comparison of the actual state with the reference rather than the final situation might well be the only feasible option. This would mean that the presently operational method of Lindeijer et al. (1998) is practically the best feasible option. Is the present indicator \u2018plant species density\u2019 a representative indicator for biodiversity? After all, by focusing solely on plant species it ignores other important elements of biodiversity, such as other (types of) species and types of ecosystems. Furthermore, it would be theoretically preferable to use, instead of only plants, a set of species picked from the whole taxonomic system with a view to better representation of species", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8276, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Furthermore, it would be theoretically preferable to use, instead of only plants, a set of species picked from the whole taxonomic system with a view to better representation of species. If more indicators are chosen, how should the different indicators be weighted to one score for biodiversity? Is the present indicator \u2018free Net Primary Production\u2019 a representative indicator for life support functions? Alternative indicators have been derived based on soil properties, e.g. organic matter content and physical properties (Mattson et al., 2000; Baitz, 1998; Mil\u00e0i Canals et al., 2000). Again, the question is: should more indicators be used to represent the impact category \u2018life support functions\u2019? Or is there one indicator that can be used to represent the whole? There is an interaction between the biodiversity on a particular plot of land and that in the region surrounding the plot. For life support functions, too, this kind of interaction is to be anticipated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8277, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For life support functions, too, this kind of interaction is to be anticipated. The interaction works both ways. Ideally, the mechanisms of interactions between the local area and the region should be part of the characterisation model. However, scientific data for a quantitative link are unlikely to be available. At the present time, only K\u00f6llner (2000) has attempted to assess the impact of a change in biodiversity in a local area on that of the surrounding region. Even some of the inventory-related issues have not yet been solved. For instance, there are still controversies surrounding the definitions of occupation and transformation and the feasibility of connecting these notions to a functional unit. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Summary of review There is no single 'authorised' method for assessing the impacts of land use in terms of loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8278, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Summary of review There is no single 'authorised' method for assessing the impacts of land use in terms of loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions. However, a conceptual scheme for land use impacts is currently being developed and debated (Lindeijer, 2000). There are two operational methods for assessing impacts on biodiversity (indicator: plant species density) due to land occupation and land transformation: Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000). There is one operational method for assessing impacts on life support functions (indicator: free Net Primary Production) due to land occupation and land transformation: Lindeijer et al. (1998). For both methods, assessment of the impact of occupation is not yet in line with the proposals of SETAC WIA\u20132. Only the assessment of the impact of transformation according to Lindeijer et al. (1998) is in line with the proposals made by SETAC WIA\u20132", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8279, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Only the assessment of the impact of transformation according to Lindeijer et al. (1998) is in line with the proposals made by SETAC WIA\u20132. Both methods are presently very limited in terms of the number of land use types that can be assessed; for other land use types characterisation factors must be developed on a case-by-case basis. Regionalisation is required to assess the biodiversity and possibly life support impacts of land use.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8280, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 565, "book_page": 568, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background At present, only the method of Lindeijer et al. (1998) includes a first rough regionalisation of the reference values required for calculating the characterisation factors for biodiversity (plant species density) and life support functions (fNPP); K\u00f6llner's method is based on the Swiss lowlands and might, at best, be representative merely for central Europe. Regional data on actual, initial and final quality situations of land use, required for calculating the characterisation factors for biodiversity (plant species density) and life support functions (fNPP) are generally lacking and will have to be gathered on a case-by-case basis. The SETAC-WIA framework for land use and its impacts can only be considered as a first step in tying together the various different approaches. At present, it has insufficient conceptual clarity and has a number of inconsistencies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8281, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At present, it has insufficient conceptual clarity and has a number of inconsistencies. PROSPECTS Besides loss of biodiversity and loss of life support functions there are also other impacts that used to be filed under \u2018land use\u2019, such as landscape degeneration and desiccation. At the moment there are no known indicators for these impacts that might be used in LCA1. In 1999 a research project was started by RIZA and KIWA (NL) to study the possibility of incorporating an indicator for desiccation in LCA. A followup project to operationalise desiccation, using Lindeijer\u2019s and/or Goedkoop & Spriensma\u2019s method, is scheduled to start by mid\u20132000. A more extensive discussion on desiccation can be found in Section 4.3.4. Vascular plant species richness is used as a basic indicator for biodiversity impacts of land use. As mentioned in Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000) this implies that plant species are good indicators for total diversity; this may be inadequate for conservationists", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8282, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As mentioned in Lindeijer et al. (1998) and K\u00f6llner (2000) this implies that plant species are good indicators for total diversity; this may be inadequate for conservationists. If data permit, this indicator might be weighted according to rare species or rare habitats. Eventually, vertebrate richness might also be included as birds and mammals are included in global biodiversity plans. However, this would probably lead to an adaptation of the formulae and weighting of vertebrates and plants would be required. Finally, impacts of occupation on biodiversity may be excluded for non-stressed areas if it can be proven that no significant biodiversity impacts occur due to mere occupation of land (i.e. with no change in quality) in these non-stressed areas. Species richness can be accompanied by other indicators for biodiversity changes to assess and state the total impact of land use on the natural environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8283, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Species richness can be accompanied by other indicators for biodiversity changes to assess and state the total impact of land use on the natural environment. The biomass indicator for life support functions might also be accompanied by others, like soil quality. The functional approach (see under Developments in the last decade) could serve as a framework for this broadening of the set of indicators. However, clear links should be made to the endpoints for each indicator. This calls for quantification of the indicators, the endpoint and ideally the relationship between the two. This is not yet within the bounds of scientific knowledge. Again ideally, the relationship between biodiversity and life support functions should also be quantified. This is not currently feasible and, indeed, may never be. Finally, irreversibility of transformations should be considered in contrast to potential impacts due to occupation, taking into account different types of endpoint impacts", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8284, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, irreversibility of transformations should be considered in contrast to potential impacts due to occupation, taking into account different types of endpoint impacts. Another line of improvement is (more detailed) regionalisation. This relates not only to the reference state, but also to initial and final states of transformations. If regional changes in land use can be attributed to specific land use types, this would allow a generic inclusion of transformation data per region. Another route to gather transformation data is to collect more specific data for different land use types, as Lindeijer et al. (1998) have done. Regionalisation implies adding regional information to land use intervention data, for instance by specifying the process type. Finally, it may be queried whether the linear relationship between area, time and impact indicator is valid for all land use types", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8285, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Finally, it may be queried whether the linear relationship between area, time and impact indicator is valid for all land use types. Including the area linearly is sometimes questioned because the area in question is used intentionally, with, in the case of forestry and agriculture, deliberate impacts on the environment (reducing biodiversity for the sake of productivity). This is different from impacts due to emissions. Also, biodiversity does not in fact vary linearly with area owing to the area-species relationships mentioned earlier. The assumption of linearity for non-critical areas may be adjusted in more refined modeling. 1 Early attempts to assess landscape degradation in terms of top-height (see Knoepfel, 1995) or above-ground biomass (see Lindeijer et al., 1998, p. A1.27) are not acceptable for all land use types (see Lindeijer et al., 1998, p. 20). For landscape degradation, the only possible indicator which seems to have some uniform value is landscape diversity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8286, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "20). For landscape degradation, the only possible indicator which seems to have some uniform value is landscape diversity. This implies that only combinations of different types of land use can be assessed. Moreover, changes in one land use type within such a local combination of land uses, or occupation by this combination can only be assessed by means of panels. Combination of panel results from different regions to an overall LCA view on the landscape degradation seems impossible, both conceptually and practically.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8287, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 566, "book_page": 569, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background CONCLUSIONS It is not currently feasible to select a satisfactory baseline method for loss of biodiversity and life support functions. There are too many flaws attached to all the methods currently available. Therefore, no baseline method is recommended. However, for LCA studies in which land use impacts may play a significant or even dominant role it is advised (particularly in detailed LCA studies) to use the methods of Lindeijer (1998), K\u00f6llner (2000) and, if possible, an operationalisation of the SETAC conceptual scheme for land use impacts. Loss of biodiversity: characterisation method baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 additional variant characterisation model reference based on a statistical measure of species density Lindeijer et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8288, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 570, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1998) based on a statistical measure of plant species K\u00f6llner (2000) density Loss of life support functions: characterisation method baseline alternative additional diverging characterisation model reference based on Net Primary Production Lindeijer et al. (1998) RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research It is highly recommended to start a project to arrive at one authorised set of methods for the inventory analysis and characterisation of the various impacts of land use. Long-term research The difference between occupation impacts and transformation impacts in relation to the endpoints requires closer scrutiny. To this end irreversible versus temporary impacts should be distinguished. Impacts of different agricultural and silvicultural management systems can be expressed in terms of occupation impacts but also as long-term transformations. A distinction between occupation and transformation in data and Impact assessment is required", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8289, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 570, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A distinction between occupation and transformation in data and Impact assessment is required. The acceptability of finally aggregating might be refined, but transformation data related to trends in land use changes is even more important, considering the probably greater environmental relevance of transformations relative to occupation. In general, further development of the indicator set for land use impacts is required. Sophistication should be improved through greater use of regionalised data and, if necessary, more indicators, supported by adequate inventory data, also for reference state indicators. The relationship between area of land use and impact indicators should also be studied in greater detail. Finally, other interventions leading to similar impacts (such as desiccation and intersection) may be operationalised using the same Impact assessment approach, and the distinction made between occupation and transformation impacts needs a framework for Interpretation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8290, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 570, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Desiccation TOPIC Desiccation refers to a group of related environmental problems caused by water shortages due to groundwater extraction for industrial and potable water supply, enhanced drainage and water management (i.e. manipulation of the water table). This may lead to a lowered water table, reduced seepage, introduction of water from other areas and (consequently) changes in natural vegetation. The area of protection is the natural environment. 4.3.4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8291, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 567, "book_page": 570, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al.(1992) no indicator was recommended: \u201cIf the Inventory analysis yielded information about water use this could be totalled and used as a rough indicator for the issue of desiccation. Such a coarse approach, however, does not provide much more information about the actual issue...\u201d. No useful methods have yet been developed for incorporating desiccation in LCA. PROSPECTS As mentioned earlier, RIZA and KIWA (NL) are currently examining the scope for incorporating a category indicator for desiccation in LCA. A follow-up project to operationalise desiccation using the method of either Lindeijer (1998) or Goedkoop & Spriensma (1999), or possibly both, is due to start by mid\u20132000. A research project on the topic is also under way in Australia. CONCLUSIONS No baseline method is recommended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8292, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 571, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A research project on the topic is also under way in Australia. CONCLUSIONS No baseline method is recommended. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor _ _ \u2013 reference _ _ _ \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No further research recommended. 4.3.5 Climate change TOPIC Climate change is defined here as the impact of human emissions on the radiative forcing (i.e. heat radiation absorption) of the atmosphere. This may in turn have adverse impacts on ecosystem health, human health and material welfare. Most of these emissions enhance radiative forcing, causing the temperature at the earth\u2019s surface to rise. This is popularly referred to as the \u2018greenhouse effect\u2019. The areas of protection are human health, the natural environment and the man-made environment (see Figure 4.2.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8293, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 571, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The areas of protection are human health, the natural environment and the man-made environment (see Figure 4.2.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) were used as characterisation factors to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact category climate change (there termed \u201cenhanced greenhouse effect\u201d): where is the mass of substance i released in kg, the Global Warming Potential of the substance and Climate Change the indicator result, which is expressed in kg To compare the impacts of emissions of different greenhouse gases, each has been assigned a socalled Global Warming Potential (GWP) index, expressing the ratio between the increased infrared absorption due to the instantaneous emission of 1 kg of the substance and that due to an equal emission of carbon dioxide both integrated over time:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8294, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 568, "book_page": 571, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background with: the radiative forcing per unit concentration increase of greenhouse gas i the concentration of greenhouse gas i at time t after the release and the time over which integration is performed (yr). T The corresponding values for carbon dioxide are included in the denominator of the equation (Houghton et al., 1991; J\u00e4ger & Ferguson , 1991). GWP is a measure of the potential contribution a substance to climate change and incorporates considerations of fate. It merely provides a rough indication of the potential climatic effects of such emissions, as these depend not only on integrated atmospheric heat absorption but also on its distribution over time. This integration of the process of global warming involves a number of simplifications. In particular, GWPs depend on the time horizon T to which integration is performed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8295, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 572, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This integration of the process of global warming involves a number of simplifications. In particular, GWPs depend on the time horizon T to which integration is performed. Longer horizons (100 and 500 years) are used to assess the cumulative effect of greenhouse gas emissions, while shorter horizons (20 and 50 years) provide an indication of short-term effects. The longer the time horizon the more unreliable GWPs become, as their value is determined by the background concentration of other components of the atmosphere. Although these concentrations are assumed to remain constant in time (Houghton et al., 1992), they are likely to change. If assumptions about background concentrations change, GWPs also change. For example, the life span of substances eliminated by OH-radicals in the atmosphere may change significantly, depending on future changes in anthropogenic emissions of methane, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides (Houghton et al., 1991; J\u00e4ger & Ferguson, 1991)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8296, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 572, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Such changes in life span have a major, often disproportional, effect on the GWPs of all the substances concerned, as these are defined in relative terms. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has compiled a list of \u2018provisional best estimates\u2019 for GWPs with time horizons of 20, 100 and 500 years, based on the expert judgement of scientists worldwide. This list of GWPs is periodically updated. The GWPs used in Heijungs et al. (1992) are based on the 1992 IPCC list (Houghton et al., 1992). The integration period to be applied in LCA calculations must be decided on by the practitioner and depends on the period over which the impacts are to be studied. A long horizon would appear to be preferable for the characterisation step of LCIA, as the aim of LCA is to assess all rather than just shortterm effects. As stated, however, the longer the integration period, the more uncertainties are introduced into the model. Hence, Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8297, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 572, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As stated, however, the longer the integration period, the more uncertainties are introduced into the model. Hence, Heijungs et al. (1992) recommended using all three IPCC time horizons. In practice this means that integration is first performed for 100 years, say, and the uncertainty margins in the result then determined by performing parallel calculations for the other two integration periods. As mentioned, the IPCC\u2019s list of GWPs is periodically updated, for the first time in 1994 (Houghton et al., 1994) and, for selected substances, again in 1996 (Houghton et al., 1996). In this last update, a net GWP for ozone-depleting gases was discussed. While these gases absorb infrared radiation and thus increase radiative forcing, this is offset to some extent by a decrease in forcing due to the loss of stratospheric ozone. For these gases, therefore, a net GWP would be more appropriate than one based solely on direct impact. The net GWPs given in Houghton et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8298, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 572, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For these gases, therefore, a net GWP would be more appropriate than one based solely on direct impact. The net GWPs given in Houghton et al. (1996) show that while some ozone-depleting substances, like CFCs, still have a positive net GWP, for others, such as halons, this figure is negative. It is to be queried whether ozone layer depletion should be regarded as a \u2018positive\u2019 effect. Because negative impacts on the ozone layer are accounted for under the impact category \u2018depletion of stratospheric ozone\u2019, however, it seems appropriate to do so. At the same time, though, the net GWPs calculated to date are \u201csubject to considerable quantitative uncertainties (at least 50%)\u201d (Houghton et al., 1996). PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8299, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 569, "book_page": 572, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background CONCLUSIONS Our conclusion is that the GWP approach, using the most recent indices published by the IPCC (Houghton et al., 1994 and 1996), is currently the best available practice. Because of the uncertainties in net GWPs for ozone-depleting gases, these indices have not been included in the baseline method (criterion 12 for the selection of baseline characterisation methods). If these uncertainties can be narrowed down in further research, net GWPs should be used for ozone-depleting gases, as these are a more accurate reflection of our current understanding of relevant environmental mechanisms (criterion 1). The GWPs for 100 years are recommended as the baseline characterisation method for climate change. The IPCC also provides GWPs for 20 and 500 years. Although 500 years is closer to eternity (criterion 7), we do not recommend using the GWPs for 500 years as the baseline, because of growing uncertainties in GWP with increasing time span (criterion 12)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8300, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 573, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The baseline characterisation method for climate change, using the characterisation factor is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.5.1. Table 4.3.5.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for climate change, using the characterisation factor with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8301, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 573, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentallyrelevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity timespan fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation yes, calculation of the contributions of greenhouse gases to radiative forcing is based on well understood environmental processes yes, there is international agreement that climate change induced by radiative forcing will have environmental impacts such as sea level rise, destruction of coastal ecosystems, depressed crop yields, etc. yes, supported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) yes, but agreed upon by an authoritative international body(IPCC)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8302, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 573, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "yes, supported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) yes, but agreed upon by an authoritative international body(IPCC). midpoint yes 100 years, not eternity fate included, exposure/intake not relevant, effects included in terms of effects on radiative forcing yes, no threshold yes yes known and accepted by IPCC The following method is included in this Guide as an option for sensitivity analyses: The GWPs for 20 and 500 years can be used to explore the consequences of adopting different time horizons. Recommendations for extended LCAs: For several ozone-depleting gases, the upper and lower limits of the uncertainty range of net GWPs may be useful in an extended LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8303, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 573, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recommendations for extended LCAs: For several ozone-depleting gases, the upper and lower limits of the uncertainty range of net GWPs may be useful in an extended LCA. method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor upper limit of net GWP lower limit of net GWP \u2013 \u2013 reference Houghton et al., 1994, 1996 Houghton et al., 1994, 1996 Houghton et al., 1994, 1996 Houghtonetal., 1996 Houghton et al., 1996 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Given the ongoing work of the IPCC, no further research is recommended.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8304, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 570, "book_page": 573, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 4.3.6 Stratospheric ozone depletion TOPIC Stratospheric ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer as a result of anthropogenic emissions. This causes a greater fraction of solar UV-B radiation to reach the earth\u2019s surface, with potentially harmful impacts on human health, animal health, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, biochemical cycles and materials (UNEP, 1998). Stratospheric ozone depletion thus impinges on all four areas of protection: human health, the natural environment, the man-made environment and natural resources (see Figure 4.2.2). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE The concept of Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) was introduced by Wuebbles (1988). The ODP of a Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8305, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 574, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE The concept of Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) was introduced by Wuebbles (1988). The ODP of a Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) Ozone Depletion Potentials (ODPs) were used as a characterisation factor to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact category stratospheric ozone depletion: where is the mass of substance i released, the Ozone Depletion Potential of the substance and Ozone Depletion the indicator result, which is expressed in kg CFC\u201311-equivalents. substance is defined as follows: with: represents the change in the stratospheric ozone column i the equilibrium state due to annual emissions of substance i (flux in and the change in this column in the equilibrium state due to annual emissions of CFC\u201311. It can be shown that an ODP based on an emission flux also provides a good indication of the relative changes in the ozone column due to an instantaneous emission (kg) to the atmosphere (WMO, 1989)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8306, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 574, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It can be shown that an ODP based on an emission flux also provides a good indication of the relative changes in the ozone column due to an instantaneous emission (kg) to the atmosphere (WMO, 1989). Although the ODP concept resembles that of GWP, there is a major difference: ODPs are calculated for a steady state, GWPs for several different time horizons. The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has compiled a list of \u2018best estimates\u2019 for ODPs, first published in 1992 (WMO, 1992). The report was compiled by the Scientific Assessment Panel, comprising the relevant authorities in the field, and it is therefore reasonable to assume that the results enjoy wide international support. The ODPs used in Heijungs et al. (1992) are based on this original list, which the WMO updated in 1995 (WMO, 1995) and again in 1999 (WMO, 1999). These ODPs are steady-state ODPs based on a model. They describe the integrated impact of an emission of a substance on the ozone layer compared with CFC\u201311", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8307, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 574, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These ODPs are steady-state ODPs based on a model. They describe the integrated impact of an emission of a substance on the ozone layer compared with CFC\u201311. These model-derived ODPs are recommended by Nichols et al. (1996) and by Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) for situations in which the time span of interest is eternity. In other cases Nichols et al. (1996) and WMO (1995) recommend using the time-dependent ODPs given by Solomon & Albritton (1992). These time-dependent ODPs are based on an empirical approach, viz. on measurements on the lower layers of the stratosphere. Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) also suggest that the time-dependent ODPs might be better for LCAs with a shorter horizon. For the time being, however, they opt to use the steady-state ODPs in their EDIP methodology. Lindfors (1996) has evaluated the major impact categories for LCA within the framework of the EU ecolabeling programme", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8308, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 574, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lindfors (1996) has evaluated the major impact categories for LCA within the framework of the EU ecolabeling programme. He draws a different conclusion from Nichols et al.(1996) and Hauschild & Wenzel (1998), stating that the category of stratospheric ozone depletion will become less important in the future because of the ongoing phase-out of ozone-depleting chemicals. He recommends not using ODPs, because of all the uncertainties involved (mainly data gaps in the inventory). Instead he proposes classifying and/or flagging emissions of ozone-depleting chemicals or use of ozone-depleting chemicals in products or technologies, with no further characterisation. It should be borne in mind, however, that this is specifically for the underpinning of ecolabeling criteria. For LCIA in general, using the best available method to characterise stratospheric ozone depletion seems to be a better approach than using no", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8309, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 571, "book_page": 574, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background method at all. It is questionable, furthermore, whether emissions of ozone-depleting are set to decline at the global level, let alone stratospheric concentrations. PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). CONCLUSIONS As a default for both simplified and detailed LCAs it is recommended to use the most recent steady-state ODPs published by the WMO (1999), augmented where necessary by ODPs from the original 1992 list (WMO, 1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8310, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These values are internationally accepted (criterion 3 for selection of baseline characterisation method)andasteady-stateODPapproximatesanODPfor The baseline characterisation method forstratospheric ozonedepletion, usingthecharacterisation factor is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.6.1. Table 4.3.6.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for stratospheric ozone depletion, using the characterisation factor with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8311, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point linearity time span fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation yes, calculation of stratospheric ozone depletion is based on well understood environmental processes yes, there is international agreement that stratospheric ozone depletion results in an increase of UV-B intensity, causing a variety of radiation effects on humans, algae, arctic flora, crops, etc. yes, supported by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations yes, but agreed on by an authoritative international body (WMO)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8312, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "yes, supported by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations yes, but agreed on by an authoritative international body (WMO). midpoint yes eternity fate included, exposure/intake not relevant, effects included in terms of effects on stratospheric ozone layer yes, no threshold yes yes known and accepted by WMO The following method is included in this Guide as an option forsensitivityanalyses: The time-dependent ODPs of Solomon & Albritton (1992) can be used to explore the consequences of adoptingdifferent timehorizons. No additional methods are recommended for extended LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8313, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No additional methods are recommended for extended LCAs. method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 alternative 5 alternative 6 alternative 7 additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 reference WMO, 1992; WMO, 1995; WMO ,1999 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 Solomon & Albritton, 1992 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Lona-term research: Research is recommended to identify the differences and similarities between the methods used to deriveODPsandGWPs.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8314, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 572, "book_page": 5, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 4.3.7 Human toxicity TOPIC This impact category covers the impacts on human health of toxic substances present in the environment. The health risks of exposure in the workplace are also sometimes included in LCA (see, for example, Lindfors et al., 1995c; Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen, 1999). These latter risks are often included in a wider impact category encompassing more than exposure to toxic substances (e.g. accidents at work). Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) describe a useful method for including the working environment in LCA, based on a database developed by EDIP in which workplace impacts per kilogram of produced goods are listed for a number of economic activities. However, the scope of the present project precluded assessment of whether this method could be adapted and incorporated in this Guide. No further consideration is therefore given here to the impacts of exposure to toxic substances in the workplace", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8315, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 576, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No further consideration is therefore given here to the impacts of exposure to toxic substances in the workplace. The area of protection for this impact category is human health (see Figure 4.2.2). A variety of characterisation methods have been developed for the impact category human toxicity providing characterisation factors that are generally referred to as \u2018human toxicity potentials\u2019 (HTPs). As described by Heijungs & Wegener Sleeswijk (1999) the general formula for calculating the HTP embraces three independent dimensions: fate, exposure/intake and effect. Here, we add a fourth dimension to account for transfer: with: the Human Toxicity Potential, the characterisation factor for the human toxicity of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp. In some methods the contributions via exposure routes r are not summed, yielding several HTPs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8316, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 576, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In some methods the contributions via exposure routes r are not summed, yielding several HTPs. a \u2018fate factor\u2019, representing intermedia transport of substance i from emission compartment ecomp to final (sub)compartment fcomp, and degradation within compartment ecomp; in some methods intermedia transport is indicated separately by and (bio)degradation by the transfer factor, the fraction of substance i transferrred from fcomp to exposure route r, i.e. air, drinking water, fish, plants, meat, milk, etc.; an \u2018intake factor\u2019, representing human intake via exposure route r, thus, a function of daily intake of air, drinking water, fish, etc.; an \u2018effect factor\u2019, representing the toxic effect of intake of substance via exposure route r. The HTP is often defined relative to a reference substance. As a formula: with the symbols similar to the above1. The choice of the reference substance is arbitrary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8317, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 576, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The HTP is often defined relative to a reference substance. As a formula: with the symbols similar to the above1. The choice of the reference substance is arbitrary. This general description of the HTP-formula and the associated terminology provides an initial handle for describing and discussing the various characterisation methods developed for the impact category human toxicity. Thus, the terms used in this Guide to describe these methods may differ from those employed by the authors in question. 1 The HTP using a reference substance is dimensionless or has the unit \u2018kg reference substance\u00b7 of substance In this section and the following it is considered as a dimensionless quantity, although in Part 2b it is precisely quantified.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8318, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 573, "book_page": 576, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background A second point of terminology concerns the environmental \u2018compartments\u2019 or \u2018media\u2019, used for the three basic subdivisions air, water and soil. In this Guide \u2018compartment\u2019 is used as the preferred term, except in the standard collocations \u2018multimedia\u2019 and \u2018intermedia\u2019. \u2018Subcompartments\u2019 are subdivisions of air, water or soil that are in chemical equilibrium with the compartment of which they are a part. Examples of subcompartments are aerosols, suspended matter and pore water in soils. Compartments or Subcompartments through which humans are exposed to a toxic substance are referred to as exposure routes (see textbox for some further details). General structure of models for toxicity assessment The impact categories relating to toxicity-oriented problems can be described in terms of the main aspects covered (see also description under Topic). These aspects are: 1. Fate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8319, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 577, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These aspects are: 1. Fate. The residence time of a chemical in a particular environmental compartment depends on degradation mechanisms and transport processes, e.g. from air to soil by rain, from water to air by evaporation, from soil to water by run-off. 2. Transfer. The fraction of a substance transferred from a given compartment to an exposure route, i.e. air, drinking water, fish, plants, meat, milk. 3. Exposure/intake. The intake of a given chemical by an organism depends on its food pattern, water intake and respiratory volume. 4. Effect. There is wide variation in the hazards posed by chemicals; dioxins, for example, are more toxic than nitrates. Fate, transfer and exposure/intake are often modeled together. A number of compartments and subcompartments are distinguished, e.g. air, soil, freshwater, marine waters and sediment. Environmental processes like rainfall, degradation, sedimentation and immobilisation (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8320, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 577, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air, soil, freshwater, marine waters and sediment. Environmental processes like rainfall, degradation, sedimentation and immobilisation (e.g. by burial in deeper sediments) are captured in model equations, which are then extended via exposure routes (air, drinking water, crops, meat, milk, fish) to target organisms, including humans, or to target ecosystems (terrestrial, freshwater, marine). As noted in Section 1.2.3.3 indirect exposure to humans via all manner of foodstuffs is a very significant exposure route for many substances. Exposure by this route depends on foodstuff consumption as such, but also on bioconcentration and biomagnification in all these foodstuffs, which are derived directly or indirectly from plants, including meat and dairy. Because of the enormous variety of foodstuffs we consume, the soil route is by far the most complex route for transfer modeling. Most fate, transfer and exposure/intake models are steady-state models, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8321, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 577, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Most fate, transfer and exposure/intake models are steady-state models, i.e. they calculate a concentration or intake level due to a constant emission rate. Dynamic models, on the other hand, yield a pattern in time, as the result of a constant, varying or pulse emission input. Timeintegration then condenses such a pattern into a single result. Steady-state models are also applied to assess emission pulses. It can be shown that most steady-state models based on an emission flux also provide a good indication of the relative changes in fate and exposure/intake due to an emission flux (kg) (Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996). Most fate models assume homogenous mixing, but occasionally lagrangian or gaussian models are used to calculate concentration gradients. Space-integration may then also be required. Homogenous box-models may allow for discrete regional differences as well, e.g. at the scale of continents, climatic zones or countries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8322, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 577, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Space-integration may then also be required. Homogenous box-models may allow for discrete regional differences as well, e.g. at the scale of continents, climatic zones or countries. Space-integration in that case amounts to volume-weighted addition. The effect measure is often based on toxicologically-based yardsticks such as EC50, defined as the concentration at which 50% of the target organisms shows an effect. Extrapolation or safety factors may be applied to convert the results from the laboratory to the field, from rat to man, from single species to ecosystem, etc, yielding NOECs (No Observed Effect concentration), ADIs (Acceptable Daily Intakes), TDIs (Tolerable Daily Intakes), PNECs (Predicted No-Effect Concentrations), MTCs (Maximum Tolerable Concentrations), NOAELs (No Observed Adverse Effect Levels) and so on. The terms \u2018acceptable\u2019, \u2018tolerable\u2019 and \u2018adverse\u2019 imply that these measures are mainly based on toxicological (rather than economic, political, etc.) considerations.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8323, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 574, "book_page": 577, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Human toxicological impact, together with ecotoxicological impact, is the impact category for which fate Heijungs et al. (1992) Heijungs et al. (1992) defined separate characterisation factors for emissions of toxic substances to the environmental compartments air, water and soil: where HCA, HCW and HCS are the characterisation factors for human toxicological impacts resulting from emissions to air, water and soil, respectively (kg body substance). and are the daily intakes of air and water per person and 2 I waterW is the world population and are the volumes of air, water and soil in the world air, water and kg dry soil). ADI is the Acceptable Daily Intake: for substances with a threshold value (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8324, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 578, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ADI is the Acceptable Daily Intake: for substances with a threshold value (i.e. an environmental concentration or intake value below which no harmful effects have been observed in humans, plants or animals) it is the daily intake that can be sustained life-long without adverse effects; for substances with no such threshold, it is the daily intake resulting in a risk of 1 extra case of cancer per 1000 life-long exposures (VROM, 1989). ADI is expressed as kg body weight. N is the uncertainty factor for the ADI and Cvalue is a former Dutch standard for soil (kg The indicator results for these media can be added without weighting to provide a single, medium-independent indicator result for human toxicity: where are the emissions of substance i to air, water and soil. Heijungs et al. stress that these characterisation factors for human toxicity should be considered as no more than indicative until such time as a better method is developed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8325, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 578, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs et al. stress that these characterisation factors for human toxicity should be considered as no more than indicative until such time as a better method is developed. and especially degradation and intermedia transport are most important. Organic substances, in particular, are generally degraded to yield other compounds that are less toxic than the substance originally emitted (although the opposite may also be true). Furthermore, substances do not generally remain in the environmental compartment into which they are emitted, but tend to spread to other (sub- )compartments, where they may do more damage. A volatile toxic substance discharged into waterways will evaporate largely to the atmosphere, for example, where it may expose humans to (severe) risk via the respiratory route. Many authors therefore stress that it is essential to properly incorporate degradation and intermedia transport in LCA models of human toxicological impact (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8326, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 578, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Many authors therefore stress that it is essential to properly incorporate degradation and intermedia transport in LCA models of human toxicological impact (e.g. Heijungs et al., 1992; Lindfors et al., 1995c; Udo de Haes et al, 1996; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997; Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). In line with these recommendations, we here consider only methods that include degradation and intermedia transport, which supersede the provisional method developed by Heijungs et al. (1992)1. (See text box.) Several such methods are described in the literature, falling roughly into three groups: methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on simple rules of thumb (e.g. Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models (e.g. Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Huijbregts, 1999a; Hertwich, 1999) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models and empirical relations (e.g. Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997). 1. 2. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8327, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 578, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Huijbregts, 1999a; Hertwich, 1999) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models and empirical relations (e.g. Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997). 1. 2. 3. 1 Heijungs et al. stressed in 1992, already, that fate should be included; at the time, however, this could be done only provisionally.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8328, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 575, "book_page": 578, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Below, these methods are discussed in terms of a common notation as described above. For instance, F is used consistently to denote a fate factor, although a variety of symbols and terms are encountered in the literature. Moreover, the precise operationalisation and, consequently, the units used for broadly similar variables may differ from method to method. 1. Methods based on simple rules of thumb Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) have developed characterisation factors based on rules of thumb to model degradation and intermedia transport: with: the Human Toxicity Potential, the characterisation factor for the human toxicity of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp and leading to exposure via route r (e.g. fish or milk; see Figure 4.3.7.1). The emission compartments considered are air, water and soil, resulting in nine different HTPs per substance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8329, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 579, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fish or milk; see Figure 4.3.7.1). The emission compartments considered are air, water and soil, resulting in nine different HTPs per substance. Groundwater has been suggested as a fourth compartment, but no characterisation factors have yet been developed; the intermedia transport factor, the fraction of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp that reaches final compartment fcomp as a result of environmental transport. This factor is based on simple rules of thumb rather than on a full fate model. Moreover, it is not a continuous variable but assumes only a limited number of values such as 0.2 and 1; the biodegradability factor, to be chosen from one of three classes depending on the substance i involved; the transfer factor, the fraction of substance i transferrred from fcomp to exposure route r, i.e. air, fish, plants, animals, etc. (see Figure 4.3.7.1). In the case of soil the HTP includes only those exposure routes making the greatest contribution (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8330, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 579, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "air, fish, plants, animals, etc. (see Figure 4.3.7.1). In the case of soil the HTP includes only those exposure routes making the greatest contribution (i.e. with the highest the intake factor, the fraction of substance i taken up per kg body weight per day via exposure route r. There is a specific intake factor for each of the seven sub-compartments identified; the effect factor, representing the human-toxic impact of substance i via exposure route r; depending on the exposure route concerned, it is either the reciprocal of the Acceptable Daily Intake or that of the atmospheric concentration not anticipated to have toxic effects after life-long inhalation. 1 Hauschild & Wenzel use a different term for HTP, viz. \u2018Equivalency Factor\u2019. Moreover, Hauschild & Wenzel use the term \u2018potential\u2019 for the associated indicator results, whereas in this Guide the term is used for the characterisation factor", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8331, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 579, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u2018Equivalency Factor\u2019. Moreover, Hauschild & Wenzel use the term \u2018potential\u2019 for the associated indicator results, whereas in this Guide the term is used for the characterisation factor. Finally, r is used here to indicate exposure routes such as \u2018air\u2019, \u2018fish\u2019 and so on (see Figure 4.3.7.1 and Figure 4.3.7.2), whereas Hauschild & Wenzel indicate these by abbreviations based on media: a = air, viz. respiration; w = water, viz. fish; s = soil, viz. crops (plants in Figure 4.3.7.1), cattle meat (animals in Figure 4.3.7.1) and dairy products (milk in Figure 4.3.7.1).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8332, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 576, "book_page": 579, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background The method of Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) yields three separate indicator results for human toxicity, one for each of the three principal exposure routes (air; fish; and soil, plants, animals and milk): where is as defined above and is the emission of substance i to compartment ecomp. These separate results are not aggregated to a single indicator result. Overall, it can be concluded that the method of Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) models degradation and intermedia transport only very rudimentarily. 2. Model-based methods Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) have developed characterisation factors for human toxicity including degradation and intermedia transport using the Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances model, USES 1.0 (RIVM et al., 1994), which incorporates the multimedia model Simplebox 1.0 (Van de Meent, 1993) as a separate module", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8333, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 577, "book_page": 580, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Simplebox calculates the Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) in four environmental compartments, represented as \u2018boxes\u2019: air, water, agricultural soil and industrial soil (i.e. soil used for agricultural and industrial purposes) due to a constant emission flux to any of these four compartments. For human toxicity, six exposure routes are assessed, viz. air, fish, drinking water, crops, cattle meat and milk (see Figure 4.3.7.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8334, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 577, "book_page": 580, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Although exposure route and intake are still modeled in a fairly rudimentary fashion, using similar methods to Hauschild & Wenzel (1998), Simplebox allows substance fate to be modeled rather more realistically and comprehensively, including both degradation and immobilisation and making use of continuous functions that depend on the chemical of interest rather than the constant factors f and BIO. A second major difference in the method of Guin\u00e9e et al. is that the daily intakes accruing via the respective exposure routes are summed to yield a total Predicted Daily Intake (PDI)1, which is then divided by the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), expressed here once more as its reciprocal Finally, the score is divided by the score for an emission, to air, of a reference substance: 1,4 dichlorobenzene: with: the Human Toxicity Potential due to emission of 1000 kg of substance i per day (flux) to emission compartment ecom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8335, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The compartments considered are air, water and agricultural and industrial soil, resulting in four different HTPs per substance; the Predicted Daily Intake of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp; note that does not differ for different exposure routes since in this method does not differ among routes; the effect factor, representing the human-toxic impact of substance i, here the reciprocal of the ADI of the substance; the Predicted Daily Intake resulting from the emission of 1000 kg of 1,4dichlorobenzene per day to air; the effect factor for 1,4-dichlorobenzene, representing the human-toxic impact of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, here the reciprocal of the ADI of 1,4dichlorobenzene. It can be shown that an HTP based on an emission flux also provides a good indication of the relative human-toxic impact of an instantaneous emission (kg) (Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996). The method of Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) results in a single indicator result for human toxicity: where and are as defined above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8336, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method of Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) results in a single indicator result for human toxicity: where and are as defined above. is this a combination of and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8337, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 578, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Equation (4.3.7.10) can also be written as: where r1 is exposure route 1, e.g. air, r2 exposure route 2, e.g. fish, and so on. Equation (4.3.7.11) clearly shows the difference from the method of Hauschild & Wenzel (1998), which yields separate indicator results for each of the exposure routes distinguished rather than their sum, here. Huijbregts (1999a) used a new version of the USES model, USES 2.01 (RIVM et al., 1998), and modified it to calculate new characterisation factors for human toxicity (as well as for aquatic, sediment and terrestrial ecotoxicity), using the same basic method as Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996). The USES-LCA model thereby created (largely based on USES 2.0) improves on USES 1.0 in four main ways. In the first place, the fate of substances can now be modeled at the global level", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8338, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996). The USES-LCA model thereby created (largely based on USES 2.0) improves on USES 1.0 in four main ways. In the first place, the fate of substances can now be modeled at the global level. USES 2.0 and USES-LCA have five spatial scales: \u2018regional\u2019, \u2018continental\u2019 and \u2018global\u2019, the last tripartite to reflect the arctic, temperate and tropical climate zones of the Northern hemisphere. The regional and continental scales each comprise six compartments: air, freshwater, seawater, natural soil, agricultural soil and industrial soil. The three climate zones of the global scale each comprise three compartments: air, (sea)water and soil. The global scale is modeled as a closed system with no transport out of the system (i.e. into space); emitted substances cannot therefore leave the system, as was the case in USES 1.0. Second, USES-LCA takes into account the temperature dependence of physico-chemical properties. Third, the variation of these properties with soil depth is also modeled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8339, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Second, USES-LCA takes into account the temperature dependence of physico-chemical properties. Third, the variation of these properties with soil depth is also modeled. Finally, the continental-scale model now has separate freshwater and seawater compartments. Given the differences between the USES-LCA and USES 1.0 models, Huijbregts (1999a) also differed from Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) in a number of choices. The principal of these derives from the fact that USESLCA is a nested model, with five scale, as described above. USES 1.0, in contrast, had only a single, continental scale2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8340, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The principal of these derives from the fact that USESLCA is a nested model, with five scale, as described above. USES 1.0, in contrast, had only a single, continental scale2. To calculate a single characterisation factor for each emission compartment, Huijbregts therefore aggregated the four factors calculated at the global and continental scales on a population basis: the larger the exposed population, the greater the weight of the associated factor: with: the Human Toxicity Potential of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp (dimensionless); the population density at scale s; the Predicted Daily Intake via. exposure route r at scale s for substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp the effect factor, representing the human-toxic impact of substance i, here the Acceptable Daily Intake via exposure route r (inhalation or ingestion) (day)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8341, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although USES-LCA models fate and exposure routes more realistically and comprehensively than earlier methods, using continuous variables, the toxicity potentials thus calculated still embody areas of major uncertainty. The sensitivity of the USES-LCA model to (value) choices it embodies also needs to be carefully assessed. . The main value choices concern the temporal and spatial horizons adopted to calculate HTP. In the case of the impact category \u2018climate change\u2019, the value of the characterisation factor GWP may vary by more than an order of magnitude, depending on the time horizon chosen (Houghton et al., 1996). In the case of toxicity potentials, an infinite time horizon has generally been adopted (Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Hertwich et al., 1998 & 1999; Huijbregts 1999a; Huijbregts, 2000). In Impact assessment this approach may obscure the potential shorter-term impacts of product systems, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8342, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In Impact assessment this approach may obscure the potential shorter-term impacts of product systems, however. With respect to spatial horizon, the basic choice concerns whether or not HTP includes the potential impacts exported from the continental to the global scale. As mentioned, Huijbregts (2000) 1 USES 2.0 is an adapted version of EUSES, in turn an upgraded and updated European version of USES 1.0.. 2 Although both USES 1.0 and 2.0 permit calculation on a local and regional scale, these scales were not taken into account in calculating characterisation factors.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8343, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 579, "book_page": 582, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background includes the latter using scale-specific, population-based weighting factors. However, including globalscale impacts may obscure potential impacts at the continental scale. Huijbregts therefore ran a number of scenarios to assess the influence of these choices (Huijbregts, 2000). Toxicity potentials were calculated for horizons of 20, 100 and 500 years by integrating the amount of a substance present in compartment fcomp after an emission pulse released to compartment ecomp over the respective periods and compared with the value previously obtained by integration to infinity (Figure 4.3.7.3 and Figure 4.3.7.4). These three horizons are the same as those used to calculate Global Warming Potentials (Houghton et al., 1996) and appear to provide a practicable range for policy applications. The sensitivity of the model to the choice of spatial horizon was assessed by comparing toxicity potentials calculated with and without inclusion of the global scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8344, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 580, "book_page": 583, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The sensitivity of the model to the choice of spatial horizon was assessed by comparing toxicity potentials calculated with and without inclusion of the global scale. To this end Huijbregts (2000) aggregated potential impacts at the continental scale and each of the three zones of the global scale using scalespecific weighting factors. Potential impacts in the marine aquatic compartments were aggregated on the basis of compartment volume, impacts in the marine sediment and terrestrial compartments on the basis of compartment mass. For human toxicity, the human population at the scale level in question was used as a weighting factor. For the impact categories associated with the freshwater aquatic and sediment compartments no weighting factors were required, as these compartments are identified at the continental scale only. In calculating toxicity potentials, potential global-scale impacts can be excluded by", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8345, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 580, "book_page": 583, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background assigning a zero value to the weighting factors for the contributions of arctic, temperate and tropical zones to the impact categories involved. The results of the time horizon scenario analyses (see Part 2b, Section 4.3.8, and see Huijbregts, 2000) show differences of up to 6.5 orders of magnitude for the toxicity potentials of the metals studied, while for organic chemicals these differences remain within half an order of magnitude. In terms of the LCA result for the impact category human toxicity, this means that the longer the time horizon, the more dominant the very persistent heavy metals become. Scenario analyses addressing the extent to which inclusion of global-scale impacts obscures potential continental-scale impacts indicate differences in the toxicity potentials of metals and volatile persistent halogenated organics of up to 2.3 orders of magnitude. For a more extensive discussion of these results, we refer to Huijbregts (2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8346, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For a more extensive discussion of these results, we refer to Huijbregts (2000). The use of time horizon-specific HTPs in LCAs is relatively straightforward. The indicator result for human toxicity and a specified time horizon can be calculated using the formula: with: the indicator result for human toxicity for time horizon t (kg); the Human Toxicity Potential of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp for time horizon t (dimensionless); the emission of substance i to compartment ecomp (kg). As metals and volatile persistent halogenated organics may be responsible for a substantial share of the potential human-toxic impact of product systems, the (value) choice of temporal and spatial horizon is particulartly important in LCA Impact assessment of toxic substances. Besides embodying value choices, USES-LCA is also characterised by a number of major modeling uncertainties (Huijbregts et al., 2000b; Ragas et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8347, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Besides embodying value choices, USES-LCA is also characterised by a number of major modeling uncertainties (Huijbregts et al., 2000b; Ragas et al., 1999). In this respect its modeling of the fate of metals is particularly weak. In the first place, box models such as USES-LCA include no spatial differentiation of fate, exposure/intake or effect parameters. Although in the case of organic chemicals spatial variability may not be very important in fate and effect assessment compared with the influence of parameter uncertainties (Hertwich et al., 1999), this may not be true of metals. Intermedia transport of metals is highly dependent on environmental conditions, leading to major potential variation in residence time, particularly in the soil compartment (De Vries & Bakker, 1998). For metals, then, adoption of spatially differentiated models (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8348, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For metals, then, adoption of spatially differentiated models (e.g. Klepper & Den Hollander, 1999; Van den Hout et al., 1999; Stolwijk et al., 1998) will lead to improved assessment of fate, exposure/intake and ultimate effects. Such models would also permit inclusion of site-dependent processes that are currently lacking in USES-LCA, such as slow conversion of reversibly adsorbed heavy metals into forms irreversibly adsorbed to the soil matrix (Harmsen, 1992; De Vries & Bakker, 1998) and uptake by organisms (Peijnenburg et al., 1997, 1999). Further research in the LCA context is recommended here. The second aspect relates to the fate of geochemically reactive metals such as beryllium in the marine environment. Goldberg (1965) reports an oceanic residence time of Be three orders of magnitude lower than calculated by USES-LCA (Huijbregts, 2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8349, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Goldberg (1965) reports an oceanic residence time of Be three orders of magnitude lower than calculated by USES-LCA (Huijbregts, 2000). This is because Be-ions are anticipated to be rapidly hydrolysed by the pH of seawater and incorporated into minerals such as ferro-mangenese nodules (Goldberg, 1965; Riley, 1971). This removal mechanism is not included in USES-LCA. For other metals such as copper, zinc, lead, cadmium and vanadium, too, minor uncertainties in burial processes may lead to major uncertainties in steady-state concentrations, and hence, toxicity potentials. The third aspect concerns the topic of the so-called essential elements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8350, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The third aspect concerns the topic of the so-called essential elements. According to Alloway (1990) there are three criteria to determine whether or not a chemical element is biologically essential: the organism can neither grow nor complete its life cycle without an adequate supply of the element; the element cannot be wholly replaced by any other element; the element has a direct influence on the organism and is involved in its metabolism. Cobalt, copper, chromium, manganese, selenium and zinc are examples of essential elements (in this case heavy metals) which are indispensable for life and may be deficient in some situations with associated problems for plants, animals and even human beings; addition of such essential elements to the environment may then have a positive effect", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8351, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the other hand, uptake of the same essential heavy metals above a certain level may have toxic impacts on plants, animals and human beings; addition of such essential elements to the environment may then have negative consequences. A discussion on how to deal with the possible positive and negative effects of essential heavy metals in the derivation of effect factors for these elements has been going on now for quite a while, but has not yet led to new derivation procedures. The derivation procedures described in this Guide for effect factors for humans, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems give no consideration to this ongoing discussion. It is indeed to be queried if this issue is resolvable at all.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8352, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 581, "book_page": 584, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Concluding, while the method of Huijbregts (1999a) models fate and exposure routes more realistically and comprehensively than that of Hauschild & Wenzel (1998), thereby using continuous variables, there are still major uncertainties in the underlying model and its constituent parameters. Particular care should be taken if results are likely to hinge prominently on heavy metals, which score high in this method because of their persistency (this should be checked as part of the contribution analysis; see Section 5.4), This is particularly true in the case of Be and Cr. The method has, in principle, been operationalised for some 180 substances (Huijbregts, 1999a). Hertwich (1999) has also recently calculated human toxicity potentials, employing the multimedia model CalTOX in a similar approach to Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) and Huijbregts (1999a; see also Huijbregts et al., 2000a)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8353, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 585, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996) and Huijbregts (1999a; see also Huijbregts et al., 2000a). These so-called Toxicity Equivalence Potentials (TEPs) have been developed for air and water emissions for approximately 280 substances. The following appear to be the main differences between TEPs and the HTPs of Huijbregts (1999a; see also Huijbregts et al., 2000a and www.scorecard.org/envreleases/def/tep_qen.html ): CalTOX considers more exposure routes than USES-LCA; the effect part of human toxicity assessment is based not on ADIs but on other human risk factors; CalTOX is based on American environmental data, USES-LCA on European data; TEPs have been developed for emissions to air and water only, HTPs for emissions to air, freshwater, seawater and (\u2018agricultural\u2019 and \u2018industrial\u2019) soil; TEPs are available for about 280 substances, HTPs for about 180 substances", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8354, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 585, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A more thorough comparison of the human toxicity factors developed by Huijbregts (1999a; see also Huijbregts et al., 2000a) and Hertwich (1999) was beyond the scope of the present study. Hofstetter (1998) also used a multimedia model for assessing human toxicity, but now as part of an endpoint approach (cf. Section 4.2 for a more general description of the endpoint, or damage approach). This method, which has been developed as part of the Eco-indicator 99 approach (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999), has been operationalised for a limited number of substances only. Fate analysis is based on the USES 1.0 model (RIVM et al., 1994), in much the same way as in Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996). Several improvements have been introduced, however, including modeling of substance-specific dilution height. The resultant concentrations in the various environmental compartments and the ensuing, aggregated Predicted Daily Intake are then used to calculate fate factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8355, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 585, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resultant concentrations in the various environmental compartments and the ensuing, aggregated Predicted Daily Intake are then used to calculate fate factors. The damage to human health resulting from exposure to the selected substances, estimated from a range of studies, experiments and epidemiological data, is expressed in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). The concept of DALYs is described in detail in Hofstetter (1998) and briefly reviewed above in the text box in Section 4.2. The fate factors and DALYs are used to calculate characterisation factors representing the damage to human health per kg substance emitted to air or water, expressed in DALYs. 3. Methods based on models and empirical relations Jolliet & Crettaz (1997) have developed characterisation factors for human toxicity based on singlemedium models and empirical measurement data to account for degradation and intermedia transport. The methods of Guin\u00e9e et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8356, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 585, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The methods of Guin\u00e9e et al. and Huijbregts focus more on intermedia transport modeling, that of Jolliet & Crettaz on empirical exposure relation based on measurement data or single-medium models, the main two differences being that the latter takes account of inter-substance variation in dilution volume in the final compartments air and water, and (for several substances) uses a ratio between emission flow to air and resultant ambient concentration based on empirical data rather than modeling. All other fate routes are simulated using various partial models, however. Moreover, the methods of Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) and Huijbregts (1999a) apply the same model for all routes, while that of Jolliet & Crettaz (1997) employs several empirical relations derived from different unrelated sources (measurement data and single-medium models). The latter method is summarised in the following formula:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8357, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 582, "book_page": 585, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background with: HTP Human Toxicity Potential (dimensionless); the effect factor, representing the human-toxic impact of substance i in final compartment fcomp and here defined as the reciprocal of the \u2018total acceptable world annual dose\u2019 per for air the NEC (No Effect Concentration in times the total volume of air inhaled by human beings per year per and for water and soil the ADI (in kg\u00b7kg body times total body weight per and number of days per year, i.e. 365. It is expressed in different units for each fcomp; the fate factor for substance i, incorporating intermedia transport between emission compartment ecomp and final compartment fcomp and degradation in fcomp (with different units for each fcomp). The method yields a single indicator result for human toxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8358, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method yields a single indicator result for human toxicity. For 17 substances has been calculated on the basis of empirical data, generalising the ratio between the measured concentration in Switzerland and the corresponding total emission flow to the world level. For about 100 other substances is based on the ratio between the residence time of the pollutant and the dilution height in the steady state is based on the ratio between the residence time of the pollutant and the dilution depth in the steady state. The ExternE project (EC, 1995a) has also assessed the potential human health impacts of air pollutants, the carcinogenic effects of trace metals, dioxins and radionuclide emissions and industrial accidents affecting members of the public. However, the format in which the dose-response functions have been published precludes derivation of characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8359, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, the format in which the dose-response functions have been published precludes derivation of characterisation factors. Thus far, the main focus of discussion has been on the fate (and sometimes exposure/intake) element of human toxicity, leaving aside the actual effects, to which we now turn. Most methods for assessing human toxicological effects are based on the use of certain threshold values, expressed in the \u2018effect factor\u2019 as the reciprocal of an ADI or something similar. For such methods, the prevailing background concentration is unimportant. There is, however, a trend towards incorporating epidemiological studies on the effects actually occurring at present background concentration levels, as in the endpoint approaches of, for example, Hofstetter (1998), Goedkoop & Spriensma (1999) and EC (1995a) (cf. Section 4.2). In both endpoint and midpoint approaches, there is the question of aggregation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8360, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Section 4.2). In both endpoint and midpoint approaches, there is the question of aggregation. In the case of midpoint approaches, the question is whether every ADI is equally important or whether ADIs for carcinogenic chemicals are more important than those for allergenic chemicals. Most approaches attach equal weight to every threshold value. This simple weighting procedure for human toxicity does not fulfil the ISO criteria for life cycle impact assessment (ISO, 1998a). This limitation can be overcome by breaking down human toxicity into several subcategories. Burke et al. (1996), for instance, has proposed dividing human-toxic substances into three categories, viz. those associated with irreversible effects, with reversible but life-threatening effects, and with reversible and non-life-threatening effects. Expert-based weighting factors of 100, 10 and 1, respectively, have been assigned to these three subcategories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8361, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Expert-based weighting factors of 100, 10 and 1, respectively, have been assigned to these three subcategories. Aggregation may also be based on the concept of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). All the methods developed to date for the impact category human toxicity suffer from a number of fundamental shortcomings. Perhaps the most serious of these is the (value) choice to effectively attach the same weight to all toxicological effects. Two other major simplifications are the assumed linearity between emissions and potential effects (cf. Owens, 1997b) and the complete disregard of chemical, environmental, metabolic en toxicological interactions (incl. synergy) between individual substances. Given the paucity of data currently available, the latter limitations are particularly difficult to overcome (cf. Huijbregts etal., 2000a). PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8362, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Huijbregts etal., 2000a). PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). CONCLUSIONS Despite these fundamental limitations, which are not specific to LCA but are also encountered in RA, we still consider it possible and useful to recommend a baseline method for the impact category human toxicity. It is possible, since there are practical methods available reflecting, as well as is feasible, the 1 In Jolliet & Crettaz this ratio is called which is not consistent with the earlier definition.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8363, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 583, "book_page": 586, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background state-of-the-art in human toxicity assessment; and useful, since the alternative would be that potentially human-toxic emissions would otherwise be only qualitatively flagged, clouding final assessment, or even omitted altogether. As the baseline characterisation method for human toxicity we thus recommend using the method of Huijbregts (1999a), based on fate modeling with USES-LCA. USES-LCA treats intermedia transport most realistically and comprehensively, using continuous variables and a multimedia model. In our view this is superior to the \u2018rule of thumb\u2019 method developed by Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) and the mix of models and measured data used by Jolliet & Crettaz (1997) (criterion 8 for the selection of baseline characterisation methods). Those of Huijbregts (1999a) and Hertwich (1999) appear to be very similar. Both methods are operational, while the method of Hertwich (1999) includes more substances (criterion 11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8364, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Those of Huijbregts (1999a) and Hertwich (1999) appear to be very similar. Both methods are operational, while the method of Hertwich (1999) includes more substances (criterion 11). However, Huijbregts\u2019 method can also be used for emissions to soil. This is especially important for LCAs on agricultural products, where emissions to soil are significant. Huijbregts\u2019 method encompasses both human toxicological and ecotoxicological effects (see Section 4.3.8), moreover, enabling both impact categories to be assessed using the same method. The method of Huijbregts is thus preferable to that of Hertwich (1999) and in this Guide is therefore recommended as the baseline. An infinite time horizon is thereby taken (criterion 7) and a global spatial scale (criterion 10). It should be borne in mind, however, that the list of 180 substances provided by Huijbregts (1999a) represents merely a very small subset of all known and unknown toxic substances", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8365, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It should be borne in mind, however, that the list of 180 substances provided by Huijbregts (1999a) represents merely a very small subset of all known and unknown toxic substances. If the case study involves substances suspected of contributing to human toxicity for which HTPs are not provided in this Guide, such factors should be calculated. If this is not feasible, an attempt should be made to estimate HTPs for these substances based on similar or related substances for which HTPs are available (by extrapolation, for example; cf. Section 4.3.17). It is not recommended to use the \u2018old\u2019 characterisation factors that ignore fate, such as those developed by Heijungs et al. (1992), even if these are available for more substances than the new, fate-based factors. Fate is a particularly important consideration in the context of the human toxicity of chemical pollutants and its exclusion might lead to misleading results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8366, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Fate is a particularly important consideration in the context of the human toxicity of chemical pollutants and its exclusion might lead to misleading results. The baseline characterisation method for human toxicity, using the characterisation factor is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria in Table 4.3.7.1. Table 4.3.7.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for human toxicity, using the characterisation factor with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8367, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation partly: although fate and exposure/intake calculations are based on well understood environmental mechanisms, actual toxicological effects are assessed via a very crude aggregation of very different effects (from skin irritation to mortality) yes, the category indicator represents risks to humans (nearendpoint level) no; however, USES-LCA is very similar to the model EUSES, supported by the European Union (EUSES is in fact based on USES) yes; the choice of valuing all effects equally is particularly debatable (nearly) endpoint yes eternity fate, exposure/intake and effects included yes; below-threshold effects are also included yes, although in fact the HTPs are European factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8368, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "is particularly debatable (nearly) endpoint yes eternity fate, exposure/intake and effects included yes; below-threshold effects are also included yes, although in fact the HTPs are European factors yes, for 180 substances emitted to air, water and soil presumably about the same as for the other category indicators that include fate, discussed above The following methods are included in this Guide as options for sensitivity analysis, particularly for LCA studies in which results for this impact category are dominated by metals and volatile, persistent halogenated organics: The HTPs for the time horizons 20, 100 and 500 years at the global scale: Huijbregts et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8369, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(2000). The HTPs for an infinite time horizon at the continental scale (i.e. excluding global effects): Huijbregts et al. (2000).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8370, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 584, "book_page": 587, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Recommendations for extended LCAs: If the case study involves substances suspected of contributing to human toxicity for which HTPs are not provided in this Guide, such factors should be calculated. If this is not feasible, an attempt should be made to estimate HTPs for these substances based on similar or related substances for which HTPs are available (by extrapolation, for example; cf. Section 4.3.17)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8371, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 588, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Section 4.3.17). method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Hertwich, 1999; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research: It is recommended to undertake a detailed comparison of the factors of Huijbregts (1999a) and Hertwich (1999) to establish which differences are due to differences in data and which to the use of different fate and effect models. It is recommended to develop characterisation factors for group parameters according to the procedures described in Section 3.6. It is recommended to establish a \u2018helpdesk\u2019 to provide support for calculation of characterisation factors for substances for which these factors are currently lacking", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8372, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 588, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is recommended to establish a \u2018helpdesk\u2019 to provide support for calculation of characterisation factors for substances for which these factors are currently lacking. Long-term research: Further research to explore the potential for using Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in LCA is recommended, especially for this impact category. The possible integration of toxic effects on human health with other human health effects such as the effects of photo-oxidants, radiation, casualties, etc., should also be investigated. The DALY concept might be very suitable for the purpose of such integration. The EDIP approach, employing a database of impacts in the working environment per kilogram of goods produced for specific economic activities may represent a valuable addition to LCA (Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen, 1999). This database comprises mainly Danish data, however, and research should be undertaken to establish a similar database with European data", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8373, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 588, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This database comprises mainly Danish data, however, and research should be undertaken to establish a similar database with European data. 4.3.8 Ecotoxicity TOPIC This impact category covers the impacts of toxic substances on aquatic, terrestrial and sediment ecosystems. The area of protection is the natural environment (and natural resources) (see Figure 4.2.2). For this impact category a variety of characterisation methods are available, providing characterisation factors generally that are referred to as \u2018ecotoxicity potentials\u2019 (ETPs). As in the previous section, on human toxicity, the following general formula will here be used as a point of departure for describing and discussing these different methods:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8374, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 585, "book_page": 588, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background with: the ecotoxicity potential: the contribution to ecotoxicity of a unit emission of substance i, to emission compartment ecomp. Most methods distinguish several subcategories, such as AETP for aquatic ecotoxicity, TETP for terrestrial ecotoxicity, etc.; a \u2019fate factor\u2019, representing intermedia transport of substance i from emission compartment ecomp to final (sub)compartment fcomp, and degradation within compartment ecomp; in some methods intermedia transport is indicated separately by and (bio)degradation by an \u2019effect factor\u2019, representing the toxic effect of exposure of a given ecosystem to substance i in compartment fcomp. The ETP is often defined relative to a reference substance. As a formula: with the symbols similar to the above. The choice of the reference substance is arbitrary", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8375, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 589, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The ETP is often defined relative to a reference substance. As a formula: with the symbols similar to the above. The choice of the reference substance is arbitrary. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Ecotoxicological impact, together with human toxicological impact, is the impact category for which fate and particularly intermedia transport are most important. Toxic substances do not generally remain in the environmental compartment into which they are emitted, but tend to spread to other compartments, where they may do more damage. Airborne insecticides will also settle out in waterways, for example, where they may cause (severe) harm to aquatic organisms. As with human-toxic impacts, many authors therefore stress that it is essential to properly incorporate intermedia transport in LCA models of ecotoxicological impact (e.g. Heijungs et al., 1992; Lindfors et al., 1995c; Jolliet, 1996; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997; Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). Heijunas et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8376, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 589, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs et al., 1992; Lindfors et al., 1995c; Jolliet, 1996; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997; Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). Heijunas et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) this impact category covered only toxic emissions to the environmental compartments water and soil. Emissions to water were considered to be toxic to aquatic ecosystems only and emissions to soil toxic to terrestrial ecosystems only. Separate characterisation factors were thus defined for emissions to water and soil: substance and kg substance) and and are the Maximum Tolerable Concentrations for water and soil, derived according to a method developed by EPA and modified by RIVM (EPA, 1984; Van de Meent et al., 1990; Slooff, 1992). These MTCs represent the concentration considered to protect 95% of the species in an ecosystem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8377, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 589, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These MTCs represent the concentration considered to protect 95% of the species in an ecosystem. They are based on ecotoxicological data on the species sensitivity tochemical substances, usingthe modified EPAmethod, which employs safetyfactors basedonthe numberof test species included (see, inter alia, RIVM et al., 1994). The characterisation factors used to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact categories aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity are: where (mg) is the amount of substance i emitted to water and the amount of substance i emitted to soil. The indicator results terrestrial ecotoxicity and aquatic ecotoxicity are expressed in kg soil and water. They can be interpreted as the quantity of terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem polluted to the MTC. As with the impact category\u201chuman toxicity\u201d, Heijungs et al. again stress that these characterisation factorsforecotoxicityshould be considered as no more than indicative until such time as a better method is developed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8378, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 589, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "again stress that these characterisation factorsforecotoxicityshould be considered as no more than indicative until such time as a better method is developed. where ECA and ECT are, respectively, the characterisation factor for aquatic and for terrestrial ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8379, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 586, "book_page": 589, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background In line with these recommendations, we here consider only methods that include degradation and intermedia transport, which supersede the provisional method developed by Heijungs et al. (1992)1. (See text box.) Several such methods are described in the literature, falling roughly into three groups: The architects of the intermedia transport-based characterisation factors for human toxicity described in the previous section have developed such factors for ecotoxicity, with methods once more falling roughly into three groups: methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on simple rules of thumb (e.g. Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models (e.g. Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Huijbregts, 1999a) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models and empirical relations (e.g. Jolliet & Crettaz (1997). 1. 2. 3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8380, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 590, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Huijbregts, 1999a) methods in which degradation and intermedia transport is based on models and empirical relations (e.g. Jolliet & Crettaz (1997). 1. 2. 3. In this section we consider only those aspects of these methods and models of specific relevance for the impact category \u2018ecotoxicity\u2019, referring the reader for background to Section 4.3.7 on \u2018human toxicicity\u2019, as necessary. As in the previous section, these methods are discussed below in terms of a common notation. For instance, F always denotes a fate factor, although a variety of symbols and terms are encountered in the literature. Moreover, the precise operationalisation and , consequently, the units used for broadly similar variables may differ from method to method. 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8381, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 590, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Moreover, the precise operationalisation and , consequently, the units used for broadly similar variables may differ from method to method. 1. Methods based on rules of thumb Based on rule of thumb, Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) have developed characterisation factors2 incorporating intermedia transport for three3 different impact categories: with: the Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp, with an indication of the type of impact considered (acute or chronic the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp, with an indication of the type of impact considered (in this case only chronic the intermedia transport factor, the fraction of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp that reaches final compartment fcomp as a result of environmental transport", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8382, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 590, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The factor is based on a simple rules of thumb rather than on a full fate model; moreover, it is not a continuous variable but assumes only a limited number of values such as 0.2 and 1; the biodegradability factor, to be chosen from one of three classes depending on the substance i involved; the effect factor, representing the (acute and/or chronic) toxic impact of substance i on aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems (respectively) in final compartment fcomp; depending on fcomp and the type of effect, it is the reciprocal of a PNEC4 (Predicted No Effect Concentration). Three different emission compartments are considered by Hauschild & Wenzel: air, water and soil. The effect compartments considered are water and soil. In the aquatic compartment acute and chronic 1 Heijungs et al. stressed in 1992, already, that fate should be included; at the time, however, this could be done only provisionally", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8383, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 590, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the aquatic compartment acute and chronic 1 Heijungs et al. stressed in 1992, already, that fate should be included; at the time, however, this could be done only provisionally. 2 Again, for reasons of terminological consistency we here employ a number of terms as originally defined by Hauschild & Wenzel. 3 Acute toxicity to (the micro-organisms in) wastewater treatment plants has been suggested as a fourth impact category, but waste water treatment plants are considered to be part of the economic system in this Guide (cf. Section 3.2), we have restricted the discussion to the three environmental impact categories acute aquatic ecotoxicity, chronic aquatic ecotoxicity and chronic terrestrial ecotoxicity. 4 The PNEC is based on species-specific ecotoxicological data derived by a variety of methods, in some cases policy targets (see Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). ); );", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8384, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 587, "book_page": 590, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background effects are considered separately. Together this results in seven different ecotoxicity potentials per substance. Hauschild & Wenzel\u2019s method yields three separate indicator results for ecotoxicity: one for chronic effects in the aquatic compartment: one for acute effects in the aquatic compartment: and one for chronic effects in soil compartment: AETP and TETP are defined as specified above, and is the emission of substance i to compartment ecomp. These indicator results are not aggregated to a single indicator result. Overall, it can be concluded that the method of Hauschild and Wenzel (1998) models degradation and intermedia transport only very rudimentarily. 2. Model-based methods Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) have also developed characterisation factors for aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity impacts that take some account of degradation and intermedia transport", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8385, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Model-based methods Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) have also developed characterisation factors for aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity impacts that take some account of degradation and intermedia transport. The method they employed is basically the same as that used for human toxicity impacts and is based once more on the USES 1.0 model, which includes Simplebox 1.0 as a model. A Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC)1 is calculated for the compartments water, agricultural soil and industrial soil resulting resulting from a given constant emission to air, water, agricultural or industrial soil (i.e. soil used for agricultural and industrial purposes). The PEC in water is divided by the Predicted No Effect Concentration2 (PNEC) for aquatic ecosystems, the PEC in soil by the PNEC for terrestrial ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8386, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The PEC in water is divided by the Predicted No Effect Concentration2 (PNEC) for aquatic ecosystems, the PEC in soil by the PNEC for terrestrial ecosystems. Finally, the score is divided by the score for the emission of a reference substance, resulting in: with: the Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential due to emission of 1000 kg of substance i per day (flux) to initial emission compartment ecomp (dimensionless); the Terrestrial EcoToxicity Potential, defined in a parallel manner (dimensionless); the predicted concentration of substance i in water due to the emission to compartment ecomp; is the same predicted concentration but for 1,4-dichlorobenzene the predicted concentration of substance i in agricultural soil due the emission to compartment ecomp; PECagricultural is the same predicted concentration but for 1,4-dichlorobenzene (dimensionless)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8387, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the effect factor representing the toxic impact of substance i on aquatic ecosystems, here the reciprocal of the PNEC for terrestrial ecosystems; is the same effect factor but for 1,4-dichlorobenzene is an alternative formulation of 2 In this case the PNEC was defined similarly to the MTC: the concentration held to protect 95% of the species in an ecosystem. This PNEC was also based on species-specific ecotoxicological data using a variety of methods; see VROM (1997).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8388, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 588, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background the effect factor representing the toxic impact of substance i on terrestrial ecosystems, here the reciprocal of the PNEC for terrestrial ecosystems; is the same effect factor but for 1,4-dichlorobenzene (dimensionless). The compartments considered are air, water and agricultural and industrial soil, resulting in four AETPs and four TETPs per substance. The result is one indicator result for aquatic ecotoxicity and one for terrestrialecotoxicity: where and are as defined above and is the amount of substance i emitted to compartment ecomp (kg)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8389, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 592, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The result is one indicator result for aquatic ecotoxicity and one for terrestrialecotoxicity: where and are as defined above and is the amount of substance i emitted to compartment ecomp (kg). with: the Freshwater Aquatic EcoToxicity Potential of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp; This is extended to the other impact categories, giving the following scheme: impact (sub)category freshwater ecotoxicity freshwater sediment ecotoxicity marine aquatic ecotoxicity marine sediment ecotoxicity terrestrial ecotoxicity characterisation factor These ecotoxicity potentials are based on a PEC/PNEC ratio, weighted as necessary on the basis of the volume (water) or weight (soil and sediment) of the compartments/scales concerned (see also Section 4.3.7 and, for a more detailed explanation, Huijbregts, 1999a). For these ecotoxicity potentials, Huijbregts et al. (2000) again used scenario analysis to assess the sensitivity of the model to different time and spatial horizons", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8390, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 592, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For these ecotoxicity potentials, Huijbregts et al. (2000) again used scenario analysis to assess the sensitivity of the model to different time and spatial horizons. For a discussion of this topic we refer the reader to Section 4.3.7, for a detailed description of calculation procedures and models used to Huijbregts (2000). As in the case of human toxicity, the method of Huijbregts (1999a) takes degradation and intermedia transport routes into account more realistically than that of Hauschild & Wenzel (1998). The method is operational for 181 substances, in principle. Huijbregts (1999a, 2000) developed the USES-LCA model to calculate not only new characterisation factors for human toxicity but also for five subcategories of ecotoxicity: freshwater aquatic, marine aquatic, freshwater sediment, marine sediment and terrestrial, each of them for different time horizons. The main differences from Guin\u00e9e et al. have already been described (Section 4.3.7)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8391, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 592, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The main differences from Guin\u00e9e et al. have already been described (Section 4.3.7). The factors proposed by Huijbregts are:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8392, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 589, "book_page": 592, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 3. Methods based on models and empirical relations Jolliet & Crettaz (1997) also developed their \u2018critical surface time\u2019 method for ecotoxicity, calculating characterisation factors for aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicity: with: the effect factor representing the toxic impact of substance i on aquatic ecosystems and here defined as the reciprocal of the PNEC1 (Predicted No Effect Concentration for aquatic ecosystems); the effect factor representing the toxic impact of substance i on terrestrial ecosystems and here defined as the reciprocal of the PNEC1 (Predicted No Effect Concentration for terrestrial ecosystems); the fate factor for water, the fraction of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp that reaches the final compartment water, the fate factor for soil, the fraction of substance i emitted to emission compartment ecomp that reaches the final compartment soil; and are as above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8393, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 593, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These fate facors are based on the same intermedia transfer factors as for human toxicity. Thus far, the main focus of discussion has been on the fate element of ecotoxicity. We now turn to the actual effects. Most methods for assessing ecotoxicological effects are based on the use of certain threshold values, expressed in the \u2018effect factor; as the reciprocal of a PNEC os something similar. For such methods, the prevailing background concentration is unimportant. There is, however, a trend towards incorporating concentration-effect curves, or the slopes of such curves, in which the effect factor is dependent upon the background concentration. This is the case, for example, in the endpoint approach used in the Eco-indicator 99 (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999; cf. Section 4.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8394, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 593, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is the case, for example, in the endpoint approach used in the Eco-indicator 99 (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999; cf. Section 4.2). This is based on the notion of PAFs (Potentially Affected Fraction), the fraction of species that, given an environmental concentration, is exposed above the No Observed Effect Concentration (NOEC) (Van de Meent, 1999). The higher the concentration, the greater the percentage of species considered to be affected. PAFs are based on substance-specific species-sensitivity distributions, in turn are based on the NOECs for these substances for different species. The PAFconcentration curve typically has a log-log shape (see Figure 4.3.8.1). 1The PNECs of Jolliet & Crettaz (1997) are based on species-specific ecotoxicological data, similarly to the MTCs of Heijungs et al. 1992; in this case the modified EPA method was used (see, inter alia, RIVM et al., 1994).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8395, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 590, "book_page": 593, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background The PAF and the PNEC are both based on the same curve (see Figure 4.3.8.1). To apply the PAF concept requires additional data, however, for example on current environmental concentrations. As these data are still lacking for most substances, the concept still has little practical use. The fact that the PAF provides a measure of toxicity that is comparable between substances is considered to be its major advantage. However, specific rules of addition hold for combining PAFs, which are difficult to transpose to LCA, because as a baseline LCA integrates over space and time and these addition rules for combined toxicity are of course only valid when the substances are present at the same place at the same time. While ecotoxicological impact assessment is based on PAFs in the Eco-indicator 99 method, fate and exposure modeling is based on EUSES, a European expansion and update of USES 1.0", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8396, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 591, "book_page": 594, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "While ecotoxicological impact assessment is based on PAFs in the Eco-indicator 99 method, fate and exposure modeling is based on EUSES, a European expansion and update of USES 1.0. The method is operational for 46 substances emitted to air, water and soil. The methods used to derive characterisation factors for ecotoxicological impacts very much resemble those employed for human toxicological impacts. There is one major difference, however. In the case of human toxicity the ADI is often taken as a reference level for risk evaluation. The ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) represents an acceptable risk level for one species: humans, based on extrapolation of a range of known human toxicological effects. In the case of ecotoxicity a PNEC (Predicted No Effect Concentration) or MTC (Maximum Tolerable Concentration) is used as a reference level to evaluate the risk", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8397, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 591, "book_page": 594, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of ecotoxicity a PNEC (Predicted No Effect Concentration) or MTC (Maximum Tolerable Concentration) is used as a reference level to evaluate the risk. These levels represent an acceptable risk level for ecosystems and are based on extrapolation of selected toxic effects on a few selected species to the overall \u2018toxic impact\u2019 on an entire ecosystem. PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). In this respect the PAF method seems promising, but requires further work and operationalisation. At the moment the EPA is working on a list of so-called \u2018PBT\u2019 chemicals that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic, to be used to focus source-reduction and recycling measures", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8398, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 591, "book_page": 594, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the moment the EPA is working on a list of so-called \u2018PBT\u2019 chemicals that are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic, to be used to focus source-reduction and recycling measures. To compile the list some 4000 chemicals are being screened and the resultant PBT information stored in a database. This database might perhaps in the future be used in combination with the data of Huijbregts (1999a) and the USES-LCA data to gain an approximate indication of human and ecotoxicological characterisation factors for a large group of substances. CONCLUSIONS Given the foregoing considerations, for the same reasons as for impact category human toxicity we recommend using Huijbregts (1999a), based on fate modeling with USES-LCA, as the baseline characterisation method for ecotoxicity. USES-LCA treats intermedia transport in most realistically and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8399, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 591, "book_page": 594, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background comprehensively, using continuous variables. The fact that the method of Huijbregts also comprises factors for human toxicity (see Section 4.3.7) is an additional advantage, allowing the two impact categories to be assessed with a similar fate model. An infinite time horizon is thereby adopted (criterion 7), and the global scale as spatial horizon (criterion 10). As with human toxicity, however, it should be borne in mind that the list of 180 substances provided by Huijbregts (1999a) represents merely a very small subset of all known and unknown toxic substances. If the case study involves substances suspected of contributing to ecotoxicity for which no characterisation factors are provided in this Guide, such factors should be calculated. If this is not feasible, an attempt should be made to estimate such factors based on similar or related substances for which they are available (by extrapolation, for example; cf. Section 4.3.17)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8400, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 595, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If this is not feasible, an attempt should be made to estimate such factors based on similar or related substances for which they are available (by extrapolation, for example; cf. Section 4.3.17). It is not advised to use \u2018old\u2019 characterisation factors that ignore fate, such as those developed by Heijungs et al. (1992), even if these are available for more substances than the new, fatebased factors. Fate is a particularly important consideration in the context of the ecotoxicity of chemical pollutants and its exclusion might lead to misleading results. The baseline characterisation method for ecotoxicity, using the characterisation factor is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria in Table 4.3.8.1. Table 4.3.8.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for ecotoxicity, using the characterisation factor with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8401, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 595, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choicesandassumptions focal point in environrmental mechanism linear time span fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation partly: although fate calculations are based on well understood environmental mechanisms, actual toxicological effects are assessed via a very crude aggregation of very different effects (from reduced fertility to mortality) among species and ecosystems yes, the category indicator represents risks to ecosystems (near-endpoint level) no; however, USES-LCA is very similar to the model EUSES, supported by the European Union (EUSES is in fact based on USES) yes; the choice of valuing all effects and species equally is particularly debatable (nearly) endpoint yes eternity fate included, exposure/intake not relevant, effects included yes; below-threshold effects are also included yes,", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8402, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 595, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "effects and species equally is particularly debatable (nearly) endpoint yes eternity fate included, exposure/intake not relevant, effects included yes; below-threshold effects are also included yes, although in fact the ETPs are European factors yes, for 180 substances emitted to air, water and soil presumably about the same as for the other category indicators that include fate (method group 2) The following methods are included in this guide as options for sensitivity analysis, particularly for LCA studies in which results for this impact category are dominated by metals and volatile, persistent halogenated organics: The FAETPs, MAETPs, FSETPs, MSETPs and TETPs for the time horizons 20, 100 and 500 years at the global scale: Huijbregts et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8403, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 595, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(2000). The FAETPs, MAETPs, FSETPs, MSETPs and TETPs for an infinite time horizon at the continental scale (i.e. excluding global effects): Huijbregts et al. (2000). Recommendations for extended LCAs: If the case study involves substances suspected of contributing to ecotoxicity for which FAETPs, MAETPs, FSETPs, MSETPs and TETPs are not provided in this Guide, such factors should be calculated. If this is not feasible, an attempt should be made to estimate ETPs for these substances based on similar or related substances for which these ETPs are available (by extrapolation, for example; cf. Section 4.3.17).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8404, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 592, "book_page": 595, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity: method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 Marine ecotoxicity: method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 Terrestrial ecotoxicity: method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 Freshwater sediment ecotoxicity: method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 Marine sediment ecotoxicity: method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor \u2013 \u2013 reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997 reference", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8405, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 596, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997 reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 \u2013 reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Guin\u00e9e et al., 1996; Jolliet & Crettaz, 1997 reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 \u2013 reference Huijbregts, 1999a Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 Huijbregts et al., 2000 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: The potential for integrating the method of Huijbregts (1999a) with the so-called PAF approach should be investigated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8406, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 596, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The potential for using the PAF approach to aggregate ecotoxicological with such other effects as eutrophication and acidification should be further investigated.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8407, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 593, "book_page": 596, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background This database might perhaps in the future be used in combination with the data of Huijbregts (1999a) and the USES-LCA data to calculate approximate human and ecotoxicological characterisation factors for a larger group of substances. Photo-oxidant formation TOPIC Photo-oxidant formation is the formation of reactive chemical compounds such as ozone by the action of sunlight on certain primary air pollutants. These reactive compounds may be injurious to human health and ecosystems and may also damage crops. The relevant areas of protection are human health, the man-made environment, the natural environment and natural resources (Udo de Haes et al., 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8408, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The relevant areas of protection are human health, the man-made environment, the natural environment and natural resources (Udo de Haes et al., 1999). Photo-oxidants may be formed in the troposphere under the influence of ultraviolet light, through photochemical oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the presence of nitrogen oxides Ozone is considered the most important of these oxidising compounds, along with peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Photo-oxidant formation, also known as summer smog, Los Angeles smog or secondary air pollution, contrasts with winter smog, or London smog, which is characterised by high levels of inorganic compounds, mainly particles, carbon monoxide and sulphur compounds. This latter type of smog causes bronchial irritation, coughing, etc. Winter smog, as far as considered in this Guide, is part of human toxicity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8409, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This latter type of smog causes bronchial irritation, coughing, etc. Winter smog, as far as considered in this Guide, is part of human toxicity. Today, three methods are available for comparing the ozone creation potential of different species of VOC, based on: POCPs (e.g. Derwent & Jenkin, 1990, Derwent et al., 1998) fate factors (Hofstetter, 1998) Incremental Reactivity (e.g. Carter, 1994) 1. 2. 3. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) The numerous atmospheric species of VOC vary widely in their contribution to photo-oxidant formation. In Heijungs et al. (1992) Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials (POCPs) were used as a characterisation factor to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact category photo-oxidant formation: where (kg) is the mass of substance i released, the photochemical ozone creation potential of the substance and Photo-oxidant formation is the indicator result, which is expressed in kg ethylene-equivalents. In Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8410, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In Heijungs et al. (1992) it was proposed to flag emissions to remind practitioners of their crucial relevance to photo-oxidant formation. In most current LCA studies the available data set will not include specific VOC species, but only groups of hydrocarbons and methane. In such cases Heijungs et al. (1992) recommended deriving average POCPs for these groups from the arithmetical average of the data for individual VOCs. The POCP is calculated as the estimated quantity of ozone formed photochemically by a given VOC, using a model to calculate ozone formation in the presence and absence of this compound (UNECE, 1990). This means that, unlike ODPs and GWPs, the POCPs calculated by Derwent & Jenkin (1990) are based on an \u2018average\u2019 rather than a \u2018marginal\u2019 approach. Heijungs et al. (1992) suggested that it would be more attractive to calculate POCPs on the basis of a marginal change in emissions, as with GWPs and ODPs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8411, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs et al. (1992) suggested that it would be more attractive to calculate POCPs on the basis of a marginal change in emissions, as with GWPs and ODPs. One of the advantages of a marginal approach is that would also be included, as explained below, in contrast to Derwent & Jenkin\u2019s method, which covers only VOCs. Although acts as a catalyst in the chemical reactions involved in photochemical smog formation and is therefore not consumed, its background concentration affects the course of ozone production. As is also removed from the atmosphere in the form of (acidic, eutrophying) precipitation and deposition, photochemical reactions will only be maintained if there is a continuous supply thereof. In the methods currently used to estimate POCPs the emission-effect curve is assumed to be a straight line through the origin", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8412, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the methods currently used to estimate POCPs the emission-effect curve is assumed to be a straight line through the origin. This is an extremely coarse approximation of the actual situation and may introduce errors for certain substances, including In principle, it would be possible to calculate a POCP for However, setting emissions to zero for the reference part of the calculation outlined above would lead to absurd results, as there would be no ozone production at all without The emission-effect curve of is far from linear. If POCPs were calculated on the basis of marginal changes in emissions, a POCP could be derived for 4.3.9", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8413, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 594, "book_page": 597, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Methods based on POCPs Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials (POCPs) were originally developed to assess various emission scenarios for volatile organic compounds (Derwent & Jenkin, 1990). A UN protocol defined the POCP of a VOC as the ratio between the change in ozone concentration due to a change in the emission of that VOC and the change in the ozone concentration due to a change in the emission of ethylene (UNECE, 1990). Expressed as a formula: where is the change in ozone concentration due to a change in the emission of VOC i and the integrated emission of VOC i up to that time, with the denominator containing these parameters for ethylene, the reference substance. The POCPs of Derwent & Jenkin (1990), used as characterisation factors in Heijungs et al. (1992), were updated in 1996, 1998 and 1999 (Derwent et al., 1996, 1998; Jenkin & Hayman, 1999). These figures are based on a 5-day trajectory model of VOC transportation above Europe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8414, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 598, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992), were updated in 1996, 1998 and 1999 (Derwent et al., 1996, 1998; Jenkin & Hayman, 1999). These figures are based on a 5-day trajectory model of VOC transportation above Europe. In the first update POCPs for NO, and several other inorganic substances were also included, in contrast to the Derwent & Jenkin POCPs of 1990. However, it is not clearly explained how these were calculated. In the last two updates only the POCPs for VOCs were revised, using a new calculation method. The original POCPs for these compounds were based on the difference in ozone formation with and without the VOC in question, which, as already mentioned, is an \u2018average\u2019 approach (see text box). The new POCPs (Derwent et al., 1998; Jenkin & Hayman, 1999) are based on a \u2018marginal\u2019 approach, being calculated from the 5-dayintegrated incremental ozone production due to an incremental emission of the VOC on top of a basic emission scenario. Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8415, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 598, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al. (1992) have calculated POCPs for a different trajectory with a lower background concentration of POCPs have thus been calculated for two scenarios: a scenario with a relatively high background concentration (i.e. with a surplus of and VOC as limiting factor for ozone formation), yielding POCPs\u2019 (Derwent et al., 1998); and a scenario with a relatively low background concentration (i.e. with a surplus of VOC and as limiting factor for ozone formation), yielding POCPs\u2019 (Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al., 1992). Methods based on fate factors Hofstetter (1998) has developed characterisation factors based on Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) for respiratory diseases due to air pollution (see also Section 4.3.7)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8416, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 598, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These factors, which are used in the Eco-indicator 99 (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999), take account of ozone-induced respiratory disease for a number of VOCs and based on a fate factor and the DALY for A fate factor for and for Non-Methane VOC (NMVOC) was derived using the EMEP model1, with a fate factor for other VOCs then being derived by multiplying the ratio between the POCP of the VOC in question and that of NMVOC by the fate factor for NMVOC derived with the EMEP model: The only difference between the characterisation values developed by Hofstetter (1998) and the POCPs discussed above is located in two constants: the DALY for and (Note that DALYs do not cover effects on ecosystems or crops, and that these effects should be assessed separately.) Hofstetter (1998) has also developed characterisation factors for respiratory diseases for the main inorganic chemicals causing winter smog: particles, CO and sulphur compounds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8417, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 598, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With this method summer and winter smog can therefore be amalgamated into one category indicator. Methods based on Incremental Reactivity An alternative approach to describing the potential contribution of VOCs to photo-oxidant formation is thyat based on the notion of Incremental Reactivity (IR; Carter 1994, Carter, 1997). The incremental 1 European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (Barret & Berge, 1996).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8418, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 595, "book_page": 598, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background reactivity of a VOC in a pollution scenario is defined as the change in ozone caused by adding a small amount of the VOC to the emissions in the scenario, divided by the amount of VOC added (Carter, 1994): with: the Incremental Reactivity of substance I; the change in ozone (g); the incremental mass of VOC added (g). IRs are calculated using a so-called \u2018base case scenario\u2019 (i.e. specific pollution scenario) that represents a specific ozone exceedence episode in an area of the United States", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8419, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The base case scenario is subsequently adjusted, resulting in three derived scenarios and three associated IRs: MIR scenario: Maximum Incremental Reactivity scenario, in which the emissions in the base case scenario are adjusted to yield the highest incremental reactivity of the initially present VOC mixture MOR scenario: Maximum Ozone Reactivity scenario, in which the emissions in the base case scenario are adjusted to yield the highest peak ozone concentration EBIR scenario: Equal Benefit Incremental Reactivity scenario, in which the emissions in the base case scenario are adjusted such that VOC and NOX reductions are equally effective in reducing These three scenarios provide three different IRs: the MIR scenario yields MIRs (Maximum Incremental Reactivity), the MOR scenario MOIRs (Maximum Ozone Incremental Reactivity) and the EBIR scenario EBIRs (Equal Benefit Incremental Reactivity (Carter, 1994) There are three main differences between the approach based on IRs and that", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8420, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(Maximum Ozone Incremental Reactivity) and the EBIR scenario EBIRs (Equal Benefit Incremental Reactivity (Carter, 1994) There are three main differences between the approach based on IRs and that employing POCPs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8421, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "First, while recent POCPs were developed on the basis of regional European scenarios (Derwent et al., 1998; Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al., 1992), IRs are grounded in scenarios for urban areas in North America (Carter 1994, Carter, 1997). Second, POCPs are based on a trajectory model of VOC transport over Europe, IRs on a single-cell box model. Third. POCPs are based on a time span of 5 days, IRs on a time span of at most one day. In other respects, too, the scenarios used for the respective calculations are at variance and are therefore difficult to compare. At the same time, though, there is a reasonable correlation between the POCP and MIR values, which generally predict the same relative importance of different classes of VOC (Hahn & Will, 1995; Jenkin & Hayman, 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8422, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MIRs consider ozone formation on a much shorter time scale, however, and therefore give greater weight to those VOCs that are rapidly oxidised, whereas POCPs provide better resolution of less reactive VOCs (Jenkin & Hayman, 1999). Moving back to the wider discussion of photo-oxidant formation, several important issues have been raised in the recent literature. In the first place, a number of authors consider it preferable to characterise emissions under the heading of photo-oxidant formation and several attempts have been made to do so. Frischknecht (1998) bases a POCP for on the assumption that and VOCs are equally responsible for photo-oxidant formation. He then uses the quotient of annual Swiss emissions of and non-methane VOCs (NMVOCs) to calculate a POCP of 0.645 kg ethylene-equivalents per kg Apart from this being a very crude assumption, these calculations in fact appear to be incorrect1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8423, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hoffstetter (1998) calculates a fate factor for from data generated by the aforementioned EMEP model (Barret & Berge, 1996). This factor, which he himself characterises as very uncertain, is equal to that of all NMVOC combined (kg ethylene-equivalents). Finnveden et al. (1992), Lindfors (1996) and Nichols et al. (1996) propose dividing the category into two, one for and one for VOCs (and CO). Lindfors et al. (1995c) even add a separate subcategory for CO. However, they do not elaborate these proposals into characterisation factors for Derwent et al. have calculated POCPs voor NO and It has also been proposed that POCPs should better reflect the fact that differences in background concentration lead to different relative contributions of individual VOCs to ozone formation. To tackle this 1 Frischknecht assumes that all VOC is ethylene and probably confused these numbers with those for emissions of NMVOC and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8424, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 596, "book_page": 599, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background problem, Nichols et al. (1996) and Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) propose using two different lists of POCPs for VOCs: one for situations with a high background concentration (data from Derwent & Jenkins, 1990, recently updated in Derwent et al. 1998) and one for situations with a low background concentration (data from Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al., 1992). Another option would be to use MOIRs and EBIRs in situations with high or low concentrations, respectively. Many authors hold that a distinction should be made between long-term and short-term processes (e.g. Finlayson-Pits & Pits, 1993; Nichols et al., 1996). Short-term smog episodes characterised by high ozone concentrations (e.g. >120 ppb) are best understood in terms of the effects of oxidant formation on human health. However, longer periods with lower ozone levels may also cause damage to human health, crops and forest ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8425, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 600, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, longer periods with lower ozone levels may also cause damage to human health, crops and forest ecosystems. Both POCPs and MIRs (MOIRS and EBIRS) are concerned specifically with ozone formation potential in peak situations and it is unclear whether these factors are also valid for extended periods of low ozone concentration. Finally inventory data are often insufficiently differentiated, mentioning only \u2018total VOC emission\u2019, or similar. One way of tackling this problem is to use average POCPs for the total VOC emissions of different types of emission source. (For a description of other approaches to the problem of group parameters, see Section 3.6) This approach has been followed by Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) and by Derwent et al. (1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8426, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 600, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(For a description of other approaches to the problem of group parameters, see Section 3.6) This approach has been followed by Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) and by Derwent et al. (1996). A second option is to solve the problem in the inventory phase, using sourcespecific emission profiles sources (see Section 3.6) PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). CONCLUSIONS As a baseline it is recommended to use the most recent POCPs of Derwent et al. (1998) and Jenkin & Hayman (1999), supplemented with the POCPs for inorganic substances1 of Derwent et al. (1996), which include NO and Although MIRs, MOIRS and EBIRs also focus on ozone formation potential, these indicators consider ozone formation over a much shorter time scale", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8427, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 600, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996), which include NO and Although MIRs, MOIRS and EBIRs also focus on ozone formation potential, these indicators consider ozone formation over a much shorter time scale. Because the longer term is relevant in the LCA context, POCPs are to be preferred over MIRs (criterion 7). The POCPs of Andersson-sk\u00f6ld et al. (1992) are based on the same model as the POCPs of Derwent et al. (1998) and Jenkin & Hayman (1999). Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) advise using the POCPs for Scandinavia and other situations with low concentrations and the POCPs for the rest of Europe and other regions with high concentrations. Given the fact that the latter are more frequently updated, however, the difference between the two appears to be accrue not only from regional atmospheric variation, but also from growing scientific knowledge. In our view, therefore, it is inappropriate to use both types of POCP in one and the same LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8428, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 600, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In our view, therefore, it is inappropriate to use both types of POCP in one and the same LCA. As a baseline we recommend using the POCPs, because these are more up to date and because we anticipate that most emissions covered by LCAs will occur in regions with high concentrations. It is advised to use emission profiles to disaggregate aggregated VOC emissions before Impact assessment, rather than using POCPs for specific VOC mixtures (see Section 3.6 and Part 2b, Section 3.6). Such disaggregation is also relevant for other impact categories like human toxicity and ecotoxicity. The evaluation of the baseline characterisation method using the characterisation factor high NOx POCP with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria is shown in Table 4.3.9.1. 1 When consulted on this topic, D. Derwent confirmed that the old (average) POCPs for inorganic substances can be combined with the new (marginal) POCPs for VOCs.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8429, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 597, "book_page": 600, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Table 4.3.9.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for photo-oxidant formation, using the characterisation factor high POCP, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linear time span fate, exposure/intake and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation yes; based on a widely supported trajectory model yes; the adverse effects of high ozone concentrations (especially those on human health) are well understood not officially, but the POCPs of Derwent et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8430, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 601, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1998) are widely used all over the world yes midpoint yes 5 days fate included, exposure/intake not relevant, effects included in terms of effects on photo-oxidant formation yes; below-threshold effects are also included yes, although in fact POCPs are representative for European countrieswithhighbackground concentrations yes, for 120 VOCs it is not known how the uncertainties in POCPs compare with those associated with other methods for this impactcategory The following methods are included in the guide as options for sensitivity analysis: MIRs, MOIRs and EBIRs (Carter, 1997), when there is interest in assessing VOCs on a shorter time scale. The POCPs of Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al. (1992) for LCA studies in which most emissions take place in regions with low concentrations. No additional recommendations are provided for extended LCAs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8431, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 601, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The POCPs of Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al. (1992) for LCA studies in which most emissions take place in regions with low concentrations. No additional recommendations are provided for extended LCAs. method status baseline alternative 1 alternative 2 alternative 3 alternative 4 additional variant characterisation method/factor high POCP MIR MOIR EBIR low POCP \u2013 \u2013 reference Derwent et al., 1996; Derwent et al., 1998; Jenkin & Hayman, 1999 Carter, 1997 Carter, 1997 Carter, 1997 Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld et al., 1992 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: The old POCPs are based on an average approach, the new POCPs on a marginal approach. This makes them a good starting point for a general analysis of the differences between using a marginal and an average approach for the same impact category. 4.3.10 Acidification TOPIC Acidifying pollutants have a wide variety of impacts on soil, groundwater, surface waters, biological organisms, ecosystems and materials (buildings)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8432, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 601, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.10 Acidification TOPIC Acidifying pollutants have a wide variety of impacts on soil, groundwater, surface waters, biological organisms, ecosystems and materials (buildings). Examples include fish mortality in Scandinavian lakes, forest decline and the crumbling of building materials. The major acidifying pollutants are and Areas of protection are the natural environment, the man-made environment, human health and natural resources (see Figure 4.2.2). NOx", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8433, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 598, "book_page": 601, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Acidification is one of the impact categories in which local sensitivity plays an important role and the possibility of including regional differences in the LCA model has been a key issue in recent years. It is Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) acidification potentials (APs) were used as a characterisation factor to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact category acidification: where (kg) is the mass of substance i released, the Acidification Potential of the substance and Acidification is the indicator result, which is expressed in kg Potential acid deposition can be expressed in terms of potential allowing potentially acidifying emissions to be aggregated on the basis of their capacity to form It is assumed, for instance, that one molecule of yields two ions, with one molecule of nitrogen oxides and one molecule of reduced nitrogen compound each yielding a single ion", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8434, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 602, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The acidification potential (AP) of substance i is defined as the number of ions produced per kg substance relative to where represents the number of ions that can potentially be produced per kg substance i, and the number of ions produced per kg The emission-effect curve is a straight line through zero. therefore discussed here as an extension of the general discussion on regionalisation earlier in this chapter (see discussion on criteria below Table 4.3.1). As stated, APs reflect the maximum acidification potential of a substance. The actual impact will be governed by local processes and circumstances, and will be reduced as mineralisation and denitrification rates increase. The acidification caused by a particular substance may also be reduced if the anions accompanying the hydrogen ions become bound to the impacted system (for a certain period, for it is not an infinite buffer) or absorbed and removed by biomass (Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998; Lindfors, 1996)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8435, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 602, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is particularly relevant for and where actual acidification may vary between 0% and 100% of the potential value. Several methods have been proposed to deal with local differences in sensitivity to acidification: 1. 2. 3. 4. neglecting emissions in non-sensitive areas (e.g. Hogan et al., 1996); weighting emissions according to the sensitivity of the area in which they are emitted (e.g. Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). assessing a maximum and a minimum scenario (e.g. Lindfors, 1996; Nichols et al., 1996); extending models to include regional sensitivity and fate (e.g. Potting et al, 1998; Huijbregts, 1999b) . These four options are considered in turn. 1. Neglecting emissions in non-sensitive areas The simplest solution is to neglect all emissions occurring in non-sensitive areas, as exemplified in the method presented by Hogan et al. (1996). As this requires knowledge of the geographical location of the acidifying emissions (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8436, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 602, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996). As this requires knowledge of the geographical location of the acidifying emissions (i.e. the country of origin), additional information must be collected in the Inventory phase. 2. Weighting emissions according to local sensitivity A more sophisticated method is to weight emissions according to the sensitivity of the area in which they are emitted. Examples of this approach are Blau & Seneviratne (1995), Tolle (1997) and Hauschild & Wenzel (1998). Blau & Seneviratne (1995) propose three different sensitivity classes for Europe and for the World, while Tolle (1997) proposes state-specific scaling factors for the USA. Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) propose the same characterisation factors as Heijungs et al. (1992). In addition, they propose using a \u2018site factor\u2019 to account for local circumstances that reduce the acidifying impact of certain substances in particular areas", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8437, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 602, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992). In addition, they propose using a \u2018site factor\u2019 to account for local circumstances that reduce the acidifying impact of certain substances in particular areas. For instance, they report that 25% of the annual nitrogen input to forest ecosystems in Denmark is removed in harvested trees. This leads to a site factor of 0.75 for and in Danish forests. These methods also require the location of the acidifying emissions to be known", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8438, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 599, "book_page": 602, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background (Blau & Seneviratne: more or less at national level; Tolle: at state level; Hauschild & Wenzel: at ecosystem level, e.g. forest, natural area1). 3. Assessing a maximum and a minimum scenario Lindfors (1996) and Nichols et al. (1996) propose an entirely different approach. They suggest that two acidification scenarios should be studied: a maximum scenario including the contribution of and and a minimum scenario excluding the contribution of these compounds, which may vary widely depending on soil conditions (influencing anion leaching) and ecosystem management (biomass removal). 4. Modeling regional sensitivity and fate The above methods all take account of the sensitivity of the region in which the acidifying substances are emitted but not for the subsequent fate of the substance. Potting et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8439, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 603, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Potting et al. (1998) propose an approach that includes both fate and regional sensitivity based on a dispersion model developed by EMEP, the Cooperative Program for Monitoring and Evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollutants in Europe (Amann et al., 1996; Barret et al., 1996) and on the acidification model RAINS (Posch et al., 1997): with with the total acidification; ecosystem e in grid cell j; the critical load for ecosystem e in grid cell j; the deposition on grid cell j; a step function which is 0 if the deposition is below the CL of ecosystem e and 1 if it is above; a transport factor: the fraction of deposited on j; the emission of substance x in region r. Although it is an advantage that this method takes account of regional differences in sensitivity and fate, there is one concern: the use of a step function. For each type of ecosystem distinguished by RAINS a critical acidification load for sulphur and nitrogen is calculated based on ecosystem properties", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8440, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 603, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For each type of ecosystem distinguished by RAINS a critical acidification load for sulphur and nitrogen is calculated based on ecosystem properties. Europe is divided into a very large number of grid cells, and for each of these a cumulative distribution can be made of the critical loads of all the ecosystems it comprises; see Figure 4.3.10.12. This step function is used to find the change in unprotected ecosystem area as a result of a change in deposition (which is in turn the result of a change in acidifying emissions). 1 As emissions do not frequently occur in such natural areas, however, this ecosystem-based method appears to require a fate component. 2 In reality this is rather more complicated because Rains-Europe now uses critical load functions represented by isolines for combined sulphur and nitrogen loads. However, the principle of calculating critical load exceedance remains the same.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8441, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 600, "book_page": 603, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Because of this step function a marginal increase in emission will not generally lead to a change in the ecosystem area that is unprotected, although occasionally there will be a relatively large change. In other words, the derivative of is either zero or infinity. This is certainly not a suitable basis for a characterisation factor, which is designed to describe the effects of marginal changes in emissions. This becomes less problematical if the number of kinds of ecosystem in a grid cell is sufficiently large and a sufficiently large \u2018marginal\u2019 increase in emissions is used to derive acidification factors. Potting therefore takes a 10% increase in regional emission as a \u2018marginal\u2019 change, which he claims is sufficient to overcome this problem. If a smaller change had been chosen, however, the resulting characterisation factors would have been different. The equivalency factors are thus highly dependent on the choice of \u2018marginal\u2019 emission change", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8442, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 604, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The equivalency factors are thus highly dependent on the choice of \u2018marginal\u2019 emission change. Huijbregts (1999b) has therefore proposed an improvement. He suggests using not the change in unprotected ecosystem area as the effect, but the change in relative risk. This relative risk is characterised by the ratio between deposition and critical load. Huijbregts thus replaces: by This solves the problem by changing the step function into a continuous function, with the characterisation factor for acidification now based on a deposition/critical load ratio simular to the PEC/PNEC ratio used for ecotoxicity. Based on this relative risk and some other minor changes to RAINS, Huijbregts has adapted RAINS to the purposes of LCA, calling it RAINS-LCA, and using it to calculate regional characterisation factors for acidification. A second concern is the need for global characterisation factors in LCA. Potting et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8443, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 604, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A second concern is the need for global characterisation factors in LCA. Potting et al. (1998) have calculated regional characterisation factors for approximately 40 regions in Europe, but no average European or global factors. Huijbregts (1999b) has calculated average European factors, by weighted summation of the regional factors for each acidifying substance: with: the regional acidification potential of substance x in region r; ecosystem e (in grid cell j); the critical load for ecosystem e (in grid cell j); a transport factor: the fraction of deposited on j; the emission of substance x in region r. In the ExternE project (EC, 1995a) three different types of effects of acid rain are modeled separately: effects on ecosystems, effects on buildings, and effects on recreational fishery. Substance fate is also", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8444, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 601, "book_page": 604, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background PROSPECTS modeled using two different models: a Gaussian plume model and a trajectory model. However, ExternE does not provide straightforward characterisation factors that can be used directly in LCA. For the Eco-indicator 99 (see Section 4.2), damage factors were calculated using the so-called \u2018Nature Planner\u2019, a fate and effect model developed for the Netherlands (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). The authors have expressed doubts as to whether the model is still valid at the European or global scale, however. CONCLUSIONS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). Concluding, the average European characterisation factors of Huijbregts (1999b) are recommended for the time being as the best available practice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8445, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Concluding, the average European characterisation factors of Huijbregts (1999b) are recommended for the time being as the best available practice. Regional factors have not been adopted as the baseline, because it is not always possible, nor desirable, to consider differences between emission sites in LCA. It is therefore important that emission site-independent characterisation factors become available, even for those impact categories for which local sensitivity is important (criterion 10 for selection of baseline characterisation method). The average European factors of Huijbregts (1999b) are better linked to the category endpoint natural environment than the old factors of Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8446, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The average European factors of Huijbregts (1999b) are better linked to the category endpoint natural environment than the old factors of Heijungs et al. (1992), even when used together with first three options above: \u2018maximum and minimum scenarios for and (Lindfors, 1996; Nichols et al., 1996), \u2018neglecting emissions in non-sensitive areas\u2019 (Hogan et al., 1996) and \u2018weighting of emissions according to the sensitivity of the area in which they are emitted\u2019 (Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998), because they account for the fate and sensitivity of the receiving ecosystem (criteria 2 and 8). The ExternE method is not operational in terms of characterisation factors (criterion 11) and the method of Goedkoop & Spriensma has an important source of uncertainty (criterion 12): \u201cthe very crude assumption that the average sensitivity of Dutch natural areas is representative for the average sensitivity of other natural areas\u201c (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8447, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The baseline characterisation method for acidification, using the AP based on RAINS-LCA, is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria in Table 4.3.10.1. Table 4.3.10.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for acidification, using the AP based on RAINS-LCA, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1 . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8448, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation yes, based on the RAINS model, supported by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE) yes, near-endpoint level not officially, but RAINS is supported by UN/ECE present, but accepted by an international community near endpoint yes eternity all included yes, effects below threshold are also included yes, although in fact they are representative for Europe yes, for the three main acidifying substances: and greater than for the method using the APs of Heijungs et al. (1992) The following method is included in the guide as an option for sensitivity analysis: The method using the acidification potentials of Heijungs et al. (1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8449, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) The following method is included in the guide as an option for sensitivity analysis: The method using the acidification potentials of Heijungs et al. (1992). Several substances have been added to the 1992 list (source: Hauschild & Wenzel, 1998). This data set is useful when substances otherthan or are involved. Recommendations for extended LCAs: If most emissions take place in Europe, the regional characterisation factors of Huijbregts (1999b) should be used. This means gathering extra information in the Inventory phase on the region of origin of the acidifying emissions. (", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8450, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 602, "book_page": 605, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor average European AP generic AP region (site) dependent AP \u2013 reference Huijbregts, 1999b Heijungs et al. , 1992 (updated with 1998) Huijbregts, 1999b Hogan et al., 1996; regional factors of 1998; Potting et al.(1998) Hauschild & Wenzel, Hauschild & Wenzel, RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: It is desirable to develop a standard method to account for fate and regional differences for all impact categories. To this end a research programme should be initiated focusing on all impact categories for which fate and regionalisation may be important, including acidification. 4.3.11 Eutrophication Eutrophication covers all potential impacts of excessively high environmental levels of macronutrients, the most important of which are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8451, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 606, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.3.11 Eutrophication Eutrophication covers all potential impacts of excessively high environmental levels of macronutrients, the most important of which are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Nutrient enrichment may cause an undesirable shift in species composition and elevated biomass production in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, high nutrient concentrations may also render surface waters unacceptable as a source of drinking water. In aquatic ecosystems increased biomass production may lead to a depressed oxygen levels, because of the additional consumption of oxygen in biomass decomposition (measured as BOD, biological oxygen demand). As emissions of degradable organic matter have a similar impact, such emissions are also treated under the impact category \u2018eutrophication\u2019. The areas of protection are the natural environment, natural resources and the man-made environment (see Figure 4.2.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8452, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 606, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The areas of protection are the natural environment, natural resources and the man-made environment (see Figure 4.2.2). SETAC-Europe has also assigned the emission of waste heat to this impact category. In this guide, however, waste heat is treated as a separate category (see Section 4.3.12). TOPIC", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8453, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 603, "book_page": 606, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) take more or less the same approach as Heijungs (1992). They calculate nutrient enrichment potentials relative to this being one of the key nutrifying agents. They also base Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) the eutrophication (there termed \u2018nutrification\u2019) due to N, P and C (measured in terms of Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD) was aggregated by quantifying their potential contribution to biomass formation. Eutrophication potentials (EPs) were used as a characterisation factor to assess and aggregate the interventions for the impact category eutrophication: where is the mass of substance i released to the air, water or soil, the Eutrophication Potential of the substance and Eutrophication the indicator result, which is expressed in kg -equivalents. (dimensionless) reflects a substance\u2019s potential contribution to biomass formation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8454, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(dimensionless) reflects a substance\u2019s potential contribution to biomass formation. As a formula: where and are the potential contributions to eutrophication of one mole of substance i and ref (i.e. respectively,and and are the mass of i and ref (i.e. EPs are based on the \u2018average\u2019 chemical composition of aquatic organisms: (Stumm & Morgan, 1981), assumed to be representative of average biomass. The only emissions considered to be eutrophying by Heijungs et al. (1992) were emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. They determined the contribution of each of these nutrients to biomass formation, assuming unlimited supply of other nutrients. In this approach one mole of biomass requires 16 moles of N and 1 mole of P. When degradable organic matter is emitted, the required forits degradation can be measured as chemical oxygen demand (COD)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8455, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When degradable organic matter is emitted, the required forits degradation can be measured as chemical oxygen demand (COD). It is assumed that degradation of one mole of biomass requires 138 moles of Therefore if the contribution toeutrophication, of one mole of P is 1, the contribution of one mole of N, is 1/16 and the contribution of COD (as is 1/138. The contribution of one mole is then expressed as the contribution of one gram by dividing by the molecular weight. In the formula for is the total contribution of one mole of substance i and is the molecular weight of i. The reference substance is used to create eutrophication potentials (EPs), similar to ODPs, GWPs, APs and POCPs. Hence, the characterisation factor for eutrophication is independent of whatever substance happens to be the limiting factor in a particular location. This approach was adopted for two reasons: to obtain universal, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8456, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This approach was adopted for two reasons: to obtain universal, i.e. global characterisation factors, independent of local differences, and because it is unknown which medium (freshwater, salt water, groundwater or soil) an emitted substance will eventually enter. these potentials on the assumption that one mole of P contributes as much to the formation of biomass as 16 moles of N. Besides this overall nutrient enrichment potential they also propose two separate potentials for nitrogen and phosphorus, expressed as gram N and gram P per gram substance, which can be used if it is known on the basis of site-dependent information which of the nutrients is limiting. Only biologically available nitrogen is considered is not classified). Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) do not assign BOD or waste heat to the impact category eutrophication. A general comment in the literature is that the approach of Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8457, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hauschild & Wenzel (1998) do not assign BOD or waste heat to the impact category eutrophication. A general comment in the literature is that the approach of Heijungs et al. (1992) disregards the media of emission as well as the sensitivity of the receiving environment and the limiting nutrient. Two suggestions have been made for overcoming these limitations: by distinguishing ecosystem subcategories, and by including fate and site- or region-dependent effect modeling. The first solution, proposed by Nichols et al. (1996) and by Lindfors et al. (1995c), involves distinguishing ecosystem subcategories. Nichols et al. distinguish 3 subcategories: i) ii) iii) terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems: smaller inland surface waters, and aquatic ecosystems: larger inland surface waters and seas. Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose 5 subcategories representing 5 scenarios: 1. 2. 3. 4", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8458, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose 5 subcategories representing 5 scenarios: 1. 2. 3. 4. terrestrial ecosystems, emissions of N to air (because most terrestrial ecosystems are N-limited) aquatic ecosystems, P-limited; emissions of P and organic matter to water aquatic ecosystems, N-limited; emissions of N and organic matter to water aquatic ecosystems, N-limited; emissions of N to air and water and organic matter to water", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8459, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 604, "book_page": 607, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 5. aquatic ecosystems, emissions of N, P and organic matter to water and N and P to air. The emissions in these scenarios can be characterised in terms of either - or -equivalents or oxygen demand. In the latter case the characterisation factor of substance i, in g oxygen/kg i, is the oxygen required for the mineralisation of the organic matter (average composition) produced from one kg of i when i is the limiting nutrient, with one mole of N and P corresponding respectively to 8.6 and 138 moles of consumed The two types of units for the characterisation factor boil down to the same and are in fact interchangeable. The second option suggested is to include fate and site- or region-dependent effect modeling. Besides acidification factors, Huijbregts (1999b) calculated eutrophication factors for air emissions of and using RAINS-LCA, which also contains critical loads for eutrophication. He calculated both regional and average European factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8460, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "He calculated both regional and average European factors. These factors account only for eutrophication of terrestrial ecosystems due to air emissions. Direct emissions to soil are not included, nor are emissions to water. Effects on aquatic ecosystems are likewise not included. For the Eco-indicator 99, damage factors were calculated using the so-called \u2018Nature Planner\u2019, a fate and effect model developed for the Netherlands (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). The authors have expressed doubts as to whether the model is still valid at the European or global scale, however. PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). Huijbregts & Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 (2000) recently proposed a method for LCA assessment of the effects of eutrofication on aquatic ecosystems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8461, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Huijbregts & Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 (2000) recently proposed a method for LCA assessment of the effects of eutrofication on aquatic ecosystems. This method combines the fate part of RAINS-LCA for air emissions with the characterisation factors of Heijungs et al. (1992). Water emissions are also included, using a fate factor of one (i.e. all emissions to water remain in water). CONCLUSIONS Concluding, our preference would be for assessment of eutrophication using a method that includes multi-media fate and exposure as well as the varying sensitivity of the ecosystems exposed. At present, however, such a method is only available for the terrestrial effects of air emissions of and (criterion 11)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8462, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At present, however, such a method is only available for the terrestrial effects of air emissions of and (criterion 11). Huijbregts & Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4 (2000) propose using this method for terrestrial eutrophication in conjunction with a separate method for aquatic eutrophication, combining a fate factor (calculated with RAINS-LCA for air emissions of and and set to 1 for water emissions) with the old characterisation factors of Heijungs et al. (1992). However, this proposal has two drawbacks: i) emissions to soil are not included, although these may be particularly relevant in LCA studies covering agricultural products (criterion 11), and ii) using different methods for terrestial and aquatic eutrophication would yield two subcategories that cannot simply be summed. The environmental profile would thus contain two scores instead of one for eutrophication", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8463, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The environmental profile would thus contain two scores instead of one for eutrophication. The method of Goedkoop & Spriensma has an important source of uncertainty (criterion 12): \u201cthe very crude assumption that the average sensitivity of Dutch natural areas is representative for the average sensitivity of other natural areas\u201c (Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999). We therefore propose adopting as a baseline the method described in Heijungs et al. (1992), in which all emissions of N and P to air, water and soil and of organic matter to water are aggregated into a single measure, because this method allows both terrestrial and aquatic eutrophication to be assessed. The characterisation factors in -equivalents, - equivalents and are all interchangeable, and in this Guide we opt to use the same concept and factors as Heijungs et al., in -equivalents. Several substances have been added to the original 1992 list", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8464, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Several substances have been added to the original 1992 list. The baseline characterisation method for eutrophication, using the eutrophication potentials of Heijungs et al. (1992) as a characterisation factor, is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.11.1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8465, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 605, "book_page": 608, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Table 4.3.11.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for eutrophication, using the eutrophication potentials of Heijungs et al. (1992) as a characterisation factor, with respect to the (ISObased) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation not relevant category indicator is close to intervention no, but widely used present (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8466, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 609, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "fixed C\u00f7N\u00f7P ratio is representative for biomass, terrestrial and aquatic) midpoint yes eternity fate and exposure not included yes, effects below threshold also included yes yes, for many substances containing bioavailable N P and COD low all or The following method is included in the Guide as an option for sensitivity analysis: The method using the average European eutrophication potentials for terrestrial ecosystems (Huijbregts, 1999b). Recommendations for extended LCAs: If most emissions take place in Europe, the regional characterisation factors of Huijbregts (1999b) should be used. This means gathering extra information in the Inventory phase on the region of origin of the eutrophying emissions. If there are compounds containing bioavailable N or P that are relevant for the study but are not included in the list, calculate characterisation factors using the formula specified above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8467, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 609, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If there are compounds containing bioavailable N or P that are relevant for the study but are not included in the list, calculate characterisation factors using the formula specified above. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor generic EP average European EP region (site) dependent EP \u2013 reference Heijungs et al. , 1992 (updated) Huijbregts, 1999b Huijbregts, 1999b RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: It is desirable to develop a standard method to account for fate and regional differences for all impact categories. To this end a research programme should be initiated focusing on all impact categories for which fate and regionalisation may be important, including eutrophication. 4.3.12 Waste heat TOPIC Emissions of waste heat may increase temperatures on a local scale: in a city or lake, for example. They cannot contribute to global warming on a scale such as that associated with emissions of greenhouse gases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8468, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 609, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "They cannot contribute to global warming on a scale such as that associated with emissions of greenhouse gases. The effects on ecosystems of waste heat emissions to the air are negligible. Depending on local conditions, the discharge of waste heat into surface waters may result in a substantial temperature rise, with a consequent impact on local aquatic ecosystems. SETAC-Europe includes waste heat under the impact category \u2018eutrophication\u2019, because it may likewise lead to lower oxygen concentrations (measured as COD, for example). In this Guide waste heat is treated as a separate impact category, although it covers only aquatic emissions of waste heat such as cooling water emissions from power stations. The areas of protection are the natural environment and natural resources.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8469, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 606, "book_page": 609, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) Waste heat is treated as a separate impact category in Heijungs et al. (1992). The local character of the problem is abstracted by expressing waste heat emissions into water in megajoules (MJ). These emissions can be quantified by estimating the proportions of waste heat discharged via the cooling water and via the air (based on the energy balance of the plant). As this data is available from the Inventory analysis, no further action is required in the classification step. In essence, the characterisation factor for all waste heat emissions to water is 1, and 0 for all waste heat emissions to the atmosphere. There are no new developments relating to the topic of heat emissions to surface water. PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. CONCLUSIONS We propose using the method described in Heijungs et al. (1992)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8470, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 607, "book_page": 610, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PROSPECTS No specific developments are foreseen in this area. CONCLUSIONS We propose using the method described in Heijungs et al. (1992). This means that all heat emissions to water are multiplied by a charaterisation factor of 1. This baseline characterisation method is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.12.1. Table 4.3.12.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for waste heat, using characterisation factor = 1, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8471, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 607, "book_page": 610, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criteria scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty evaluation not relevant category indicator is close to intervention no no close to intervention yes not relevant fate and exposure not included yes yes yes very low No methods are included in this Guide as options for sensitivity analysis. No additional recommendations are given for extendend LCAs. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor unweighted aggregation of energy \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 reference Heijungs et al., 1992 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No research is foreseen.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8472, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 607, "book_page": 610, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 4.3.13 Odour TOPIC Odour becomes a problem when a given concentration of odorous substances is experienced as unpleasant. Whether an odour is experienced as stench will depend on the particular individual exposed. Above a certain emission level, however, every individual will experience it as such. Here, the term odour will be used for effects. The area of protection is human health. Odour may be defined as the observed difference between a sample of clean air and a sample of contaminated air. The concentration at which such a difference cannot quite be observed varies from substance to substance, and depends on the physical and chemical properties of the substance (Brasser et al., 1985)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8473, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The concentration at which such a difference cannot quite be observed varies from substance to substance, and depends on the physical and chemical properties of the substance (Brasser et al., 1985). The odour threshold value of a substance is defined as the concentration of that substance under defined standard conditions at which 50% of a representative sample of the population can just detect the difference between a sample of air mixed with that substance and a sample of clean air. Odour can be measured fairly objectively, while odour nuisance is more a matter of individual sensitivity. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE We are not aware of any new developments in LCIA relating to the topic of odour. Indeed, most LCIA methodologies do not even have an impact category \u2018odour\u2019. Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose that odour be assigned to their impact categories \u2018human health\u2019 and \u2018habitat alterations\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8474, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose that odour be assigned to their impact categories \u2018human health\u2019 and \u2018habitat alterations\u2019. Within the former category they suggest using the same method for odour as Heijungs et al. (1992). The only difference is the name of the impact category. Within the category \u2018habitat alteration\u2019 no category indicator has yet been operationalised for odour. Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) emissions of odorous substances were classified using a method similar to the critical volumes approach, by dividing the emission of a potentially malodorous substance by the odour threshold value of that substance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8475, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A distinction must be made between emissions of potentially malodorous substances to the atmosphere and to water, for each is associated with a different odour threshold value, as expressed in the following formulae: where malodorous air is the quantity of air contaminated to the odour threshold value the emission of substance i into the atmosphere (kg) and the odour threshold value in air of substance i and where malodourous water and represent the same parameters for water. This provisional, critical volumes approach does not account for processes of dispersal, degradation or transformation, which are highly dependent on the particular substance involved. This also means there is no assessment of indirect odour emissions such as ozone. Direct ozone emissions are negligible, particularly in comparison with the ozone formed by photochemical reactions involving volatile organic compounds and (see also Section 4.3.9)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8476, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Direct ozone emissions are negligible, particularly in comparison with the ozone formed by photochemical reactions involving volatile organic compounds and (see also Section 4.3.9). This provisional approach was only partially adopted in the old Guide, the main reason being that no uniform odour threshold values had yet been agreed for many substances. For atmospheric emissions a comprehensive list of odour thresholds was calculated, however, using a uniform method. No such list was yet available for water. PROSPECTS Because odour is not generally considered to be as significant a category as, say, human health or climate change, the proposal of Lindfors et al. (1995c) to include odour in an impact category \u2018human health\u2019 seems reasonable. If and when such an impact category is distinguished aggregating all human health impacts, in the form of DALYs (see Section 4.2) for example, odour might be assigned to this new category", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8477, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If and when such an impact category is distinguished aggregating all human health impacts, in the form of DALYs (see Section 4.2) for example, odour might be assigned to this new category. Until then, it should be possible to develop Odour potentials (OPs) in the same way as the human toxicity potentials and aquatic ecotoxicity potentials developed by Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) or Huijbregts (1999a). A multi-media model might then be used to calculate the fate of the substance and the resulting i", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8478, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 608, "book_page": 611, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background environmental concentrations divided by the odour threshold. The resulting values could then, finally, be compared with the corresponding values for a reference substance. Although the analogy between OPs and HTPs may be an advantage if odour is assigned to human health, the effects on which the threshold values are based are nonetheless very different: adverse health effects for HTPs and annoyance or maybe headaches for OPs. CONCLUSIONS For the present it is recommended to use the critical volumes method described by Heijungs et al. (1992) for malodorous air. No method is yet available for malodorous water. It is proposed to include fate at some time in the future, possibly using a method analogous to that developed for toxic substances by Guin\u00e9e et al. (1996) or by Huijbregts (1999a). The score of this approach with respect to the (ISO) requirements is shown in Table 4.3.13.1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8479, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 612, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1996) or by Huijbregts (1999a). The score of this approach with respect to the (ISO) requirements is shown in Table 4.3.13.1. Table 4.3.13.1: Evaluation of the baseline category indicator for malodorous air, the critical volumes approach of Heijungs et al. (1992), with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8480, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 612, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992), with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criteria scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation no more or less; odour is not the same as odour nuisance, which may affect human well-being no by adoptng the odour threshold level as a reference, a value choice is made to value every odour as malodorous midpoint yes not relevant fate and exposure not included yes, effects below threshold are also included yes yes unknown No methods are included in this Guide as options for sensitivity analysis. Recommendations for extended LCAs: Develop OPs by using USES-LCA for the fate part and 1/OTV for the effect part", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8481, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 612, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recommendations for extended LCAs: Develop OPs by using USES-LCA for the fate part and 1/OTV for the effect part. Malodorous air method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor inverse OTV _ based on fate model and odour threshold values \u2013 reference Heijungs et al., 1992 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research: It is recommended to investigate the scope for developing OPs that include fate. The potential for integrating odour in the categories \u2018human health\u2019 and possibly \u2018ecosystem health\u2019 should also be researched. In the case of \u2018human health\u2019 weighting factors might, for example, be developed to weight odour nuisance with reference to toxic effects. Malodorous water method status characterisation method/factor reference baseline alternative \u2013 \u2013 additional variant \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8482, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 609, "book_page": 612, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 4.3.14 Noise TOPIC Noise, or noise nuisance, refers to the environmental impacts of sound. In principle, these impacts could cover at least human health and ecosystem health, but the environmental mechanisms are complex, non-linear and highly dependent upon local circumstances. Moreover, noise is similar to odour in that a given level of exposure is experienced differently by different individuals. Something considered a nuisance by one person might be appreciated by another, as exemplified by the case of loud music. Hence, whether or not sound waves will lead to \u2018nuisance\u2019 depends partly on the actual situation and partly on the person interviewed. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) Heijungs et al. (1992) aggregated the sound production (in obtained in the inventory to yield an abstract sound level that is non-location- and non-person-specific and referred to it as \u201cpotential noise nuisance\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8483, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 613, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) aggregated the sound production (in obtained in the inventory to yield an abstract sound level that is non-location- and non-person-specific and referred to it as \u201cpotential noise nuisance\u201d. In this case the characterisation factor is essentially 1. This ignores the fact that some sound emissions may not cause any nuisance at all (e.g. source remote from those exposed) while others may cause a great deal of nuisance in certain environments (e.g. in a road tunnel os street canyon): where G is the sound production (in Most LCIA methodologies do not have an impact category \u2018noise\u2019. This runs counter to the observed fact that most people deem noise to be a major environmental problem. Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose assigning noise to the impact categories \u2018human health\u2019, \u2018human health in the working environment\u2019 and \u2018habitat alterations\u2019. Lafleche & Sacchetto (1999) describe a methodology that attempts to include noise in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8484, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 613, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lafleche & Sacchetto (1999) describe a methodology that attempts to include noise in LCA. This methodology embodies a regional approach which is operationalised for one specific case: transport by car or truck along the Bologna-Milan highway. This methodology is still insufficiently developed for general use in LCA. M\u00fcller-Wenk (1999) propose a method for expressing road traffic noise in terms of DALYs (see Section 4.2). This method links transport kilometres directly to DALYs, thereby more or less skipping the inventory phase. As a consequence, this method is useful for road traffic noise only and not for aircraft noise and so on. PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). The method of M\u00fcller-Wenk (1999) might provide a starting point for endpoint modeling of noise", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8485, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 613, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). The method of M\u00fcller-Wenk (1999) might provide a starting point for endpoint modeling of noise. CONCLUSIONS For the present it is recommended to use the method described by Heijungs et al. (1992) as the baseline characterisation method, thus mutiplying all sound produced by a characterisation factor of 1. This method is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.14.1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8486, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 610, "book_page": 613, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Table 4.3.14.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for noise, using characterisation factor = 1, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. No criteria scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation not relevant category indicator is close to intervention no no close to intervention yes not relevant fate and exposure not included yes yes yes, verylow methods are included in this Guide as options for sensitivity analysis. Recommendations for extended LCAs: \u2013 The method of M\u00fcller-Wenk (1999) is recommended as a supplementary method for extended LCAs in which road traffic noise is an important item", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8487, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 614, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Recommendations for extended LCAs: \u2013 The method of M\u00fcller-Wenk (1999) is recommended as a supplementary method for extended LCAs in which road traffic noise is an important item. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor unweighted aggregation of sound _ based on DALY \u2013 reference Heijungs et al., 1992 _ M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1999 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Long-term research: It is recommended to investigate the scope for future assignment of noise to the categories \u2018human health\u2019 (in terms of DALYs) and perhaps \u2018ecosystem health\u2019. It is also recommended to develop DALY-based characterisation factors for the intervention noise, or sound. 4.3.15 Impacts of ionising radiation TOPIC The impact category \u2018impacts of ionising radiation\u2019 covers the impacts arising from releases of radioactive substances as well as direct exposure to radiation, in building materials for example. Exposure to ionising radiation is harmful to both human beings and animals", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8488, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 614, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Exposure to ionising radiation is harmful to both human beings and animals. The areas of protection are therefore human health, the natural environment and natural resources (see Figure 4.2.2). Ionising radiation is expressed in terms of the number of atoms disintegrating (or decaying) per unit time. The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq), one Bq corresponding to one disintegration per second. The radioactivity of a substance is expressed in or Radioactivity always declines in the course of time and the time taken for the radioactivity of a given substance to decline by half is known as the half-life of the substance. The amount of radioactive material is generally expressed in mass terms, i.e. in kg", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8489, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 614, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The amount of radioactive material is generally expressed in mass terms, i.e. in kg. The relationship between emitted radiation and mass m is given by: where is the radiation in Bq, m the mass in kg, the half-life in s, M the molecular mass in and is Avogadro\u2019s number in Different forms of radiation may be released in the process of radioactive disintegration, viz. alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation and X-rays. These forms of radiation may add or remove electrons to or from the atoms they encounter, i.e. ionise them. The degree of ionisation depends on the type of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8490, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 611, "book_page": 614, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background radiation and the material irradiated. During ionisation of a material, energy is transferred to that material. As a result the energy of the radiation is reduced and after a number of ionisations will have been fully absorbed by the irradiated material or tissue. The energy absorbed per unit mass material or tissue is known as the absorbed dose (Jonker et al., 1988). The different types of ionising radiation impinge very differently on living tissue. The effects of a given dose of alpha radiation will differ from those resulting from the same dose of gamma radiation, for example (Jonker et al., 1988). This difference in harmfulness is expressed by means of a so-called \u2018quality factor\u2019: 20 for alpha radiation, 1 for beta and gamma radiation and X-rays, and 10 for neutron radiation (these types of radiation are abbreviated to X and n, respectively). Multiplying the absorbed dose by this quality factor yields the \u2018dose equivalent\u2019, expressed in sievert (Sv)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8491, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 615, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Multiplying the absorbed dose by this quality factor yields the \u2018dose equivalent\u2019, expressed in sievert (Sv). Thus, one dose equivalent of alpha radiation is assumed to have the same aggregate effect as twenty dose equivalents of gamma radiation. It is to be noted that characterisation of the impacts of ionising radiation will remain unfeasible until such time as data on emissions of radioactive substances are included in the Inventory analysis. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Most LCIA-methodologies do not have an impact category \u2018impacts of ionising radiation\u2019. Lindfors et al. (1995c) propose assigning ionising radiation to the impact categories \u2018human health\u2019 and \u2018ecotoxicological impacts\u2019. They do not operationalise a category indicator, however. In connection with the impact category \u2018impacts of ionising radiation\u2019 Heijungs (1994b) distinguishes two Heijungs et al. (1992) Heijungs et al. (1992) discussed the scope for including ionising radiation as an LCA impact category", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8492, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 615, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1992) Heijungs et al. (1992) discussed the scope for including ionising radiation as an LCA impact category. They saw scope for developing ionisation creating potentials (ICPS) based on models used to calculate the ratio between the absorbed and equivalent doses of a substance and the absorbed and equivalent doses of a reference substance. They also discuss assessment of the impacts of ionising radiation by means of an adapted critical volumes approach, by dividing emissions of a radionuclide by some form of \u2018radiation standard\u2019 for the substance in question. For lack of a better alternative they propose using ALIs (Annual Limits of Intake: defined for workplace exposure by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1979, 1991)). It should be noted that the critical volumes approach is a worst-case approach and ignores differences between substances in terms of half-lives and absorbed doses. However, Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8493, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 615, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It should be noted that the critical volumes approach is a worst-case approach and ignores differences between substances in terms of half-lives and absorbed doses. However, Heijungs et al. (1992) do not ultimately include a characterisation method for (the impacts of) ionising radiation. types of emission: emission of radioactive substances to the environment, with subsequent release of radiation during decay; direct emission of radiation to the environment, without actual emission of a radionuclide (e.g. from building materials); and two types of radiation impact: impacts resulting from internal exposure to radiation, due to intake of air, food or drinking water; impacts resulting from external exposure to radiation, due to the presence of radioactive substances in the human environment or in ecosystems. Internal exposure can result only from physical emissions of radionuclides", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8494, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 615, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Internal exposure can result only from physical emissions of radionuclides. For this kind of exposure Heijungs proposes a method including fate, broadly similar to the method for human toxicity adopted by Guin\u00e9e et al (1996). Instead of ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) the aforementioned ALI (Annual Limit of Intake) might be used. A possible provisional method is the critical volumes approach: where is the emission of substance i and the Annual Limit of Intake for that substance in Bq/kg of body weight. External exposure can result from both types of emission: emission of radionuclides or direct emission of radiation. Adequate characterisation of this kind of exposure requires inclusion in the inventory of at least three technical parameters:", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8495, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 612, "book_page": 615, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background the magnitude of the source in Bq; the characteristic decay energy of the radionuclide concerned in eV; the type of particle emitted during decay n). If all these properties are known, one can sum overall external exposure to emitted radiation and to emitted radioactive substances, as expressed in the following formula: where is the quality factor of type i radiation (1 for and 0.1 for n, 0.05 for the magnitude of the source (Bq) and the average decay energy of the radionuclide involved (eV; electronvolt, a unit of energy used in most tables of radionuclides). Heijungs sees two severe limitations to this approach, however: it does not include the relationship between radiation and absorbed dose, and the assumed linear additivity of low and high energy radiation is unrealistic", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8496, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 616, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Solberg-Johansen (1998) suggests a different approach for characterising the risk to humans of emissions of radioactive substances which allows the probability of human exposure to be included. It is based on the following scheme (Figure 4.3.15.1): In thefigure, is the activity of an emission pulse of radionuclide i (Bq), a \u2018dispersion factor\u2019 based on the dispersion \u2018models\u2019 used \u2018exposure concentration\u2019 of i in medium j and is a \u2018screening factor\u2019 for i in j This screening factor is based on the exposure pathways for human beings (via food, air and external radiation) and the dose per unit intake then represents the dose incurred due to emission of i to compartment j (Sv). F is a probability coefficient expressing the probability of occurrence of detrimental health effects like cancer or hereditary disease is then the contribution to human irradiation by radionuclide i, defined as the annual risk of detrimental health effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8497, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 616, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Screening factors and F-values for a range of radionuclides have been published by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1979, 1990 and 1991). The different screening levels in Figure 4.3.15.1 stand for different levels of complexity in the dispersion models employed. Level I embodies a very simple and conservative approach which assumes that the concentration in the receiving environment is equal to the concentration in the stream emitted: the", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8498, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 613, "book_page": 616, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background where is the activity of an emission pulse of radionuclide i (Bq), the dispersion factor for radionuclide i in environmental medium j the screening factor for i in j the volume flow rate of the discharge to j F the probability coefficient Level II accounts for dispersion in the atmosphere and surface waters by using a Gaussian plume model for emissions to air and an advection-diffusion model for emissions to water. Intermedia transport is not accounted for. Level III, developed for air emissions only, uses a Gaussian plume model in combination with individual screening factors for the various exposure pathways. Levels II and III require site-specific data for the dispersion models. Solberg-Johansen recommends using the level II procedure in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8499, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 617, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Levels II and III require site-specific data for the dispersion models. Solberg-Johansen recommends using the level II procedure in LCA. However, this would mean that instead of using substance-specific characterisation factors, for each local process emitting radionuclides a specific dispersion model would have to be used to estimate the fate of these substances. A regionalised inventory is also needed, including information on weather conditions and/or conditions in the surface waters concerned. Solberg-Johansen states that the level I procedure might be used as a global approach. In this case the only \u2018site-specific\u2019 information required is the volume flow rate of the discharge in which the radionuclide was emitted. Both the level I and the level II procedure are operational. provided that the appropriate information is collected in the Inventory phase", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8500, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 617, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Both the level I and the level II procedure are operational. provided that the appropriate information is collected in the Inventory phase. Besides the risk to human health posed by radioactive emissions, Solberg-Johansen (1998) also introduces two other topics: the human risk posed by storage of radioactive solid waste and the general risk to the environment of radionuclides. For both of these she has also developed methods, which we briefly describe. The risk posed by radionuclides in solid waste was estimated on the basis of on a specifically British waste management scenario: Low Level Waste (LLW): characterisation factors based on a site-specific study on the Driggs disposal site by Smith et al. (1998); Intermediate Level Waste (ILW): characterisation factors based on a study by PAGIS (PAGIS, 1988); High Level Waste (HLW): characterisation factors based on a study by PACOMA (Mobbs et al., 1991). Characterisation factors are expressed in for LLW, and in for ILW and HLW", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8501, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 617, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Characterisation factors are expressed in for LLW, and in for ILW and HLW. Inventory data should therefore be in Bq.yr or Bq per nuclide. As the method is based on the UK situation, it is probably not directly applicable to other waste management scenarios. Although characterisation factors are presented for each scenario, no full description is given of how these were calculated. The method adopted by Solberg-Johansen to assess the environmental impacts of radionuclide emissions is based on the same fate models as those used for human impacts. It is only the effect component that differs, the factor for human exposure in the previous equation being replaced by: where is the Environmental Increment factor for radionucide i in medium j, defined as one standard deviation of the mean background concentration, and is the half-life of radionuclide i", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8502, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 617, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This method for calculating environmental impacts of exposure is operational for emissions of a number of radionuclides to water and soil, but not to air. and", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8503, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 614, "book_page": 617, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Frischknecht et al. (2000) have also developed a method to assess human radiation impacts (see Figure 4.3.15.2): with: radiation the indicator result (yr); the characterisation factor for substance i emitted to compartment ecomp based on DALYs the activity of substance i emitted to compartment ecomp (kBq).1 The method accounts for fate, exposure and effect. Fate modeling is based on EC (1995b), using a Gaussian plume model (for France) for air releases and a simple (regional) box model for water releases. For several globally dispersed radionuclides, global models are used in addition to the regional models. Exposure modeling is based on EC (1995b) and UNSCEAR (1993), and exposure calculated as absorbed dose. Effect modeling uses information on carcinogenic and hereditary effects (sources: Ron & Muirhead, 1998; ICRP, 1990) and the DALY approach (Murray & Lopez, 1996 and Hofstetter, 1998; cf. text box in Section 4.2)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8504, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 618, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "text box in Section 4.2). The Frischknecht method yields characterisation factors incorporating fate, exposure and effect. Two sets of factors are available: for a time horizon of 100,000 years, without ageweighting of DALYs, and for a horizon of 100 years, with age-weighting. 1 We have written the unit for the indicator result and for the characterisation factor, where Frischknecht et al. (2000)write\u2019DALYs\u2019and This is in agreementwith Section 2.4, where itwasconcludedthat SIunits are to be used. In fact, \u2019DALY\u2019 can be seen as the name of the quantity (like \u2019length\u2019), and \u2019yr\u2019 as one possible unit for measurement (like \u2019metre\u2019). \u2019yr\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8505, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 615, "book_page": 618, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background PROSPECTS In the future, further progress is anticipated on Impact assessment modeling to the various endpoints, viz. damage to human health, damage to ecosystem health, etc. (cf. Figure 4.2.2); see Section 4.2 for a more extensive discussion of this subject). No further new developments are known to be in progress. CONCLUSIONS We recommend using the characterisation method of Frischknecht et al. (2000) as the currently best available practice for assessing the human impact of radioactive emissions to air and water. This method covers fate and exposure (criterion 8 for selection of baseline characterisation method). As a baseline we recommend using the characterisation factors without DALY age-weighting (criterion 4) based on the longest time horizon (=100,000 years; criterion 7). The method of Solberg-Johansen (1998) is operational for more radionuclides than that of Frischknecht et al. (2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8506, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 619, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method of Solberg-Johansen (1998) is operational for more radionuclides than that of Frischknecht et al. (2000). However, the level I procedure of Solberg-Johansen (1998) includes only exposure and not fate. Although the more refined level II procedure does include fate, it is not yet operational in the form of characterisation factors. This level also requires detailed information on the local situation (including the distance between emission source and \u2018receptor\u2019). In most LCA studies this information will not be available, and the level II method therefore seems more suitable for local risk analysis than for LCA. The characterisation factors developed by Solberg-Johansen (1998) for the risks of radioactive solid waste are not fully described in her thesis. Consequently, they could not be properly assessed. Moreover, they require information on the composition of the nuclear waste to be collected in the inventory, and this is often not available", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8507, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 619, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Consequently, they could not be properly assessed. Moreover, they require information on the composition of the nuclear waste to be collected in the inventory, and this is often not available. The baseline characterisation method for impacts of ionising radiation, the method of Frischknecht et al. (2000), is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.15.1. Table 4.3.15.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for impacts of ionising radiation, the method of Frischknecht et al. (2000), with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8508, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 619, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(2000), with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions focal point in environmental mechanism linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins evaluation yes, the characterisation factors are based on common dispersion models and pathways of human exposure yes, endpoint level no present endpoint yes 100,000 years all included yes, effects below threshold are also included representative for France yes, for 49 radioniclides (including Radon\u2013222) unknown The following method is included in the guide as an option for sensitivity analysis. If there are substantial emissions of radionuclides that are not included in Frischknecht et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8509, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 619, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If there are substantial emissions of radionuclides that are not included in Frischknecht et al. (2000), the level I procedure of Solberg-Johanson (1998) for emissions may provide valuable additional information, as it covers more nuclides. In such cases it is recommended to use this level I procedure for emissions. Recomendations for extended LCAs The level II procedure of Solberg-Johansen (1998) can be used to augment the baseline method if radionuclide emissions prove to be important in the results of the Impact assessment step and detailed local information on these emissions is available. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor ionising radiation damage factors screeningfactors\u2013level I screening factors \u2013 level II \u2013 reference Frischknecht et al., 2000 Solberg-Johansen, 1998 Solberg-Johansen, 1998 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8510, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 616, "book_page": 619, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS 4.3.16 No method has yet been developed to assess direct external exposure to radiation, from building materials, for example. It is recommended to investigate the scope for integrating assessment of such exposure into the methods for exposure to releases of radioactive substances. Further research is necessary to assess whether current emissions of radionuclides have a significant impact on the natural environment. If this is the case, current methods for assessing the impacts of ionising radiation should be refined. Further research is also required to determine whether the method of Solberg-Johansen (1998) for assessing the risks of radioactive waste can be integrated with the method of Frischknecht et al. (2000). Moreover, due efforts should be made to obtain a more detailed picture of how both the short- and the long-term risks of both solid and liquid waste can be incorporated in the method", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8511, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 620, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(2000). Moreover, due efforts should be made to obtain a more detailed picture of how both the short- and the long-term risks of both solid and liquid waste can be incorporated in the method. Long-term research: Casualties TOPIC This impact category refers to casualties resulting from accidents. The area of protection is human health (see Figure 4.2.2). In Heijungs et al. (1992) this impact category was referred to as \u2018direct victims\u2019, but below this unfortunate term has been replaced by \u2018casualty\u2019. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In the classification step, various categories of casualty would have to be weighted if casualties other than fatalities (slightly injured, seriously injured and so on) were to be included in the Inventory analysis. At the time the 1992 guide was being prepared there were no methods for such weighting, nor indeed was such a method needed, as graded data on accident victims were lacking. For this reason the Heijungs et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8512, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 620, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For this reason the Heijungs et al. (1992) assessed and aggregated casualties by using a characterisation factor 1 : where C is the number of casualties (dimensionless) listed in the inventory table. Most LCIA-methodologies do not include an impact category \u2018casualties\u2019. Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) describe a very useful method for including the working environment in LCA which encompasses casualties. It is based on a database developed by EDIP in which the working environment impacts per kilo of produced goods are listed for a number of economic activities. PROSPECTS If and when an impact category is distinguished aggregating all human health impacts, in the form of DALYs (see textbox in Section 4.2), casualties might be assigned to this new category. The method of Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) might also be useful for including various impacts on human health in the working environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8513, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 620, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The method of Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) might also be useful for including various impacts on human health in the working environment. CONCLUSIONS Although the method of Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) seems a promising starting point for developing a characterisation method for casualties, the scope of the present project precluded an indepth evaluation. We therefore recommend using the method of Heijungs et al. (1992), in which the number of fatal casualties is simply multiplied by a charaterisation factor of 1. In the future it is recommended to assign casualties to the impact category human health. The method of Heijungs et al. (1992) is evaluated with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria adopted in this Guide in Table 4.3.16.1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8514, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 617, "book_page": 620, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table 4.3.16.1: Evaluation of the baseline characterisation method for casualties, using characterisation factor = 1, with respect to the (ISO-based) criteria of Table 4.3.1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. No criterion scientifically and technically valid environmentally relevant internationally accepted value-choices and assumptions evaluation not relevant category indicator is close to intervention no no focal point in environmental mechanism close to intervention linearity time span fate, exposure and effects less is better time- and location-independent operational uncertainty margins methods are included in this Guide as yes not relevant not applicable yes yes yes very low options for sensitivity analysis. No recommendations are given for extended LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8515, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 621, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No recommendations are given for extended LCA. method status baseline alternative additional variant characterisation method/factor unweighted aggregation of victims \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 reference Heijungs et al., 1992 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research: Research should be initiated to investigate the scope for including the method of Schmidt & Brunn Rasmussen (1999) for the working environment. Long-term research: Research is required to develop a method to assign casualties to a future impact category \u2018human health\u2019. 4.3.17 Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking TOPIC Many practical cases will involve emissions of toxic chemicals for which no toxicity potentials are listed in the tables with characterisation factors. The same applies to acidifying substances, ionising substances, depletable resources and so on. A general guideline given for extended LCAs is to calculate, estimate or extrapolate missing characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8516, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 621, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A general guideline given for extended LCAs is to calculate, estimate or extrapolate missing characterisation factors. This will often be unfeasible, however, for lack of time or knowledge, for instance. In such cases these overlooked items should be discussed in a separate part of the impact assessment A distinction should be made between: interventions known to contribute to an impact category and for which no characterisation factor is available but for which a factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated; interventions known to contribute to an impact category but for which no characterisation factor can be found, calculated, estimated or extrapolated; interventions assumed to be environmentally relevant but not contributing to any of the selected impact categories; interventions assumed not to be environmentally relevant", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8517, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 621, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As far as possible, all interventions for which no characterisation factors are available should be assigned to all impact categories to which they are known to contribute, based on the best available knowledge. These interventions shall than be listed in the environmental profile under the appropriate impact category. If possible, a qualitative or quantitative estimate of their potential environmental impact should be given. Quantitative estimation can, for example, be accomplished by finding an intervention similar in terms of chemical structure for which (a) characterisation factor(s) is/are available. Part 3: Scientific background 1.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8518, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 618, "book_page": 621, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background If it is not known to which impact category an intervention should be assigned it shall be listed in a separate category \u2018Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\u2018. Interventions anticipated to be environmentally irrelevant may be excluded from the environmental profile, but this should be transparently justified in the LCA study report. CONCLUSIONS Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking should be dealt with in the following manner: Interventions for which a characterisation factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated should be included in the environmental profile under the relevant impact category, accompanied by a clear explanation of the divergent status of the characterisation factor and the method used to obtain it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8519, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 622, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interventions for which no characterisation factor can be calculated, estimated or extrapolated but which are known to contribute to one or more impact categories should be included in a separate part of the environmental profile labeled \u2018Interventions for which characterisation factors are lacking\u2018, accompanied by all relevant additional information such as: substance name; emission compartment; amount emitted; impact category to which a contribution is suspected; if possible, an indication of the significance of the suspected impact. Interventions known to be of environmental relevance but contributing to an impact category that is not selected should be included in the environmental profile in the same way. Interventions expected to be environmentally irrelevant can be excluded from the environmental profile, but this should be transparently justified in the LCA study report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8520, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 622, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Interventions expected to be environmentally irrelevant can be excluded from the environmental profile, but this should be transparently justified in the LCA study report. 4.3.18 Economic flows not followed to system boundary TOPIC LCAs may comprise certain flows that are not specified in terms of environmental interventions, either inputs, like energy or materials, or outputs, like solid waste. Every effort should be made to avoid such flows, in the first place by applying the data estimation methods outlined in Section 3.8. All economic flows that cannot be followed to the system boundary should then be listed in a separate category: \u2018Economic flows not followed to the system boundary\u2019. Flows listed in this category should always be described qualitatively (e.g. \u2018hazardous waste\u2019 and \u2018non-hazardous waste\u2019) and, wherever possible, quantitatively (e.g. truck)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8521, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 622, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Flows listed in this category should always be described qualitatively (e.g. \u2018hazardous waste\u2019 and \u2018non-hazardous waste\u2019) and, wherever possible, quantitatively (e.g. truck). CONCLUSIONS All economic flows that cannot be followed to the system boundary, even after application of the data estimation methods outlined in Section 3.8, should be listed in a separate category \u2018Economic flows not followed to the system boundary\u2019. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No research foreseen. 4.4 Classification TOPIC In this step the environmental interventions qualified and quantified in the Inventory analysis are assigned on a purely qualitative basis to the various pre-selected impact categories (see Section 4.2). For a baseline list of interventions, for which characterisation factors have previously been derived, the classification step involves no actual work as these interventions have already been assigned to the various impact categories in this Guide (see Section 4.4 of Part 2b of this Guide)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8522, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 622, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the case of other interventions the practitioner will have to adopt an appropriate procedure of his own.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8523, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 619, "book_page": 622, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) Classification was not a separate step in Heijungs et al. (1992). At that time classification was the name given to the step covering the current ISO steps \u201cSelection of impact categories, category indicators and models\u201d, \u201cClassification\u201d and \u201cCharacterisation\u201d. In Heijungs et al. (1992) interventions were assigned implicitly (i.e. not in a separate step) to relevant impact categories by means of associated characterisation factors. Interventions with multiple impacts, i.e. contributing to more than one impact category (parallel or serial), were assigned in their entirety to all relevant impact categories. With respect to the classification step ISO 14042 (2000E) states: \u201cWhen LCI results are assigned to impact categories, issues associated with LCI results may be highlighted", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8524, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With respect to the classification step ISO 14042 (2000E) states: \u201cWhen LCI results are assigned to impact categories, issues associated with LCI results may be highlighted. Assignment of LCI results to impact categories should consider the following, unless otherwise required by the goal and scope: assignment of LCI results which are exclusive to one impact category; identification of LCI results which relate to more than one impact category; distinction between parallel mechanisms, e.g. is allocated between the impact categories of human health and acidification; allocation among serial mechanisms, e.g. may be assigned to ground level ozone formation and acidification. If LCI results are unavailable or of insufficient data quality for the LCIA to achieve the goal and scope of the study either an iterative data collection or an adjustment of the goal and scope is required.\u201d Guin\u00e9e (1995), Lindfors et al. (1995c), Udo de Haes ed. (1996) and Wenzel et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8525, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1995c), Udo de Haes ed. (1996) and Wenzel et al. (1997) also discuss the topic of multiple impacts of chemical releases and together distinguish the following four categories of emissions: Emissions with parallel impacts, i.e. emissions of substances that may theoretically contribute to more than one impact category but in practice only to one, e.g. an emission of which may have either toxic or acidifying impacts. Emissions with serial impacts, i.e. emissions of substances that may in practice have successive impacts, e.g. emissions of heavy metals which may first have ecotoxicological impacts and subsequently, via food chains, impacts on human health. Emissions with indirect impacts, i.e. emissions of substances having a primary impact that in turn leads to one or more secondary impacts, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8526, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Emissions with indirect impacts, i.e. emissions of substances having a primary impact that in turn leads to one or more secondary impacts, e.g. aluminium toxicity induced by acidification, or methane contributing to photo-oxidant formation, with the produced ozone contributing in turn to climate change, which in turn may contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion. Emissions with combined impacts, i.e. emissions of substances having a mutual influence on each other\u2019s impacts, e.g. synergistic or antagonistic impacts of toxic substance mixes, or and VOC, both of which are required for photo-oxidant formation. In order to avoid double counting, for emissions having parallel impacts it is generally recommended in the literature that the respective contributions of such emissions to relevant impact categories be specified", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8527, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, no guidelines are available on how this task is to be performed.ln general, such specification should be performed only in those cases where it really matters (where the contribution of the substance to one impact category substantially lessens its potential contribution to another, e.g. acidification or eutrophication by Rough calculations show that for example, is less relevant in this respect; see Heijungs et al., 1992). If it is unclear how such emissions are to be allocated, as a general recommendation it is advised either to assign them in their entirety to all relevant impact categories or to divide them equally across the categories (e.g. 50/50). If there were one, allencompassing fate and exposure model available covering all impact categories, rather than the diversity of models used for the various impact categories today, parallel impacts would no longer constitute a problem", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8528, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Current fate and exposure models specify the compartment (or target organism) in which the substance has its principal impact and which impact categories are thus potentially relevant (e.g. emissions to the air may end up in soil or water, with consequent terrestrial or aquatic ecotoxic impacts, respectively). Given that we are still some way from having an all-encompassing fate and exposure model, however, full assignment of emissions having parallel impacts may, for the present, lead to some measure of double-counting. For emissions having serial and indirect impacts the literature generally recommends allocating such emissions in their entirety to all relevant (i.e. serial and indirect) impact categories unless characterisation factors for this purpose are lacking, as in the case of missing (indirect) GWP factors, for example.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8529, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 620, "book_page": 623, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background For emissions having combined impacts the literature generally recommends introducing assumptions regarding background concentrations of the other relevant substances. In practice this is currently only feasible for NOx as a precursor in photo-oxidant formation, but not for synergistic or antagonistic impacts of toxic substance mixes, as knowledge on these issues is virtually entirely lacking. Section 4.4 of Volume 2b lists all interventions for which at least one baseline characterisation factor is available. We advise practitioners to use this list as a default and classify inventory results according to the choices embodied in it. Items not included in the default list should be included using expert judgement and other literature sources. PROSPECTS As indicated above, the subject of parallel impacts may eventually become part an all-encompassing fate and exposure model", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8530, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 624, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PROSPECTS As indicated above, the subject of parallel impacts may eventually become part an all-encompassing fate and exposure model. ] In that case the \u2018Classification\u2019 step will be restricted solely to the assignment of interventions to defined impact categories in Section 4.2 (similar to Characterisation now). CONCLUSIONS Emissions having truly parallel impacts are probably rather scarce. As an all-encompassing fate and exposure model is still lacking, it is recommended to assign such emissions in their entirety to all relevant impact categories. Emissions with serial and indirect impacts should also be assigned in their entirety to all relevant impact categories, unless there is insufficient information to do so (e.g. in the case of missing (indirect) GWPfactors) or an overlap between impact categories (e.g. aluminium toxicity induced by acidification, which is already regarded as part of the impact category acidification)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8531, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 624, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "aluminium toxicity induced by acidification, which is already regarded as part of the impact category acidification). Emissions with combined impacts should likewise be assigned in their entirety to all relevant impact categories. In characterisation modeling assumptions must then be made regarding standard concentrations of other relevant substances. Synergistic and antagonistic impacts of toxic substance mixes cannot currently be covered in LCIA. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research It is recommended to undertake research to find appropriate default values for the division of parallel interventions, where relevant. Long-term research Research on procedures for assigning new substances to impact categories is recommended", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8532, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 624, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Long-term research Research on procedures for assigning new substances to impact categories is recommended. 4.5 Characterisation TOPIC In the characterisation step of Impact assessment the environmental interventions assigned qualitatively to a particular impact category in classification are quantified in terms of a common unit for that category, allowing aggregation into a single score: the indicator result. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE According to ISO 14042 (2000E) this step is now concerned only with calculation of the (category) Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) indicator results were also calculated using characterisation factors: where i is the type of intervention (e.g. substance emission or resource extraction) and its magnitude. indicator results, using the methods described in Section 4.3. For each impact category the (category) indicator result is calculated by multiplying the relevant interventions by their corresponding characterisation factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8533, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 624, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For each impact category the (category) indicator result is calculated by multiplying the relevant interventions by their corresponding characterisation factors. Together, these results constitute the \u2018environmental profile\u2019: a table showing the indicator results for all the predefined impact categories supplemented by any other relevant information. PROSPECTS No further developments are foreseen.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8534, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 621, "book_page": 624, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background CONCLUSIONS For each impact category the (category) indicator results are calculated by multiplying the relevant interventions by their corresponding characterisation factors, according to the formulae elaborated in Sections 4.3.1 to 4.3.16. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS No research is foreseen. 4.6 Normalisation TOPIC ISO 14042 (2000E) defines normalisation as \u201ccalculation of the magnitude of indicator results relative to reference information\u201d. The reference information may relate to a given community (e.g. The Netherlands, Europe or the world), person (e.g. a Danish citizen) or other system, over a given period of time. Other reference information may also be adopted, of course, such as a future target situation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8535, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 625, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "a Danish citizen) or other system, over a given period of time. Other reference information may also be adopted, of course, such as a future target situation. While normalisation is considered an optional element of LCIA in ISO 14042 (2000E), in this Guide it constitutes a recommended step of life cycle Impact Assessment The main aim of normalising the (category) indicator results is to better understand the relative importance and magnitude of these results for each product system under study. Normalisation can also be used to check for inconsistencies, to provide and communicate information on the relative significance of the (category) indicator results and to prepare for additional procedures such as weighting or Interpretation (ISO 14042, 2000E)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8536, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 625, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There exist other definitions of \u2018normalisation\u2019, as is the case in multicriteria analysis (where it if often understood as division of the various values in a data set by a single reference value from that set, to express all the values in terms of that reference value). These definitions and the associated methods are not discussed here. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE ISO 14042 (2000E) states that in selecting the reference system due consideration should be given to the Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) the normalisation step was mentioned and defined, but not yet numerically elaborated. consistency of the spatial and temporal scales of the environmental mechanisms and of the reference value. It is stated, furthermore, that it may be desirable to use several reference systems, in order to assess their respective influence on the LCIA outcome, and that the normalised results are to be termed \u2018the normalised LCIA profile\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8537, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 625, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(For reasons of consistency in this Guide the term \u2018normalised environmental profile\u20191 is employed; see Glossary). The reference value is the indicator result for a reference system. It is thus for a given impact category the sum of all the interventions associated with the reference system multiplied by the appropriate characterisation factors: with: indicator the indicator result for impact category cat and reference system ref (e.g. in or in the reciprocal of indicator is here referred to as the normalisation factor for impact category cat and reference system ref, 1 This was necessary because \u2018LCIA\u2019 refers to the entire Impact assessment phase, which comprises a number of quite distinct steps, such as classification, characterisation, normalisation and weighting, each withits own results.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8538, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 622, "book_page": 625, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background the magnitude of intervention i (emission, resource extraction or land use) associated with the reference system ref(e.g. in or in the characterisation factor for intervention i and impact category cat (e.g. in the normalised indicator result for impact category cat (in yr or in yrcapita); the indicator result for impact category cat (e.g. in kg). characterisation normalised indicator indicator There is currently much discussion regarding appropriate choice of reference systems for normalisation. ISO provides several examples of the type of reference system that can be used for the purposes of normalisation (ISO 14042, 2000E); 1. 2. 3. the aggregate interventions for a given area (global, regional, national or local) in a reference year; examples are the normalisation figures of Guin\u00e9e (1993) for the world and those of Blonk et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8539, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "the aggregate interventions for a given area (global, regional, national or local) in a reference year; examples are the normalisation figures of Guin\u00e9e (1993) for the world and those of Blonk et al. (1997b) for the Netherlands; the per capita interventions for a given area in a reference year; examples are the per capita figures for Danish and world citizens of Wenzel et al. (1997); a baseline scenario, such as the calculated (category) indicator result for a given alternative product system; no examples of this method are available. Blonk et al. (1997b) have developed a fourth type of reference value: 4. the aggregate interventions associated with the habits of consumption of a particular population in a reference year, for example the data for the Dutch population of Blonk et al. (1997b). The first two approaches are most commonly used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8540, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1997b). The first two approaches are most commonly used. Which is preferable depends on another important choice: normalisation at a single scale level (generally the world, sometimes Europe) versus combined normalisation at the global and regional scales. Normalisation at a single scale level In this option the results for each impact category are normalised against reference data from the same reference area, either aggregate interventions (method 1) or per capita interventions (method 2). The most suitable reference area would then seem to be \u2018the world\u2019, as LCAs are not generally sitedependent. The two methods differ only by a constant factor (1 / world population and which method is adopted will depend on the goal of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8541, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The two methods differ only by a constant factor (1 / world population and which method is adopted will depend on the goal of the study. Reference against aggregate world interventions has the advantage of providing a comparison with the actual aggregate magnitude of the impact categories at stake, while comparison with the interventions of an \u2018average world citizen\u2019 shifts the focus of issues to the individual and may therefore be better for communicative purposes. Normalisation data for the world in 1990, Europe in 1995 and the Netherlands in 1997 are available in Huijbregts et al. (in prep.) The EDIP project is currently developing estimates for the contribution of an \u2018average world citizen\u2019 to regional and local impacts as reference values (Hoffman & Stranddorf, 1999). At the time of writing of this Guide these data were not yet available, however", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8542, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At the time of writing of this Guide these data were not yet available, however. Normalisation at different scale levels If, in a particular LCA study, Inventory analysis and Impact assessment for global impact categories are carried out on a global scale and Inventory analysis and Impact assessment for regional impact categories on a regional scale, there are two options for normalisation: the results for each impact category are normalised using reference data from the same reference area (see above); or normalisation is carried out at two scale levels, with the results for global categories being normalised using global reference values and the results for regional categories using the appropriate regional reference values. This approach is more in line with ISO 14042 (2000E). ISO states: \u201cThe selection of the reference system should consider the consistency of the spatial and temporal scales of the environmental mechanism and the reference value\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8543, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO states: \u201cThe selection of the reference system should consider the consistency of the spatial and temporal scales of the environmental mechanism and the reference value\u201d. In this second case, simple division by the aggregate interventions per area would not be correct, for the results for global impact categories would then be rated far lower than those for regional impact categories, because aggregate world interventions far outstrip interventions from any one region. The per capita approach (method 2) resolves this problem. The world totals are divided by the total world population and the regional totals by the population of the region in question. An example of an LCA method in which global and regional Impact assessment, normalisation and weighting are combined is the EDIP approach (Wenzel et al., 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8544, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "An example of an LCA method in which global and regional Impact assessment, normalisation and weighting are combined is the EDIP approach (Wenzel et al., 1997). In EDIP, global impact categories are assessed using global characterisation factors, normalisation is based on global per capita figures, and weighting is based on a distance-to-target approach using global reduction targets. Regional impact categories are assessed using Danish characterisation factors; normalisation is based on Danish per )", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8545, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 623, "book_page": 626, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background capita figures and weighting (see Section 4.8) is based on a distance-to-target approach using Danish reduction targets. It is stressed once more that if regional normalisation is performed using different reference areas, the results for regional impact categories in regions with relatively high per capita interventions will be rated lower than the same results for regions with relatively low per capita interventions. In such cases, then, not only normalisation but also weighting or grouping (see Section 4.7) of the normalised results should be performed on the same regional basis (Heijungs, 1997b). In this kind a regional set-up, inventory data as well as characterisation, normalisation and weighting factors are therefore required for each and every region involved in the study. Regional characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication are presently available (and POCPs for high and low background concentrations)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8546, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Regional characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication are presently available (and POCPs for high and low background concentrations). As yet, however, there is no uniform set of regional reference values that can be applied for these impact categories. For the regions Denmark and the Netherlands these can probably be readily developed based on regional intervention data collected by Wenzel et al. (1997) and Blonk et al. (1997b). For other regions, however, no reference values are available. Regionalised weighting factors are even scarcer. If grouping or weighting are performed on a different regional basis than that used for normalisation, interpretation of the results of the LCA study will become problematical", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8547, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If grouping or weighting are performed on a different regional basis than that used for normalisation, interpretation of the results of the LCA study will become problematical. Temporal horizon Another point to be considered is the ISO statement that reference system adopted \u201cshould consider\u201d not only consistency in terms of spatial scale, but also with respect to \u201cthe temporal scales of the environmental mechanisms and reference value\u201d. This is not specified in any further detail. However, it seems undesirable to relate results for impact categories with shorter-term effects, such as photo-oxidant formation, to reference systems for shorter periods. e.g. 5 days, and at the same time relate those for impact categories with long-term effects, such as climate change, to reference systems based on longer periods, e.g. 100 years (Heijungs, 1997b)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8548, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "e.g. 5 days, and at the same time relate those for impact categories with long-term effects, such as climate change, to reference systems based on longer periods, e.g. 100 years (Heijungs, 1997b). The temporal horizon of the reference system is not the reference point for the impacts occurring in a particular period but for the interventions in that period. As yet, moreover, all available reference values are based on a single period (generally one year). Consistency Last but not least, there is the issue of consistency between the methodological choices made in calculation of normalisation factors and those made in the LCA study in which the normalisation factors are being applied. In principle, the same characterisation factors should be used; system boundaries should be treated similarly, e.g. with respect to dredging1, agriculture and landfills (see Section 3.2); cutoff (see Section 3.8); multifunctionality and allocation (see Section 3.9); etc", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8549, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "with respect to dredging1, agriculture and landfills (see Section 3.2); cutoff (see Section 3.8); multifunctionality and allocation (see Section 3.9); etc. In practice, however, it is often unclear how such choices have effectively been made in the emission figures available for use as a basis for normalisation. The practitioner should at any rate be aware of possible inconsistencies and their potentially major influence on the significance of results and do all he or she can to avoid such inconsistencies wherever possible. If necessary, the normalised environmental profile should be accompanied by appropriate comments. PROSPECTS Besides the various purposes outlined above, normalisation may also serve another function: to \u2018compensate\u2019 for interventions on which data are lacking. In the Inventory analysis phase of an LCA it may be convenient for an interested party to \u2018forget\u2019 certain emissions or other interventions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8550, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the Inventory analysis phase of an LCA it may be convenient for an interested party to \u2018forget\u2019 certain emissions or other interventions. This problem can then be tackled by using a similarly incomplete subset of interventions as a reference for normalisation. If different subsets of interventions are considered for each of the processes examined in an LCA, this would mean performing normalisation for each process individually, prior to aggregation of the data in a single inventory table. This would probably require additional efforts. The subset used for normalisation should then be the same as that employed for the Inventory analysis of the processes in question. In other words, interventions included in the Inventory analysis but with a zero result should be included in the normalisation subset, while interventions ignored in the Inventory analysis should also be excluded. Whether or not such partial normalisation is a useful option should then be examined in further detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8551, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Whether or not such partial normalisation is a useful option should then be examined in further detail. On a second topic, a number of countries are developing (regional) normalisation data sets which will become available in due course. 1 Including dredging as an economic activity (see Section 3.2) implies that the removal of sediments should be regarded as a negative (sediment) emission and the dumping of sediments as a positive emission to soil. The net result is then a shift between compartments of a given amount of substance(s). For practical reasons this shift is now often ignored in the normalisation step.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8552, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 624, "book_page": 627, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background CONCLUSIONS We recommend using normalisation data based on one geographically and temporally well defined reference system, preferably the world for one year (consistent with the temporal coverage of the Goal and scope definition phase of the study), for all impact categories. The method based on aggregate world interventions (method 1) or that based on the interventions of an \u2018average world citizen\u2019 (method 2) are both applicable. Which one is chosen depends on the goal of the LCA study and therefore both values are given in this Guide. In Volume 2b Section 4.6, normalisation data for the world in 1990, Europe in 1995 and the Netherlands in 1997 are presented for use as normalisation factors for each impact category for each of the baseline characterisation methods recommended in this Guide (see Section 4.3). These data are based on Huijbregts et al. (in prep.)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8553, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These data are based on Huijbregts et al. (in prep.). If other characterisation methods are used the unaggregated data (interventions per reference area and time) can be used to calculate the appropriate normalisation factors for these methods according to the formulae given above. In principle, normalisation might alternatively be carried out at two scale levels, with results for global impact categories being normalised on the basis of global reference values and the results for regional impact categories on the basis of appropriate regional reference values. However, a uniform set of regionally specified reference values is still lacking, as observed above", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8554, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, a uniform set of regionally specified reference values is still lacking, as observed above. If different scales are combined: only per capita normalisation data should be used; normalisation data for regional impact categories should be based on the regions where the interventions of the LCA study at stake took place; if grouping or weighting is performed, the regionally normalised data should be grouped or weighted using regional grouping methods or regional weighting factors. Finally, the practitioner should be aware of possible inconsistencies between the methodological choices (with respect to system boundaries and so on) underlying the calculation of normalisation factors and the methodological choices made in the LCA study in which the normalisation factors are being applied. Inconsistencies should be avoided as far as possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8555, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Inconsistencies should be avoided as far as possible. For example, if the practitioner wishes to apply non-baseline characterisation factors, the corresponding set of non-baseline normalisation factors should be applied from the spreadsheet mentioned in Section 4.6 of part 2a of this Guide. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short term research: A study to collect adequate world data, based as far as possible on empirical measurements and derived statistics, is highly recommended. The pros and cons of partial normalisation, i.e. normalisation factors based on a subset of interventions, in the case of incomplete datasets (unit processes for which interventions are missing) should be further investigated. These subsets need not necessarily be the same for each unit process. 4.7 Grouping TOPIC Grouping is a step of Impact assessment in which impact categories are aggregated into one or more sets", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8556, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These subsets need not necessarily be the same for each unit process. 4.7 Grouping TOPIC Grouping is a step of Impact assessment in which impact categories are aggregated into one or more sets. It is an optional element for which two possible procedures are available: sorting and ranking, defined by ISO as follows (ISO, 14042, 2000E): sorting of the category indicators on a nominal basis e.g. by characteristics such as emissions and resources or global regional and local spatial scales; ranking of the category indicators on an ordinal scale, e.g. a given order or hierarchy, such as high, medium and low priority (ranking is based on value-choices). It should be noted that this ISO definition of grouping relates to valuation of the impact categories, not the indicator results. Indicator results can also be ranked without placing any value on the impact category as such. The results are then ranked purely on the basis of the magnitude of the result itself (5 is higher than 3)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8557, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The results are then ranked purely on the basis of the magnitude of the result itself (5 is higher than 3). For this type of ranking, the methods developed in the area of multi-criteria analysis may be useful (see also Section 4.8). ISO states, furthermore, that application and use of grouping methods \u201cshall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study and it shall be fully transparent\u201d. As different individuals, organisations and societies may have different values, it is well feasible that different parties will arrive at different ranking results based on the same indicator results. ISO provides no further examples of grouping and ranking methods.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8558, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 625, "book_page": 628, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs et al. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) grouping in the sense of the ISO definition was not mentioned. Sorting No further developments on the subject of sorting are known to the authors of this Guide. Ranking ISO 14042 (2000E) explicitly mentions the fact that ranking is based on value-choices. In a paper on weighting methods, Finnveden (1999a) identified and reviewed available methods for grouping impact categories in LCA. A variety of criteria are employed for this purpose, summarised by Schmitz et al. (1994) as follows: \u2018ecological threat potential; reversibility - irreversibility; global, regional, local; environmental preference of the population; relationship of actual and/or previous pollution to quality goals.\u2019 Based on these criteria these authors group impact categories into five classes, labeled as being from \u2018lesser importance\u2019 to \u2018very large importance\u2019. Volkwein et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8559, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 629, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Volkwein et al. (1996) suggest that impact categories be qualitatively ranked by an expert panel, employing three criteria: scale of impact (anticipated area affected), reversibility time (time required for restoration of damage after the intervention ceases) and actual hazard the (potential) impact (in terms of assessments of actual exceedance of standards, uncertainty about the extent of harm, etc; see Volkwein et al., 1996). Finnveden (1999a) warns that in many cases the results of grouping (and especially ranking) will not be reproducible and that the individual preferences of those performing such an exercise will have a major influence on the overall results of the LCA. It can be argued, moreover, that grouping will generally be useful only in the context of reaching a final decision in a specific LCA study. In such cases, however, there will still be a subsequent need for some kind of weighting, as grouping does not yield a single score", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8560, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 629, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In such cases, however, there will still be a subsequent need for some kind of weighting, as grouping does not yield a single score. PROSPECTS Based on the recent ISO developments it is to be expected that grouping and ranking methods will be further developed and that experience will be gained with application thereof. CONCLUSIONS Grouping is an optional element of LCA according to ISO 14042 (2000E). Grouping is likely to be highly influenced on the personal preferences of practitioners, and little work has yet been done on operationalisation its usefulness is in doubt. Therefore no specific method is recommended in this Guide. No methods have yet been published for \u2018sorting\u2019, For \u2018ranking\u2019 impact categories, the five criteria used by Schmitz et al. (1994) can serve as a starting point. The criteria used to evaluate impact categories should be described extensively. It is recommended to present the results of grouping as a matrix on the basis of the criteria employed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8561, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 629, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The criteria used to evaluate impact categories should be described extensively. It is recommended to present the results of grouping as a matrix on the basis of the criteria employed. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research In the short term a review should be prepared of grouping and ranking methods used in other tools or in the social sciences that may be useful in the LCA context, too. As the details of whether and how to differentiate between impact subcategories and categories in grouping are as yet unclear, this should also be analysed. Long-term research Some of the methods found in the research mentioned above may be subsequently elaborated for practical application in LCA.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8562, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 626, "book_page": 629, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 4.8 Weighting TOPIC Weighting is an optional step of Impact assessment in which the (normalised) indicator results for each impact category assessed are assigned numerical factors according to their relative importance, multiplied by these factors and possibly aggregated. Weighting is based on value-choices (e.g. monetary values, standards, expert panel). A convenient name for the result of the weighting step is \u2018weighting result\u2019, of which there is generally one for each alternative product system analysed. As a variation, though, weighting may also yield several weighting results per product system, for instance for human health, ecosystem health and resources. The term \u2018weighting profile\u2019 is used in this Guide for the overall result of the weighting step: a table showing all the weighting results, supplemented by any other relevant information", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8563, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 630, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The term \u2018weighting profile\u2019 is used in this Guide for the overall result of the weighting step: a table showing all the weighting results, supplemented by any other relevant information. Before weighting can be performed, the various indicator results must first be converted into the same units, one possible method for which is normalisation (see Section 4.6). DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LAST DECADE Heijungs etal. (1992) In Heijungs et al. (1992) two weighting methods were discussed: quantitative and qualitative multi-criteria analysis (MCA), but were not elaborated. Rather, their respective advantages and disadvantages were compared with those associated with unweighted comparison. Table 4.8.1: Evaluation of different weighting methods. convincing includes qualitative aspects reproducible less open to discussion unweighted comparison - + + + qualitative MCA + + - - quantitative MCA + - + # +: yes, -: no, #: moderate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8564, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 630, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "convincing includes qualitative aspects reproducible less open to discussion unweighted comparison - + + + qualitative MCA + + - - quantitative MCA + - + # +: yes, -: no, #: moderate. Heijungs et al(1992) state that quantitative MCA is preferable as it provides greater transparency. At the time of writing, this method was used only to a limited extent, if at all, however. Hence, it was recommended to dedicate a separate section in each LCA report to a discussion of the reasons for preferring one product alternative over another. ISO 14042 (2000E) explicitly mentions the fact that weighting is based on value-choices and not on the natural sciences. Under the heading \u2018weighting\u2019, ISO again states that \u201cthe application and use of weighting methods shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study and shall be fully transparent\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8565, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 630, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Under the heading \u2018weighting\u2019, ISO again states that \u201cthe application and use of weighting methods shall be consistent with the goal and scope of the LCA study and shall be fully transparent\u201d. As different individuals, organisations and societies may have different values, it is possible that different parties will arrive at different weighting results based on the same indicator results. ISO also states that \u201call weighting methods and operations used shall be documented to provide transparency\u201d. Inventory results and the (normalised) environmental profile arrived at prior to weighting are also to be made available, together with the weighting results. This ensures that (ISO 14042, 2000E): \u201ctrade-offs and other information remain available to decision-makers and to others; and users can appreciate the full extent and ramifications of the results.\u201d Finally, ISO states that weighting shall not be used for comparative assertions disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8566, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 630, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "No examples of weighting are provided by ISO. Outside ISO, however, weighting methods have received extensive attention since 1992. In addition, qualitative information, non-weighted indicator results and non-characterised interventions should be also made available as part of the weighting profile (see above; addition by authors of this Guide). Finnveden (1999a) has published a review of weighting methods used in LCA. Since this is the most recent review article, it is summarised here fairly extensively (see textbox below). Finnveden recommends no one weighting method, observing that many methods suffer from serious data gaps. However, he considers the panel and monetary approaches the most promising.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8567, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 627, "book_page": 630, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Finnveden (1999) classifies weighting methods into five main groups, based on Lindeijer (1996) and Braunschweig (1996). Three of these are relevant for the weighting of impact categories in LCA: 1. methods based on monetary values; 2. methods based on (government) standards or targets; 3. methods based on the judgment of an authoritative panel. 1. Methods based on monetary values There exist a wide variety of approaches based on monetary value, which Finnveden classifies as follows: a) Willingness-to-pay methods: Methods based on the willingness to pay a certain amount of money to avoid the occurrence of an intervention, threat or damage, with three basic variations: Individual revealed preferences These include approaches based on the travel costs incurred in going to recreational areas, the price paid for houses in a given area, and variations in wages depending on the risks associated with different types of jobs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8568, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is essentially valuation on the basis of market values. Individual expressed preferences This approach is based on asking individuals to explicitly attach a value to environmental assets (\u2018contingent valuation method\u2019). Collective revealed preferences These can be derived from political and government decisions. Society\u2019s willingness-to-pay can for example be derived from the expenditure devoted to saving a \u2018statistical life\u2019, from the costs incurred to reduce an emission to a set emission limit, or from \u2018green taxes\u2019, b) Other monetary methods, i.e. not based on willingness-to-pay These methods are based on estimates of cost, but with no indication that any individual might be willing to pay that cost. Examples are the cost of reducing emissions to a future target level or the cost of restoring damages. In the examples given by Finnveden the difference between \u2018collective revealed preferences\u2019 and \u2018other monetary methods\u2019 is rather vague", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8569, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the examples given by Finnveden the difference between \u2018collective revealed preferences\u2019 and \u2018other monetary methods\u2019 is rather vague. Since the various kinds of monetarisation methods are concerned with differing kinds of values, the respective methods yield different results and a sum expressed in monetary units cannot simply be compared directly with another sum in the same units. For example, the total economic value measured by the contingent valuation method is typically higher than the value derived from market valuations. Finnveden (1999) describes three monetary methods in more detail: EPS (Steen, 1996), Tellus (1992) and ExternE (EC, 1995a; Van Beukering et al., 1998). Although a weighting method based on monetary valuation is in itself promising, none of these methods could be recommended for LCA (Finnveden, 1999a). The EPS method is a hybrid of the outlined monetary approaches and thus combines different values (market prices and other values)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8570, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The EPS method is a hybrid of the outlined monetary approaches and thus combines different values (market prices and other values). As stated, this is not to be recommended, however. The method also has large data gaps, suffers from lack of transparency (e.g. valuation of biodiversity) and contains some scientific, logical and computational errors. Moreover, the EPS method yields results that do not reflect the common perceptions of society. The Tellus method is based on a collective revealed preference approach. The method has several data gaps and elements in need of updating and cannot be used for the impact categories employed in this Guide. The ExternE method is based mainly on contingent valuation methods (i.e. individual expressed preferences), although elements of other valuation methods are also used. The method still has some data gaps and parts in need of updating", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8571, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "individual expressed preferences), although elements of other valuation methods are also used. The method still has some data gaps and parts in need of updating. A further problem associated with methods based on the modeling of damage, such as ExternE (but also Eco-lndicator \u201899; see below), is the major risk of underestimation because of unknown damage pathways (see textbox in Section 4.2). Finnveden (1999) mentions several other monetary methods (e.g. Krozer, 1992; Huppes et al., 1997). However, insufficient details were published to evaluate these properly. Another interesting approach is provided by Beetstra (1998); within the scope of the present Guide it was no no longer possible to properly evaluate this method. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8572, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Another interesting approach is provided by Beetstra (1998); within the scope of the present Guide it was no no longer possible to properly evaluate this method. 2. Methods based on (government) standards or targets These methods are often referred to as \u2018distance-to-target methods\u2019 and differ in the equation used to relate target to weighting factor, the target itself, and the choice to weight inventory results or characterisation results . Finnveden (1999) describes a number of distance-to-target methods, viz. Ahbe et al., 1990 (updated in BUWAL, 1998); Schaltegger & Sturm, 1991; Baumann, 1992; Corten et al., 1994; Goedkoop, 1995; Kalisvaart & Remmerswaal, 1994; Kortman et al., 1994; Wenzel et al., 1997. Finnveden does not recommend using any of these distance-to-target methods because no inter-effect (inter-category) weighting is performed. The relative importance of the actual effects compared is not defined, or implicitly set to unity for each target", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8573, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The relative importance of the actual effects compared is not defined, or implicitly set to unity for each target. For this reason \u2018distance-to-target methods\u2019 are not in fact true weighting methods and their use is therefore often advised against", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8574, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 628, "book_page": 631, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background 3. Methods based on the judgment of an authoritative panel In these methods a group of people are asked to provide weighting factors on the basis of their specialist knowledge. This may be by way of a questionnaire, interviews or group discussions among a group of panellists: experts, stakeholders or laymen. A single- or multi-round procedure may be adopted, with or without feedback. Finnveden (1999) describes a number of panel methods (including the Eco-lndicator \u201899 method), viz. Annema, 1992; Kortman et al., 1994; Wilson & Jones, 1994; Nagata et al., 1995; Puolamaa et al., 1996; Lindeijer, 1997; Huppes et al., 1997; Goedkoop & Spriensma, 1999. He does not recommend using any of these panel methods because they have generally been developed for specific cases and it is by no means clear whether they can be universally applied. Moreover, there are significant data gaps in many of these methods and most assian more or less equal weight to all categories", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8575, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Moreover, there are significant data gaps in many of these methods and most assian more or less equal weight to all categories. Heijungs (1994a) has noted that if weighting is based on an authoritative panel, the panel must be provided with carefully prepared information and questions, results being highly influenced by the manner in which questions are formulated. At the least, the panel must have adequate qualitative and/or quantitative information about the relationship between the chosen category indicators and endpoints (i.e. the environmental relevance of the category indicators). Lindeijer (1996) poses the question whether weighting should be performed on a case-by-case basis using discourse procedures to involve stakeholders, or be based on a universal set of weighting factors", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8576, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Lindeijer (1996) has no preference for any one weighting method, but distinguishes five criteria of importance for weighting indicator results, as follows: \u2018natural science information on the relationship between total burden (\u2018actual flows\u2019)1 and the extent of actual damages to objects2; foreseeable future trends in flows; reversibility of the damage (including the time for spontaneous reversibility); importance of the damaged object (including scale of effect and substitutability); uncertainty on the extent of damage.\u2019 Lindfors et al. (1995c) discuss and \u2018test\u2019 a number of weighting methods. Based on their findings they recommend using not one but several weighting methods. In Finnveden (1997) the author states that consensus will never be achieved on a universal weighting method because there is no consensus in society regarding the fundamental values influencing the choice of valuation method. He therefore recommends developing several methods simultaneously (Finnveden, 1997)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8577, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "He therefore recommends developing several methods simultaneously (Finnveden, 1997). An entirely different approach is that of Lundie (1999), who evaluates product alternatives based on ranges/distributions of preferences obtained in surveys. These are applied to the indicator results instead of fixed weighting factors, with upper- and lower-bound evaluation being employed to draw conclusions. PROSPECTS There is growing interest in using methods adopted from multi-criteria analysis for life cycle Impact assessment. \u2018Classical\u2019 weighting compares alternative product or system alternatives based on a single set of average weighting factors that are used as multipliers for the respective indicator results. Multicriteria analysis focuses more on the ranking of product attributes (i.e. indicator results) and draws conclusions based on these results without weighting", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8578, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Multicriteria analysis focuses more on the ranking of product attributes (i.e. indicator results) and draws conclusions based on these results without weighting. CONCLUSIONS None of the monetary methods described by Finnveden can be applied to the impact categories elaborated in this Guide. In the EPS method and the Tellus method \u2018effect assessment\u2019 and valuation are interwoven, resulting in a factor per intervention rather than per impact category. In the ExternE approach, the weighting factors are based on characterisation methods very different from the ones defined in this Guide. The collective revealed preferences method presented by Huppes et al. (1997) covers only six impact categories and cannot therefore be used for all categories; the frequently important categories ecotoxicity and abiotic depletion are not included. Although there are several distance-to-target methods that cover some of the relevant impact categories, none is applicable to all", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8579, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although there are several distance-to-target methods that cover some of the relevant impact categories, none is applicable to all. These methods are based on differing national and international policy targets and are not readily combined. They do have one thing in common, however: the relatively heavy weight 1 In the terminology of this Guide, this is the indicator result for a particular reference area and reference time (see Section 4.6). 2 In the terminology of this Guide, objects correspond to endpoints (see Figure 4.2.2).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8580, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 629, "book_page": 632, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background attached to the category of stratospheric ozone depletion. Most of these methods need to be updated to recent standards. Similarly, although certain panel methods cover some of the relevant impact categories, none can be used for all. In the Eco-lndicator \u201899, for example, the weighting factors are based on characterisation methods different from those defined in this Guide and cannot therefore be applied here. Moreover, these panel methods are generally based on panels of stakeholders assembled for a specific case study. In summary, we conclude that there is no complete and authorised weighting set available at the present time that can be used for the weighting of the impact categories elaborated in this Guide. Bearing in mind the above, the following recommendations are made. Avoid weighting wherever possible", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8581, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 633, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Bearing in mind the above, the following recommendations are made. Avoid weighting wherever possible. If the questions formulated in the Goal and scope definition can be adequately answered without weighting, for instance if one product alternative is clearly stands out above all others (e.g. because it scores better on all impact categories) weighting will be unnecessary. Note that according to ISO weighting shall not be used at all for comparative assertions disclosed to the public. If weighting is performed this should be done using a nationally or internationally authorised set of weighting factors covering all relevant impact categories. However, such a set is not currently available. We strongly recommend that a weighting set be developed covering all impact categories and approved by a panel having due international or national authority", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8582, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 633, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "We strongly recommend that a weighting set be developed covering all impact categories and approved by a panel having due international or national authority. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS Short-term research In the short term a preliminary set of weighting factors should be developed that can be used for simplified LCA studies. The details of whether and how to differentiate between sub-impact categories and impact categories in weighting are still unclear and should be further examined. Long-term research It should be investigated which methods (individual revealed preferences, individual expressed preferences, collective revealed preferences, expert panel, etc.) are most suitable for deriving a more definite nationally or internationally authorised set of weighting factors covering all relevant impact categories.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8583, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 630, "book_page": 633, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 5. Interpretation 5.1 General introduction In an LCA study the Goal and scope definition provides the initial groundplan of the study. The Inventory analysis supplies the data on relevant processes and interventions on which the assessment is to be based. In the Impact assessment phase the interventions are translated into potential environmental impacts. The final phase of an LCA is Interpretation (see ). According to ISO 14040 in life cycle Interpretation \u201cthe results of a life cycle Inventory analysis and - if conducted - of a life cycle Impact assessment (LCIA) are summarised and discussed as a basis for conclusions, recommendations and decision making in accordance with the Goal and scope definition\u201d", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8584, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 635, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14043 (2000E) defines Interpretation as \u201ca systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the LCI and/or LCIA of a product system, and present them in order to meet the requirements of the application as described in the goal and scope of the study. Furthermore, Life cycle Interpretation includes communication to give credibility to the results of other LCA phases (namely the LCI and LCIA) in a form that is both comprehensible and useful to the decision maker.\u201d The main aim of Interpretation is to formulate the conclusions that can be drawn from the LCA. In addition, this is the place for reflection on the results of the previous phases of the LCA and on the choices that have been made during the entire process of generating these results. It should be clear, however, that Interpretation, no matter how comprehensive it may be, can never replace an external, interactive peer review", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8585, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 635, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It should be clear, however, that Interpretation, no matter how comprehensive it may be, can never replace an external, interactive peer review. Such a peer review is strongly recommended unless the study is explicitly for internal use only.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8586, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 631, "book_page": 635, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Interpretation as elaborated in this Guide comprises seven steps (see Section 1.4): Procedures (no special Section in this volume; see Chapter 1); Consistency check (Section 5.2, p. 637); Completeness check (Section 5.3, p. 637); Contribution analysis (Section 5.4, p. 637); Perturbation analysis (Section 5.5, p. 638); Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis (Section 5.6, p. 639); Conclusions and recommendations (Section 5.7, p. 643). All these steps should be a regular part of LCA and similar for all levels of sophistication. A further starting point for elaborating these Interpretation steps is ISO 14043 (2000E) with respect to the methodological framework. Here, the ISO recommendations will be further operationalised taking into account the work of SETAC Working Groups and relevant proposals made by other authors. Deviations from ISO will be made only if there are important reasons for doing so", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8587, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 636, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Deviations from ISO will be made only if there are important reasons for doing so. It is recently that the Interpretation phase was introduced by ISO and it is therefore a topic scarcely referred to in previous LCA literature. The steps of the Interpretation phase will therefore not be discussed according to the previously used format of \u2018Topic\u2019, \u2018Developments in the last decade\u2019, \u2018Prospects\u2019, \u2018Conclusions\u2019 and \u2018Research recommendations\u2019. As explained in Section 1.5, the step dealing with procedures is not discussed separately in this chapter, but in an integrated fashion, for all phases, in Section 1.3. One of the main aims of Interpretation is to check the results of the Inventory analysis and of the Impact assessment against the Goal and scope definition of the study. In general terms, it should be asked whether the results actually answer the questions posed in the Goal and whether the answers are within the defined Scope", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8588, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 636, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In general terms, it should be asked whether the results actually answer the questions posed in the Goal and whether the answers are within the defined Scope. If, for example, the question relates to a future situation and the data used dates back to the early eighties, the results will not be in line with the Scope of the study. The results of the LCA study are confronted with the Goal and Scope in the following steps of Interpretation: Consistency check (Section 5.2, p. 637): The assumptions and models used in the LCA should be consistent with the Goal and scope of the study and consistent among the various product systems reviewed. Completeness check (Section 5.3, p. 637): The parameters describing the system, the data and methodology used in the various phases of the LCA and the results and conclusions of the analysis should all be consistent with the Goal and scope of the study. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis (Section 5.6, p. 639): The process data sources (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8589, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 636, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis (Section 5.6, p. 639): The process data sources (e.g. representativeness with respect to time, space, technology, etc.) and models used, the methodological choices and assumptions made and data reliability should all be consistent with the Goal and the scope of the study. With respect to reporting on Interpretation, ISO 14043 states: \u201cThe report shall give a complete and unbiased account of the study, as detailed in ISO 14040. In reporting the Interpretation phase, full transparency in terms of value-choices, rationales and expert judgements made shall be strictly observed.\u201d This implies that the general requirements of ISO 14040, clause 6 (see Chapter 2) also apply here. For Interpretation the following reporting issues can be derived from Lindfors et al. (1995a): The results of the study should be discussed in relation to aspects that may influence the results. The results of the study should be discussed in relation to earlier, related studies", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8590, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 636, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(1995a): The results of the study should be discussed in relation to aspects that may influence the results. The results of the study should be discussed in relation to earlier, related studies. Conclusions drawn shall be justified by material presented in the report and be based on the whole report. When results and conclusions are presented, aspects that may influence the results shall be mentioned. Biographies and/or current positions of members of the reference panel or review group shall be reported, as relevant. A short resume of the discussions in the reference panel shall be given, with a focus on conflicting views, OR A report from the reviewer(s) on the critical review (see Section 1.3), stakeholder review or validation, OR A statement that an external validation or review process has not been carried out, including a justification of that decision (e.g. since stakeholders have been involved in the conduct of the study).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8591, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 632, "book_page": 636, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 5.2 Consistency check The aim of the consistency check is to determine whether the assumptions, methods, models and data are consistent with Goal and scope of the LCA study, in terms both of the chain embodied in individual product life cycles and among the products compared. ISO provides the following examples of inconsistencies (ISO 14043, 2000E): \u201cdifferences in data sources, e.g. Option A is based on literature, whereas Option B is based on primary data; differences in data accuracy, e.g. for Option A a very detailed process tree and process description is available, whereas Option B is described as a cumulated black-box system; differences in technology coverage, e.g. data for Option A is based on experimental process (e.g. new catalyst with higher process efficiency on a pilot plant level), whereas data for Option B are based on existing large-scale technology; differences with time-related coverage, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8592, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "new catalyst with higher process efficiency on a pilot plant level), whereas data for Option B are based on existing large-scale technology; differences with time-related coverage, e.g. data for Option A describe a recently developed technology, whereas Option B is described by a technology mix, including both recently built and old plants; differences in data age, e.g. data for Option A are 5-year old primary data, whereas data for Option B are recently collected; differences in geographical coverage, e.g. data for Option A describe a representative European technology mix, whereas Option B describes one European Union member country with a high-level environmental protection policy, or one single plant\u201d. A final example is differences in functions the two products or options perform. These differences should either be justified or corrected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8593, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A final example is differences in functions the two products or options perform. These differences should either be justified or corrected. The influence of differences that cannot be corrected or justified on the results and conclusions should be determined in a sensitivity analysis (see Section 5.6). Involving technological and other experts and comparing the results of the study with those of previous studies on related subjects may be very useful in the consistency check. 5.3 Completeness check One way to spot incomplete or even erroneous data is to have an expert examine the results of the LCA and the way the results were generated. An LCA expert can examine the methodology used in the various phases of the LCA, and the results and conclusions of the analysis, all in relation to the Goal and scope of the study. Besides the LCA expert, technical experts should also have examine the parameters used to describe product systems and the quantitative data employed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8594, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Besides the LCA expert, technical experts should also have examine the parameters used to describe product systems and the quantitative data employed. The LCA expert may be able to uncover assumptions or methodological choices that are incompatible with the Goal and scope of the LCA, while technical experts may spot unexpected, missing or erroneous emissions, economical inflows and outflows or product characteristics. Another way in which incomplete or erroneous data can be uncovered is to compare the study with other, similar studies. Again one should focus on the parameters employed to describe the system, the methodologies applied in the various different phases of the study, the data used and the results and conclusions of the analysis, all in relation to the Goal and scope of the study. When comparing two LCA studies great care should be taken that the respective Goal and scope definitions are truly congruent", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8595, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When comparing two LCA studies great care should be taken that the respective Goal and scope definitions are truly congruent. The above recommendations should be implemented in iteration with the steps \u2018Interventions \u2018 (4.3.17), \u2018Economic flows not followed to system boundary\u2018 (4.3.18) and \u2018Cut-off and data estimation\u2018 (3.8). Particular attention should be paid to comparisons between alternative product systems. If there is significant variation in the completeness of the data sets of the respective alternatives, the potential influence of this difference should be estimated (using contribution analysis, perturbation analysis or sensitivity analysis, for example; see the following sections). 5.4 Contribution analysis The aim of contribution analysis is to establish the contribution to the overall LCA result of various identifiable elements and parameters. In the production of 1000 litres of milk, for example, the shares might be calculated of: individual processes, e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8596, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the production of 1000 litres of milk, for example, the shares might be calculated of: individual processes, e.g. pasteurising; a group of processes, e.g. refrigerated storage; a life-cycle stage, e.g. (dairy) production; the packaging, e.g. the bottle; an intervention, e.g. emissions.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8597, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 633, "book_page": 637, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background In other cases, contribution analysis may focus on specific product properties, such as the power consumption of a refrigerator. Contributions to the overall LCA result can be calculated at different levels: at the level of the weighting results; at the level of the indicator results and/or normalised indicator results; at the level of inventory results, e.g. emissions or resource extractions. Although the questions posed in the contribution analysis may seem quite straightforward, the implications may be more intricate. An example is the question: \u2018What is the contribution of the power consumption of a refrigerator to the total score on climate change ?\u2019 The approach would normally be to calculate this consumption in relation to the functional unit, go back a step in the flow diagram and calculate how much is emitted during power generation and, finally, to calculate the contribution of this to the total score on climate change", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8598, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, this is only part of the story: what about the emissions of the tankers transporting the oil to the power plant, for example? The simple question we began with thus has answers at different levels: the zero-order answer would take into account only the emissions occurring during the process \u2018refrigerator use\u2019. The emissions in this process are zero, however. The first-order answer to the question would take into account the emissions at the power plant, while the second-order would also cover the emissions of tankers and the third-order answer would even consider the emissions occurring during the extraction of the fossil fuels, etc. Normally speaking, in a contribution analysis a rather arbitrary number of steps are taken back in the flow diagram. The contribution analysis establishes the extent to which a particular environmental intervention contributes to a certain environmental score", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8599, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The contribution analysis establishes the extent to which a particular environmental intervention contributes to a certain environmental score. The contributions of all the environmental interventions associated with a particular process can of course also be summed to calculate the zero-order contribution of this process to the overall LCA result. However, this means ignoring all other linkages to other economic processes. In most cases there will be a second question behind the one formulated above, of the form: \u2018Which intervention, economic flow or process can we best change in order to reduce the climate change score of the product system\u2019. This type of question, typical of analysis of improvement options (\u2018improvement analysis'), can only be properly answered if the linkages among the different processes are covered right up to the highest order", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8600, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Since normal, zero-order contribution analysis does not take such interlinkage into account it cannot be used to answer this type of question. For this purpose perturbation analysis can be used, the topic of the next section. Contribution analysis can be used to focus the sensitivity analysis on those variables, flows, etc. having greatest influence on the LCA result. Due caution should then be exercised, however. Flows that have been underestimated or disregarded entirely, for example, may initially appear to make little or no contribution to the overall results of the study. Once corrected or included, though, such data may nonetheless affect results significantly. These 'false negatives' will therefore not show up in the contribution analysis as key issues for a sensitivity analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8601, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "These 'false negatives' will therefore not show up in the contribution analysis as key issues for a sensitivity analysis. 5.5 Perturbation analysis In a perturbation analysis1,2 the effects are studied of small changes in the parameters that describe the system on the overall results of an LCA (Heijungs, 1992; Heijungs, 1994). The effects of these small changes are calculated simultaneously for all the flows of a system, i.e. economic flows and environmental interventions. The analysis may be performed at different levels of aggregation: inventory table, indicator results, normalised indicator results or weighting results. All the factors used to calculate the aggregated result are included in the perturbation analysis. For example, if the analysis is performed at the level of weighting results, the characterisation factors, the normalisation factors and the weighting factors are all included", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8602, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For example, if the analysis is performed at the level of weighting results, the characterisation factors, the normalisation factors and the weighting factors are all included. The outcome of the perturbation analysis takes the form of a list of multiplication factors or multipliers. The values of these multipliers may range from minus infinity to plus infinity for 1 This type of analysis is referred to as marginal analysis by Heijungs et al. (1992). Using this term here would lead to confusion, however, because of the use of the term \u2018marginal\u2019 in a different context in the Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis. 2 It is debatable whether perturbation analysis should constitute a separate step or be included in sensitivity analysis (5.6). In perturbation analysis, so it can be argued, the data used to describe the system are altered. However, these small changes are used only to assess which processes or flows are most important in the system as modeled", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8603, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, these small changes are used only to assess which processes or flows are most important in the system as modeled. Thus, perturbation analysis can be said to assess intrinsic system sensitivity rather than the effects of estimated uncertainties in variables or modeling choices.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8604, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 634, "book_page": 638, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background economic flows and from -1 to 1 for environmental interventions. In fact the results for environmental interventions are identical to the results of the contribution analysis except for their being expressed as multipliers rather than percentages: a multiplier of 0.98 for an environmental intervention in the perturbation analysis would correspond to a contribution of 98% in the contribution analysis. The main difference between the contribution analysis and the perturbation analysis lies in the fact that the latter is concerned not only with environmental interventions but also with economic flows. This is even more important because of the fact that multipliers of economic flows may exceed unity if internal loops are involved. A multiplier of 4.5, for example, would indicate that an 1% increase in this flow would lead to a 4.5% change in the selected inventory or indicator results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8605, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A multiplier of 4.5, for example, would indicate that an 1% increase in this flow would lead to a 4.5% change in the selected inventory or indicator results. It is, of course, clear that this kind of magnification is very important in the context of improvement analysis and in a sensitivity analysis aiming at detecting important issues and refining the LCA study in question. The result of the perturbation analysis is normally a list of processes or flows with associated multiplication factors in decreasing order of significance for a specific type of result (e.g. emission, indicator result for climate change, etc.). Although the mathematics can be quite complicated, the perturbation analysis is relatively easy to implement if a matrix type of calculation method is used. Besides use in improvement analysis, it can help to focus the sensitivity analysis on those variables and (modeling) choices of greatest influence on the results of the study", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8606, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Besides use in improvement analysis, it can help to focus the sensitivity analysis on those variables and (modeling) choices of greatest influence on the results of the study. In this respect, it can significantly reduce the effort required for gathering uncertainty data, because it identifies which data items are crucial for uncertainty analysis. In interpreting the results of the perturbation analysis due caution should again be exercised, however; as with the contribution analysis described above, \u2019false negative\u2019 issues will not be identified cf. Section 5.4). 5.6 Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis If LCA is to be usefully employed as a decision-making tool, the robustness of the results must be clear. In the context of sensitivity and uncertainty analyses, a number of technical terms occur again and again. In this textbox, the most important of these are explained", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8607, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the context of sensitivity and uncertainty analyses, a number of technical terms occur again and again. In this textbox, the most important of these are explained. Note, however, that terminology is not uniform, so that other meanings for the same terms and other terms for the same concept may be encountered in literature. A basic distinction must be made between accuracy and precision. Data may be precise but inaccurate, for instance when use is made of a high-precision clock which has not been adjusted to local time. Data may also be accurate but imprecise, for instance when a sundial is used. The result of a calculation is sensitive to several sources of uncertainty. We mention uncertainties in the data, for instance when there are several different measurements or estimates of an emission, and uncertainties in the model, for instance due to essentially arbitrary decisions relating to system boundaries, allocation and so on", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8608, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Data uncertainty may arise because data are in themselves variable, for instance different in London and in Paris, or on Monday and Sunday, or the data may be the outcome of a stochastic process. The former is referred to as variability, the latter leads to sampling error. In addition, data may be measured incorrectly; we can then distinguish random errors from systematic errors. In general, random errors lead to inaccurate data, and systematic errors to imprecise data. Model uncertainty leads to doubts regarding the validity of a result, data uncertainty to doubts on its reliability. Even when results are highly imprecise or inaccurate, they may still be robust. For instance, if product X remains preferable to product Y even when the absolute difference varies wildly under sensitivity analyses, the ranking of these two products is said to be robust", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8609, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For instance, if product X remains preferable to product Y even when the absolute difference varies wildly under sensitivity analyses, the ranking of these two products is said to be robust. This step of the Interpretation phase assesses the influence on results of variations in process data, (model) choices and other variables. In the sensitivity analysis these changes are deliberately introduced in order to establish the robustness of the results with regard to these variations. In the uncertainty analysis empirical data on the uncertainty ranges of specific data are used to calculate the total error range of the results. In order to assess the robustness of the results information is required on both their validity and their reliability, distinguished as follows: with validity the question to be answered is whether the results are based on sound reasoning or, in LCA, whether the appropriate (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8610, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "correct representativeness in space, time, technology etc.) process data (sources) and models have been used and whether the appropriate methodological choices and assumptions have been made, all in relation to the Goal and scope of the study. If any controversial choices have been made, the influence of these choices on the results of the study (", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8611, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 635, "book_page": 639, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background should be assessed. Variability, as introduced by others in the context of LCA (e.g. Huijbregts, 1998a; Huijbregts, 1998b, Hertwich, 1999), is regarded as being subsumed under validity. When discussing validity it should be borne in mind that assessment thereof is closely related to basic choices (see Section 1.2.2.3); with reliability the question to be answered is whether the parameters and data used are likely to be true or correct, i.e. whether they are to be trusted or believed. The issue of reliability is closely related to that of data quality within the context of LCI (Van den Berg et al., 1999). As indicated earlier, both data (sources) and (modeling) choices should, in principle, be subjected to an analysis to ascertain their validity and reliability", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8612, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As indicated earlier, both data (sources) and (modeling) choices should, in principle, be subjected to an analysis to ascertain their validity and reliability. Some issues (previously referred to as \u2018issues for Interpretation\u2019) to be subjected to sensitivity analyses may have been identified in previous sections under the specific headings of Goal and scope definition, Inventory analysis and Impact assessment. Additional issues can be derived from the results of the contribution analysis and the perturbation analysis. In this step a final selection of issues to be subjected to sensitivity analysis is first made. The number of issues selected may depend on the level of sophistication of the LCA. In a simplified LCA the sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are confined to a limited checklist", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8613, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The number of issues selected may depend on the level of sophistication of the LCA. In a simplified LCA the sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are confined to a limited checklist. This checklist includes those (model) choices known to be of major influence on the results of the study: product system specification (product composition, trip rates, recycling rates, life span, etc.); allocation rules; characterisation method; weighting method. The consequences of altering the choices vis-\u00e0-vis these issues on the results of the LCA should be calculated. Results will always be particularly sensitive to changes in economic flows in close proximity to the functional unit. Thus, the product system specification probably constitutes the most important data for the results of the study. This data should therefore be checked carefully and subjected to a sensitivity analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8614, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This data should therefore be checked carefully and subjected to a sensitivity analysis. With regard to data uncertainties, in a simplified LCA one should focus on those processes and flows already identified as being of key importance in the contribution and/or perturbation analysis. The data on these processes and flows should be checked and a partial sensitivity analysis performed by varying these data. In a detailed LCA the sensitivity and uncertainty analysis is also confined to a checklist, but a more comprehensive one (based on ISO 14043, 2000E): allocation rules; cut-off criteria; boundary setting and system definition; process data; characterisation method and data; normalisation data; weighting method and data. With regard to data uncertainties, in a detailed LCA one should also focus on those processes and flows identified in the contribution and/or perturbation analysis as being most important", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8615, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With regard to data uncertainties, in a detailed LCA one should also focus on those processes and flows identified in the contribution and/or perturbation analysis as being most important. The data on these processes and flows should be checked and a partial sensitivity analysis performed by varying these data. As an option for extension the consequences of the (modeling) choices and data uncertainties may be quantified in more detail and partial uncertainty analyses performed. First of all the consequences of different (modeling) choices will have to be assessed, as in detailed LCA. Besides the effects of (modeling) choices, however, the effects of uncertainties in the process data should also be determined. In the most general terms, the question to be answered by an LCA is whether two product systems differ significantly at the level of inventory results, (normalised) indicator results or weighting results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8616, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If an LCA is performed without any uncertainty or sensitivity analysis being undertaken, the results take the form of two scores: one for product system A and one for system B. A comparison of the two systems may indicate that the environmental score (e,g, emission of of B is greater than that of A, for example, and the conclusion drawn that A is better than B from an environmental angle.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8617, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 636, "book_page": 640, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background However, the question should be whether there is indeed a significant difference between the emissions of the two product systems or whether it is merely an artefact of the uncertainties in the values of the system parameters and in (modeling) choices made. As is evident from the above, the robustness of the end results of an LCA is subject to a large number of validity and reliability issues and the value of the result is not a single point but some kind of probability distribution. Thus, in order to judge this robustness, the combined influence of all the issues mentioned above must be gauged. Several methods have been proposed for this purpose, of which three are discussed here: calculation of extreme values; formal statistics: uncertainty propagation; empirical statistics: Monte Carlo simulation. 1. 2. 3. 1. Calculation of extreme values One apparently simple approach is to calculate extreme values", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8618, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 641, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. 2. 3. 1. Calculation of extreme values One apparently simple approach is to calculate extreme values. In this calculation the upper and lower values of each parameter are combined to find the upper and lower values of the end result. Heijungs (1996) shows that due to the inherent complexity of an LCA (e.g. the presence of feedback loops) the extremes of the result cannot be predicted by intuition. He also shows that this implies the need to test every combination of upper and lower values and that for an average LCA this task would take a modern PC longer than the current age of the universe. This kind of uncertainty analysis is therefore not of much use in most LCAs. 2. Formal statistics: uncertainty propagation Heijungs (1996) proposes a formal solution using a standard statistical method: propagation of uncertainties. In this case one starts not by determining the upper and lower values of a given parameter but by assuming a particular distribution of the parameter values", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8619, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 641, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case one starts not by determining the upper and lower values of a given parameter but by assuming a particular distribution of the parameter values. If a normal distribution is used, the mean and standard deviation of the parameters must be calculated. Although the mathematics is", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8620, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 637, "book_page": 641, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background complicated, in itself the method is relatively simple to implement in automated calculation procedures, that is, if matrix calculation is used. This formal statistical approach yields such statements as: with a 95% certainty interval, the emission of product system A is greater than that of product system B. 3. Empirical statistics: Monte Carlo simulation Another technique that can be used to avoid the problems associated with calculation of extreme values is stochastic modeling. This technique can be performed with the aid of a Monte Carlo or Latin Hypercube simulation (Huijbregts, 1998a and 1998b). In both types of simulation a predefined, limited number of combinations (typically 10,000) of random parameters, restricted by their uncertainty distribution, is used to calculate the results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8621, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 642, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In both types of simulation a predefined, limited number of combinations (typically 10,000) of random parameters, restricted by their uncertainty distribution, is used to calculate the results. The only difference between a Monte Carlo and a Latin Hypercube simulation is that in the former the uncertainty distribution of each parameter must be specified while in the latter the uncertainty distribution is segmented into a series of non-overlapping intervals, each having equal probability. One advantage of stochastic modeling is that, in contrast to formal statistic methods, it is relatively easy to employ a variety of parameter distributions, such as uniform, triangular, normal and log normal. The result of this type of analysis is a frequency chart of possible outcomes. Once a frequency chart has been generated, the same statistical methods used in the aforementioned formal statistics approach can be used to assess whether or not two product systems differ significantly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8622, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 642, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In all three methods described, information is required on uncertainties in parameter values. This requires a major additional effort, coming on top of actual data collection, in itself already one of the most timeconsuming tasks of LCA. There are two ways to tackle this problem of availability of data on ranges of uncertainty: 1. 2. use rough estimates of standard deviations or upper and lower bounds instead of real values to obtain some kind of subjective probability distribution; focus data collection efforts on those flows of greatest importance for the study results (as determined by contribution and perturbation analysis): a partial uncertainty analysis. As already proposed by Heijungs (1996) and Huijbregts (1998a, 1998b), focusing on key parameters would greatly simplify matters. One way to rank parameters in order of importance for the study results is to use perturbation analysis (see Section 5.5)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8623, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 642, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One way to rank parameters in order of importance for the study results is to use perturbation analysis (see Section 5.5). This could greatly reduce the amount of information required for a sensitivity analysis. However, the results of both options (i.e. 1 and 2) should be treated with great caution: by introducing subjective and/or partial probabilities one may also introduce an erroneous notion of the probability of the results, while only partial or estimated uncertainty data have been used. Another important issue is that both in the formal statistical approach and in the standard Monte Carlo simulation the variables are assumed to be independent of one another. In practice this is often not the case; fossil fuel inputs are closely related to emissions, for example. Although relationships among variables can, in principle, be taken into account using co-variances, in practice this will be difficult to implement", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8624, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 642, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although relationships among variables can, in principle, be taken into account using co-variances, in practice this will be difficult to implement. If such dependencies are ignored, however, uncertainties will be overestimated. The approach outlined above can also be used to assess the influence of (modeling) choices. However, current LCA software will not always permit implementation of the required procedures. Such is the case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8625, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 638, "book_page": 642, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background with choices concerning allocation, for instance. In order to assess the influence of adopting a certain allocation procedure it should be possible to introduce this change without having to reorganise the whole data set. Use of aggregated process data can therefore lead to problems during Interpretation. 5.7 Conclusions and recommendations1 In this step of the Interpretation conclusions are drawn and recommendations made on the basis of the information gathered in the previous phases of the LCA combined with the results of the previous steps of the Interpretation. In ISO 14043 (2000E) the objective of this step is defined as \u201cto draw conclusions and make recommendations for the intended audience of the LCA or LCI study\u201d. In general the conclusions of any study should comprise the main results of the study and a discussion of the validity and reliability of those results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8626, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In general the conclusions of any study should comprise the main results of the study and a discussion of the validity and reliability of those results. In the case of LCA the following items should be included (slightly adapted from ISO 14043). a summary of significant issues; an evaluation of the methodology and results on the basis of the consistency check, completeness check and the sensitivity and uncertainty analysis; the main conclusions as they relate to the Goal and scope of the study, including data quality, predefined assumptions and values, and application-oriented requirements. Firstly, conclusions should be consistent with the results found and with the original Goal and scope of the study2, viz. in line with the limitations of the scope, main data and (modeling) choices, and in line with the limitations of the instrument of LCA itself", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8627, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "in line with the limitations of the scope, main data and (modeling) choices, and in line with the limitations of the instrument of LCA itself. This implies that the conclusions are only valid for the systems analysed and thus not, automatically, for other similar systems that have not been analysed. For example, the results for 1 -litre packaging alternatives for a certain liquid are not valid for similar 1.5-litre packaging alternatives. Separate justification is needed if the conclusions are expanded to other similar systems. It also implies that the conclusions are valid for the main data and (modeling) choices made, and not for an altered system with different data and/or (modeling) choices. If, for example, the system boundary is expanded to include more processes earlier in the chain, the conclusions may no longer retain their validity", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8628, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If, for example, the system boundary is expanded to include more processes earlier in the chain, the conclusions may no longer retain their validity. Finally, formulating conclusions in compliance with the limitations of the LCA instrument implies that conclusions as to the preferred location of a certain industrial facility cannot be drawn on the sole basis of an LCA. Secondly, the inclusion of the results of the earlier steps of the Interpretation in the formulation of the conclusions is crucial. Performing consistency and completeness checks and sensitivity and uncertainty analyses on data and models is one thing; processing the results of these checks and analyses in the conclusions of a study and formulating recommendations is quite another. There are examples of studies in which sensitivity analyses have been performed, but with absolutely no further processing of the analysis outcomes in the final results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8629, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are examples of studies in which sensitivity analyses have been performed, but with absolutely no further processing of the analysis outcomes in the final results. How, then, should these results be properly taken into account? Inconsistencies, incompleteness and errors should either be corrected or incorporated in the conclusions of the study. The data or parameters to which the conclusions of the study are most sensitive should also be reported. Uncertain data and parameters should be checked and if uncertainties remain, this should be incorporated in the conclusions. One simple but not particularly elegant way of doing so would be to determine for the most dominant data the uncertainty (partial uncertainty analysis) and to add the results of these analyses (see Section 5.6) to a maximum uncertainty range for data. In a similar way the uncertainty could be determined of the most important modeling choices (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8630, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In a similar way the uncertainty could be determined of the most important modeling choices (e.g. allocation models and characterisation models for some impact categories) and the results of these analyses could be added again to a maximum uncertainty range for models. Subsequently, further Interpretation is up to the practitioner and/or decisionmaker. A more elegant solution, which is not yet practically available, is to formulate both data and model uncertainties as input uncertainties (e.g. data: 5 \u00b1 0.5 and models as the probability, say 0.333 on model A, B or C) for a Monte Carlo analysis. In this way all model and data uncertainties are aggregated into a total frequency distribution of the end results of a study. This is, however, not yet feasible and may never be. 1 Note that this section does not constitute the overall \u2018Conclusions and recommendations\u2019 for the present Guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8631, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is, however, not yet feasible and may never be. 1 Note that this section does not constitute the overall \u2018Conclusions and recommendations\u2019 for the present Guide. Material relating to this aspect is included under \u2019Research recommendations\u2019 in most of the individual sections of this Guide. 2 If this is not the case, an explicit statement should be made of the problems encountered and the conclusions formulated in such a way as to reflect these problems in a clear and proper manner.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8632, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 639, "book_page": 643, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Drawing appropriate conclusions is of even greater importance for comparative assertions, in order to minimise opportunistic use of results (\u2018hired gun\u2019 effect). In this case it will also have to be determined which differences in results are significant in order to be able to conclude that one product alternative is environmentally sounder than another. It is our conviction that even waterproof Interpretation cannot prevent misuse of results of LCA studies, it can only minimise it. It will always be possible to manipulate results or use results to answer the wrong questions. By providing guidelines or checklists, possible misuse can be minimised but not precluded. Therefore, a peer review process and appropriate procedures are in most cases of crucial importance (see Section 1.3).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8633, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 640, "book_page": 644, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background 6. References Adriano, D.C. (ed.), 1992. Biogeochemistry of trace metals. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. Ahbe, S., A. Braunschweig, & R. M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1990. Methodik f\u00fcr Oekobilanzen auf der Basis \u00d6kologischer Optimierung. Schriftenreihe Umwelt. BUWAL Nr. 133, Bern. Albritton, D., R.G. Derwent, I. Isaksen, M. Lal & D. Wuebbles, 1996. Trace gas radiative forcing indices. In: Houghton et al., 1996. Alloway, B.J. (ed.), 1990. Heavy metals in soils. Blackie, Glasgow. Amann, M., I. Bertok, J. Cofala, F. Gyarfas, C. Heyes, Z. Klimont & W. Sch\u00f6pp, 1996. Costeffective control of acidification and ground-level ozone. Second interim report to European Commission, DG-XI. International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Laxenburg. Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld, Y., P. Grennfelt & K. Pleijel, 1992. Photochemical ozone creation potentials: a study of different concepts. J. Air Waste Manage. 42 (9): 1152\u20131158. Annema, J.A., 1992", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8634, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Andersson-Sk\u00f6ld, Y., P. Grennfelt & K. Pleijel, 1992. Photochemical ozone creation potentials: a study of different concepts. J. Air Waste Manage. 42 (9): 1152\u20131158. Annema, J.A., 1992. Methodology for the evaluation of potential action to reduce the environmental impact of chemical substances. In: SETAC, 1992: 73\u201380. Anonymous, 1997a. \u00d6kobilanzen \u2013 Trends und Perspectieven. Workshop der GDChFachgruppe Umweltchemie und \u00d6kotoxicologie, Frankfurt. Anonymous, 1997b. Dutch consumer patterns and their impact on biodiversity. CREM (Consultancy and Research for Environmental Management), Amsterdam. Anonymous, 1998. Handleiding voor het opstellen van milieurelevante productinformatie (MPRI\u00ae): Achtergronden. Versie 1.1. SNPR98001. Stichting NVTB Projecten SNP. Driebergen. Anonymous, 1998a. Proceedings of the International Resource Accounting Modeling Workshop Groningen 16\u201317 September 1998. IVEM, Groningen. Anonymous, 1998b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8635, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Stichting NVTB Projecten SNP. Driebergen. Anonymous, 1998a. Proceedings of the International Resource Accounting Modeling Workshop Groningen 16\u201317 September 1998. IVEM, Groningen. Anonymous, 1998b. Proceedings of The Third International Conference on EcoBalance \u2013 Progress in LCA for a Sustainable Society. November 25\u201327,1998, Tsukuba. Anonymous, 1998c. Low Doses of Ionizing Radiation: Biological Effects and Regulatory Control. Proceedings of a Conference, Seville, Spain, 17\u201321 November 1997, Jointly organized by IAEA and WHO. Anonymous, 1999. SETAC working groups 1993\u20131998. SETAC -Europe news 10 (3): 14\u201320 Anonymous, 2000a. Integral biodiversity impact assessment system (IBIS). CREM (Consultancy and Research for Environmental Management) report no. 98.309, part II, Amsterdam. Anonymous, 2000b. Biodiversity module for ecolabels. CREM (Consultancy and Research for Environmental Management) report no. 98.309, part III, Amsterdam. AOO, 1995. MER Tienjarenprogramma afval", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8636, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Anonymous, 2000b. Biodiversity module for ecolabels. CREM (Consultancy and Research for Environmental Management) report no. 98.309, part III, Amsterdam. AOO, 1995. MER Tienjarenprogramma afval. AOO 95\u201302, Utrecht. Audsley, E., S. Alber, R. Clift, S. Cowell, P. Crettaz, G. Gaillard, J. Hausheer, O. Jolliet, R. Kleijn, B. Mortensen, D. Pearce, E. Roger, H. Teulon, B. Weidema & H. van Zeijts, 1994. Harmonisation of environmental life cycle assessment for agriculture. Final Report of EU Concerted Action AIR3-CT94\u20132028, Brussels. Ayres, R. U., K. Martin\u00e0s & L.W. Ayres, 1996. Eco-thermodynamics. Exergy and life cycle analysis. Working Paper (96/04/EPS), INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France. Ayres, R.U., 1998. Eco-thermodynamics: economics and the second law. Ecol. Econ. 26 (2): 189\u2013209. Azapagic, A. & R. Clift, 1999. Allocation of environmental burdens in co-product systems: product-related burdens (part 1). Int. J. LCA 4 (6): 357\u201369. Azapagic, A. & R. Clift, 2000", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8637, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "26 (2): 189\u2013209. Azapagic, A. & R. Clift, 1999. Allocation of environmental burdens in co-product systems: product-related burdens (part 1). Int. J. LCA 4 (6): 357\u201369. Azapagic, A. & R. Clift, 2000. Allocation of environmental burdens in co-product systems: process and product-related burdens (part 2). Int. J. LCA5 (1): 31\u201336. Azapagic, A. & R. Clift, 1998. Linear programming as a tool in life cycle assessment. Int. J. LCA 3 (6): 305\u201316. Azapagic, A., 1996. Environment system analysis: the application of linear programming to life cycle assessment. Volume I. Ph.D.-thesis University of Surrey, Guildford. Baitz, M., 1998. Method to integrate land use in life cycle assessment. University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart. Bakker, J. & D. Van de Meent, 1997. Receptuur voor de berekening van de Indicator Effecten Toxische Stoffen (Itox). RIVM rapport nr. 607504003, RIVM, Bilthoven. Barnthouse, L., J. Fava, K. Humphreys, R. Hunt, L. Laibson, S. Noesen, G. Norris, J. Owens, J. Todd, B. Vigon, K", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8638, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RIVM rapport nr. 607504003, RIVM, Bilthoven. Barnthouse, L., J. Fava, K. Humphreys, R. Hunt, L. Laibson, S. Noesen, G. Norris, J. Owens, J. Todd, B. Vigon, K. Weitz & J. Young (eds), 1997. Life-cycle Impact assessment: The State-ofthe-Art. Report of the Work Group on LCA Impact assessment, SETAC, Pensacola. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8639, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 641, "book_page": 645, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Barrett K. & E. Berge (eds.), 1996. Transboundary Air Pollution in Europe. Research Report No.32, EMEP/MSC-W, Report 1/96, Oslo. Baumann, H., 1992. LCA: Utv\u00e4rdering med index. Ber\u00e4kning av tva upps\u00e4ttningar norska index. CIT-ekologik 1992:2. Chalmers, Gothenburg. Beck, A. & St. Bosshart, 1995. Umweltanalyseinstrumente im Vergleich. Diplomarbeit am Laboratorium f\u00fcr Energiesysteme, ETH Z\u00fcrich. Beetstra, F., 1998. Het ECOLEMMA model, ECOLogische Eenheden Milieu-Monetair gewoogen voor Aantasting van ecosystemen en landschappen; een operationalisatie in een LCA kader. PhD Thesis. Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven. Berg, N.W. van den, G. Huppes, E.W. Lindeijer, B.L. van der Ven & M.N. Wrisberg, 1999. Operational quality assessment in LCA: a semi-quantitative method. CML Report 152, Leiden (see: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/publssp frame.html) Beukering, F. van, F. Oosterhuis & F. Spaninks, 1998. Economic Valuation in Life Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8640, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CML Report 152, Leiden (see: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/ssp/publssp frame.html) Beukering, F. van, F. Oosterhuis & F. Spaninks, 1998. Economic Valuation in Life Cycle Assessment. Working Paper W98/02 of the Institute for Environmental Studies, Free University, Amsterdam. Bez, J., M. Heyde & G. Goldhan, 1998. Waste treatment in product specific life cycle inventories: an approach of material-related modeling. Part II: Sanitary landfill. Int. J. LCA 3 (2): 100\u2013105. Bierman, H., T.R. Dyckman and R.W. Hilton, 1990. Cost accounting. Concepts and managerial applications. PWS-Kent Publishing Company, Boston. Blau, S. & S. Seneviratne, 1995. Acidification and Eutrophication in Life Cycle Assessments. Student thesis. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Z\u00fcrich. Blonk, T.J. & E.W. Lindeijer, 1995. Naar een methodiek voor het kwantificeren van aantasting in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8641, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Student thesis. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Z\u00fcrich. Blonk, T.J. & E.W. Lindeijer, 1995. Naar een methodiek voor het kwantificeren van aantasting in LCA. Vooronderzoek in het kader van de LCA-methodiekontwikkeling met betrekking tot de operationalisatie van aantasting van ecosystemen en landschap. DWW. Delft. Blonk, T.J. & H. van Ewijk, 1996. Verkennende LCA nautische baggerspecie. IVAM-ER, Amsterdam. Blonk, T.J., M. Lafleur, R. Spriensma, S. Stevens, M. Goedkoop, A. Agterberg, B. van Engelenburg & K. Blok 1997b. Drie referentieniveaus voor normalisatie in LCA: Nederlands grondgebied 1993/1994; Nederlandse eindconsumptie 1993/1994; West-Europees grondgebied begin jaren 1990. RIZA-werkdocument 97.110x, Lelystad. Blonk, T.J., M.D. Davidson & M.C.C. Lafleur, 1997a. Working document: Feasibility of operationalisation of depletion of abiotic resources in LCA via the key resources energy and land. IVAM Environmental Research, Amsterdam. Boguski T.K., R. G. Hunt, J.M. Chokalis W.E", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8642, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IVAM Environmental Research, Amsterdam. Boguski T.K., R. G. Hunt, J.M. Chokalis W.E. Franklin, 1996. LCA Methodology. In: Curran, 1996. Bouman, M., R. Heijungs, E. van der Voet, J.C.J.M. van den Bergh & G. Huppes, 2000. Material flows and economic models: an analytical comparison of SFA, LCA and partial equilibrium models. Ecol. Econ. 32 (2): 195\u2013216. Braakhuis, F.L.M., M. Gijtenbeek & W.A. Hafkamp, 1995. Milieumanagement: van kosten naar baten. Samson H.D. Tjeenk Willink, Alphen aan den Rijn. Bras-Klapwijk, R.M., 1999. Adjusting Life Cycle Assessment Methodology for Use in Public Policy Discourse. Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft. Brasser, L.J., C. Huygen, P.J.H. Builtjes, A. Verbeek, J.A. Don, P.F.J. van der Most, H. Nieboer, R.M. van Aalst, K.D. van den Hout & M. Odijk, 1985. Milieu-effectrapportage 20; serie effectvoorspelling deel II Lucht. SDU, The Hague Braunschweig, A., R. F\u00f6rster, P. Hofstetter, & R. M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1996. Developments in LCA Valuation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8643, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Odijk, 1985. Milieu-effectrapportage 20; serie effectvoorspelling deel II Lucht. SDU, The Hague Braunschweig, A., R. F\u00f6rster, P. Hofstetter, & R. M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1996. Developments in LCA Valuation. IW\u00d6-Diskussionsbeitrag Nr. 32. IW\u00d6-HSG, St. Gallen. Brezet, H., J. Cramer & T. van der Horst, 1995. Milieugerichte productontwikkeling. In: Braakhuis et al., 1995. Bruijn, J.A. de & R. van Duin, 1998. Procedurele organisatie van LCA-studies (POLCA). Technische Universiteit Delft - Technische Bestuurskunde / Bureau Brandstoffen & Grondstoffen. Delft/Emst. Bruijn, J.A. de, E.F. ten Heuvelhof & R.J. in 't Veld, 1998. Procesmanagement; Over procesontwerp en besluitvorming. Amsterdam. Burke, Th., J. Doull, T.E. McKone, D. Paustenbach, R. Scheuplein, H.A. Udo de Haes & J. Young, 1995. Human health impact assessment in life cycle assessments: analysis by an expert panel. ILSI Health and Environmental Sciences Institute, Washington D.C. BUWAL, 1998", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8644, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Udo de Haes & J. Young, 1995. Human health impact assessment in life cycle assessments: analysis by an expert panel. ILSI Health and Environmental Sciences Institute, Washington D.C. BUWAL, 1998. Bewertung in \u00d6kobilanzen mit der Methode der \u00d6kologischen Knappheit. \u00d6kofaktoren 1997. Schriftenreihe Umwelt Nr 297. BUWAL, Bern, Switzerland. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8645, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 642, "book_page": 646, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Carter, W.P.L., 1994. Development of ozone reactivity scales for volatile organic compounds. J. Air Waste Manage. 44 (7): 881\u2013899. Carter, W.P.L., D. Luo & I.L. Malkina, 1997. Environmental chamber studies for development of an updated photochemical mechanism for VOC relativity assessment. Draft, final report to CARB, CRC, NREL. Los Angeles. Ceuterick, D., 1998. Proceedings of the International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in Agriculture, Agro-Industry and Forestry (organised by VITO). December 3\u20134, 1998.1998/PPE/R/161, Brussels. Chemstations Inc., 1997. Chemcad User guide. Houston. Christiansen, K., A. de Beaufort-Langeveld, N. van den Berg, R. Haydock, M. ten Houten, S. Kotaji, E. Oerlemans, W.-P. Schmidt, A. Weidenhaupt & R. White, 1997. Simplifying LCA: Just a cut? Final report SETAC-Europe LCA screening and streamlining working group. SETACEurope, Brussels. Clift, R., R. Frischknecht, G. Huppes, A.-M. Tillman and B. Weidema, 1998", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8646, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Simplifying LCA: Just a cut? Final report SETAC-Europe LCA screening and streamlining working group. SETACEurope, Brussels. Clift, R., R. Frischknecht, G. Huppes, A.-M. Tillman and B. Weidema, 1998. Towards a coherent approach to life cycle Inventory analysis (DRAFT). Centre for Environmental Strategy, University of Surrey, Surrey. Consoli, F., D. Allen, I. Boustead, N. de Oude, J. Fava, W. Franklin, B. Quay, R. Parrish, R. Perriman, D. Postlethwaite, J. Seguin & B. Vigon (eds), 1993. Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A \u2018Code of Practice\u2019 (Edition 1). SETAC-Europe, Brussels. Copius Peereboom, E.R., R. Kleijn, S. Lemkowitz, S. Lundie, 1998. Influence of Inventory Data Sets on Life Cycle Assessment Results: a Case Study on PVC. J. Ind. Ecol. 2 (3): 109\u2013130. Cornelissen, R.L., 1997. Thermodynamics and sustainable development. The use of exergy analysis and the reduction of irreversibility. PhD Dissertation, Twente University, Enschede. Corten, F.G.P., B. van der Haspel, G.J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8647, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Thermodynamics and sustainable development. The use of exergy analysis and the reduction of irreversibility. PhD Dissertation, Twente University, Enschede. Corten, F.G.P., B. van der Haspel, G.J. Kreuzberg, H.J.W. Sas & G. de Wit, 1994. Weighting environmental problems for product policy. Phase 1. Delft, The Netherlands. Cowan, C.E., D. Mackay, T.C.J. Feytel, D. van de Meent, A. Di Guardo, J. Davies & N. Mackay, 1995. The multi-media fate model. A vital tool for predicting the fate of chemicals. SETAC, Pensacola. Cowell, S.J., S. Hogan & R. Clift, 1997. Positioning and applications of LCA. In: Udo de Haes H. & N. Wrisberg (eds.), 1997. Curran, M.A., 1996. Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment. McGraw-Hill, New York. Dam A. van, A.G. Kloppenburg, B.L. van der Ven, S. Wiegersma, 1996. Resultaten van het VNO-DALCA project, Hoofdrapport. TNO-rapport BU3.96/002461\u20131/AD, TNO Apeldoorn. Derwent, R.G. & M.E. Jenkin, 1990. Hydrocarbon involvement in photochemical ozone formation in Europe", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8648, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "TNO-rapport BU3.96/002461\u20131/AD, TNO Apeldoorn. Derwent, R.G. & M.E. Jenkin, 1990. Hydrocarbon involvement in photochemical ozone formation in Europe. Report nr. AERE-R13736, AEA Environment and Energy, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire. Derwent, R.G., M.E. Jenkin & S.M. Saunders, 1996. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for a large number of reactive hydrocarbons under European conditions. Atmos. Environ. 30 (2): 181\u2013199. Derwent, R.G., M.E. Jenkin, S.M. Saunders & M.J. Pilling, 1998. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for organic compounds in Northwest Europe calculated with a master chemical mechanism. Atmos. Environ. 32 (14\u201315): 2429\u20132441. Drunen, M.A. van, 1997. LCA\u2019s voor beleid en management: nut, noodzaak en wensen. VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment) report no. Productenbeleid 1997/32. Zoetermeer. Drury, C., 1992. Management and cost accounting. Chapman and Hall, London (third edition). Duin, R. van & J.A. de Bruijn, 1998", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8649, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Productenbeleid 1997/32. Zoetermeer. Drury, C., 1992. Management and cost accounting. Chapman and Hall, London (third edition). Duin, R. van & J.A. de Bruijn, 1998. POLCA; over de Procedurele Organisatie van LCA-studies \u2013 Teksten t.b.v. de nieuwe handleiding. Bureau Brandstoffen & Grondstoffen / Technische Universiteit Delft - Technische Bestuurskunde. Ernst / Delft. EC, 1995a. ExternE. Externalities of energy. Vol. 2: Methodology. European Commission, Directorate-General XII: Science, Research and Development. Brussels- Luxembourg. EC, 1995b. ExternE. Externalities of energy. Vol. 5: Nuclear. European Commission, DirectorateGeneral XII: Science, Research and Development. Brussels- Luxembourg. Eggels, P & B.L. van der Ven, 1995. Allocation model for landfill. In: Finnveden & Huppes (eds.), 1995. Ekvall, T, 1999. System Expansion and Allocation in Life Cycle Assessment, with Implications for Wastepaper Management. PhD dissertation. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8650, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Ekvall, T, 1999. System Expansion and Allocation in Life Cycle Assessment, with Implications for Wastepaper Management. PhD dissertation. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. Ekvall, T. & A.-M. Tillman, 1997. Open-loop recycling: criteria for allocation procedures. Int. J. LCA 2 (3): 155\u2013162. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8651, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 643, "book_page": 647, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Ekvall, T., T. Rydberg, \u00d6. Hedenberg, B. Backlund Jacobson, T. Pajula & H. Wessman, 1997. Guidelines on life cycle Impact assessment of pulp and paper. NORDPAP DP2/55, SCAN Forskrapport 688. EPA, 1984. Estimating concern levels for concentrations of chemical substances in the environment. US-EPA, Environmental Effects Branch, Washington. Fava, J.A., F. Consoli, R. Denison, K. Dickson, T. Mohin, B. Vigon, (eds.) 1993. Conceptual framework for life-cycle impact analysis. SETAC, Pensacola. FEFCO (Groupement Ondul\u00e9, Kraft Institute), 1997. European database for corrugated board life cycle studies. Paris/Darmstadt/Stockholm. Finlayson-Pitts, B.J. & J.N. Pitts, Jr., 1993. Atmospheric chemistry of tropospheric ozone formation: Scientific and regulatory implications. J. Air Waste Manage. 43 (8): 1091\u20131100. Finnveden, G., 1996a. \u201cResources\u201d and related impact categories. Part III. In: Udo de Haes, H.A. (ed.), 1996. Finnveden, G., 1996b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8652, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "J. Air Waste Manage. 43 (8): 1091\u20131100. Finnveden, G., 1996a. \u201cResources\u201d and related impact categories. Part III. In: Udo de Haes, H.A. (ed.), 1996. Finnveden, G., 1996b. Life Cycle assessment as an environment systems analysis tool \u2013 with a focus on system boundaries. Licentiate Thesis, AFR-Report 137, AFN (Swedish Waste Research Council), Swedish EPA, Stockholm. Finnveden, G., 1996c. Solid waste treatment within the framework of life cycle assessment. Metals in municipal solid waste landfills. Int. J. LCA, 1 (2): 74\u201378. Finnveden, G., 1997. Valuation methods within LCA \u2013 Where are the values? Int. J. LCA 2 (3): 163\u2013169. Finnveden, G., 1998. On the possibilities of life-cycle assessment, development of methodology and review of case studies. PhD thesis. Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm. Finnveden, G., 1999a. A critical review of operational valuation/weighting methods for life cylce assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8653, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PhD thesis. Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm. Finnveden, G., 1999a. A critical review of operational valuation/weighting methods for life cylce assessment. AFR-report 253, AFN (Swedish Waste Research Council), Swedish EPA, Stockholm. Finnveden, G., 1999b. Methodological aspects of life cycle assessment of integrated solid waste management systems. Resour. Conserv. Recy. 26 (3\u20134): 173\u2013187. Finnveden, G., 2000. On the limitations of life cycle assessment and environment systems analysis tools in general. Int. J. LCA 5 (4): 229\u2013238. Finnveden, G. & G. Huppes (eds.), 1995. Life cycle assessment and treatment of solid waste. Proceedings of the international workshop, September 28\u201329,1995, Stockholm. Fraunhofer-lnstitut f\u00fcr Lebensmitteltechnologie und Verpackung (FhG), Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Verpackungsmarktforschung & Institut f\u00fcr Energie- und Umweltforschung, 1991. Umweltprofile von Packstoffen und Packmitteln, Methode (Entwurf). ILV, M\u00fcnchen. Freire, F., P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8654, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Umweltprofile von Packstoffen und Packmitteln, Methode (Entwurf). ILV, M\u00fcnchen. Freire, F., P. Ferr\u00e3o, C. Reis & S. Thore, 2000. Life cylce activity analysis applied to the Portuguese used tire market. Society of Automotive Engineers, Technical Paper Series 2000\u2013 01\u20131507, Warrendale (USA) (ISSN 0148\u20137191). Frischknecht R., R. Heijungs & P. Hofstetter, 1998. Einstein\u2019s lessons for energy accounting in LCA. Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 266\u2013272. Frischknecht R., A. Braunschweig, P. Hofstetter & P. Suter, 2000. Human health damages due to ionising radiation in life cycle impact assessment. Environ. Impact Assessment Rev. 20: 159\u2013 189. Frischknecht, R., 2000. Allocation in life cycle Inventory analysis for joint production. Int. J. LCA 5 (2): 85\u201395. Frischknecht, R., 1997. Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. In: Udo de Haes H. & N. Wrisberg (eds.), 1997. Frischknecht, R., 1998. Life cycle Inventory analysis for decision-making", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8655, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Frischknecht, R., 1997. Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. In: Udo de Haes H. & N. Wrisberg (eds.), 1997. Frischknecht, R., 1998. Life cycle Inventory analysis for decision-making. Scope-dependent inventory system models and context specific joint product allocation. Ph.D. dissertation 12599. ETH, Z\u00fcrich. Frischknecht, R., P. Hofstetter, I. Knoepfel, E. Walder, R. Dones & E. Zollinger, 1993 (+ updates 1995 en 1996). \u00d6koinventare f\u00fcr Energiesysteme. Grundlagen f\u00fcr den \u00f6kologischen Vergleich von Energiesystemen und den Einbezug von Energiesystemen in \u00d6kobilanzen fur die Schweiz. 0. Auflage. Bundesamt f\u00fcr Energiewirtschaft, Bern. Funtowicz, S.O. and J.R. Ravetz, 1990. Uncertainty and quality in science for policy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (ISBN 0\u20137923\u20130799\u20132). Geldermann, J., 1999. Entwicklung eines multikriteriellen Entsscheidungsunterst\u00fctzungssystems zur integrierten Technikbewertung. Fortschr.-Ber. VDI Reihe 16 Nr. 105, VDI Verlag, D\u00fcsseldorf", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8656, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Geldermann, J., 1999. Entwicklung eines multikriteriellen Entsscheidungsunterst\u00fctzungssystems zur integrierten Technikbewertung. Fortschr.-Ber. VDI Reihe 16 Nr. 105, VDI Verlag, D\u00fcsseldorf. Gielen, D.J., T. Gerlagh & A.J.M. Bos, 1998. MATTER 1.0; A MARKAL Energy and Materials System; Model Characterisation. ECN, Petten. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8657, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 644, "book_page": 648, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Goedkoop, M., 1995. The Eco-indicator 95. NOH report 9523. PR\u00e9 Consultants, Amersfoort. Goedkoop, M., 1997. The Eco-indicator 97 explained. PR\u00e9 Consultants, Amersfoort. Goedkoop, M., 1998. Vereenvoudigd Spold Format. PR\u00e9 Consultants, Amersfoort. Goedkoop, M. & R. Spriensma, 1999. The Eco-indicator 99. A damage oriented method for life cycle Impact assessment. PR\u00e9 Consultants, Amersfoort. Goldberg, E.D., 1965. Minor elements in sea water. In: Riley & Skirrow (eds.), 1995: 164\u2013165. Gorree, M.& R. Kleijn, 1996. Screening-LCA voor de verwijdering van baggerspecie (Screening LCA. Leiden: Centrum voor Milieukunde, 64 pp. 1996. Bijlage Leiden: Centrum voor Milieukunde, 91 pp, 1996 Graedel, T.E., B.R. Allenby & P.R. Comrie, 1995. Matrix Approaches to Abridged Life Cycle Assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29 (3): A134-A139. Guin\u00e9e, J. & R. Heijungs, 1995. A proposal for the definition of resource equivalency factors for use in product Life-Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8658, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Environ. Sci. Technol. 29 (3): A134-A139. Guin\u00e9e, J. & R. Heijungs, 1995. A proposal for the definition of resource equivalency factors for use in product Life-Cycle Assessment. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 14 (5): 917\u2013925. Guin\u00e9e, J.B., 1993. Data for the Normalization step within Life Cycle Assessment of Products. CML paper no. 14 (first version, September 1993; revised version, December 1993). CML, Leiden University, Leiden. Guin\u00e9e, J.B., 1995. Development of a methodology for the environmental life-cycle assessment of products; with a case study on margarines. Thesis, Leiden University. Guin\u00e9e, J.B., R. Heijungs, L. van Oers, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, D. van de Meent, T. Vermeire & M. Rikken, 1996. USES, Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances. Inclusion of fate in LCA characterisation of toxic releases applying USES 1.0. Generic modeling of fate, exposure and effect for ecosystems and human beings with data for about 100 chemicals. Int. J. LCA 1 (3): 133\u2013138. Haas, M., 1997", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8659, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Generic modeling of fate, exposure and effect for ecosystems and human beings with data for about 100 chemicals. Int. J. LCA 1 (3): 133\u2013138. Haas, M., 1997. TWIN-model. Milieu classificatie-model bouw. PhD. Thesis. Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven. Hahn, J. & H. Will, 1995. Consideration of trophospheric ozone formation in Life Cycle Impact assessment (LCIA) through Maximum Incremental Reactivities (MIR). Discussion paper prepared for the SET AC WG-LCIA meeting in Brussels 28\u201330 november 1995. Harmsen, K., 1992. Long-term behavior of heavy metals in agricultural soils: a simple analytical model. In: Adriano (ed.), 1992: 217\u2013247. Hauschild, M & H. Wenzel, 1998. Environmental Assessment of products. Volume 2: Scientific background. Chapman & Hall, London. Heijungs, R. & A. Wegener Sleeswijk, 1999. The Structure of Impact assessment: Mutually Independent Dimensions as a Function of Modifiers. Letters to the Editor: Comment and Reply. Comment. Int. J. LCA 4 (1): 2\u20133. Heijungs, R. & J.B", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8660, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The Structure of Impact assessment: Mutually Independent Dimensions as a Function of Modifiers. Letters to the Editor: Comment and Reply. Comment. Int. J. LCA 4 (1): 2\u20133. Heijungs, R. & J.B. Guin\u00e9e, 1995. On the usefulness of life cycle assessment of packaging. Environ. Manage. 19 (5): 665\u2013668. Heijungs, R. & R. Frischknecht, 1998. A special view on the nature of the allocation problem. Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 321\u2013332. Heijungs, R., 1994. A generic method for the identification of options for cleaner products. Ecol. Econ. 10 (1): 69\u201381. Heijungs, R., 1994a. Valuation: a societal approach. In: Udo de Haes et al.(eds.), 1994:107\u2013113. Heijungs, R., 1994b. Life cycle Impact assessment, a brief survey with some ideas on radiation. Paper presented at the Technical committee meeting on Development and use of environmental impact indicators for comparative risk assessment of different energy sources, IAEA headquarters, Vienna 3\u20136 May, 1994. Heijungs, R., 1996", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8661, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs, R., 1996. Identification of key issues for further investigation in improving the reliability of life-cycle assessments. J. Cleaner Prod. 4 (3\u20134): 159\u2013166. Heijungs, R., 1997a. Economic drama and the environmental stage. Formal derivation of algorithmic tools for environmental decision-support from a unified epistemological principle. Ph.D.-thesis Rijksuniversiteit Leiden. Heijungs, R., 1997b. Normalization of impact scores in LCA: what, why and how? In: Anonymous, 1997a. Heijungs, R., 1998a. Towards eco-efficiency with LCA\u2019s prevention principle. An epistemological foundation of LCA using axioms. In: Klostermann & Tukker (eds.), 1998: 175\u2013185. Heijungs, R., 1998b. Physical production functions. In: Anonymous, 1998a. Heijungs, R. & M.A.J. Huijbregts, 1999. Threshold-based life cylce impact assessment and marginal change: incompatible? CML-SSP Working Paper 99.002, Leiden. Heijungs, R., J. Guin\u00e9e & G. Huppes, 1997. Impact categories for natural resources and land use", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8662, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Heijungs, R., J. Guin\u00e9e & G. Huppes, 1997. Impact categories for natural resources and land use. CML-report 138. CML, Leiden University, Leiden. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8663, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 645, "book_page": 649, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Heijungs, R., J. Guin\u00e9e, G. Huppes, R.M. Lankreijer, H.A. Udo de Haes, A. Wegener Sleeswijk, A.M.M. Ansems, P.G. Eggels, R. van Duin & HP. de Goede, 1992. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of products. Guide and Backgrounds. CML, Leiden University, Leiden. Hendrickson C., A. Horvath, S. Joshi, L.Lave, 1998. Economic Input-Output Models for Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment. Environmental Science & Technology. April 1, pp. 184\u2013 191. Hertwich, E.G., 1999. Toxic Equivalency: Addressing Human Health effects in life cycle Impact assessment. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley. Hertwich, E.G. & W.S. Pease, 1998. ISO 14042 restricts use and development of Impact assessment. Letters to the editor. Int. J. LCA 3 (4): 180\u2013181. Hertwich, E.G., McKone, T.E., Pease, W.S., 1999. Parameter uncertainty and variability in evaluative fate and exposure models. Risk Anal. 19 (6): 1193\u20131204. Hertwich, E.G., Pease, W.S., McKone, T.E., 1998", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8664, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Parameter uncertainty and variability in evaluative fate and exposure models. Risk Anal. 19 (6): 1193\u20131204. Hertwich, E.G., Pease, W.S., McKone, T.E., 1998. Evaluating toxic Impact assessment methods: what works best? Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 (5): A138-A144. Hoffmann, L. & H. K. Stranddorf, 1999. Estimate for an average world citizen contribution. Paper for the joint workshop of the Dutch and Danish methodology projects, Leiden 16\u201317 September 1999 (http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html). Hofstetter, P., 1998. Perspectives in life cycle Impact assessment. A structured approach to combine models of the technosphere, ecosphere and valuesphere. Ph.D. Thesis. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Hogan, L., R. Beal & R. Hunt, 1996. Threshold inventory Interpretation methodology: a case study of three juice container systems. Int. J. LCA 1 (3): 159\u2013167. Holmberg, J., U. Lundqvist, K.-H. Rob\u00e8rt, K.-H. & M. Wackernagel, 1999", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8665, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Threshold inventory Interpretation methodology: a case study of three juice container systems. Int. J. LCA 1 (3): 159\u2013167. Holmberg, J., U. Lundqvist, K.-H. Rob\u00e8rt, K.-H. & M. Wackernagel, 1999. The ecological footprint from a systems perspective of sustainability. Int. J. Sust. Dev. World 6 (1): 17\u201333. Horngren, C.T. and G. Foster, 1991. Cost accounting, a managerial emphasis. Prentice Hall International, New York (seventh edition). Houghton, J.T., G.J. Jenkins & J.J. Ephraums (eds.), 1991. Climate change. The IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander & S.K. Varney (eds), 1992. Climate change 1992. The supplementary report to the IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, J. Bruce, H. Lee, B.A. Callander, E. Haites, N. Harris & K. Maskell (eds), 1994. Climate change 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8666, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, J. Bruce, H. Lee, B.A. Callander, E. Haites, N. Harris & K. Maskell (eds), 1994. Climate change 1994. Radiative forcing of climate change and an evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission scenarios. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Houghton, J.T., L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg & K. Maskell, 1996. Climate change 1995: the science of climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hout, K.D. van den, Bakker, D.J., Berdowski, J.J.M., Van Jaarsveld, J.A., Reinds, G.J., Bril, J., Breeuwsma, A., Groenenberg, J.E., De Vries, W., Van Pagee, J.A., Villars, M., Sliggers, C.J., 1999. The Impact of Atmospheric Deposition of Non-Acidifying Substances on the Quality of European Forest Soils and the North Sea. Water Air Soil Poll. 109 (1\u20134): 357\u2013396. Huijbregts M.A.J., 1998a", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8667, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The Impact of Atmospheric Deposition of Non-Acidifying Substances on the Quality of European Forest Soils and the North Sea. Water Air Soil Poll. 109 (1\u20134): 357\u2013396. Huijbregts M.A.J., 1998a. A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Part I: A general Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment. Int. J. LCA. 3 (5): 273\u2013280. Huijbregts M.A.J., 1998b. A General Framework for the Analysis of Uncertainty and Variability in Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Part II: Dealing with Parameter Uncertainty and Uncertainty due to Choices in Life Cycle Assessment. Int. J. LCA. 3 (6): 343\u2013351. Huijbregts, M.A.J., 1999a. Priority assessment of toxic substances in LCA. Development and application of the multi-media fate, exposure and effect model USES-LCA. IVAM environmental research, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Huijbregts, M., 1999b. Life cycle Impact assessment of acidifying and eutrophying air pollutants", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8668, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "IVAM environmental research, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Huijbregts, M., 1999b. Life cycle Impact assessment of acidifying and eutrophying air pollutants. Calculation of equivalency factors with RAINS-LCA. Interfaculty Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environmental Science, University of Amsterdam. Huijbregts, M.A.J. & Y. Sepp\u00e4l\u00e4, 2000. Towards region-specific European fate factors for airborne nitrogen compounds causing aquatic eutrophication. Int. J. LCA 5 (2): 65\u201367. Huijbregts, M.A.J., 2000. Priority Assessment of Toxic Substances in the frame of LCA. Time horizon dependency of toxicity potentials calculated with the multi-media fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA. Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. (http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/). 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8669, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 646, "book_page": 650, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Huijbregts, M.A.J., U. Thissen, J.B. Guin\u00e9e, T. Jager, D. Van de Meent, A.M.J. Ragas, A. Wegener Sleeswijk & L. Reijnders, 2000a. Priority assessment of toxic substances in life cycle assessment, I: Calculation of toxicity potentials for 181 substances with the nested multi-media fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA. Chemosphere 41 (4): 541\u2013573. Huijbregts, M.A.J., U. Thissen, T. Jager, D. Van de Meent & A.M.J. Ragas, 2000b. Priority assessment of toxic substances in LCA. II: Assessing parameter uncertainty and human variability in the calculation of toxicity potentials. Chemosphere 41 (4): 575\u2013588. Huijbregts, M.A.J., A. de Koning, L. van Oers, G. Huppes & S. Suh, in prep. Normalisation data for the Netherlands (1997), West-Europe, (1995) and the World (1990). CML, Leiden. Huppes, G., 1993. Macro-environmental policy: principles and design. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Huppes, G. & F. Schneider, 1994. Allocation in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8670, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "CML, Leiden. Huppes, G., 1993. Macro-environmental policy: principles and design. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Huppes, G. & F. Schneider, 1994. Allocation in LCA. Proceedings of the European Workshop, 24\u201325 February 1994, Leiden. SETAC-Europe, Brussels. Huppes, G., H. Sas, E. de Haan & J. Kuyper, 1997. Effici\u00ebnte milieuinvesteringen. Milieu 3, pp. 126\u2013133. ICRP, 1979. Limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers. ICRP -Publication 30, Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 2, part 1\u20133, Pergamon Press, Oxford. ICRP, 1990. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP-Publication 60. Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 21, No 1\u20133, Pergamon Press, Oxford. ICRP, 1991. Annual limits on intake of radionuclides by workers based on the 1990 recommendations. ICRP-Publication 61, Pergamon Press, Oxford INTRON, 1997. Concept van een Handleiding voor het genereren van milieurelevante productinformatie door producenten, Fase 1 van de Werkgroep Data/Format. Intron rapport nr", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8671, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Concept van een Handleiding voor het genereren van milieurelevante productinformatie door producenten, Fase 1 van de Werkgroep Data/Format. Intron rapport nr. 97133A, INTRON, Sittard. ISO International Standard 14040, 1997E. Environmental management \u2013 Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO International Standard 14041, 1998E. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO International Standard 14042, 2000E. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Impact assessment. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO International Standard 14043, 2000E. Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Interpretation. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO Technical Specification 14047, in prep", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8672, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Interpretation. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO Technical Specification 14047, in prep. Illustrative examples on how to apply ISO 14042 - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Impact assessment. International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO Technical Report 14048, in prep. LCA data documentation format (first draft). International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. ISO Technical Report 14049, 1998. Illustrative examples on how to apply ISO 14041 - LCA - Goal and scope definition and Inventory analysis (draft). International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneva. IUCN/WWF/UNEP, 1991. Caring for the earth. A strategy] for sustainable living. Gland, Switzerland J\u00e4ger, J. & H.L. Ferguson (red.), 1991. Climate change: science, impacts and policy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Jenkin, M.E. & G.D. Hayman, 1999", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8673, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Gland, Switzerland J\u00e4ger, J. & H.L. Ferguson (red.), 1991. Climate change: science, impacts and policy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Jenkin, M.E. & G.D. Hayman, 1999. Photochemical ozone creation potentials for oxygenated volatile organic compounds: sensitivity to variations in kinetic and mechanistic parameters. Atmos. Environ. 33 (8): 1275\u20131293. Jolliet, O. & P. Crettaz, 1997. Critical surface-time 95. A life cycle Impact assessment methodology including fate and exposure. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Institute of Soil and Water Management, Lausanne. Jolliet, O., 1996. Impact assessment of human and eco-toxicity in life cycle assessment. Part IV. In: Udo de Haes, H.A. (ed.), 1996. Jonker, R.J., H.W. K\u00f6ster & F.H. de Jong, 1988. Milieu-effectrapportage, Effectvoorspelling 27; IX Straling. SDU/DOP, The Hague. Kalisvaart, S & J. Remmerwaal, 1994. The MET-points method: A new single figure performance indicator based on effect scores. In: Udo de Haes et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8674, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "SDU/DOP, The Hague. Kalisvaart, S & J. Remmerwaal, 1994. The MET-points method: A new single figure performance indicator based on effect scores. In: Udo de Haes et al. (eds.), 1994:143\u2013148. Kandelaars, Patricia P.A.A.H, 1998. Material-Product Chains: Economic Models and Applications. Thesis Publishers, Amsterdam. Kim, S., T. Hwang & K.M. Lee, 1997. Allocation for cascade recycling system. Int. J. LCA 2 (4): 217\u2013222. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8675, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 647, "book_page": 651, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Klepper, O. & H.A. den Hollander, 1999. A comparison of spatially explicit and box models for the fate of chemicals in water, air and soil in Europe. Ecol. Model. 116 (2\u20133): 183\u2013202. Kl\u00f6pffer, W., 1996. Allocation rule for open-loop recycling in life cycle assessment: a review. Int. J. LCA 1 (1): 27\u201331. Klostermann, J.E.M. & A. Tukker (eds.), 1998. Product Innovation and Eco-efficiency. Twentythree industry efforts to reach the factor 4. P. 175\u2013185. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Knoepfel, I., 1995. Indicatorensystem f\u00fcr die \u00f6kologische bewertung des transports von energie. Dissertation, nr. 11146 ETH, Z\u00fcrich. K\u00f6llner, T., 2000. Species-pool Effect Potentials (SPEP) as a yardstick to evaluate land-use impacts on biodiversity. J. Cleaner Prod. 8 (4): 293\u2013311. Kooijman, J.M., 1993. Environmental assessment of packaging: sense and sensibility. Environ. Manage. 17 (5): 575\u2013586. Kortman, J.G.M., E.W. Lindeijer, H.J.W. Sas & M. Sprengers, 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8676, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "8 (4): 293\u2013311. Kooijman, J.M., 1993. Environmental assessment of packaging: sense and sensibility. Environ. Manage. 17 (5): 575\u2013586. Kortman, J.G.M., E.W. Lindeijer, H.J.W. Sas & M. Sprengers, 1994. Towards a single indicator for emissions- An exercise in aggregating environmental effects. VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), publicatiereeks produktenbeleid nr. 1994/12. Zoetermeer. Kortman, J.G.M., P.G. Eggels, G. Huppes, L. van Oers, E.W. Lindeijer, B.L. van der Ven, J.B. Guin\u00e9e, 1996. Inschatting milieu-effecten van de afdankfase van langcyclische produkten (Estimation of the environmental effects of the end-of-life stage of long life products). RIZA report no. 96.005, RIZA, Lelystad. Krewitt, W., A. Trukenm\u00fcller & R. Friedrich, 1999. Site Dependent LCIA Impact Indicators for Human Health from Integrated Air Quality and Exposure Modeling. Poster presented at the 9th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Krewitt, W., P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8677, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Poster presented at the 9th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Krewitt, W., P. Mayerhofer, A. Trukenm\u00fcller & R. Friedrich, 1998. Application of the Impact Pathway Analysis in the Context of LCA. The Long Way from Burden to Impact. Int. J. LCA 3 (2): 86\u201394. Kroon, P., J.R. Ybema, J. Slanina, & B.G. Arends, 1994. Weegfactoren voor luchtemissies. ECN R 94\u2013006, Petten. Krozer, J. 1992. Decision model for Environmental Strategies of Corporations (DESC). TME, The Hague. Lafleche, V. & F. Sacchetto, 1999. Noise assessment in LCA: a methodology attempt - an application case with various transport means on a set trip. Ecobilan, Milano. Latour, J.B., I.G. Staritsky, J.R.M. Alkemade & J. Wiertz, 1997. De Natuurplanner, Decision support system natuur en milieu, RIVM rapportnr. 711901019, RIVM, Bilthoven. Lave L. B., E. Cobas-Flores, C.T. Hendrickson, F.C. McMichael, 1995. Using Input-Output Analysis to Estimate Economy-wide Discharges. Environ. Sci. Technol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8678, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "711901019, RIVM, Bilthoven. Lave L. B., E. Cobas-Flores, C.T. Hendrickson, F.C. McMichael, 1995. Using Input-Output Analysis to Estimate Economy-wide Discharges. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29 (9): A420-A426. Lehmann, H & F. Schmidt-Bleek; 1993. Material Flows from a Systematical Point of View. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 2 (8): 413 - 418. Lindeijer, E.W., 1994. Allocating recycling for integrated chain management: taking account of quality losses. IVAM, Amsterdam. Lindeijer, E.W., 1996. Normalisation and valuation. Part VI. In: Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996. Lindeijer, E.W., 1997. Results try-out Japanese/Dutch LCA valuation questionnaire 1996. IVAM ER, University of Amsterdam. Lindeijer, E.W., 1998. Kapitaalgoederen in LCA data van bedrijven. IVAM-ER, Amsterdam Lindeijer, E.W., M. van Kampen, P.J. Fraanje, H.F. van Dobben, G.J. Nabuurs, E.P.A.G. Schouwenberg, A.H. Prins, N. Dankers & M.F. Leopold., 1998. Biodiversity and life support indicators for land use impacts in LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8679, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "van Kampen, P.J. Fraanje, H.F. van Dobben, G.J. Nabuurs, E.P.A.G. Schouwenberg, A.H. Prins, N. Dankers & M.F. Leopold., 1998. Biodiversity and life support indicators for land use impacts in LCA. Report W-DWW\u201398\u2013059. Publication series raw materials 1998/07. Ministry of transport, public works and water management, Delft. Lindeijer, E.W., 2000. Impact assessment of resources and land use. Report of the SETAC WIA\u20132 taskforce on resources and land. draft, October 2000. Lindfors L-G, Christiansen K., L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V. Juntilla, O-J Hanssen, A. R\u00f8nning, T. Ekvall G. Finnveden, 1995a. Nordic Guidelines on Life-Cycle Assessment. Nord 1995:20. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. Lindfors L-G, Christiansen K., L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V. Juntilla, A. Leskinen, O-J Hanssen, A. R\u00f8nning, T. Ekvall G. Finnveden, 1995b. LCA-NORDIC Technical reports No 1\u20139. TemaNord 1995:502. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. Lindfors, L.G, K. Christiansen, L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8680, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "R\u00f8nning, T. Ekvall G. Finnveden, 1995b. LCA-NORDIC Technical reports No 1\u20139. TemaNord 1995:502. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. Lindfors, L.G, K. Christiansen, L. Hoffman, Y. Virtanen, V. Juntilla, O.J. Hansen, A. R\u00f8nning , T. Ekvall & G. Finnveden, 1995c. LCA-NORDIC Technical Reports No 10. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8681, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 648, "book_page": 652, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Lindfors, L.G., 1996. A Desk study on characterisation methods applicable in EU Ecolabeling programmes. In: Udo de Haes, H.A. et al., 1996. Lundie, S., 1999. \u00d6kobilanziering und Entscheidungstheorie. Praxisorientierte Produktbewertung auf der Basis gesellschaftlicher Werthaltungen. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg. Mackay, D., 1991. Multimedia environmental models. The fugacity approach. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea. Marsmann, M., S. O. Ryding, H. Udo de Haes, J. Fava, W. Owens, K. Brady, K. Sauer & R. Schenck, 1999. In Reply to Hertwich & Pease, Int. J. LCA 3 (4) 180\u2013181, \u201cISO 14042 Restricts Use and Development of Impact Assessment\u201d. Letters to the editor. Int. J. LCA (4) 2: 65. Mattson, B., C. Cederberg & L. Blix, 2000. Agricultural land use in life cycle assessment (LCA: case studies of three vegetable oil crops. J. Cleaner Production 8 (4): 283\u2013292. Matsuno, Y., A. Inaba & M. Betz, 1998", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8682, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cederberg & L. Blix, 2000. Agricultural land use in life cycle assessment (LCA: case studies of three vegetable oil crops. J. Cleaner Production 8 (4): 283\u2013292. Matsuno, Y., A. Inaba & M. Betz, 1998. Valuation of Electricity Grid Mixes in Japan with Application of Life-Cycle Impact-Assessment Methodology. In: Anonymous, 1998b:97\u2013100. Matsuno, Y., T. Inaba & T. Mizuno, 1999. Development of Site- and Source-Specific Life Cycle Impact assessment Methodology for Local Impact Categories. 9th Annual Meeting of SETACEurope, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Quality of Life and Environment in Cultured Landscapes. Abstracts, 233. Meent D. van de, 1993. Simplebox: a generic multimedia fate evaluation model. Report no. 672720001. RIVM, Bilthoven. Meent, D. van de, 1999. Potentieel aangetaste fractie als maatlat voor toxische druk op ecosystemen. RIVM rapport nr. 60750400, RIVM, Bilthoven. Meent, D. van de, T. Aldenberg, J.H. Canton, C.A.M. van Gestel en W.SIooff, 1990. Streven naar waarden", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8683, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RIVM rapport nr. 60750400, RIVM, Bilthoven. Meent, D. van de, T. Aldenberg, J.H. Canton, C.A.M. van Gestel en W.SIooff, 1990. Streven naar waarden. Achtergrondstudie ten behoeve van de nota Milieukwaliteitsnormering water en bodem. RIVM report nr. 670101 001, Bilthoven. Meier, M.A. (ed.), F. Hirsinger, A. Schmidt, U. Dethlefsen, C. Setterwall, H. Vandenberghe, G. Wouters, P.J. McKeown, A. Windsperger, N. Gessesse, L. Grisel, 1997. Evaluation and reporting guidelines for Life-cycle assessments case-studies. Final report of the SETAC-Europe Casestudies Working-group (CSWG). Menke, D.M., G.A. Davis & B.W. Vigon, 1996. Evaluation of life-cycle assessment tools. Environment Canada, Hazardous waste branch, Ottawa. Mil\u00e0 i Canals, L., X. Dom\u00e8nech, & J. Rieradevall, 2000. Soil recovery time as a characterisation factor for impacts due to land use. Tenth Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 21\u201325 May 2000, Brighton, United Kingdom", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8684, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Dom\u00e8nech, & J. Rieradevall, 2000. Soil recovery time as a characterisation factor for impacts due to land use. Tenth Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 21\u201325 May 2000, Brighton, United Kingdom. Global Environmental Issues in the Century: Problems, Causes and Solutions. Abstracts, 79. Mobbs, S.F., R.A. Klos, J.S. Martin, J.M. Laurens, K.H. Winters, J.M. Bealby, & G. Dalrymple, 1991. PACOMA: Performance assessment of the confinement of medium-active and alphabearing wastes \u2013 Assessment of disposal in a clay formation in the United Kingdom, Commission of the European Communities, EUR 13143-EN, Luxembourg. M\u00f6ller, F.-J., 1992. \u00d6kobilanzen erstellen und anwenden - Entwicklung eines Untersuchungsmodels f\u00fcr die Umweltvertr\u00e4glichkeit von Verpackungen. Ecobalance Applied Research, Umweltforschung, M\u00fcnchen. Moriguchi, Y. & Y. Kondo, 1998. Inventory analysis and Impact assessment towards Comprehensive LCA of Automobiles. In: Anonymous, 1998b:101\u2013105. M\u00fcller-Wenk, R., 1997", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8685, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Moriguchi, Y. & Y. Kondo, 1998. Inventory analysis and Impact assessment towards Comprehensive LCA of Automobiles. In: Anonymous, 1998b:101\u2013105. M\u00fcller-Wenk, R., 1997. Safeguard subjects and damage functions as core elements of life-cycle Impact assessment. IW\u00d6-Diskussionsbeitrag nr. 42, Universit\u00e4t St Gallen. M\u00fcller-Wenk, R., 1998. Depletion of abiotic resources weighted on base of \u201cvirtual\u201d impacts of lower grade deposits used in future. IW\u00d6- Diskussionsbeitrag nr. 57, St Gallen. M\u00fcller-Wenk , R., 1999. Life-Cycle Impact assessment of road transport noise. IW\u00d6diskussionsbeitrag nr. 77. IW\u00d6-HSG, St. Gallen. Murray, C.L & A. Lopez, 1996 The global burden of disease, WHO, World Bank and Harvard School of Public Health, Boston. Nagata, K., Y. Fuji & M. Ishikawa, 1995. Proposing a Valuation Method based on Panel Data, Preliminary Report, Tokyo. Neeleman, B.C., 1997. Milieufacetten van beton - critical review. 53864-KET/R&B 97. KEMA, Arnhem. Nichols, P, M. Hauschild, J. Potting & P", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8686, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Neeleman, B.C., 1997. Milieufacetten van beton - critical review. 53864-KET/R&B 97. KEMA, Arnhem. Nichols, P, M. Hauschild, J. Potting & P. White, 1996. Impact assessment of non-toxic pollution In life cycle assessment. Part V. In: Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996. Nielsen, P.H & M. Hauschild, 1998. Product specific emissions from municipal solid waste landfills. Part I: Landfill model. Int. J. LCA 3 (3): 158\u2013168. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8687, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 649, "book_page": 653, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Nigge, K.-M., 1998. A Method for the Site-Dependent Life Cycle Impact assessment of Toxic Air Pollutants from Traffic Emission. SAE Paper 982181. Proceedings of the Total Life Cycle Conference, Graz, Austria, December 1\u20133,1998, pp. 149\u2013159. Norris, G.A., 1998. Background Report on Life Cycle Impact assessment Methods for Acidification, Eutrophication, and Photochemical Oxidant Formation. Pre-workshop report. US Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. Washington. OECD, 1995. The life cycle approach: an overview of product/process analysis. Report OECD/GD/(95)118, Paris. Oorschot, G.F. van, 1999. Methode voor de beoordeling van datakwaliteit van milieukengetallen. Bouwadviseur 4: 34\u201336. Owens, J.W., 1996. LCA Impact assessment Categories. Technical Feasibility and Accuracy. Int. J. LCA 1 (3):151\u2013158. Owens, J.W., 1997a. Life-Cycle Assessment. Constraints on Moving from Inventory to Impact assessment. J. Ind. Ecol", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8688, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Technical Feasibility and Accuracy. Int. J. LCA 1 (3):151\u2013158. Owens, J.W., 1997a. Life-Cycle Assessment. Constraints on Moving from Inventory to Impact assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 1 (1): 37\u201349. Owens, J.W., 1997b. Life-Cycle Assessment in Relation to Risk Assessment: An Evolving Perspective. Risk Anal. 17 (3): 359\u2013365. PAGIS , 1988. Performance assessment of Geological Isolation Systems for Radioactive Waste (5 volumes) . Commission of the European Communities, EUR 11775-EN \u2013 11779-EN, Luxembourg. Pedersen, B. 1991. Hvad er et b\u00e6redygtigt ressourceforbrug? Tv\u00e6rfagligt center, Danmarks Tekniske H\u00f8jskole, Lyngby. Peijnenburg, W.J.G.M., Posthuma, L., Eijsackers, H.J.P., Allen, H.E., 1997. A conceptual framework for implementation of bioavailibility of metals for environmental management purposes. Ecotox. Environ. Saf 37 (2): 163\u2013172. Peijnenburg, W.J.G.M., Posthuma, L., Zweers, P.G.P.C., Baerselman, R., De Groot, A.C., Van Veen, R.P.M., Jager, T., 1999", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8689, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Ecotox. Environ. Saf 37 (2): 163\u2013172. Peijnenburg, W.J.G.M., Posthuma, L., Zweers, P.G.P.C., Baerselman, R., De Groot, A.C., Van Veen, R.P.M., Jager, T., 1999. Prediction of metal bioavailibility in Dutch field soils for the Oligochaete Enchytraeus crypticus. Ecotox. Environ. Saf. 43 (2): 170\u2013186. Pleijel, K., H. Pleijel & G.P. Karlsson, 1999. Quantification of Additional Ozone Load from Local Source Emissions of and VOC. Poster presented at the 9th Annual Meeting of SETACEurope, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig. Posch, M., J.P. Hettelingh, P.A.M. de Smet & R.J. Downing, 1997. Calculation and mapping of critical thresholds in Europe, status report 1997. Coordination center for effects, RIVM, Bilthoven,. Potting, J.M.B., 2000. Spatial differentiation in life cycle Impact assessment. PhD Thesis. Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht. Potting, J. & K. Blok, 1994. Spatial effects of life-cycle Impact assessment. In: Udo de Haes et al. (eds.), 1994: 91\u201398. Potting, J. & M. Hauschild, 1997", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8690, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "PhD Thesis. Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht. Potting, J. & K. Blok, 1994. Spatial effects of life-cycle Impact assessment. In: Udo de Haes et al. (eds.), 1994: 91\u201398. Potting, J. & M. Hauschild, 1997. Spatial Differentiation in Life-Cycle Assessment via the SiteDependent Characterisation of Environmental Impact from Emissions. Int J. LCA 2 (4): 209\u2013216. Potting, J., J.P. Groot-Marcus & M.P. van Golen, 1995. Levenscyclusanalyse van drie handdroogsystemen. P-UB\u201395\u201301. Wetenschapswinkel Biologie, Utrecht. Potting, J., W. Sch\u00f6pp, K. Blok & M. Hauschild, 1998. Site-dependent life-cycle Impact assessment of acidification. J. Ind. Ecol. 2 (2): 63\u201387. Potting, J., A. Trukenm\u00fcller, M. Hauschild, K. Blok & H. Wenzel, 1999. Site-Dependent Life Cycle Impact assessment of Human Toxicity from Air Emissions. 9th Annual Meeting of SETACEurope, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Quality of Life and Environment in Cultured Landscapes. Abstracts, 87. Pujol, J.-L. & M. Boidot Forget, 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8691, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "9th Annual Meeting of SETACEurope, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Quality of Life and Environment in Cultured Landscapes. Abstracts, 87. Pujol, J.-L. & M. Boidot Forget, 1994. Reasonable Use of site-specific information in life-cycle assessment. In: Udo de Haes et al. (eds.), 1994: 99\u2013104. Puolamaa, M., M. Kaplas, & T. Reinikainen, 1996. Index of Environmental Friendliness, A Methodological Study. Statistics Finland, Environment 1996:13, Helsinki. Ragas, A.M.J., Etienne, R.S., Willemsen, F.H., Van de Meent, D., 1999. Assessing model uncertainty for environmental decision making: a case study of the coherence of independently derived environmental quality objectives for air and water. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18 (8): 1856\u2013 1867. Raiborn, C.A., J.T. Barfield and M.R. Kinney, 1993. Managerial accounting. West Publishing Company, Minneapolis/St Paul. Rice, G., 1996. LCA software review: a review of commercial software, with specific emphasis on European industrial applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8692, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Managerial accounting. West Publishing Company, Minneapolis/St Paul. Rice, G., 1996. LCA software review: a review of commercial software, with specific emphasis on European industrial applications. The BOC Group, Windlesham. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8693, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 650, "book_page": 654, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Rice, G., R. Clift & R. Burns, 1997. LCA software review: comparison of currently available European LCA software. Int. J. LCA 2 (1): 53\u201359. Rijpkema, L.P.M., 1996. Municipal Solid Waste Combustion Flow and Cost Expert (MSWCFACE model). TNO-MEP R96/079, Apeldoorn. Riley, J.P., 1971. The major and minor elements in sea water. In: Riley & Chester (eds.), 1971:60\u2013104. Riley, J.P. & R. Chester (eds.), 1971. Introduction to marine chemistry. Academic Press, London. Riley, J.P. & G. Skirrow (eds.), 1995. Chemical Oceanography, Vol. 1. Academic Press, London. RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and the Environment), 1992. The environment in Europe: a global perspective. RIVM report 481505001, Bilthoven. RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and The Environment), VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), WVC (Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs), 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8694, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and The Environment), VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), WVC (Ministry of Welfare, Health and Cultural Affairs), 1994. Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances (USES), version 1.0. Distribution number 11144/150, VROM, The Hague. RIVM (National Institute of Public Health and the Environment), VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), VWS (Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport), 1994. Uniform System for the Evaluation of Substances (USES), version 2.0. RIVM report no. 679102044, RIVM, Bilthoven. Ron E. & C. Muirhead, 1998. The Carcinogenic Effects of Ionizing Radiation; Epidemiological Evidence. In: Anonymous, 1998c:165\u2013180 Roos, C., 1989. Vooronderzoek financi\u00eble consequenties van een geurbelevingsnorm. MT-TNO report no. 88\u2013230, Apeldoorn. SAEFL (Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape), 1998. Life cycle inventories for packagings: Volume I and II. SAEFL, Bern", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8695, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "MT-TNO report no. 88\u2013230, Apeldoorn. SAEFL (Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape), 1998. Life cycle inventories for packagings: Volume I and II. SAEFL, Bern. Sas, H., E. van der Voet, F.G.P. Corten, R. Huele & R. Kleijn, 1997. Extraction of biotic resources: development of a methodology for incorporation in LCAs, with case studies on timber and fish. VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), publicatiereeks produktenbeleid nr. 1997/3. Zoetermeer. Schaltegger, S. & A. Sturm, 1991. Methodik der \u00f6kologischen Rechnungslegung in Unternehmen. WWZ-Studien Nr.33. Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Zentrum der Universit\u00e4t Basel, Basel. Schmidt, A & P. Brunn Rasmussen, 1999. LCA and the working environment - Danish recommendations. Paper for the joint workshop of the Dutch and Danish methodology projects, Leiden 16\u201317 September 1999 (http://www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cml/lca2/index.html). Schmitz, S., H.-J. Oels & A. Tiedemann, 1994", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8696, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Schmitz, S., H.-J. Oels & A. Tiedemann, 1994. Eco-balance for Drink Packaging. Comparative Investigation of the Environmental Effects of the various Packaging Systems for Fresh milk and Beer. German Federal Environmental Office, III 2.5. Revised Editions, June 7. Berlin. Schneider, F., 1996. Analyse des reemplois, recyclages, valorisations de dechets par l\u2019\u00e9tude de systemes cascades. L\u2019lnstitut National des Sciences Appliques (INSA) de Lyon, Num\u00e9ro d\u2019ordre 96 ISAL0132, Lyon. Schulze, C. & M. Matthies, 1999. Introducing Spatial and Temporal Variations in the LCIA of Household Laundry. 9th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 25\u201329 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Quality of Life and Environment in Cultured Landscapes. Abstracts, p. 86. Seijdel, R.R., 1998. Waardering van recycling in LCA\u2019s - case study voor EPS. Projectnummer: 886.002. PRC Bouwcentrum B.V., Bodegraven. Sen, A.K., 1969. Collective choice and social welfare. Holden Day, San Francisco. SET AC, 1992. Life-Cycle Assessment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8697, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Projectnummer: 886.002. PRC Bouwcentrum B.V., Bodegraven. Sen, A.K., 1969. Collective choice and social welfare. Holden Day, San Francisco. SET AC, 1992. Life-Cycle Assessment. Workshop-report. SETAC-Europe, Brussels. SET AC, 1998. Life Cycle Assessment and conceptually related programmes - Summary. Report of SETAC-Europe Working Group. SETAC-Europe, Brussels. Siegenthaler, C., S. Linder & F. Pagliari, 1997. The LCA software guide 1997. 2. Edition. SINUM, Adliswil. Singhofen A., 1996. Introduction into a Common Format for Life-Cycle InventoryData.Status report, SPOLD, Brussels. Singhofen A., C.R. Hemming, B.P. Weidema, L. Grisel, R. Bretz, B. de Smet, D. Russell, 1996. Life Cycle Inventory Data: Development of a Common Format. Int. J. of LCA 1 (3): 171\u2013178. Slooff, W., 1992. Ecotoxicological effect assessment: deriving maximum tolerable concentrations (MTC) from single-species toxicity data. RIVM report nr. 719102018, Bilthoven. Smith, G.M., H.S. Fearn, K.R. Smith, J.P. Davis & R", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8698, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "RIVM report nr. 719102018, Bilthoven. Smith, G.M., H.S. Fearn, K.R. Smith, J.P. Davis & R. Klos, 1988. Assessment of the radiological impact of disposal of solid radioactive waste at Drigg. National Radiological Protection Board, NRPB-R205, Didcot. 251. 252. 253. 254. 255. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8699, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 651, "book_page": 655, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Sokal, A. & J. Bricmont, 1997. Impostures Intellectuelles. Odile Jacob, Paris. Solberg-Johansen, B., 1998. Environmental life cycle assessment of the nuclear fuel cycle. Thesis, Centre for environmental strategy, school of chemical, civil and environmental engineering, University of Surrey. Solomon, S. & D.L. Albritton, 1992. Time-dependent ozone depletion potentials for short- and long-term forecast. Nature 357: 33\u201337. Steen, B., 1995. Valuation of environmental impacts from depletion of metal an fossil mineral reserves and from emission of AFR-Report, AFR (Swedish Waste Research Council), Stockholm. Steen, B., 1996. EPS-Default Valuation of Environmental Impacts from Emission and Use of Resources. Version 1996. AFR Report 111. AFN, Swedish EPA, Stockholm, Sweden. Steen, B. , 1999. A systematic approach to environmental priority strategies in product development (EPS). Version 2000", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8700, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Version 1996. AFR Report 111. AFN, Swedish EPA, Stockholm, Sweden. Steen, B. , 1999. A systematic approach to environmental priority strategies in product development (EPS). Version 2000. Centre for Environmental assessment of products and material systems., Chalmers University of Technology, Technical Environmental Planning, Gothenburg. Steen, B. & S.-O. Ryding, S.-O., 1992. The EPS enviro-accounting method. An application of environmental accounting principles for evaluation and valuation of environmental impact in product design. IVL Report B 1080. IVL, Gothenburg. Steen B., R. Carlson, G. L\u00f6fgren, 1995. SPINE A Relation Database Structure for Life Cycle Assessments. Chalmers University of Technology; Chalmers Industriteknik; Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Gothenburg. Stolwijk, S., Villars, M.T., Laane, R., Baart, A., Dick, S., Svendsen, E., Tappin, A., De Vries, A., 1998. Comparison of the performance of five different water quality models of the North Sea", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8701, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Stolwijk, S., Villars, M.T., Laane, R., Baart, A., Dick, S., Svendsen, E., Tappin, A., De Vries, A., 1998. Comparison of the performance of five different water quality models of the North Sea. Environmental Modeling & Software 13, 455\u2013460. Stumm, W. & J.J. Morgan, 1981. Aquatic chemistry \u2013 Introduction emphasizing chemical equilibria in natural water. edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Suh, S. and G. Huppes, 2000a. Gearing Input-output model into LCA-Part I: General framework for hybrid approach. CML working paper 2000.007, Leiden University, Leiden. Suh, S. and G. Huppes, 2000b. Gearing Input-output model into LCA-Part II: Compilation of environmentally extended input-output table of US. CML working paper 2000.007, Leiden University, Leiden. Sundberg, J., T. Nybrandt & \u00c5. Sivertun, 1998. Systems Engineering models for Waste Management. Proceedings from the international workshop held in Gothenburg, Sweden 25\u201326 February 1998, AFR-Report 229 Part 2 (ISSN 1102\u20136944), Stockholm", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8702, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Systems Engineering models for Waste Management. Proceedings from the international workshop held in Gothenburg, Sweden 25\u201326 February 1998, AFR-Report 229 Part 2 (ISSN 1102\u20136944), Stockholm. Tellus Institute, 1992. The Tellus packaging study. Boston. Tillman, A.-M., 1999. Significance of decision-making for LCA methodology. Accepted for publication in Environmental Impact assessment Review. Todd, J.A., M.A. Curran, K. Weitz, A. Sharma, B. Vigon, E. Price, G. Norris, P. Eagan, W. Owens & A. Veroutis, 1999. Streamlined Life cycle assessment: a final report from the SETAC North America Streamlined LCA workgroup. SETAC. Pensacola. Tol, R.S.J. , 1999. New estimates of the damage costs of climate change, Part 1: Benchmark estimates (draft). Institute for Environmental Studies (IvM), Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Tolle, D., 1997. Regional scaling and normalization in LCIA. Int. J. LCA 2 (4): 197\u2013208. T\u00f8rsl\u00f8v, J., M.Z. Hauschild & D. Rasmussen, 1999", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8703, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Tolle, D., 1997. Regional scaling and normalization in LCIA. Int. J. LCA 2 (4): 197\u2013208. T\u00f8rsl\u00f8v, J., M.Z. Hauschild & D. Rasmussen, 1999. The Need and Feasibility of Inclusion of Spatial Information in Characterisation of Ecotoxicity. 9th Annual Meeting of SETAC-Europe, 25\u2013 29 May 1999, Leipzig, Germany. Quality of Life and Environment in Cultured Landscapes. Abstracts, p. 78. Tukker, A., 1999. Frames in the toxicity controversy. Risk assessment and policy analysis related to the Dutch chlorine debate and the Swedish PVC debate. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Udo de Haes, 1996. Discussion of general principles and guidelines for practical use. In: Udo de Haes (ed.), 1996: 7\u201330. Udo de Haes, H.A., 1996 (ed.). Towards a Methodology for Life Cycle Impact assessment. SETAC-Europe, Brussels. Udo de Haes H. & N. Wrisberg (eds.), 1997. LCANET, European Network for Strategic LifeCycle Assessment Research and Development. LCA Documents, Eco-lnforma Press, Bayreuth, Germany", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8704, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Udo de Haes H. & N. Wrisberg (eds.), 1997. LCANET, European Network for Strategic LifeCycle Assessment Research and Development. LCA Documents, Eco-lnforma Press, Bayreuth, Germany. Udo de Haes, H.A. & C.J.G. van Halen (eds.), 1997. Results of the Dutch Platform \u201cLCA & waste\u201d. PI!MC, The Hague. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. 295. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8705, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 652, "book_page": 656, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background Udo de Haes, H.A., A.A. Jensen, W. Kl\u00f6pfer & L.G. Lindfors (eds.), 1994. Integrating Impact assessment into LCA. SETAC-Europe, Brussels. Udo de Haes, H.A., R. Clift, R. Griesshammer, L. Grisel & A.A. Jensen, 1996. Practical guidelines for Life Cycle assessment for the EU ecolabeling programme. Leiden. Udo de Haes, H.A. , O. Jolliet, G. Finnveden, M. Hauschild, W. Krewitt & R. M\u00fcller-Wenk, 1999; Best available practice regarding impact categories and category indicators in life cycle Impact assessment. Background document for the second working group on life cycle Impact assessment of SETAC-Europe (WIA\u20132). Int. J. LCA 4 (2): 66\u201374 & Int. J. LCA 4 (3): 167\u2013174. UNECE, 1990. Draft technical annex on classification of volatile organic compounds based on their photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP). United Nations Economic Commision for Europe (Economic and Social Council), Geneva. UNEP, 1996. Life Cycle Assessment: What it is and how to do it", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8706, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "United Nations Economic Commision for Europe (Economic and Social Council), Geneva. UNEP, 1996. Life Cycle Assessment: What it is and how to do it. United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment, Paris. UNEP, 1998. Environmental effects of ozone depletion, 1998 assessment. Journal of Photochemistry & Photobiology B: Biology, Vol 46. UNEP, 1999. Towards the global use of life cycle assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Production and Consumption Unit. ISBN 92\u2013807\u20131740\u20135. Paris. United States Department of the Interior - Bureau of Mines, 1993. Mineral commodity summaries 1993. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC. UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation), 1993. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; UNSCEAR 1993 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes, United Nations, New York Ven, B.L. van der, 1996", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8707, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation; UNSCEAR 1993 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes, United Nations, New York Ven, B.L. van der, 1996. Integraal ketenbeheer op bedrijfsniveau, Hunter Douglas. NOH report 9614, Utrecht. Virtanen, Y. and S. Nilsson, 1993. Environmental impacts of waste paper recycling. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). Austria & Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. Volkwein, S., R. Gihr & W. Kl\u00f6pffer, 1996. The Valuation Step Within LCA. Part II: A Formalized Method of Prioritization by Expert Panels. Int. J. LCA 1 (4): 182\u2013192. Vries, W. de & D.J. Bakker, 1998. Manual for calculating critical loads of heavy metals for terrestrial ecosystems. Guidelines for critical limits, calculation methods and input data. Report 166. DLO Winand Staring Centre, Wageningen. VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), 1989. Nationaal milieubeleidsplan, kiezen of verliezen. SDU, The Hague", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8708, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Report 166. DLO Winand Staring Centre, Wageningen. VROM (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment), 1989. Nationaal milieubeleidsplan, kiezen of verliezen. SDU, The Hague. Wegener Sleeswijk, A., 2000. LCA and risk assessment: their mutual relationships in the context of fate modeling, spatial differentiation, environmental thresholds, and toxic impact assessment. Submitted for publication. Wegener Sleeswijk, A. & G. Huppes, 1994. Leerpuntenverslag van het project \u2019LCA fosfogips\u2019. V&W-DGR-DWW, Delft. Wegener Sleeswijk, A., R. Kleijn, M.J.G. Meeusen-van Onna, H. Leneman, H.H.W.J.M. Sengers, H. van Zeijts, J.A.W.A. Reus, 1996. Application of LCA to Agricultural Products; 1. Core methodological issues; 2. Supplement to the LCA Guide; 3. Methodological background. Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, Leiden. Weidema, B.P. & M.S. Wesnaes, 1996. Data quality management for life cycle inventories - an example of using data quality indicators. J", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8709, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, Leiden. Weidema, B.P. & M.S. Wesnaes, 1996. Data quality management for life cycle inventories - an example of using data quality indicators. J. Cleaner Production 4 (3\u20134): 167\u2013174. Weidema, B.P., 1993. Development of a method for product life cycle assessment, with special reference to food products. Ph. D. Thesis. Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark Weidema, B.P., 1994. Qualitative and quantitative parameters in product impact assessment. In: Udo de Haes et al. (eds.), 1994: 29\u201335. Weidema, B.P., 1998a. New developments in the methodology for life cycle assessment. In: Anonymous, 1998b:47\u201350. Weidema, B.P., 1998b. Multi-User Test of the Data Quality Matrix for Product Life Cycle Inventory. Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 259\u2013265. Weidema, B.P., 2001. Avoiding co-product allocation in life-cycle assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 4 (3): 39\u201361. Weidema, B.P., N. Frees & A.-M. Nielsen, 1999", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8710, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 259\u2013265. Weidema, B.P., 2001. Avoiding co-product allocation in life-cycle assessment. J. Ind. Ecol. 4 (3): 39\u201361. Weidema, B.P., N. Frees & A.-M. Nielsen, 1999. Marginal production technologies in life cycle inventories. Int. J. LCA 4 (1): 48\u201356. Wenzel, H, M. Hauschild & L. Alting, 1997. Environmental Assessment of products. Volume 1: Methodology, tools and case studies in product development. Chapman & Hall, London. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8711, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 653, "book_page": 657, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background Wenzel, H., 1998. Application dependency of LCA methodology: key variables and their mode of influencing the method. Int. J. LCA 3 (5): 281\u2013288. Werner F., 2000. Allocation in LCA for recycling of aluminium, development and evaluation of value-based approaches applied on window frames. Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA), Duebendorf. Werner, F. & K. Richter, 2000. Economic allocation in LCA: A case study about aluminium window frames. Int. J. of LCA 5 (2): 79\u201383. Wilson, B. & B. Jones, 1994. The Phosphate Report. Landbank Environmental Research and Consulting, London, UK. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1989. Scientific assessment of stratospheric ozone. Volume I; report nr. 20. WMO/UNEP, Geneva. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1992. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1991. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 25. Geneva. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1995", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8712, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 658, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1991. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 25. Geneva. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1995. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1994. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 37. Geneva. WMO (World Meteorological Organisation), 1999. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 1998. Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report no. 44. Geneva. Wrisberg, M.N., H.A. Udo de Haes, U. Triebswetter, P. Eder & R. Clift, in prep. Analytical tools for environmental design and management in a systems perspective. Report of the EUConcerted Action CHAINET in the Environmental Climate Programme (EU nr. ENV4-CT97\u2013 0477). Wuebbles, D.J., 1988. Relative effects on stratospheric ozone of halogenated methanes and ethanes of social and industrial interest. UNEP, Nairobi (Conference 19\u201310\u20131988). 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 333. 334. 335.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8713, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 654, "book_page": 658, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Annex A: Contributors Besides the authors mentioned on the headpage of this report, a large number of people have contributed to this study and its coordination. It would be impossible to mention all those who have contributed information, at whatever level of detail. We hence limit ourselves to listing and thus acknowledging the members of the steering committee, the think tank, the supervisory committee and the international observers group. Note that referencing of names below does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use on behalf of the individuals involved. 1. Steering committee P.A. Lanser - VNC H. Muilerman - Stichting Natuur & Milieu C. Dutilh - Unilever Nederland B.V. J.L. de Ridder/S. Schalk - Consumentenbond A. Reij - V&W/RWS/DIA G. van Grootveld - DTO H. Huisman - Afval Overleg Orgaan H.L.J.M. Wijnen - VROM/DGM/ICB J.A. Suurland - VROM/DGM/ICB C. Clement - VROM/DGM/NGA G.J.H. van den Bosch/J. van Egmond - EZ/DGI&D/EDI 2. Think-tank A.C.W.M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8714, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 659, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Huisman - Afval Overleg Orgaan H.L.J.M. Wijnen - VROM/DGM/ICB J.A. Suurland - VROM/DGM/ICB C. Clement - VROM/DGM/NGA G.J.H. van den Bosch/J. van Egmond - EZ/DGI&D/EDI 2. Think-tank A.C.W.M. van den Berghe - Afval Overleg Orgaan R. Boulonois/J. Smit - Corus L. Breedveld - RIZA T. Breure - RIVM-ECO J.W. Broers - V&W/RWS/DWW E. Deliege - TAUW Milieu BV C.E. Dutilh - Unilever Research, Afd. Milieuzaken P.G. Eggels - TNO-MEP, afd. Rest- en Grondstoffen B. van der Ven - TNO-MEP, afd. Rest- en Grondstoffen A. Fluitman - DHV-AIB, afdeling M&M M. Goedkoop - Pr\u00e9 Ingenieursbureau C.J.G. van Halen/N.W. van den Berg - PricewaterhouseCoopers N.V. M. ten Houten - TNO Industrie, divisie P.O. E.A. Koreman - KIWA N.V. R. Kramer - CREM J. Kuyper - NAM B.V. E.W. Lindeijer - IVAM-ER H.W. van Lochem - Akzo Nobel Engineering bv M. Meeusen-van Onna - LEI-DLO H.C. Moll - IVEM E. Nieuwlaar - Universiteit Utrecht, Vakgroep NWS E. Oerlemans - DSM Research, BO-MVR G. van Oorschot - AMPO J.A.M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8715, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 659, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Meeusen-van Onna - LEI-DLO H.C. Moll - IVEM E. Nieuwlaar - Universiteit Utrecht, Vakgroep NWS E. Oerlemans - DSM Research, BO-MVR G. van Oorschot - AMPO J.A.M. Remmerswaal - TU Delft, Faculty of Industrial Design A. Schuurmans - INTRON R.R. Seijdel - PRC Bouwcentrum G. Verlind - Unidek Beheer BV L. Vollebregt - Chemiewinkel UvA C.J. Warmer - ECN H. van der Wel - Philips bv, CFT Development Support H.L.J.M. Wijnen - VROM/DGM/ICB H. van Zeijts - CLM Belangenvereniging Recycling Bouw- en Sloopafval H. Blonk - Stichting Milieukeur Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8716, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 655, "book_page": 659, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "R. van Duin - Bureau Brand & Grondstoffen A. de Groot-van Dam - TNO Building & Construction Research P.A. van den Heuvel - Vereniging van Nederlandse Houtondernemingen (VVHN) M. Haas - NIBE bv D. Hortensius - Centrum voor Normalisatie M. Huijbregts - IVAM M. Langeveld - DHV-AIB B.V. J.M.B. Potting - IPU/LCC-DTU C.P.T. Ruyter - Aluminium Centrum 3. Supervisory committee G.J.H. van den Bosch/J. van Egmond - EZ/DGI&D/EDI H.L.J.M. Wijnen - VROM/DGM/ICB 4. International observers group A. Braunschweig - \u00d6BU, Abt. IW\u00d6-HSG D. Ceuterinck - VITO R. Clift - CES T. Ekvall - Chalmers Industriteknik G. Finnveden - Environmental Strategies Research Group (fms) G. Fleischer - Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin R. Frischknecht - ESU-Services L. Grisel - Ecobilan S.A. E. Hansen - COWI O.J. Hanssen - \u00d8stfold Research Foundation M. Hauschild - Technical University of Denmark E. Hertwich - Norwegian University of Science and Technology P. Hofstetter - Environmental Protection Agency A. Inaba - NIRE M", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8717, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 656, "book_page": 660, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Hauschild - Technical University of Denmark E. Hertwich - Norwegian University of Science and Technology P. Hofstetter - Environmental Protection Agency A. Inaba - NIRE M. Ishikawa - Tokyo University of Fisheries O. Jolliet - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Y. Moriguchi - National Institute for Environmental Studies G.A. Norris - Sylvatica K. Saur- PE Product Engineering GmbH A. Schmidt - dk Teknik B.P. Weidema - Technical University of Denmark (today: 2.\u20130 LCA Consultants) P.R. White - Procter & Gamble Company, Newcastle Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8718, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 656, "book_page": 660, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Appendix B: Areas of application of LCA1 Aksel Roorda (TNO)2 Bernhard van der Ven (TNO) 1 This appendix is a translated and somewhat abbreviated version of a document written in 1997, prior to the start of the present project. It has been included as an appendix to this volume of the Guide because of its more detailed coverage of the actual and potential areas of application of LCA. As far as possible, the terminology of this appendix has been brought in line with that employed in the main text of the Guide. 2 Currently employed at IWACO, \u2019s Hertogenbosch. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8719, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 657, "book_page": 661, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Summary There are a variety of tools available for assessing the influence of a given \u2018human activity\u2019 on the natural environment. Which is the most appropriate depends on the particular issue being addressed, and the tools are indeed generally classified in terms of their fields of application. The focus of Life Cycle Assessment is on assessment of a specific, selected system: either a product or a set of processes (a product being conceived of as a particular embodiment of a set of processes). The defining characteristic of such a system is that it addresses a particular demand in society; it fulfils a certain function. The system gains its coherence from the economic supply chain and an LCA accounts for every stage in the life cycle of the system. Actual assessment focuses on the system\u2019s impacts on the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8720, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 662, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Actual assessment focuses on the system\u2019s impacts on the environment. The chain of cause and effect underlying these environmental impacts is complex, and the assessment parameters employed in LCA are therefore merely indicators that stand for potential impacts. Many of them are so-called \u2018stressors\u2019, i.e. indicators referring to the start of the causal chain. Consequently, LCA is eminently suitable for addressing chain-oriented issues. The LCA methodology allows the impacts occurring at each link in a given supply chain to be aggregated, down to the level of relevant \u2018sub-activities\u2019. The outcome is, of necessity, an indication of the potential environmental impact of the product in question. LCA is less appropriate as a tool for assessing the environmental impacts associated with a specific locality (a specific ecological system). For addressing this kind of issue, tools like risk analysis and environmental impact assessment are far better", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8721, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 662, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For addressing this kind of issue, tools like risk analysis and environmental impact assessment are far better. Neither is LCA the preferred instrument for evaluating systems in which the temporal aspect of the intervention-impact chain cannot be ignored. A case in point is the landfilling of waste. Not only do activities extend over a certain period of time; the causal chain also varies with time. A third task for which LCA is inappropriate is assessment of systems in which the \u2018function\u2019 comprises a blend of physical and \u2018affective\u2019 aspects. New applications of LCA are to be sought in the category of complex functions, such as: multifunctional systems (including cascades); collective functions (including infrastructure); clusters of functions (including lifestyles). In existing fields of application, LCA can be used across a broader range if methodological improvements are made with regard to site-specific aspects and the duration of exposure to emitted substances", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8722, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 662, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3 : Scientific background \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8723, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 658, "book_page": 662, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. Introduction This appendix outlines the limitations and potential of LCA as a tool for environmental analysis, its relation with other environmental tools and possible new fields of application. The text is a translated and somewhat abbreviated version of a document written in 1997, prior to the start of the present project. It has been included as an appendix to this Part of the Guide because of its more detailed coverage of the actual and potential areas of application of LCA. As far as possible, the terminology of this appendix has been brought in line with that employed in the main text of the Guide. 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8724, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 663, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As far as possible, the terminology of this appendix has been brought in line with that employed in the main text of the Guide. 2. The environmental toolbox 2.1 Introduction There are a wide range of analytical tools available for inventorying and analysing the environmental aspects of a given object, the most common of which are: Risk Assessment (RA); Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA); Technology Assessment (TA); Life Cycle Assessment (LCA); Substance Flow Analysis (SFA); Environmental Management Systems (EMS). Which tool or combination of tools is to be used in a particular situation depends on the aim and scope of the study. This section provides a brief review of the individual tools, with the aim of highlighting their similarities and differences. Against this background the potential applicability of LCA is more precisely delineated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8725, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 663, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Against this background the potential applicability of LCA is more precisely delineated. The list of tools distinguished here deviates in several respects from lists in other literature sources, which are frequently longer; see for example (Beck & Bosshart, 1995; Cowell et al., 1997; UNEP, 1996; Udo de Haes & Huppes, 1994; SETAC, 1998). Most of these cases involve downstream links in the chain between \u2018means\u2019 and \u2018ends\u2019. A case in point is the environmental audit. Rather than being a primary tool, it is better to consider the environmental audit as just one element of an environmental management system employing a (varying) range of different instruments. 2.2 Review of tools RISK ASSESSMENT (RA) The term risk assessment is used for a wide variety of methods concerned with assessing the adverse effects of an activity on human safety and ecosystems. Two main types of risk assessment can be distinguished: 1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8726, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 663, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Two main types of risk assessment can be distinguished: 1. accident risk analysis: analysis of the risk of calamity and the attendant human environmental impact; 2. toxicological risk assessment: analysis of the toxicological impacts of \u2018routine\u2019 industrial operations. 1. Accident risk analysis RA is used mainly in situations where events with a low probability of occurrence are associated with major consequences, such as calamities at chemical or nuclear facilities. The analysis always focuses on the risks that a particular human activity poses to the surrounding area and is therefore always sitespecific. Traditionally, risk assessment has been concerned primarily with assessing risks to personnel and local residents, but today it is usually extended to cover ecological risks to water and land", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8727, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 663, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Traditionally, risk assessment has been concerned primarily with assessing risks to personnel and local residents, but today it is usually extended to cover ecological risks to water and land. RA is often undertaken by government agencies, prompted by regulations like the European \u2018post-Seveso\u2019 directive, which obliges firms to demonstrate that the risks posed by a given activity do not exceed certain statutory limits. Part 3: Scientific background \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8728, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 659, "book_page": 663, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2. Toxicological risk assessment This type of risk assessment is concerned with the effects of \u2018routine\u2019 industrial operations. Here, the probability element is therefore lacking in the analysis, which now focuses on the human toxicological and ecotoxicological impacts of normal, non-calamitous plant operation. This form of risk assessment can be used in site-specific as well as non-specific studies. As its name indicates, site-specific risk analysis charts the local human and ecological risks of routine industrial operations at a particular facility. is therefore often used to assess whether risks (concentrations) are below statutory limits. In addition, though, RA can also be used to delineate the causal chain and assess ultimate ecosystem impacts. This more scientifically oriented form of RA focuses more on (local) species extinction and population effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8729, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This more scientifically oriented form of RA focuses more on (local) species extinction and population effects. Although in practice most RAs today cover only toxic aspects, it is becoming increasingly common for other aspects such as noise and desiccation to be included too. Site-specific risk assessment may be used to assess both existing and projected situations. In the latter case the RA is often prompted by statutory obligations, with the firm having to demonstrate that risks remain within set bounds. In the case of current operations, risk assessment may be performed either by the firm or by other stakeholders with a view to assessing possible harmful impacts on human or environmental health. Non-site-specific risk assessment is generally concerned with the risks posed by a particular substance or group of substances", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8730, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Non-site-specific risk assessment is generally concerned with the risks posed by a particular substance or group of substances. It is not then the risks associated with a particular location that are of interest, but the consequences in a given geographical region or country of use of the substance, with all its attendant emissions. This form of RA is often used by national governments to underpin decisions on approving or rejecting new (groups of) chemicals or reducing use of substances in current circulation. SFA data are often employed in these studies. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) EIA is used to analyse the environmental consequences of a specific, projected economic activity at a specific geographical location and is designed to assist the decision-making authority in approving major (public or private) projects. Based on the environmental impacts identified in the EIA, the authority can then decide whether or not to approve the project", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8731, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Based on the environmental impacts identified in the EIA, the authority can then decide whether or not to approve the project. Consequently, ElAs have both a procedural and an analytical side. The procedural aspects aim to ensure that the EIA dovetails with other relevant legislation, and public participation and expert counsel are therefore also important elements of any EIA. In terms of analytical substance, an EIA is concerned not only with assessing the risks posed by a given activity, for which purpose a site-specific RA is just as suitable. Many ElAs also examine such issues as land use, waste production and raw materials and energy consumption. In addition, elements of the LCA methodology can be used to run scenario calculations in order to pronounce more reliably on the \u2018environmental compatibility\u2019 of given alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8732, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In addition, elements of the LCA methodology can be used to run scenario calculations in order to pronounce more reliably on the \u2018environmental compatibility\u2019 of given alternatives. Because an EIA procedure is mandatory for certain categories of scheduled projects, ElAs are initiated by the decision-making authority for a specific site or project. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) LCA aims to inventory the environmental impacts of a given system or systems fulfilling a particular function in demand in society, which may be delivered by one or more products and/or services. The system is generally made up of a chain of interlinked sub-processes, which may be implemented in different localities at different moments in time. The connecting link between these sub-processes is the economic supply chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8733, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The connecting link between these sub-processes is the economic supply chain. In assessing the environmental consequences of the system, LCA charts the potential rather than actual impacts, yielding a set of indicators representing the potential environmental impacts at the local, regional or global level. LCA thus allows whole systems to be studied and the associated impact routes to be assessed in an integrated manner. LCA can be used to address a wide range of issues of societal concern, not only by industry, but also by governments and consumer organisations (cf. Section 3). TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT (TA) TA is usually described as a tool for assessing the consequences of introducing a new technology. It is concerned not only with environmental consequences, but also with economic, legislative, employment and other effects (UNEP, 1996). In some cases, it may also extend to ethical and juridical issues. Here, though, we restrict ourselves to environmental aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8734, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In some cases, it may also extend to ethical and juridical issues. Here, though, we restrict ourselves to environmental aspects. TA has no formal procedure for examining the environmental performance of a technology. The goal of the particular study will determine whether or not it is site-specific, for example. Depending on the goal, a suitable analysis method is adopted. This may be a form of LCA or a type of analysis geared more to Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8735, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 660, "book_page": 664, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "specific activities, such as RA. In short, how TA is elaborated depends very much on the question being addressed, which in turn depends on who is initiating the TA: industry, government or academia. SUBSTANCE FLOW ANALYSIS (SFA) SFA can be likened to an accounting system for a particular substance, group of substances or materials within a defined area. That area may be the entire globe, or a restricted geographical area, such as an individual country. The aim of the analysis is to gain insight into the flows, sources and sinks of particular substances within the selected area (UNEP, 1996). SFA is concerned not only with economic flows, but also with flows within the natural environment and with relationships between the two. This instrument is not aimed primarily at establishing downstream environmental impacts, for which purpose other tools like LCA and RA can be used", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8736, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 665, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This instrument is not aimed primarily at establishing downstream environmental impacts, for which purpose other tools like LCA and RA can be used. Which method is ultimately employed to chart the environmental consequences of a given substance flow depends on the objective of the SFA, the defined geographical area and the object of study (substance, group of substances or material). SFA studies are initiated mainly by government agencies. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (EMS) EMS are used mainly to inventory and improve the environmental performance of a particular economic activity or system. Environment Management Systems are now standardised in the ISO 14000 series of standards (ISO 14040, 1997E; ISO 14041, 1998E; ISO 14042, 2000E; ISO 14043, 2000E) under which firms satisfying certain criteria can become eligible for certification. Because there are prescribed rules and procedures for EMS activities, there is greater transparency and consistency", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8737, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 665, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Because there are prescribed rules and procedures for EMS activities, there is greater transparency and consistency. This is indeed one of the set requirements for improving environmental performance. The standards apply not only to firms; products and services can also be ISO-certified. Firms may initiate and implement EMS for a variety of motives: to improve their environmental \u2018image\u2019 to reduce costs by improved control of the production process to improve communications with enforcement agencies. EMS is not a one-off analysis or project but an activity that forms an integral and continual part of the firm\u2019s operations. Its similarity with EIA consists in it having both a procedural and an analytical component. One aspect of the procedure relates to establishing in-house rules and procedures for activities impinging on the environment. The resultant environmental performance is to be monitored by analytical methods", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8738, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 665, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resultant environmental performance is to be monitored by analytical methods. Both internal and external audits are carried out to oversee firms\u2019 compliance with their own rules and procedures. The external audits also confirm that the rules and procedures are in conformity with relevant ISO standards. These audit procedures also aim to ensure that there is continual improvement of the EMS, including the firm\u2019s actual environmental performance. Audits are clearly one element of an EMS that can help boost environmental performance. EMS also has (procedural) steps with a warning and improvement function. In itself, EMS comprises no specific analytical tools for measuring the environmental performance of a firm or product, but makes use of the available toolbox as appropriate. 2.3 Comparison of tools While the tools differ in many respects there are many overlaps, some quite sizeable. How they relate and compare can be examined by categorising them according to relevant aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8739, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 665, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "How they relate and compare can be examined by categorising them according to relevant aspects. The SETAC Working Group on Conceptually Related Programmes has drawn up a framework for this purpose that distinguishes between concepts (such as clean technology, design for environment and industrial ecology) and tools. Tools, for their part, rely on data (SETAC, 1998). The main features of the various analytical tools are summarised in Table B1, in a less elaborate version of the SETAC scheme, highlighting their differences and similarities. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8740, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 661, "book_page": 665, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table B1: Environmental tools: principal features Tool LCA RA MER SFA TA MMS primary economic object function project, firm project, firm substance project substance technology firm/function orientation to chain entire life cycle none restricted to site restricted to defined area restricted to site, but possible restricted to defined area possible possible result analysis analysis analysis analysis procedure/ analysis analysis analysis procedure/ analysis spatial differentiation global site-specific site-specific regional site defined area site/function temporal aspects no yes yes yes yes possible possible possible used in EIA,TA, EMS EIA, TA, EMS EIA, TA, EMS TA (EMS) EMS 3. LCA fields of application: a closer look 3.1 Introduction This section looks more closely at the (potential) range of application of LCA. The topic can be approached from a variety of angles", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8741, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 666, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA fields of application: a closer look 3.1 Introduction This section looks more closely at the (potential) range of application of LCA. The topic can be approached from a variety of angles. In the literature the most common approach is to compare methods, and the table in the previous section is a similar attempt. A perspective less frequently adopted is to describe applicability with reference to the kinds of issues actually arising in society. In tandem with an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of LCA, this kind of review may shed greater light on the contours of (potential) applicability. This is a different perspective from that adopted by (Beck & Bosshart, 1995), who distinguish the following \u2018activities\u2019: services, firm, project, technology and economy. Although these categories are termed \u2018possible areas of application\u2019, they provide little depth of analytical resolution", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8742, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 666, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Although these categories are termed \u2018possible areas of application\u2019, they provide little depth of analytical resolution. 3.2 Features of LCA As a concept and an instrument, Life Cycle Assessment has been described extensively in numerous publications (cf. this Guide). On the assumption that the reader is more or less conversant with the substance thereof, this section outlines the principal features of LCA with the aim of examining the limits of this particular environmental tool. This is the question that must be answered to establish when LCA can be used and when it cannot. Our point of departure is that every tool has two characteristic aspects1: in what situations can the tool be used, and what does it measure? 1. OBJECT OF STUDY: A SYSTEM CONSISTING OF A DISCRETE SET OF COHERENT ACTIVITIES2 The object of study of LCA is a selected system, either a product or a set of processes (a product being conceived of as a particular embodiment of a set of processes)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8743, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 666, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The defining characteristic of such a system is that it addresses a particular demand in society; it fulfils a certain function. The system gains its coherence from the economic supply chain and an LCA accounts for every stage in the life cycle of the system. The LCA assessment procedure may focus on either a single system or several system alternatives. In the first case, the main problems associated with the selected system are identified. In the latter type of \u2018comparative\u2019 LCA the system of interest is ranked against the selected alternatives. The selected system or systems are modeled as a set of unit processes, described in terms of both economic and environmental inputs and outputs. The object of study is thus a model of reality rather than reality itself. The essential issue is whether the model possesses sufficient discriminating power to analyse the 1 Beck & Bosshart (1995) provide a more exhaustive list", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8744, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 666, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The essential issue is whether the model possesses sufficient discriminating power to analyse the 1 Beck & Bosshart (1995) provide a more exhaustive list. 2 Our perspective is \u2018object-oriented\u2019 as opposed to \u2018structurally oriented\u2019, as described by (Heijungs,1997a). In the latter approach the tool is broken down into its constituent parts, from which the range of application then follows. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8745, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 662, "book_page": 666, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "consequences of intentional changes in inputs. For example, if a comparison is being made between two paint systems, differing in their performance with respect to emissions and lifetime, the model must (at least) be able to sensitive to variations in these two parameters. A distinction should be made here between system variables and stochastic variables. In the given example, system variables include paint composition, method of application and maintenance requirements, while stochastic variables might include the energy model and transport model employed in the particular LCA\u2019 In comparative LCAs it is sufficient that the system variables be adequately discriminated in the model, assuming that the stochastic variables have the same effect on all systems (or are not amenable to control, and thus irrelevant in a decision-support context). The systems being compared must deliver the same function or functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8746, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 667, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The systems being compared must deliver the same function or functions. If this is not explicitly the case one or more systems may have to be adjusted accordingly, in the process defining the \u2018functional unit\u2019 to be used in the LCA. A basic issue, however, is whether it is indeed always feasible to redefine systems such that they provide an \u2018identical\u2019 function or functions. In LCAs this process of adjustment is generally based on technical functions, with any differences in \u2018affective\u2019 functions being ignored1. 2. MEASURED VARIABLES: POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS LCA assesses the environmental consequences of the system(s) under study. The chain of cause and effect underlying these environmental impacts is complex, and the assessment parameters employed in LCA are therefore merely indicators that provide an indication of potential impacts. Many of them are socalled \u2018stressors\u2019, i.e. indicators referring to the start of the causal chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8747, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 667, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Many of them are socalled \u2018stressors\u2019, i.e. indicators referring to the start of the causal chain. The notion of potential impacts has both advantages and drawbacks. The principal advantage is that LCA provides a quantitative relationship between the \u2018normative values\u2019 arising in society and the overall impact of the environmental interventions attributable to the system(s) in question and does so in a manner that is transparent. The drawback is that this relationship is established at an extremely high level of aggregation and that consequently the actual environmental impacts cannot be assessed. Table B2, below, elaborates these two characteristics in the form of a summary analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of LCA, providing an initial indication of preferred and non-preferred areas of possible application", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8748, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 667, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table B2: Strengths and weaknesses of LCA Feature Function-oriented Potential environmental effect Burdens rather than concentrations Non-site-specific (in context of characterisation) Substance-oriented Strength Matches marketplace reality. See below In combination with 2 and 3, permits activities at different sites to be related. See 3 Properties are measurable and quantifiable. Weakness Leads to allocation problems with multifunctional activities. Also doubtful whethercomparedfunctionsaretruly identical; see 5. Relationship with actual impacts is unclear. Relationship with actual impacts is unclear. Interpretation problems arise with emissions causing near-background concentrations and having a non-linear relationship between concentration and toxicity (especially relevantfor nutrients like Zn). See 2. Social, economic, aesthetic and ethical aspects of the function are ignored. 1 Cf. Cowell et al", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8749, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 667, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "See 2. Social, economic, aesthetic and ethical aspects of the function are ignored. 1 Cf. Cowell et al. (1997) who distinguish a scientific, business and social \u2018lobe\u2019 in the decision-making process; \u2018affective value\u2019 is then part of the social lobe. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8750, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 663, "book_page": 667, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Features 2, 3 and 4 are interconnected and form the heart of LCA. In interpreting the table, the following should be borne in mind: The table is not exhaustive, but restricted to principal issues. A number of weaknesses are related to current methodology. In some cases methodological refinements and improvements are certainly conceivable. One example would be introduction of sitespecific aspects in the context of characterisation. The term \u2018site\u2019 in the expression \u2018non-site-specific\u2019 should be understood as referring to Impact assessment rather than to the process description(s) of the system(s) under study. Depending on the goal of the assessment, activities may certainly be very \u2018site-specific\u2019. The table makes no explicit mention of the \u2018time problem\u2019, which can be regarded as resulting from the fundamental uncertainty of the future rather than constituting an inherent inadequacy of the LCA method itself; cf. (Udo de Haes & Huppes, 1994)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8751, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 668, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(Udo de Haes & Huppes, 1994). This holds for description of the supply chain (technology) as a function of time as well as for Impact assessment. With respect to the latter a distinction must be made between the time-dependence of normative values, on which Impact assessment is based, the occurrence of environmental impacts as a function of time, and the emissions (etc.) themselves as they vary in time. The last of these is covered by feature 1 and is described in Table 2, above. The issue of how well the model must match reality to answer the questions of interest has likewise been ignored above, although this is obviously of immediate relevance for the possible range of application of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8752, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 668, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Nonetheless, modeling should be regarded in the present context as a separate issue rather than as part and parcel of LCA as a tool, for the use of models is common to many environmental instruments and is therefore an issue to be addressed prior to evaluation of LCA as one of the possible options in the toolbox. 3.3 Issues of concern It will be apparent that we do not intend here to provide a comprehensive review of all the possible issues of concern in a given society. Where do we draw the line then? In Section 3.1 it was argued that LCA\u2019s potential range of application could be staked out by considering how well its key features are suited to tackling the kinds of issues actually arising in society. In this section we attempt to characterise these to the extent that they relate to the object domain examined in the previous section. As we have seen, LCA is concerned with the economic supply chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8753, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 668, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As we have seen, LCA is concerned with the economic supply chain. The domain of study is defined by the set of economic activities directed towards the transformation and transfer of products and the transfer of financial values; in short, by the economic network. Figure B1 provides a schematic illustration. The sum total of economic supply chains can be considered as a network of economic activities, comparable to the input-output tables of the national accounts, for example. It is generally flows of substances or money that are made visible in this kind of network. At the same time, though, such models can provide a basis for localising stakeholders and the issues of concern in their respective spheres. There are three main categories of stakeholders: producers, consumers and government. Part 3 : Scientific background \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8754, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 664, "book_page": 668, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "From the same perspective of the supply chain, Figure B2 highlights the issues of concern, and thus areas of potential application. These are indicated by a solid line and fall into two categories: the classic issues, tied to a single step in the chain (in the lower part of figure) and those relating to the chain as a whole (on the right). The various analytical tools are indicated by a dashed line, which in the case of SFA is diagonal to indicate its intermediate status, for it is concerned with more than a single production chain. The \u2018transverse\u2019 issues perpendicular to the chain are familiar. Is the facility in question operating in compliance with discharge permits and standards, and are operations compatible with the local environment? Another focal area is local optimisation (process-integrated measures at a single firm or within a local cluster of firms, e.g. an industrial estate)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8755, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 669, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "an industrial estate). Depending on the time horizon, these issues may be approached descriptively (permits, annual environmental reports) or strategically (policy decisions, planning). With these \u2018transverse\u2019 issues, the questions addressed by the firm and by government agencies are essentially the same, but the interests of the two parties differ. Corresponding to the producers\u2019 issue of \u2018emission control\u2019, consumers are concerned with emissions during the use phase and the associated health risks. These latter issues are translated by government into product standards and regulations for use. Besides these \u2018transverse\u2019 issues there are also \u2018longitudinal\u2019 issues, relating in principle to the supply chain as a whole. Although this second type of issue may be relevant for all stakeholder categories, here it is always the government that makes the first move. The issues of potential concern to producers and/or consumers are now pro-actively addressed by the decision-making authority", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8756, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 669, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The issues of potential concern to producers and/or consumers are now pro-actively addressed by the decision-making authority. An important characteristic of the \u2018longitudinal\u2019 issues is their warning function. Given a product and its particular supply chain, the question now essentially addressed is where the main problems are located. These are the precise areas where (environmental) improvements are feasible and the next step, then, is to initiate specific programmes to implement such changes. In physical terms these changes will be identical to those arising directly from the \u2018transverse\u2019 frame of issues. This brief description does not break down these issues according to stakeholder interests; on this point the reader is referred to (Cowell et al., 1997). Here we assume that all the issues (stakeholderdependent) can be assigned to one of the indicated categories. Table B3 provides further examples (without being exhaustive). Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8757, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 665, "book_page": 669, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table B3: Examples of \u2018longitudinal\u2019 and \u2018transverse\u2019 issues type of issue longitudinal product comparison issues product improvement reduced raw materials use process improvement waste strategies transverse issues emissions control local impacts process-integrated measures toxics control examples which product alternative is preferable? (e.g. packaging) underpinning of product policy eco-labeling new product design optimisation of environmental performance along the chain design of new product, process, function technological optimisation (e.g. which energy sources?) what combination of processing technology and recycling is best? how can a firm satisfy new operational standards? (e.g. stricter permit criteria) choice of new site, or extension of current operations (e.g. Schiphol Airport) how can a firm satisfy criteria to limit on-site environmental impacts? (e.g. environmental care programmes) how can products meet government and consumer health criteria? (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8758, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 670, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Schiphol Airport) how can a firm satisfy criteria to limit on-site environmental impacts? (e.g. environmental care programmes) how can products meet government and consumer health criteria? (e.g. Cd in toys) The situation can be summarised as follows: Society as a whole can be conceived as consisting of a network of activities. For each activity and each chain of activities environmental criteria can be established. The first case involves specifically located objects, and the environmental issues arising relate to the activity and location in question. The level of aggregation at which the environmental issues can be addressed is the substance level. From the chain perspective, in contrast, it is the function of the chain that is the object of study, and the overall environmental burden accruing to that function is determined by the sum total of underlying activities", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8759, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 670, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case the analysis aggregates at the \u2018indicator\u2019 level, highlighting the activities causing the greatest environmental burden. Actual developments to reduce the environmental burden take place at the level of individual activities. 3.4 Demarcating the scope of LCA In the previous section we described the main features of LCA, leading to a preferential area of application. A characteristic \u2018buzzword\u2019 for that area is \u2018longitudinal\u2019: whenever it is the supply chain that is the domain of study, LCA is an appropriate tool. Table B4 elaborates, with reference to keywords", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8760, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 670, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A characteristic \u2018buzzword\u2019 for that area is \u2018longitudinal\u2019: whenever it is the supply chain that is the domain of study, LCA is an appropriate tool. Table B4 elaborates, with reference to keywords. Table B4: Applicability of LCA (keywords) stakeholder government industry consumers topic product policy prioritisation of \u2018target-group policy\u2019 general technological reconnaissance prioritisation of environmental technologies product comparison benchmarking (multi-criteria) product development process development product comparison / information In themselves, the keywords in the table are generic terms referring to entire categories. The idea is that they cover the whole field of \u2018longitudinal\u2019 issues, as expressed by the three stakeholders1", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8761, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 670, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The idea is that they cover the whole field of \u2018longitudinal\u2019 issues, as expressed by the three stakeholders1. Some sources mention additional applications, for example OECD (1995), UNEP (1996) and Beck & Bosshart (1995): \u2013 for eco-labeling (in this study regarded as a type of product comparison); \u2013 for environmental audits (subsumed under \u2018Environmental Management Systems\u2019); \u2013 for negotiations (not a primary field of application, but a downstream link in the policy chain); \u2013 for product information (ditto). 1 Some literature sources mention NGOs as a separate stakeholder category. Although NGOs certainly play a specific role in the decision-making process, in the \u2018issue\u2019 phase that role can be considered embodied in the stakeholder \u2018consumer\u2019. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8762, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 666, "book_page": 670, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4. New fields of LCA application LCA applications will always remain restricted to the domain referred to in Section 3 as that of the \u2018longitudinal\u2019 issues. This is indeed the strength of LCA in comparison with other tools. The analytical focus of many of the familiar applications of LCA has been on relatively simple and physically identifiable functions. The \u2018longitudinal\u2019 playing field is larger, though. New1 areas of application are formed by more complex functions, such as: \u2013 multifunctional systems; \u2013 collective functions (defence, infrastructure, etc.); \u2013 coherent clusters of functions (lifestyles). We now consider a number of examples from these new areas, providing suggestions for possible implementation. 4.1 Cascade systems A cascade is a good example of a multifunctional system. In a cascade system there is a substance flow that fulfils multiple functions consecutively. The principle is illustrated in Figure B3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8763, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 671, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In a cascade system there is a substance flow that fulfils multiple functions consecutively. The principle is illustrated in Figure B3. Following function 1, X is used as a raw material for function 2, and then for function 3, and so on. The question, now, is what environmental interventions associated with the substance flow are to be assigned to each of the functions. This is a form of the allocation problem that is commonly encountered. This terms of this problem have been described by Huppes & Schneider (1994) and Lindfors et al. (1995a). It has been clearly elaborated by Kortman et al. (1996), who distinguish between allocation to the upgrading step (from residual by-product to secondary material) and allocation of the interventions associated with primary extraction and production. The cascade problem boils down to the question of how the interventions associated with the processing of a particular substance flow are to be divided over the cascade of functions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8764, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 671, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The cascade problem boils down to the question of how the interventions associated with the processing of a particular substance flow are to be divided over the cascade of functions. In answering this question, criteria might be drawn up that relate to the degree of stability of the chain, in other words: to what extent are sales of the substance flow from function (j) guaranteed for the purpose of function (j+1)? This type of consideration accords with the basic principle of an economic supply chain. These insights can readily be applied in classical LCAs (i.e. for product comparison) involving bulk materials like paper, plastics and metals. Particularly for chains involving aluminium, the method is very sensitive and therefore requires a broad support base when it comes to the allocation method employed. For this particular material the cut-off method has little credibility (Ven, 1996). 1 New in the sense of familiar, recognised applications. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8765, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 667, "book_page": 671, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "4.2 Lifestyle The economic activities of society are geared towards satisfying perceived needs. There are several main groups of functions: transport, shelter, food, clothing, leisure, protection, etc. The list is certainly not exhaustive. A characteristic feature of function delivery is that it generally involves a combination of a physical function and fulfilment of a specific need. Example: the function \u2018shelter\u2019 can be described in terms of protection against climate, disposal over living space, comfort, etc. In addition, though, the location, neighbourhood, scenery, region and so on all contribute to the overall notion of \u2018shelter\u2019, or \u2018living function\u2019. The combination of physical and non-physical satisfaction of needs is played out at the level of the individual. At that level \u2018the function\u2019 is beyond the capacities of LCA. Matters might be different if clusters of characteristics could be identified in predictable combinations, in terms of \u2018lifestyle\u2019, for instance", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8766, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 672, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Matters might be different if clusters of characteristics could be identified in predictable combinations, in terms of \u2018lifestyle\u2019, for instance. The following lifestyles might then be distinguished: \u2013 childless, working couples; \u2013 the young, with their disco and \u2018house\u2019 culture; \u2013 young families; \u2013 senior citizens. The idea would then be to assign a distinctive \u2018package\u2019 of products to each of these lifestyle clusters. The functional unit could then be defined as \u20181 year of life of the reference group\u2019. Table B5 shows a selection of product packages that might be used for this purpose. These are all products that are situated within the economic supply chain", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8767, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 672, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Table B5 shows a selection of product packages that might be used for this purpose. These are all products that are situated within the economic supply chain. domain food and diet clothing shelter leisure activities mobility Table B5: Examples of products associated with lifestyles example confectionery, delicacies drinks meals restaurants fashion items living space furniture household appliances domestic help recreation holiday(s) clubbing car other vehicles It is no simple matter to incorporate \u2018affective value\u2019 in the functional unit or, in the case of a comparative LCA, to render the functional units \u2019equivalent\u2019 in this respect. At any rate, the \u2018affective function\u2019 cannot be elaborated in a similar manner to the physical function. When developing a policy support tool it is better not to mix the two worlds and it is therefore recommended to restrict LCA to the physical function, using it as a tool to elucidate the environmental effects of the physical functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8768, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 672, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This would allow for assessment of the overall environmental impact of a given lifestyle. Examples of combination functions in which this kind of analysis might play a part in government decision-making and in consumer information campaigns include: \u2013 clothing (e.g. use of various fabrics and dyes); \u2013 household management (e.g. appliances to replace manual activities); \u2013 food and diet (e.g. substitution of animal proteins); \u2013 leisure (e.g. different forms of leisure activity). 4.3 Infrastructure and transportation Physical planning is traditionally a controversial issue. In our present context we use the term as covering both the planning process as such, encompassing the combination of housing, work and transportation functions, and the planning of subsequent project implementation. Many disciplines currently contribute to the decision-making process, and the question is: what is the added value of LCA? Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8769, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 668, "book_page": 672, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This topic is similar to the \u2018lifestyle\u2019 issue, in the sense that here, too, there is an \u2018affective\u2019 element to how infrastructure is elaborated (e.g. urban planning and landscape architecture). In this case, though, the physical function is not entirely univalent. Besides housing and transport, other economic functions may also be involved in decision-making, such as employment. As an initial approach, the same procedure could be adopted as for \u2018lifestyle\u2019, i.e. a chain-type procedure for establishing the environmental impacts associated with delivery of a physical function (with the alternatives), with the results being used as a \u2018mirror\u2019 for assessing the other, non-physical functions. Disregarding for the moment how the affective element is to be elaborated in decision-making, in broad terms it can be stated that the physical function is an issue for which \u2018transverse\u2019 elaboration is eminently suitable. At best, assessment extends to direct, local impacts (EIA)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8770, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "At best, assessment extends to direct, local impacts (EIA). It is not common for LCA to be employed in such cases. Examples of issues on which LCA might be able to shed new light include: \u2013 analysis of regional transportation systems (rail, metro, bus, car, bicycle, etc.), including infrastructure requirements1; \u2013 local and regional energy supply (heat and power production and distribution, including new technologies such as fuel cells); \u2013 urban water cycles (consequences of emission abatement measures); \u2013 optimisation of building and civil engineering structures in the urban environment2. If LCA is used for assessing infrastructure projects, appropriate system definition is crucial. One possible solution might be sought in defining the function as narrowly as possible, i.e. as construction of the \u2018physical installation\u2019 and maintaining it for a certain length of time", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8771, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One possible solution might be sought in defining the function as narrowly as possible, i.e. as construction of the \u2018physical installation\u2019 and maintaining it for a certain length of time. Functions which in turn make use of the \u2018installation\u2019, for which it is thus a background process, can then be ignored. 4.4 Waste processing systems Waste processing is the final link in the production chain. The product has served its purpose and must now be disposed of. Obviously, the environmental burden associated with the disposal process must be allocated to the product. The question is where waste processing ends and where the natural environment starts, as is illustrated by the example of landfill. What this in fact means is that the end of the supply chain is not precisely defined. The chain ends with a quantity of residual waste, which can in time give rise to environmental emissions", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8772, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "What this in fact means is that the end of the supply chain is not precisely defined. The chain ends with a quantity of residual waste, which can in time give rise to environmental emissions. In current LCA practice thermal processing of waste (incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, digestion) is sometimes included in the chain. Several simple landfill models are also available. The conclusion is that although the supply chain can indeed be extended to include part of waste processing, there remains some quantity of ultimate waste with a potential environmental impact (Finnveden & Huppes, 1995; Udo de Haes & van Halen, 1997). National and regional governments are interested in establishing the preferred mode of waste processing for a given quality of supply, which may consist of a single (waste) product, several categories of product or an aggregated waste flow (AOO, 1995)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8773, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the last case, it is not always relevant to allocate over the various input flows, provided a fixed input quality is assumed. In scenario studies in which the macrocomposition of the waste flow is subject to variation, due allowance should be made for the subsequent influence on emissions3. This requires a dynamic model (Rijpkema, 1996). Besides this issue of multifunctionality on the input side, waste processing also frequently involves multifunctionality on the output side, for not only is the function waste processing delivered, so too are co-products (electrical power and heat in the case of incineration, fuels in other thermal processes). This second type of multifunctionality must always be addressed. Both these multifunctionality problems are briefly examined in Annex 2", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8774, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This second type of multifunctionality must always be addressed. Both these multifunctionality problems are briefly examined in Annex 2. Given the fact that waste processing is responsible for a substantial proportion of the environmental impacts associated with a large number of consumer products, product policy (both government and 1 There are indications that the alleged \u2018environment-friendliness\u2019 of rail transport compared with alternative modes of transport is based on a disregard of the environmental impacts associated with maintenance and infrastructure. 2 Studies point to an interesting trade-off between engineering features (insulation) and air conditioning requirements. 3 An example of an analysis topic might be: what is the influence of separate plastics waste collection (mixed plastics, or just PVC, say) on the environmental impact of a waste incinerator? Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8775, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 669, "book_page": 673, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "industry) would benefit enormously from improvement of both allocation methods, i.e. multifunctionality on the input and output side. However, a certain measure of decision support is already feasible with current LCA methods and is therefore desirable. Analysis can be focused on product improvement, based on the principal trouble spots in waste processing and on a comparison of processing methods for a given product1. In summary, it can be concluded that there are workable models for including waste processing in LCAs. This is relevant for the majority of products. If there are temporal issues associated with interventions and their resultant impacts (in the case of landfill, for example), LCA will be a less appropriate tool, however. In addition, allocation methodology must be further refined, bearing in mind the broad range of processes that must be addressed. LCA certainly has a role to play in supporting waste policy (national and EU) and is an appropriate tool for that purpose", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8776, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 674, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "LCA certainly has a role to play in supporting waste policy (national and EU) and is an appropriate tool for that purpose. It could, in principle, be used for further prioritisation of waste processing policy options, for example. 5. Conclusions and recommendations LCA is an instrument for assessing a given system: a product or a group of processes (a product being conceived of as a particular embodiment of a set of processes). The defining characteristic of such a system is that it addresses a particular demand in society; it fulfils a certain function. The system gains its coherence from the economic supply chain and an LCA accounts for every stage in the life cycle of the system. Actual assessment focuses on the system\u2019s impacts on the environment. The chain of cause and effect underlying these environmental impacts is complex, and the assessment parameters employed in LCA are therefore merely indicators that stand for potential impacts. Many of them are socalled \u2018stressors\u2019, i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8777, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 674, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Many of them are socalled \u2018stressors\u2019, i.e. indicators referring to the start of the causal chain. Consequently, LCA is eminently suitable for addressing chain-oriented issues. The LCA methodology allows the impacts occurring at each link in a given supply chain to be aggregated, down to the level of relevant \u2018sub-activities\u2019. The outcome is, of necessity, an indication of the potential environmental impact of the product in question. LCA is less appropriate as a tool for assessing the environmental impacts associated with a specific locality (a specific ecological system). Neither is LCA the preferred instrument for evaluating systems in which the temporal aspect of the intervention-impact chain cannot be ignored. A third task for which LCA is inappropriate is assessment of systems in which the \u2018function\u2019 comprises a blend of physical and \u2018affective\u2019 aspects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8778, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 674, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A third task for which LCA is inappropriate is assessment of systems in which the \u2018function\u2019 comprises a blend of physical and \u2018affective\u2019 aspects. New applications of LCA are to be sought in the category of complex functions, such as: \u2013 multifunctional systems (including cascades); \u2013 collective functions (including infrastructure); \u2013 clusters of functions (including lifestyles). 1 An example here is the question whether it is better to incinerate hazardous waste in a dedicated facility (e.g. rotating furnace) or use it as a co-fuel in a cement kiln. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8779, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 670, "book_page": 674, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Appendix C: Partitioning economic inputs and outputs to product systems1 Erwin Lindeijer (IVAM Environmental Research)2 Gjalt Huppes (CML) This appendix, drafted in 1999 as an interim result of the project, has in some respects been superseded by the (simpler) main text. As it goes into more detail on some points, however, it has been included here as an appendix. While the terminology has been aligned as far as possible with that of the main Guide, this is not true of all the positions adopted here. Currently employed at TNO-lndustrial Technology - Division of sustainable product development, Eindhoven. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8780, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 671, "book_page": 2, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1. Introduction: problem definition and the ISO partitioning procedure According to ISO standard 14040 (1997E), allocation is the partitioning of the economic and environmental inputs and/or outputs of a process to the product system under study. The problem of partitioning arises from the fact that in LCA we wish to break down the complexity of the economic system to analyse just one function (a product or service). This implies a need to draw boundaries around the analysed system and deal with the inputs and outputs of that system in a consistent manner. For this reason, defining system boundaries and performing allocation are allied problems. Also relevant to a discussion of partitioning are certain basic modeling choices. These are discussed in relevant chapters of the present Guide. One key modeling choice that has been made is for change-oriented LCA. If a different choice had been made, this would have led to different considerations and different results", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8781, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 672, "book_page": 676, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "One key modeling choice that has been made is for change-oriented LCA. If a different choice had been made, this would have led to different considerations and different results. Because of the close relationship between the definition of system boundaries and partitioning, we begin our discussion by reviewing the basic approaches to subdividing (economic) systems and presenting the ISO standard procedure for allocation, as this is the only standardised procedure currently available. The multiple economic inputs and outputs and environmental interventions associated with any given product system are always based on one or more multifunctional processes within the system. It is around these processes that the discussion on partitioning revolves. There are three basic types of multifunctional processes that require partitioning (Figure C1): multi-output processes, multi-input processes and input-output processes which cross system boundaries", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8782, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 672, "book_page": 676, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "There are three basic types of multifunctional processes that require partitioning (Figure C1): multi-output processes, multi-input processes and input-output processes which cross system boundaries. Although ISO 14041 (1998E) provides a basic stepwise procedure for addressing these processes which specifies preferred methods for dealing with economic system boundaries, it does not go into specific details. This allows for different interpretations and means that the procedure cannot be consistently and unambiguously applied. Nonetheless, it is an agreed framework to which we adhere in this Appendix, but which we shall interpret in two distinct ways. The text of the ISO procedure is reproduced below (the word \u2018cannot\u2019 in various phrases should be interpreted in the sense of \u2018is not preferred for good reasons\u2019). Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8783, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 672, "book_page": 676, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO allocation procedure (ISO 14041, 1998E; Clause 6.5.3) Step 1: Wherever possible, allocation should be avoided by: dividing the unit process to be allocated into two or more subprocesses and collecting the input and output data related to these subprocesses; expanding the product system to include the additional functions related to the co-products, taking into account the requirements of 5.3.2. (Function, functional unit, alternatives and reference flows) Step 2: Where allocation cannot be avoided, the inputs and outputs of the system should be partitioned between its different products or functions in a way which reflects the underlying physical relationships between them; i.e. they shall reflect the way in which the inputs and outputs are changed by quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system. The resulting allocation will not necessarily be in proportion to any simple measurement such as the mass or molar flows of co-products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8784, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 673, "book_page": 677, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resulting allocation will not necessarily be in proportion to any simple measurement such as the mass or molar flows of co-products. Step 3: Where physical relationship alone cannot be established or used as the basis for allocation, the inputs should be allocated between the products and functions in a way which reflects other relationships between them. For example, input and output data might be allocated between coproducts in proportion to the economic value of the products. ISO 14041 also provides a number of general criteria and constraints on the partitioning of inputs and outputs that are of relevance to any further elaboration of partitioning methods. These principles are summarised below. Where adherence is obligatory for performing an LCA according to ISO standards, this is indicated in bold typeface. For purposes of consistency, some statements have been slightly paraphrased in line with the terminology employed in this guide", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8785, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 673, "book_page": 677, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For purposes of consistency, some statements have been slightly paraphrased in line with the terminology employed in this guide. 1) The sum of the inputs and the sum of the outputs of the allocated subsystems shall equal the inputs and outputs of the unallocated system, respectively (100% rule). 2) Whenever several alternative allocation methods seem applicable, a sensitivity analysis shall be conducted to illustrate the consequences of the departure from the selected method. 3) There shall be uniform application of allocation methods to similar inputs and outputs of the system for open-loop allocation: recycled material entering the product system should be treated in the same manner as similar material leaving the system 4) When changes occur in the inherent properties of materials during subsequent uses, these changes shall be taken into account in the calculation", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8786, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 673, "book_page": 677, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "5) When there are no changes in the inherent properties of the recycled material, use of that material displaces the use of virgin materials, and allocation is avoided by treating the product system as a closed loop. 6) In the case of open-loop recycling allocation there are several possible allocation parameters: physical properties economic value the number of subsequent uses of the recycled material. These can be considered as the ISO requirements for dealing with the partitioning of system inputs and outputs among product systems. In the next section we examine several specific approaches to partitioning, following the ISO allocation procedure and thereby explaining how system boundaries are to be drawn. Section 3 is devoted mainly to step 1.2 of the ISO procedure (expanding system boundaries, or substitution). Step 1.1 (division into subprocesses) should be dealt with as part of inventory modeling and is here mentioned only briefly", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8787, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 673, "book_page": 677, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Step 1.1 (division into subprocesses) should be dealt with as part of inventory modeling and is here mentioned only briefly. Section 4 discusses ISO step 2 (allocation based on physical relationships), pointing out the close relationship with step 1.1, reflected in the examples given by ISO to illustrate this step. Section 5 discusses economic allocation, the main example of step 3 of the ISO procedure. Allocation in proportion to mass, in certain applications a suitable proxy for allocation based on economic value, is also briefly discussed. In the final section of this appendix more precise criteria are elaborated and guidelines provided for applying each step of the ISO procedure, with the aim of reducing its ambiguity and achieving more consistent usage. In particular, two main interpretations of the ISO procedure are provided. Part 3: Scientific background ). (", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8788, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 673, "book_page": 677, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "2. Basic approaches to allocation and the question of system boundaries This section, based on a literature survey, discusses the principal partitioning methods currently in use for the three types of multifunctional process illustrated in Figure C1, indicating their respective ranges of application and their relationship to the steps of the ISO procedure and examining their implications for redefining system boundaries (see Section 1). From this discussion a number of basic approaches are distilled, which are discussed in subsequent sections. MULTI-INPUT PROCESSES The main type of multi-input process in which partitioning is required is waste disposal, e.g. landfilling, incineration or composting. This complex subject has been addressed in a comprehensive Dutch project (Udo de Haes & van Halen (eds), 1997) as well as in a number of specific methodological studies (e.g. Eggels & van der Ven, 1995; Finnveden, 1996c; Bez et al., 1998; Nielsen & Hauschild, 1998)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8789, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Eggels & van der Ven, 1995; Finnveden, 1996c; Bez et al., 1998; Nielsen & Hauschild, 1998). In all these studies, close examination and modeling of the respective disposal routes allowed allocation to be avoided by division into subprocesses, or allocation to be based on physical relationships (e.g. chemical properties) for all the components of the input waste streams (step 2 of the ISO procedure). If the electrical output of an incineration plant is allocated to the various inputs according to their heating value, this can also be considered as application of ISO step 2. After allocation of the electrical output, there still remain input-output allocation problems, however: metallic outputs with an economic value, for example1. Dealing with the multi-input part of such processes is a highly technical, process-specific issue and the reader is referred to the literature. The input-output component will be considered in more detail below", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8790, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The input-output component will be considered in more detail below. Transportation of packaged goods (the example of 7.3.1. in ISO TR 14049 (1998) for step 2 of the ISO 14041 procedure) is also a multi-input process, leading to a similar process-specific solution: partitioning the load-dependent part of the burdens depending on load weight or volume2. Again, the reader is referred to the literature (FhG et al., 1991). In this case no input-output allocation problem remains, as the process is part of the main product life cycle. Inputs are generally followed upstream to the ultimate raw material inputs from the environment system, or to their source in other product systems, as secondary materials. In our present context it is this issue of secondary materials input that is important, for these are to be partitioned in the same way as similar secondary materials leaving the system (see criterion 4 in Section 1, above)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8791, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The present discussion of partitioning approaches already rejects out of hand any method not satisfying this criterion. In examining each of the allocation methods below, we shall specifically indicate how these inputs should be dealt with. MULTI-OUTPUT PROCESSES Many approaches have been proposed and discussed for partitioning multi-output processes (e.g. Huppes, 1993; Udo de Haes et al., 1996; Heijungs, 1997a; Kl\u00f6ppfer, 1996, Frischknecht, 1998; Weidema et al., 1999). The majority of these methods avoid allocation by system expansion (step 1.2 of ISO 14041) or allocate flows on the basis of non-physical relationships (ISO step 3). The only multi-output example found for ISO step 2 (in the \u2018Eco-labeling\u2019 report, Udo de Haes et al., 1996) seems to be more exemplary of ISO step 1.1 (see Section 4). Here, our focus is on approaches according to ISO steps 1.2 and 3, especially those dealing with recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8792, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Here, our focus is on approaches according to ISO steps 1.2 and 3, especially those dealing with recycling. * Step 1.2 of ISO 14041 applied to multi-output processes There are a variety of practical options for avoiding allocation by system expansion (step 1.2 of the ISO procedure). Classical system expansion Direct avoidance of allocation in the true spirit of ISO step 1.2 proceeds by expanding the system boundaries to include all the additional functions resulting from multifunctional processes in the system. After the process has been subdivided up into discrete components per input, many input-output processes will remain. These will sometimes be multi-output processes (burning a hammer with a wooden handle, for example, producing iron and electricity), but at this detailed level of modeling the various outputs can be allocated to components of the input, with some simplifying assumptions. Consequently, input-output allocation should ultimately treat each component separately", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8793, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Consequently, input-output allocation should ultimately treat each component separately. 2 In this example the process \u2018transport\u2019 can be subdivided into transport of commodities and of packaging, permitting independent variation of inputs within the constraints of maximum loading weight and volume. This means that step 1.1 of the ISO procedure is in fact used for analysing the system. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8794, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 674, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As this involves introduction of a new, more broadly defined functional unit, however, it alters the very goal and scope of the LCA study. This is not generally an option for all multifunctional processes, for it implies an extension of the analysis to the whole world, as each expansion itself involves multifunctional processes. This approach may be feasible for major functional outputs only. To render \u2018equivalent\u2019 the systems being compared, to all alternatives not having the same additional function a system is then added that provides just this additional function. To avoid the multiple functional unit, the additional system is then subtracted from all alternatives. This subtraction of the additional function system can be interpreted as substitution. For example, the electrical power co-produced in waste incineration substitutes primary power production and can be subtracted from the multifunctional system to render it monofunctional", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8795, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "For example, the electrical power co-produced in waste incineration substitutes primary power production and can be subtracted from the multifunctional system to render it monofunctional. A special case of system expansion involves extension to an entire product group in a given region, as has been done for European wood fibre products (Ekvall et al., 1997), for example. In this case detailed models of subsystems are interlinked according to the annual material flows within the market in the region concerned. The same principle has also been adopted for a database on corrugated cardboard (FEFCO, 1997), although in this case there is less detailed analysis within the system. In all these cases, the need for allocation is restricted to the (extended) system boundaries. On the implicit assumption that the net material inflows and outflows are of only negligible (economic) value compared with the flows within the system, a cut-off is introduced", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8796, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "On the implicit assumption that the net material inflows and outflows are of only negligible (economic) value compared with the flows within the system, a cut-off is introduced. Multiple outputs of less important processes are dealt with through cut-off or quasi-closed-loop (sometimes termed semi-closed loop) procedures (see below), where flows actually going to other product systems are assumed to be used in the product system studied. Actual inputs are then treated as being substituted by the semi-closed loop flows. In these examples the goal and scope of the studies allowed for a \u2018rough and ready\u2019 cut-off, to be subsequently validated in a sensitivity analysis. It should also be stressed that in such cases it is no longer possible to analyse individual products within the product group of interest, unless allocation or substitution is performed at that level. System expansion and substitution The system expansion concept can also be applied to recycling", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8797, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "System expansion and substitution The system expansion concept can also be applied to recycling. The reasoning often applied is that this is theoretically equivalent to performing a comparison between a function system (1) delivering two functions x and y and two other systems (function systems 2 and 3) each delivering only one of the functions (see Figure C2 below). By subtracting the single function system 3 from the multifunctional system 1, this combined system is reduced to a system performing just one function. This reasoning can be simplified by saying that the secondary output y of function system 1 replaces the primary production process PROD B of function system 3. This popular line of thinking forms the basis for the so-called \u2018substitution, or avoided burden method\u2019. This method makes several implicit assumptions: on how material production for function system 3 is being replaced, on the absence of new market demand arising through substitution (i.e", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8798, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This method makes several implicit assumptions: on how material production for function system 3 is being replaced, on the absence of new market demand arising through substitution (i.e. substitution occurs only within existing markets) and on the feasibility of other multiple outputs within function system 3 being able to be dealt with in a similar fashion. It is not always obvious which additional function should be subtracted. In everyday LCA practice a database is often used in which processes are already allocated, but this is merely a pragmatic choice with no general theoretical underpinning1, as this begs the question of how the multifunctionality problem should be solved. Nevertheless, this is a generally accepted approach to substitution using monofunctional databases. A special case of substitution occurs when the same type of material is substituted, but is not necessarily recovered in the same production system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8799, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A special case of substitution occurs when the same type of material is substituted, but is not necessarily recovered in the same production system. An example is the reuse of polycarbonate from milk bottles in vehicle windscreens. According to ISO Technical Report 14049 (1998; clause 8.3.2) a so-called (semi-) \u2018closed-loop procedure\u2019 can be used to model this situation in which material quality remains the same, essentially using the avoided burden approach for the amount of material recovered above the amount entering the system via the general market mix. ISO states as an additional requirement that the same primary and secondary production processes must be used at both the product and the (national) market level. However, this approach can also be used to model quality losses in a cascaded system. Care must be taken to closely analyse the absolute and relative amounts of material circulating in such a system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8800, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "However, this approach can also be used to model quality losses in a cascaded system. Care must be taken to closely analyse the absolute and relative amounts of material circulating in such a system. In fact, the product system studied is a subsystem of the total primary and secondary market system, resulting in a need to allocate (for instance) a net export of secondary material from the specific product system to the (possibly regional) market system, taking into account the attendant quality loss. The procedure for dealing with such subsystems is elaborated in Section 3, below. 1 Frischknecht (1998, p. 119) states that the avoided burden method may also be used in descriptive LCAs, but that the choice of alternative technology is then entirely arbitrary. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8801, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 675, "book_page": 679, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The \u201850\u201350 method\u2019 advocated as a default in the Nordic LCA guidelines (Lindfors et al., 1995a) also implicitly assumes return of material of the same quality to the same system, or at least something equivalent. Fifty per cent of the production, waste disposal and upgrading processes is allocated to the product system under study according to the proportion of primary or secondary input. This approach is a compromise between rewarding use of secondary material and rewarding supply of recyclable material. The 100% rule is violated here as the 50% rule cannot be symmetrically applied to the connected systems, because primary production is also being halved, compared to the actual amount. This is a rough and ready method for dealing with systems as parts of larger market systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8802, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 680, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is a rough and ready method for dealing with systems as parts of larger market systems. A related but more elaborate line of economic reasoning for applying the substitution concept is that the delivering system really will substitute other systems that might deliver the additional function, instead of theoretically comparing and substituting systems. This implies building a scenario for each future substitution, based on market expectations. Seen in this way, in Figure C2 there is assumed to be an actual market shift in the future, with process UPGR replacing process PROD B, which hence can be subtracted, interpreted as substitution. This reasoning is more consistently in line with the changeoriented LCA framework. A procedure for dealing with such situations (as well as with other multifunctional processes) is given by Weidema et al. (1999), who explicitly state that it is valid for change-oriented LCAs only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8803, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 680, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A procedure for dealing with such situations (as well as with other multifunctional processes) is given by Weidema et al. (1999), who explicitly state that it is valid for change-oriented LCAs only. These authors examine which processes will be substituted as a result of volume adjustments and which will not. Those processes characterised by volume adjustment (in economic terms, those with a high elasticity of supply) are the marginal processes. This approach is discussed below in Section 3. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8804, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 676, "book_page": 680, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Cascade approaches Frequently there is a cascade of lower quality applications, as is the case when white paper is recycled into journals and journals into cardboard. In such cases where the quality of secondary material does not remain constant, the closed-loop procedure cannot be applied in the same way. Neither can the substitution method be directly applied if there are no processes substituted by the different material quality, as is the case, for example, in low-quality, secondary use of mixed plastics. Such low-grade plastics are simply not produced in a primary production process and hence there is no substituting process. Either the lower-quality material is incorporated in a general model analysing only an average material quality (as in the market-level, closed-loop model; see above) or the quality loss must be taken into account by reckoning with the quality loss occurring in each cycle (the cascade approach). The latter approach can be seen as a form of \u2019system expansion\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8805, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The latter approach can be seen as a form of \u2019system expansion\u2019. Clause 8.3.3 of ISO TR 14049 (1998) gives an example of the cascading approach for kraft bleached paperboard being recycled to tissues, with no further recycling, and to other products, which may be further recycled. Accounting for quality loss may partly be achieved by taking into account the material losses occurring in each cycle1. However, the method applies an inappropriate mathematical formula (assuming infinite recycling, although paper fibre cycles are limited in number). Using the method without the simplified formula may be feasible, but is probably tedious and has not been encountered in the literature. Other examples of the cascading approach are the so-called \u2018quality method\u2019 (Lindeijer, 1994 and Kortman et al., 1996) and the \u2018estafette method\u2019 (Seijdel, 1994). The most elaborate method in this category is that of Schneider (1996), which analyses the complete cascade in full detail", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8806, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The most elaborate method in this category is that of Schneider (1996), which analyses the complete cascade in full detail. In the quality method, the primary production is divided among all the cycles according to the relative quality loss per cycle, and the losses in volume (or mass) in each cycle, as waste. The waste disposed of in each cycle includes the discarded lower quality material. The upgrading process is allocated to the receiving system, by convention, although allocation based on a consistent choice of system boundaries is preferred. In the estafette method each cycle is considered to substitute a different primary material (according to its quality), effectively applying the substitution approach to each cycle. In this method, however, final waste disposal is also divided over the entire cascade according to the functional losses occurring at each step, requiring quantification of these relative losses", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8807, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this method, however, final waste disposal is also divided over the entire cascade according to the functional losses occurring at each step, requiring quantification of these relative losses. The upgrading process is necessary for delivering a certain quality output and is thus allocated to the delivering (or receiving) system. The method can be applied only to systems in which there is a primary process that can be appropriately substituted. Note that there is no substitution of primary materials in either of the examples. Thus, recycling scores worse environmentally than if full substitution were assumed. All these methods require more or less detailed knowledge of (at least) the number of cycles and the quality and volume reduction occurring in each. All cascading approaches face the problem of major uncertainties regarding the quality arising in each cycle, making it generally hard to decide which burdens should be allocated to which material quality pool", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8808, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In the TR 14049 example on bleached kraft paper and in the simplified quality method applied in (Kortman et al., 1996) the lower-quality systems cannot even be distinguished from one another. Applying these methods consistently in databases is therefore problematic. Even using them in such a way as to distinguish between individual product systems seems contrary to the fact that the whole cascade is considered and still requires allocation of the intermediate input-output process (see below). Given these detailed problems, current cascading approaches are not considered adequate as basic solutions to the multifunctionality problem and may only be applied as non-default approaches in a sensitivity analysis. * Step 3 of ISO 14041 applied to multi-output processes Recycling can be modeled as a multi-output process if the material retains a positive economic value throughout the system", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8809, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "* Step 3 of ISO 14041 applied to multi-output processes Recycling can be modeled as a multi-output process if the material retains a positive economic value throughout the system. There are then at least two functional outputs: the functional unit in the use phase and the discarded material resulting from that use2. On this line of reasoning, all multifunctional processes, including recycling, can be dealt with in the same consistent fashion. However, this requires that relative economic, i.e. market value be used as an allocation parameter, as physical parameters cannot be used for the functional output of the system. If economic value is taken as the decisive criterion for defining system boundaries, this is also the most obvious allocation parameter. (It is, of course, an 1 The associated waste disposal should also be taken into account. This is not mentioned in ISO TR 14049", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8810, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(It is, of course, an 1 The associated waste disposal should also be taken into account. This is not mentioned in ISO TR 14049. 2 It is arguable whether the functional use is actually an economic output: no one pays consumers for consuming products the way producers are paid for their economic output. Not regarding the functional output as an economic process would change the situation from multi-output allocation at the use process stage to input-output allocation at the upgrading process stage (see below). Which line of reasoning is followed is crucial. In section 5 the starting point is that the functional use is an economic output. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8811, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 677, "book_page": 681, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "important reason for the processes occurring at all1.) This form of \u2018economic allocation\u2019 can be applied equally to input-output processes and multi-output processes. It will now be discussed briefly in relation to the former and explained in more detail in Section 5. INPUT-OUTPUT PROCESSES * Step 1.2 of ISO 14041 applied to input-output processes Step 1.2 of the ISO procedure can be applied to input-output processes, particularly in the form of the avoided burden and marginal substitution methods. The system is thereby expanded to enable subtraction of the substituted production process. As mentioned earlier, the marginal substitution method requires scenario-building and, for fair comparison in comparative LCAs, also assumptions regarding the future development of markets. System expansion to encompass the full market of a coproduct (e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8812, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "System expansion to encompass the full market of a coproduct (e.g. all electricity production) does not solve input-output allocation problems at the extended system boundaries; it somehow applies a cut-off method (see below) as a final resort, as do the other substitution approaches. Step 3 of ISO 14041 applied to input-output processes The position of the system boundary depends on the economic value of the flows leaving the processes of interest. Given a chain of processes in which discarded products from use process USE A (delivering function x) are upgraded in UPGR, which subsequently supplies use process USE C (delivering function y) five cases can be distinguished (Figure C3). If the value of the outflow of USE A is positive and paid for by UPGR, USE A is to be allocated at least partly to USE C, and UPGR entirely", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8813, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If the value of the outflow of USE A is positive and paid for by UPGR, USE A is to be allocated at least partly to USE C, and UPGR entirely. The system boundary is then to be drawn in position 1, indicating that some fraction of USE A is to be regarded as a production process for the secondary material in USE C. If the discarded products from USE A have zero value, the system boundary (no. 2) is drawn between USE A and UPGR. If the discarded products have a negative value and the outflow of UPGR positive, the boundary (no. 3) is drawn in UPGR, which fulfils a waste management function with respect to function x. If after upgrading the value is zero, the boundary (no. 4) is drawn between UPGR and the downstream system, USE C. If the value is still negative even after upgrading, UPGR is to be allocated entirely to USE A, as is part of USE C, which fulfils a waste management function for it. System boundary no. 5 then pertains", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8814, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "System boundary no. 5 then pertains. Now, how can ISO step 3 be applied? This is necessary only for system boundaries 1, 3 and 5. The simplest solution then is to treat 1 as 2, and 3 as 4. In the first case the upgrading from negative (or zero) to positive economic value is considered part of the downstream system, USE C. This is called the \u2018cutoff method\u2019 for allocation and can be considered a rough estimate for dealing with input-output processes at the system boundaries (i.e. when no reliable data is available on the economic value prior to upgrading). In the 1992 CML guide (Heijungs et al., 1992) this approach was proposed as a simple, but unsatisfactory, general method for dealing with allocation. The commonest situation in recycling is one in which a negatively valued discarded product, such as a waste (disposal of which must be paid for) is upgraded to a positively valued product", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8815, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The commonest situation in recycling is one in which a negatively valued discarded product, such as a waste (disposal of which must be paid for) is upgraded to a positively valued product. Here both the costs and the environmental burdens associated with upgrading are borne by the receiving as well the delivering system. The process where the value switches from negative to positive is considered an input-output process that traverses the system boundaries. The environmental burdens of that process are then to be allocated partly to the delivering system and partly to the receiving system. In the 50\u201350 method discussed above (Lindfors et al., 1995a) 50% of the upgrading process is allocated to the delivering system and 50% to the receiving system. A more sophisticated method, however, is to allocate according to the shares in total proceeds of the process", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8816, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "A more sophisticated method, however, is to allocate according to the shares in total proceeds of the process. Similar to the situation with boundary 1 is that in which the economic value of the material in the discarded product remains negative even after upgrading. This implies that the receiving system is providing the delivering system with a form of waste management service. Some of the burdens of the receiving process should therefore be partitioned to the delivering system, in as far as these burdens have not been separated off under step 1.1 of the ISO procedure. The upgrading process is then part of the delivering system. In some cases the market price may not be the most appropriate allocation parameter, especially if the market is not fully developed. This is often the case for new recycling initiatives and an alternative parameter must then as a proxy. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8817, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 678, "book_page": 1, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Economic allocation A generally applicable method for all system boundary situations concerned is economic allocation, whereby the various functional flows are allocated according to their share in the total proceeds of the process. This method is also applicable to the other types of multifunctional processes. Conclusion The problem of partitioning is a complex one and many solutions have been proposed. We have endeavoured to structure the discussion by distinguishing between various types of process, related to different system boundary problems, and following the steps of the ISO allocation procedure, in the context of change-oriented LCAs. As has been illustrated, the partitioning approach is closely linked to the delineation of boundaries around the product system(s), and most approaches apply specific criteria for doing so. The goal and scope of the study are also important here, as system expansion means a redefinition of the functional unit", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8818, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 683, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The goal and scope of the study are also important here, as system expansion means a redefinition of the functional unit. Two basic approaches can be distinguished: 1) avoiding allocation by expanding the system boundaries (ISO step 1.2, by generalising the product system(s) under study to be of a certain average material quality and applying a closed-loop allocation procedure, or by analysing the system marginally substituted by the recycled material and subtracting it) 2) allocation at the system boundaries at a process level (ISO step 3), here based on economic considerations, i.e. market value or imputed market value. The marginal substitution method always draws the system boundaries around processes, while the economic allocation method generally draws them within processes. Neither method takes cascading effects into account. The two approaches are discussed more extensively in Sections 3 and 5, respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8819, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 683, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Neither method takes cascading effects into account. The two approaches are discussed more extensively in Sections 3 and 5, respectively. Allocation on the basis of physical relationships between outputs (ISO step 2) is deemed feasible only if the relative magnitude of outputs can be changed, i.e. if it is a combined process, rather than a joint process in which relative outputs cannot be varied. This situation is examined in Section 4. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8820, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 679, "book_page": 683, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "3. Avoiding allocation (step 1.2 of ISO 14041) RULES FOR SYSTEM EXPANSION If sensitivity analysis shows that flows across system boundaries and stocks are negligible, cut-offs may be introduced. If this is not the case these flows must be taken into consideration, however. The simplest mode of system expansion is then to use a broader functional unit, i.e. expand the system being assessed. It should be checked whether substitution leads to serious nested-system boundary problems, as the systems added in expansion will themselves usually be multifunctional systems. For example, electricity co-produces heat and, more generally, most well-developed processes are multifunctional. In most cases, therefore, it is to be expected that allocation by step 3 should be applied. If substitution is possible, certain rules apply. RULES FOR SUBSTITUTION System expansion can be applied at a single product system level by the \u2018substitution, or avoided burden method\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8821, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If substitution is possible, certain rules apply. RULES FOR SUBSTITUTION System expansion can be applied at a single product system level by the \u2018substitution, or avoided burden method\u2019. The material substituted should have the same quality as the recovered material (the burdens arising in achieving that quality, e.g. in an upgrading process, should therefore be included in the system delivering the recovered material). This approach should only be applied in cases where it is entirely clear which material is (to be) substituted. As this will never be clear without a market study, this approach is very coarse and a sensitivity analysis should therefore be performed to indicate the difference in results if different substitution is assumed or some allocation method is applied", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8822, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(Sensitivity analysis should of course be undertaken, as appropriate throughout every LCA.) Furthermore, when PROD B in Figure C2 (situation 2b) is avoided in a functional unit (say 1 kg) of PROD A, only a fraction of the market for PROD B is replaced by PROD A. This fraction should then be incorporated in the modeling of PROD B. When comparing a system with incineration to a similar system with materials recycling, for example, it is not only the substitution of materials that needs to be addressed but also the reduction of electrical output due to less incineration, leading to additional electricity production elsewhere. Caution is thus in order when using data on unit processes from databases in which the substitution method has been applied, as the process adjustments on the input side may not have been calculated according to product-specific changes in outputs", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8823, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Appropriate calculations should then be made to correct these adjustments throughout the database, to ensure that system imprecision does not lead to major fuzziness of the LCA results. In fact, we do not recommend the avoided burden method as a baseline approach, because of its indeterminate implications for the consistency of system modeling. Simplifying the system by adopting a (semi-) \u2018closed-loop procedure\u2019 is equivalent to an avoided burden method in which the material quality remains the same. As substitution is simplified here and no marginal impacts are to be anticipated, this is a valid approach when the inherent properties remain the same, in accordance with ISO 14041 (1998E). If material quality is reduced relative to average material quality in the marketplace, allocation should be on the basis of this quality difference", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8824, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If material quality is reduced relative to average material quality in the marketplace, allocation should be on the basis of this quality difference. One way to correct for lower quality is to subtract only a fraction of the primary material substituted, according to the ratio between the value of the primary material and the degraded secondary material. Weidema et al. (1999) have outlined a procedure for selecting which processes are to be deemed marginal processes, i.e. which processes will be affected by a particular change and therefore substituted in the market. As the figure explaining this \u2018symmetrical substitution\u2019 procedure could not be reproduced here, a text summary is provided. See also the example by Weidema in the main text of Part 2b", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8825, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As the figure explaining this \u2018symmetrical substitution\u2019 procedure could not be reproduced here, a text summary is provided. See also the example by Weidema in the main text of Part 2b. The procedure consists of five steps and seeks essentially to answer two questions: 1) What is the situation in which the studied change in demand occurs? 2) In this situation, which specific technology is affected by the change? which are addressed, respectively, in steps a to c and d and e: a) What is the time horizon of the study? This guide deals with long-term changes only1. b) Does the change affect specific processes only or an entire market? If only specific processes: these are the marginal processes. If a market is affected, proceed to step c. c) What is the volume trend in the affected market: upward or downward1, that is are only old installations discarded or are also new installations installed? List possible technologies and make a choice", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8826, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "1 Short-term marginal effects may be identified using a similar decision tree as the one presented here. The difference between the two diagrams would be that instead of increases and decreases in capacity, the short-term diagram would show increases and decreases in capacity use, within existing capacity. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8827, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 680, "book_page": 684, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "d) Is production capacity anticipated to expand or shrink? If neither is the case, this technology is not a marginal technology; return to the list. If yes, proceed to step e. e) Is this technology the most preferred (if being installed) or the least preferred (if being decommissioned)2? If it is neither, this is not a marginal technology; return to the top of the list. If yes, this is the marginal technology. Although developed for selecting marginal technologies for general application in comparative LCA studies, this procedure can also be used for selecting the processes to be substituted in system expansion (Weidema, 1998a), as for the case of recycling. Asked for an example of application of this procedure to recycling, Weidema provided the following illustration: EXAMPLE: STONE DEMOLITION WASTE WORKED INTO CONCRETE FILLER The main output of the primary process is the service \u2018demolition\u2019", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8828, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The waste flow (or co-product; it does not matter, as will be seen from the following) is \u2018stone\u2019. This then undergoes one or more recycling processes (\u2018transport, crushing, washing, sorting\u2019), before being fed as raw materials into a secondary process: \u2018concrete filler production\u2019. How, now, should allocation of this recycling process proceed? This can be decided by asking one simple question. If it is the secondary product that is the focus of the study, the question is \u2018Does an increase in demand for the secondary product (\u2018concrete filler\u2019) lead to an equivalent increase in recycling?\u2019 If the answer is yes, recycling is the marginal production process for the secondary-process raw material in question, and the recycling process should be \u2018allocated\u2019 to, i.e. included in the product system of, the secondary product. If the answer is no, recycling is determined by external forces (from the perspective of the secondary product system), e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8829, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "included in the product system of, the secondary product. If the answer is no, recycling is determined by external forces (from the perspective of the secondary product system), e.g. by legislation or because recycling is cheaper than waste treatment, and the recycling process should be excluded from the secondary system (and \u2018allocated\u2019 to the primary process). If it is the primary product that is under study, a parallel question is asked: \u2018Does an increase in demand for the primary product (i.e. \u2018demolition\u2019) lead to an equivalent increase in recycling?\u2019 If the answer is yes, recycling is the marginal waste-handling process for the primary system, and is to be included there. If the answer is no, recycling is determined by external forces (e.g. demand for recycled products) and is not to be included in the primary product system. As can be seen, these two questions are entirely complementary and lead to the same division between the two systems", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8830, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As can be seen, these two questions are entirely complementary and lead to the same division between the two systems. Since we typically study only one of the two systems (the reason why an \u2018allocation problem\u2019 arose in the first place) we can amalgamate the two questions into one: \u2018Does an increase in demand for the product under study lead to a corresponding increase in the material turnover of the recycling process?\u2019 If yes, include the recycling process, if not exclude it. It should be noted that this procedure is independent of the price of the waste, i.e. it works whether the waste stone has a negative or positive economic value. It should also be noted that the word \u2018increase\u2019 can be replaced by \u2018decrease\u2019 throughout, with no change of result as long as we are dealing with small (marginal) changes. This example addresses upgrading processes only", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8831, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This example addresses upgrading processes only. According to the general reasoning underlying system expansion (Weidema, 1998a), if the delivering system is to include the upgrading process because an increase in its output fosters recycling, it should also be the one to which the avoided burdens of the substituted system should be allocated3. The same should also apply on the input side: if increased demand for secondary material increases output thereof, the avoidance of primary material should be accounted for (as has generally already been done in systems modeling). Finally, in a change1 To be precise, the option \u2018upward\u2019 is relevant only if market volume is declining faster than the decline resulting from regular, planned phase-out of capital goods. Consequently, the option \u2018downward\u2019 is also valid when market volume is decreasing slower than the regular capital replacement rate", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8832, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Consequently, the option \u2018downward\u2019 is also valid when market volume is decreasing slower than the regular capital replacement rate. 2 The preference implied here relates to the expected long-term production costs taking into account all externalities relevant for the one who decides about the capacity adjustment. See the text on step e) for further elaboration of this point. 3 If other co-products arise in the substituted flow diagram, the same procedure should be followed. If gravel extraction is being substituted by production of concrete debris, the question is whether the co-production of sand is also affected by substitution. If so, it should be included; if not, not. A sensitivity analysis should be performed to ascertain how far this procedure should be followed, but more than three levels will be rare. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8833, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 681, "book_page": 685, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "oriented LCA in which a steady-state model is used to compare \u2018business-as-usual\u2019 (e.g. building roads on sand) with a new situation (e.g. using demolition waste), market trends, both upward and downward, should be included in both cases. In principle, the above procedure can also be adopted for non-marginal approaches (Weidema, 1998a). The modeling of the system should then be adjusted appropriately, however. For long-term non-marginal changes this means that future scenarios and technologies should be applied. DRAWBACKS OF THE SUBSTITUTION APPROACH Although this approach is the first preference in ISO 14041, several drawbacks should be mentioned: \u2013 Classical system expansion can only be applied if the functional unit (and possibly goal) of the study is changed. \u2013 In the case of marginal substitution, it is necessary to compare the situation with marginal (future) adjustments with the future situation without such adjustments", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8834, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u2013 In the case of marginal substitution, it is necessary to compare the situation with marginal (future) adjustments with the future situation without such adjustments. However, it is unclear how large an error will be introduced by comparing two future market scenarios calculated using current databases, in which the avoided burden method is generally applied. \u2013 In the case of recycling, no operational procedure has yet been developed for selecting marginal technologies. What if supply of a secondary material follows demand, but not to an \u2018equivalent\u2019 (i.e. equal) extent? As substitution is then only partial, should only part of the process be subtracted? If so, it will be difficult to determine the appropriate extent. \u2013 In the real world, supply and demand are to some degree elastic (i.e. volume varies in response to price), with complete elasticity or inelasticity extremely unusual", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8835, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "\u2013 In the real world, supply and demand are to some degree elastic (i.e. volume varies in response to price), with complete elasticity or inelasticity extremely unusual. Both the general substitution method and Weidema\u2019s symmetric substitution method address these exceptions, rather than the general case. \u2013 In subtracting a substituted alternative, there is a fair chance that the subtracted system will be a multifunctional one itself, leading to nested loops of subtraction. Arbitrariness may be introduced if a cut-off approach is applied after the first nesting. \u2013 In the case of emergent markets, substitution may be ambiguous. It can be argued that demand for a new product made from recovered material will emerge regardless, and that in supplying for that demand equivalent primary production is thus being substituted, so that the first use of the material should be rewarded", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8836, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It can also be argued, however, that such secondary demand will not necessarily emerge, in which case recycling should not be rewarded, as consumption of the product made from the recovered material becomes essentially a waste disposal phase, to be allocated to the first use of the material. The merits of the two positions are hard to judge in the abstract. However, this problem is relevant for all approaches for dealing with partitioning new material applications at system boundaries. 4. Allocation according to physical relationships (step 2 of ISO 14041) To indicate how step 2 of the allocation procedure in ISO 14041 (1998E) is to be elaborated, let us consider some of the examples provided in ISO TR 14049 (1998). Partitioning according to physical relationships among outputs (products) is exemplified in ISO TR 14049 by the combined transportation of packaging and goods, where only the packaging is analysed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8837, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Partitioning according to physical relationships among outputs (products) is exemplified in ISO TR 14049 by the combined transportation of packaging and goods, where only the packaging is analysed. Here purely physical parameters are used to allocate the energy consumed between goods and packaging: mass and volume. In this case the ratio between the various environmental parameters ({Di} in ISO TR 14049, clause 7.3.3) can be kept constant while varying the relative weight or volume of the outputs. The possibility of varying the relative outputs while keeping {Di} constant is stated as the sole argument for performing step 2 of the ISO 14041 procedure. Example 7.3.2 of ISO TR 14049 (production of cream and low-fat milk from crude milk) is a different type of situation. It is presented as a hybrid between allocation based upon physical relationships and upon economic value", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8838, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It is presented as a hybrid between allocation based upon physical relationships and upon economic value. It is argued that as high-fat cream is economically more significant (per kg), fat content might be the appropriate basis for allocation rather than mass. In the end, however, it is indeed economics that supplies the basic rationale for partitioning, fat content being an only part-valid indicator for economic value per kg. As with any economic process, the total price of its outputs is its raison d\u2019 tre and the economic proceeds per kg of the different outputs is therefore the most reasonable figure for allocating the outputs. Of course, mass or any other physical parameter can also be used as an indicator Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8839, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 682, "book_page": 686, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "for this relative economic value (being stabler than price, for instance, or easier to determine), but only if its value as an indicator has already been proven. On this reasoning, step 2 of ISO 14041 is no longer to be considered a separate step in the procedure for partitioning; in fact, the relative added economic value of the respective outputs is the most basic allocation parameter available1. The next section therefore focuses on economic allocation, the most satisfactory allocation method available. 5. Economic allocation (step 3 of IS0 14041) 5.1 Introduction The situation examined here is that arrived at in the final step of the ISO allocation procedure. Where possible, allocation has already been avoided (although several remarks will be made on the topic); substitution has been postponed as an approach that is not systematically applicable; and physical allocation has been performed, as in some cases of combined waste treatment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8840, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Generally speaking, the core system that results will still be multifunctional. The aim of this final step, then, is to model the economic value of the inputs and outputs of this multifunctional system, so that these values can be used as an allocation key. To this end market prices are generally employed, these reflecting the basic fact that in a market economy production processes are ultimately driven by the proceeds they command. In principle, this allocation method is quite straightforward, employing as it does the kind of cost allocation and cost analysis that is widely applied in business economics. Problems may arise, though, (1) when markets (and therefore prices) are lacking, (2) when prices are \u2018distorted\u2019, as with imperfectly functioning markets (e.g. monopolies), or (3) owing to government intervention. Examples of the latter include certain forms of subsidy and compulsory reuse, and processes that are subject to permits", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8841, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "monopolies), or (3) owing to government intervention. Examples of the latter include certain forms of subsidy and compulsory reuse, and processes that are subject to permits. These issues are elaborated in greater detail in Part 2b of this Guide2. Below, in Section 0, we briefly explore two examples, on a provisional, qualitative basis: use of housing demolition waste and incinerator floor ashes in road building, the first in a situation of market equilibrium and the second with government induced market failure. Although our approach to economic allocation is based on traditional cost analysis, as employed by neoclassical economics, we deviate in several important respects.lt is not the place here to embark on a general critique of neo-classical economics. It may be noted, though, that LCA represents one way of dealing with market imperfections usually treated otherwise by economists of the neo-classical school", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8842, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It may be noted, though, that LCA represents one way of dealing with market imperfections usually treated otherwise by economists of the neo-classical school. In this sense, the very exercise of LCA is a response to the failure of markets to properly account for environmental effects. First, however, we provide an outline of the basic principles of economic allocation. Before the allocation problem is tackled, the system under study must be clearly defined, already based to some extent on price-related criteria (see Figure C4). If a physical flow is unpriced or has a zero or negative price, it should be allocated to the functional flow or flows. This, at least, is the case for all environmental interventions (flows 1 in Figure C4). With waste to be processed, the direction of payment determines whether the flow is to be allocated, or allocated to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8843, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "With waste to be processed, the direction of payment determines whether the flow is to be allocated, or allocated to. If it is an inflow to process X, the waste is a functional flow and constitutes one of the flows to which non-functional flows should be allocated (flows 2 in Figure C4). If it is an outflow from process X, the waste is a non-functional flow and constitutes one of the flows to be allocated to the functional flows (flows 3 in Figure C4). In the case of products, i.e. flows with a positive economic value, the direction of payment again determines whether the flow is to be allocated, or allocated to. If it is an inflow to process X (flows 4 in Figure C4), the product is a non-functional flow and constitutes one of the flows to be allocated to the functional flows. If it is an outflow from process X (flows 5 in Figure C4), the product is a functional flow to which non-functional flows are to be allocated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8844, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If it is an outflow from process X (flows 5 in Figure C4), the product is a functional flow to which non-functional flows are to be allocated. 1 The actual need for the various outputs in society is of course even more basic, but can rarely if ever be quantified. Only if the market value of proceeds deviates markedly from the value that would have arisen in a well-developed market should a more suitable price level be sought (as when a novel process has not yet been upscaled, so that development costs still weigh heavily). 2 Although some of these issues might be covered by more complex types of economic modeling, such models are beyond the practical scope of LCA and are therefore not further considered here. Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8845, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 683, "book_page": 687, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Economic allocation can thus be based on the following rule of thumb. Environmental interventions, as well as all those flows for which process X pays other processes, are allocated to the functional flows, while flows for which process X is paid are allocated to (cf. the grey arrows in Figure C4). As the most general case we usually think of prices in market terms, i.e. as deriving ultimately from consumer preferences. Some goods and services may be government-provided, however, with no markets involved, as in the case of road building or education. It is then not final consumer demand in the marketplace that drives the economic chain, but public demand, driven by a politically guided decisionmaking process. As long as the products in question are purchased in the market, though, their price can be derived in much the same way as for consumer goods, for public demand is similarly reflected in the cost of supply, usually equal to the budget expenditure involved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8846, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In economic terms, the derived utility is at least as high as the utility forfeited by expenditure on the product in question (for otherwise something else would have been purchased). Thus, in the sphere of collective expenditures too, economic (i.e. market) value or budget expenditure can be taken as the basis for allocation. 5.2 Examples of economic allocation By way of illustration, then, let us consider two examples. CASE 1: USE OF HOUSING DEMOLITION WASTE IN ROAD BUILDING After functional use, a house is \u2018discarded\u2018. As a subsequent process the discarded house is demolished, with several inputs required and several flows resulting. One of these flows (pulverised bricks, say) can be used in road building, providing a stylised example that stands for the more general case of recycling. By varying the prices of the flows concerned, several system definitions and solutions to allocation can be illustrated", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8847, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "By varying the prices of the flows concerned, several system definitions and solutions to allocation can be illustrated. To arrive at a system definition, it must be clear what question is to be answered and hence what functional unit is being analysed. One might, for example, wish to assess a specific technology for processing the waste flow in question and using it in a new application. In that case a difference analysis can be applied to the two systems together, with both functions represented in the functional unit. The alternative with which the comparison is to be made is a different mode of processing the demolition waste flow, e.g. without a functional application, and a different mode of supplying the input for road building, e.g. using primary materials. This analysis for technology choice is a legitimate one. It does not require allocation between dwellings and roads and in that sense is complete when the system boundaries have been set in the difference analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8848, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "It does not require allocation between dwellings and roads and in that sense is complete when the system boundaries have been set in the difference analysis. Allocation may still be necessary, e.g. for the multiple processes involved in manufacturing the plant for processing discarded bricks. Alternatively, one might wish to compare different housing systems having the same functional unit, with one of the alternatives involving the three processes described in the example in Figure C5 below. Some form of allocation is therefore required here. Four situations (a to d) are described here with respect to the values of the respective flows (see Figure C5). In variant a, the value of the discarded building is positive. The demolition processor pays the owner of the discarded house for being allowed to demolish it, thus paying for his \u2018secondary raw materials\u2019. The building has then had two functions: housing, as the functional unit investigated, and materials provision", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8849, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The building has then had two functions: housing, as the functional unit investigated, and materials provision. Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8850, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 684, "book_page": 688, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8851, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 685, "book_page": 689, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "(With other products such as ships, this is quite often the case.) Part of housing construction is then allocated to the function of materials provision. All the processes required for the functioning of the building solely as a dwelling, such as heating and cleaning, are there for that function only and are therefore not allocated to the discarded house. If the building materials (bricks, isolation material, window frames etc.) have been applied in the building in such a way that they can be separated only by being dismantled together, as may be reasonably assumed, the whole building demolition process is to be allocated partly to the housing function and partly to the materials-providing function. Then it is not some fraction of brick production that should be allocated to the brick waste, but also a fraction of total construction and maintenance, as being connected to the use process of the house", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8852, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The resource use and emissions of the demolition process itself, and its other economic inputs and outputs, should all be allocated to the secondary uses. This example covers all cases involving two products from the same process (i.e. it is also valid for multi-output and multi-input processes). Formula: Allocation to be based on the share of each function in total proceeds. Total proceeds are the sum of the two functions, the value of housing and the value of the discarded building. Variant b treats the special case in which the discarded house has zero value. In environmental terms, the input of the discarded house to the demolition process is then also \u2018for free\u2019. The processing of the discarded product makes not contribution to the environmental interventions of the housing system. When comparing this to an alternative, such as dedicated waste processing without further applications, there is a clear advantage", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8853, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When comparing this to an alternative, such as dedicated waste processing without further applications, there is a clear advantage. As the boundary lies exactly between two processes, no allocation is needed. In some cases in which a discarded product has a low negative value, transport to the processor may be the first upgrading step to make the value (near) zero. The system boundary should then be defined so as to include this transport. Formula: No allocation is required, as there is no process at the system boundary. In variant c, disposing of the discarded house cannot be paid for from the proceeds of processing it, as in variant a, and the owner will consequently have to pay the demolition firm. Besides waste management, demolition, (including processes like sorting) will then also provide another function: one or more secondary products. In this case no fraction of building construction or maintenance is allocated to these secondary products", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8854, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "In this case no fraction of building construction or maintenance is allocated to these secondary products. Formula: Allocation to be based on the share of each function in total proceeds. Proceeds are from waste processing and from sales of secondary products. In variant d, the flow used in road building still has a negative value, implying that its functional contribution to the road is negative, the road application essentially being a form of waste processing to be allocated to the functional use of having the house. We assume there are no other flows with a positive value (which would be equivalent to variant c). The system boundaries of the housing function then include the full process of demolition plus processing, as well as part of the next process, road building. The road-builder is then paid to accept the demolition waste and thus has waste processing as a co-product. Formula: Allocation to be based on the share of each function in total proceeds", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8855, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The road-builder is then paid to accept the demolition waste and thus has waste processing as a co-product. Formula: Allocation to be based on the share of each function in total proceeds. The value of the road produced is measured in terms of its price, the value of waste processing in terms of payments to the road builder. How to further interpret the outcome of this variant d? If the cost of using demolition waste in a road exceeds that of using primary materials and the environmental consequences are also greater, taking into account \u2018all\u2019 the environmental effects allocated to the road, the reasonable conclusion would be that promoting this type of secondary use by regulatory means would be erroneous. If the costs are higher and the environmental effects lower (or vice versa), a trade-off has to be made between costs and environmental effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8856, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "If the costs are higher and the environmental effects lower (or vice versa), a trade-off has to be made between costs and environmental effects. CASE 2: USE OF WASTE INCINERATOR FLOOR ASHES IN ROAD BUILDING In the Netherlands floor ash from municipal waste incineration plant is used as a road building material. Its function is similar to sand, but the resultant road quality is somewhat higher. Because of the toxic substances in the ash, especially heavy metals, certain measures must be taken in road construction to isolate these substances from the environment. Also, after its useful life, the road must be demolished, with the incorporated ash having to be treated as toxic waste. In this case there are two quite different questions on which LCA may provide decision support: a. a comparison of different technologies for a particular process, e.g. waste treatment of incinerator ash, some of which yield co-products Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8857, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 686, "book_page": 690, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "b. a comparison of different alternatives for a particular function system, e.g. milk packaging incineration (as part of \u2018milk drinking\u2019) or road foundation construction, as part of a transport system. a. Technology comparison The first type of question is concerned with how a form of waste treatment producing a positive economic value compares with other forms of treatment, e.g. storing the ash in a controlled landfill and using sand, or gravel or other waste flows as a road building material. The functional unit is a combined one, comprising processing of a given waste flow and disposing over a given section of road for a certain period of time. This question requires no allocation between the waste-producing function(s) and road foundation construction. The analysis can be set up as a difference analysis between the two (or three or more) alternatives to be compared. Elements common to all of them can be omitted from the analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8858, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "The analysis can be set up as a difference analysis between the two (or three or more) alternatives to be compared. Elements common to all of them can be omitted from the analysis. For each alternative, the same set of functions is delivered, waste management for the function of milk drinking and road construction for the function of transport. Although this procedure has similarities with substitution, here nothing is \u2018avoided\u2019: each alternative stands on its own. The key question here is how the system boundaries are to be defined for the different ash-processing technologies. On the incinerator side, there is only one technical alternative, leading to the floor ashes from combustion. On the road side, there are different alternatives to be compared. In the difference analysis, common elements may be omitted from the analysis. Let us assume for simplicity that road quality, in terms of maintenance requirements and lifetime, is the same in all alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8859, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Let us assume for simplicity that road quality, in terms of maintenance requirements and lifetime, is the same in all alternatives. The only additional item to be included in the road-building alternative using incinerator ash is then the environmental isolation of the ashes in road construction. After its useful life the road is \u2018discarded\u2019, at which stage the ash-related waste management activities must also be included in the analysis. The kind of waste management then required is a matter of regulatory technical specification. Let us assume that second-time use is unattractive, as the ash has become mixed with other materials and isolation is becoming increasingly difficult. Final disposal of the ash-containing waste must then be included in the analysis. Let us assume that use of primary sand is another alternative, using sand available nearby. When \u2018discarding\u2019 the road, the sand would not constitute a waste material but could subsequently be used as a stable filling material", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8860, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "When \u2018discarding\u2019 the road, the sand would not constitute a waste material but could subsequently be used as a stable filling material. Let us assume that the value as a filling material from discarded road is zero, so there are no further processes to take into account. By comparing the outcomes of the different alternatives, an indication can be obtained of which technology is environmental superior. Although allocation may still have to be applied to upstream processes, e.g. those producing plant and equipment and energy for transport, in all other respects it will have been avoided, by formulating the question in a specific manner in which values and market prices play a role in only in setting system boundaries. no role. The Dutch government has made it more or less obligatory for incinerator floor ash to be used in road construction", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8861, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "no role. The Dutch government has made it more or less obligatory for incinerator floor ash to be used in road construction. Is this indeed the best processing option? This question can be answered only by comparing this option with the relevant alternatives, in the manner indicated. As LCA treats environmental effects now and in the future consistently (there is no \u2018discounting\u2019 of environmental effects) the outcome of the analysis might very well be that it would have been better to store the ash immediately, especially as more effective isolation measures could then have been taken. Toxic emissions would then certainly have been less, as indeed would land use, as disposal of the final ashcontaining road waste requires a greater area of land because of the unavoidable mixing with other materials. As the associated costs are probably also higher, this regulatory measure would have negative environmental effects", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8862, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "As the associated costs are probably also higher, this regulatory measure would have negative environmental effects. As yet unspecified, but net positive, effects in comparison with the alternatives, are the only thing that can shift the balance in favour of use of incinerator ash for road building. (This reasoning should, of course, be substantiated in a more precise, quantified analysis.) In the context of road building a third alternative is for the incinerator ash to be intricately mixed with all the other road-building materials used, in which case it can no longer be regarded as a separate entity (like fly ash in concrete), with the option of simplifying the double system by making a difference analysis, specifying only those parts of the system that differ between the alternatives", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8863, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Separate specification of 'only floor ash-related processes\u2019 in the road system is then impossible, and waste management of the discarded road in its entirety must be accounted for in the housing-plus-road analysis. b. Function system comparison Now the question is how two or more options for delivering a particular function compare, so each alternative is to be specified in terms of this one function only. As an example, we compare a road built without floor ashes and a functionally equivalent road in which incinerator ash is used as a filling material. This involves all sorts of multifunctional processes. We focus our discussion on one such process chain, Part 3: Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8864, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 687, "book_page": 691, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "specifying the boundary between the incinerator and the road system. The standard analysis would be to use the values of the flows involved first for specifying the system boundary for each function delivered to another product system and next for allocation at such boundaries. One practical problem is that prices are generally lacking when it comes to road waste management. A procedure can then be adopted to \u2018construct\u2019 market prices, as a way of establishing the relative importance of the different outputs in delivering the functional unit \u2018x kilometres of road\u2019. The advantages and disadvantages of economic allocation are reviewed in the box below. Advantages and drawbacks of economic allocation \u2013 The main advantage of this method is that it can be consistently applied to all partitioning situations and for drawing system boundaries in general", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8865, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 692, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Advantages and drawbacks of economic allocation \u2013 The main advantage of this method is that it can be consistently applied to all partitioning situations and for drawing system boundaries in general. However, using an economic parameter for allocation implies basically accepting price structures as they stand, and assuming these to be established in perfect markets. Certain market failures have been addressed above, keeping to the basic price structure as a default approach. The fundamental assumption that neo-classical economics can be satisfactory applied for the purposes of allocation is questionable. \u2013 Particularly in the case of environmental analyses investigating a recycling option or optional use of secondary material, there may be no emerging (recycling) markets with prices on which to base allocation. Generally, the market tends to have a negative perception of these materials, causing a barrier to adequate pricing", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8866, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 692, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "Generally, the market tends to have a negative perception of these materials, causing a barrier to adequate pricing. In some cases, this perception is initially countered by government subsidies. This may be the case in the example of using demolition waste in road construction (the price would be lower if the market had accepted this alternative and if there was efficient infrastructure for its production). In such cases, production costs can be used to determine the actual price, or the relative material quality can be used as an alternative measure of the economic value of the secondary material. \u2013 Using multi-output allocation for recovered material with a positive economic value suggests that the user takes this co-production into account when deciding to buy the product. This is not generally the case", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8867, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 692, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "This is not generally the case. (Note that even when markets acknowledge the positive economic value of returned glass cullet, say, they do not pay the consumer for it, as the consumer is willing to discard it voluntarily.) Part 3 : Scientific background", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8868, "book": "guinee", "chapter": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)", "pdf_page": 688, "book_page": 692, "source": "Guin\u00e9e et al., Handbook on LCA: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards (2002)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Commentaries \u00a9 2006 ecomed publishers (Verlagsgruppe H\u00fcthig Jehle Rehm GmbH), D-86899 Landsberg and Tokyo \u2022 Mumbai \u2022 Seoul \u2022 Melbourne \u2022 Paris Int J LCA 11 11 (2) 80 \u2013 85 (2006) Commentaries The New International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment: ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Matthias Finkbeiner1*, Atsushi Inaba2, Reginald B.H. Tan3, Kim Christiansen4 and Hans-J\u00fcrgen Kl\u00fcppel5 1DaimlerChrysler AG, Mercedes Car Group, Design-for-Environment, HPC X602, 71059 Sindelfingen, Germany 2Research Center for Life Cycle Assessment, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8569, Japan 3Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260 42.-0 LCA consultants, Amagertorv 3, 1160 Copenhagen K, Denmark 5Henkel KGaA, WEQ-Quality and Environment, Henkelstr", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8869, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "67, 40191 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany * Corresponding author (matthias.finkbeiner@daimlerchrysler.com) Recommendation and Outlook. Currently the national member bodies undertake the final voting on the FDIS-versions of the standards. Based on the voting results at the previous stages of the documents, a positive result is expected. The publication of the new international standards for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044) is expected around mid-2006. For the sake of the international and stakeholder acceptance of LCA, it is recommended that the new standards serve as core reference documents for the users and practitioners of LCA. Keywords: ISO; ISO-standards; ISO 14040; ISO 14041; ISO 14042; ISO 14043; ISO 14044; Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.02.002 Abstract Background, Aims and Scope", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8870, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Keywords: ISO; ISO-standards; ISO 14040; ISO 14041; ISO 14042; ISO 14043; ISO 14044; Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2006.02.002 Abstract Background, Aims and Scope. The development of the international standards for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000, ISO 14043:2000) was an important step to consolidate procedures and methods of LCA. Their contribution to the general acceptance of LCA by all stakeholders and by the international community was crucial. Currently, the process of the revision of this first generation of LCA standards is close to completion. The paper explains the outline as well as formal and technical changes of the coming new international standards of LCA, i.e. the new ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Methods. The paper refers to life cycle assessment based on the international standards for LCA (ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000, ISO 14043:2000)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8871, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "the new ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Methods. The paper refers to life cycle assessment based on the international standards for LCA (ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000, ISO 14043:2000). The content relates to the Final Draft International Standard (FDIS) versions of the new ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. Results and Discussion. With the publication of the two new standards, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, the existing four standards ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000 and ISO 14043:2000 are technically revised, cancelled and replaced. According to the scope of the revision, the core part of the technical contents remains unchanged. Improved readability and the removal of errors and inconsistencies was the focus of the revision. However, despite the fact that the main technical content was confirmed to be still valid, some relevant formal and technical changes were made. On the technical side these include e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8872, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "However, despite the fact that the main technical content was confirmed to be still valid, some relevant formal and technical changes were made. On the technical side these include e.g. the addition of principles for LCA, the addition of an annex about applications, the addition of several definitions (e.g. product, process, etc.), clarifications concerning LCA intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public, clarifications concerning the critical review panel, clarifications concerning system boundary, etc. On the formal side, changes include the reduced number of standards, a reduced number of annexes, a reduced number of pages that contain requirements, alignment of definitions and clarification of compliance with the standards. Conclusion. The two new standards, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, reconfirm the validity of the main technical content of the previous standards. Errors and inconsistencies were removed and the readability was improved", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8873, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Errors and inconsistencies were removed and the readability was improved. The added technical content is in line with the previous requirements and serves mainly as a clarification of the technical content. The unanimous vote on the Draft International Standard versions proved that this was achieved on the basis of the broadest possible international consensus. Introduction The development of the international standards for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000, ISO 14043:2000) was an important step to consolidate procedures and methods of LCA. Their contribution to the general acceptance of LCA by all stakeholders and by the international community was crucial. The success, for instance, can be measured through the number of documents sold", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8874, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The success, for instance, can be measured through the number of documents sold. Although a comparison with other standards is lacking, the sale of 1200 copies of ISO 14040 in Sweden, as well as of 909 copies in the Czech Republic, allows one to ascertain that this product has been useful as well as successful (Kl\u00fcppel 2002). As a result of discussions relating to the future strategy of the LCA standards, a task force of the responsible subcommittee 5 (Life Cycle Assessment) of the ISO Technical Committee 207 (Environmental Management) was formed in July 2001 to identify the areas for improvements. A consensus was achieved on the following 4 key objectives: \u2022 Increase readability by compiling only two documents / merging different documents / reorganising the current standards, but \u2013 Keep the technical content (only improvements are acceptable) \u2013 Keep the consensus / balance \u2013 Keep the requirements", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8875, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 1, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Commentaries ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Int J LCA 11 11 (2) 2006 \u2022 Address applications of LCA (life cycle thinking; relations to ecolabel, DfE, Life Cycle Management etc.) \u2013 Integrate the different application of life cycle in TC 207 into SC 5 documents \u2013 Include the identification of significant environmental aspects (regarding the products of an organisation) as additional application of LCA \u2022 Inclusion of economic and social aspects are beyond the scope of TC207, but links should be addressed \u2022 Give guidance / training for application in industry, government etc., especially in developing countries \u2013 Translate the LCA language for experts coming from other fields \u2013 Facilitate the use of the LCA standards \u2013 Collect case studies using ISO standards showing their applicability Not all of these issues could be dealt within international standardization. However, most of the issues could be solved by a revision of the standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8876, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "However, most of the issues could be solved by a revision of the standards. To explore this possibility and with a focus to improve the readability of the ISO 14040 series a new ad-hoc group was created in June 2002 to review the ISO 14040/41/42/43 standards with the mandate to seek consensus on a possible way of revision of these standards (boundaries of the revision, structure, contents, etc.) and if there is a consensus, to develop the corresponding New Work Item Proposals (NWIP(s)) with accompanying working documents. The ad-hoc group, consisting of 21 international experts and co-chaired by Inaba and Finkbeiner, achieved a consensus on a possible way of revision of the standards and developed the necessary elements for the corresponding NWIPs which were presented to SC5 in July 2003", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8877, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The scope of the proposed work items was to begin immediately with the revision of the standards ISO 14040, 14041, 14042 and 14043 with the objective of improving readability, while leaving the requirements and technical content unaffected, except for errors and inconsistencies. It was the intention to: 1) gather all requirements ('shalls') in one new standard, keeping the structure of 'goal and scope', 'inventory', 'impact assessment' and 'interpretation' as separate chapters, 2) maintain 14040 as a framework document, but transferring all requirements ('shalls') to the new standard, adding to 14040 a requirement ('shall') of compliance with the requirements ('shalls') of the new standard. This proposal was justified with regard to applicability and readability as several member bodies requested an improvement, because the current documents are partly not consistent and not all parts are clear and unambiguous", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8878, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "In addition to language improvement, a merging of standards was requested by some member bodies to make them more readable. As indicated in the scope of the NWIP it was proposed to fulfil this need by two new standards: a revised ISO 14040 standard ('Environmental Management \u2212 Life Cycle Assessment \u2212 Principles and Framework') and a new standard 14044 containing all requirements ('Environmental management \u2212 Life cycle assessment \u2212 Requirements and Guidelines'). Therefore, the new ISO 14040 would become a framework and guidance standard, while the new standard 14044 would contain all technical requirements and guidelines on these. The voting of the international member bodies on this proposal in the autumn of 2003 revealed an almost unanimous result (no negative vote, two abstentions)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8879, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The voting of the international member bodies on this proposal in the autumn of 2003 revealed an almost unanimous result (no negative vote, two abstentions). Therefore, a new working group WG6 (with more than 50 international experts, co-chaired by Finkbeiner, Inaba and Tan, secretariat provided by Christiansen) was created to accomplish the revision of the standards according to the scope of the NWIP. General Outline of the New Standards The general outline of the two new standards and the relation to the current standards is shown in Fig. 1. As defined by the scope of the revision, the content of the current standards is transferred to the two new standards. Basically, all technical requirements were transferred to the new ISO 14044 making it the core reference document for the practitioners of LCA. The new ISO 14040 aims to provide a description of LCA principles and framework that is readable and accessible not only for LCA practitioners, but also a broader target audience", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8880, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The new ISO 14040 aims to provide a description of LCA principles and framework that is readable and accessible not only for LCA practitioners, but also a broader target audience. The revised 14040 will contain a single, formal requirement of compliance with the new ISO 14044 standard. In order to arrive at the outlined structure in an effective and efficient way, the working group adopted a revision strategy of three steps: 1. Rearrange 2. Change 3. Enhance This strategy basically meant, that, first, the technical content of the original 14040-43 standards is to be rearranged according to the NWIPs, and that potential changes are to be addressed as a second step. Editorial issues for improved language were the final step. Based on this strategy, the roadmap for the revision was developed (Fig. 2). Starting point were the existing documents, i.e. the standards plus the so-called 'should'- and 'shall'-documents respectively", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8881, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "2). Starting point were the existing documents, i.e. the standards plus the so-called 'should'- and 'shall'-documents respectively. The latter were compiled by Denmark as an exercise to separate all the existing requireStructure of the new standards ISO 14040 / 14044 Structure of current ISO 14040-43 standards (all contain requirements) ISO 14040 ISO 14043 ISO 14042 ISO 14041 ISO 14040 without requirements \"LCA - Principles and Framework\" ISO 14044 with all requirements \"LCA - Requirements and Guidelines\" Fig. 1: General outline of the new standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8882, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 2, "book_page": 1, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Commentaries Int J LCA 2006 11 11 (2) 2006 ments ('shall'-document) and the guidance ('should'-document). The work was started with the main technical content (excl. scope, normative references, definitions, annexes). As indicated by Fig. 2, the so-called the 'backbone' documents of 14040 and 14044 were generated, followed by an allocation of the remaining guidance to general guidance (\u2192 14040) and specific guidance (\u2192 14044). As a next step, errors and inconsistencies were addressed and finally, the text was edited for readability incl. scope, references, definitions and annexes. The next two sections summarise the resulting formal changes (see section 2) and technical changes (see section 3) in the new standards. Main Formal Changes of the New Standards A first important formal change is the clarification concerning the compliance with the standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8883, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": 45, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Main Formal Changes of the New Standards A first important formal change is the clarification concerning the compliance with the standards. Currently the missing reference between the standards leads to an ambiguity of compliance claims (today compliance with 14040 does not necessarily include compliance with 14041-3). Linking both standards with the only requirement in the new 14040 to comply with 14044 eliminates this situation. Therefore, a compliance claim to the new ISO 14040 does unambiguously include compliance with the new ISO 14044. Another formal improvement is the alignment of the definitions in the two new documents. The two new standards contain both the same set of definitions. Formally, all definitions specific to LCA originate in the new ISO 14040, but they are repeated in ISO 14044. This ensures that the practitioners do not need to use another document (e.g. ISO 14040) just to get access to the relevant definitions (e.g. while working with ISO 14044)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8884, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": 45, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "This ensures that the practitioners do not need to use another document (e.g. ISO 14040) just to get access to the relevant definitions (e.g. while working with ISO 14044). Further obvious formal changes include the reduced number of standards, the reduced number of annexes and the reduced number of pages that contain requirements (Fig. 3). All these changes are intended to increase the readability and accessibility of the standards. For the practitioners of LCA, this means that the technical requirements can be found in one document (instead of previously four) and that they are condensed on 26 pages (instead of 44 previously). Main Technical Changes of the New Standards Generally, the main technical content of the current standards was reconfirmed to be still valid. Many important issues of fundamental importance, e.g. allocation, requirements for comparative assertions or the phases of LCA were not changed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8885, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": 45, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Many important issues of fundamental importance, e.g. allocation, requirements for comparative assertions or the phases of LCA were not changed. Therefore, the new LCA standards will not generate a comprehensive need to adapt LCA practice, if it is based on the current standards. This was both not the intention of the revision and not found to be justified during the revision. However, still some technical changes were made. The modified technical content is in line with the previous requirements and serves mainly as a clarification of the technical content, and as a correction of errors and inconsistencies. It includes e.g. the addition of several definitions (e.g. product, process, etc.), the addition of principles for LCA, clarifications concerning LCA intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public, clarifications concerning system boundary, clarifications concerning the critical review panel and the addition of an annex about applications", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8886, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": 45, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Next Steps Output from 1. Meeting Input to 1. Meeting Existing ISO 14040 ISO 14043 ISO 14042 ISO 14041 ISO 14040 without requirements from existing 14040-43, but one new \"shall\" to comply with 14044 \"LCA - Principles and Framework\" ISO 14044 with all requirements from existing 14040-43 \"LCA - Requirements and Guidelines\" \"shall\"-document ISO/TC207/SC5/N174 \"should\"-document ISO/TC207/SC5/N175 edited \"shall\"-document as \"backbone\" of 14044 \"general\" guidance \"specific\" guidance draft WD 14044 draft WD 14040 errors? inconsistencies? modifications? annexes? language editing for readability CD 14040 language editing for readability CD 14044 original 14040 with all \"shalls\" removed as backbone of new 14040 remaining technical content without original 14040 parts Fig. 2: Roadmap for the revision of the ISO 14040 series number of standards pages containing requirements annexes current standards for LCA new standards for LCA Fig. 3: Formal changes in the new standards of LCA", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8887, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 3, "book_page": 45, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Commentaries ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Int J LCA 11 11 (2) 2006 3.1 Definitions In addition to the formal alignment of the definitions as described in section 3, several new definitions were added and several definitions revised. Among the new definitions there are fundamental terms like 'product' and 'process' based on the definitions in ISO 9000 (ISO 9000) and ISO 14021 (ISO 14021) respectively. Among the relevant revisions of definitions are the terms 'waste' and 'system boundary'. The definition of waste was modified by relating to the 'Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal' (22. March 1989) including a clarification, that it is not limited to hazardous waste for the application within the standards. In the current standards the term 'system boundaries' was used for both the interface between product systems and the interface between the product system and the environment", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8888, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "In the current standards the term 'system boundaries' was used for both the interface between product systems and the interface between the product system and the environment. The new standards clarify here, that the term 'system boundary' only relates to the issue which unit processes are part of the product system, i.e. as part of the inventory analysis. Therefore, the term 'system boundary' is not used anymore in relation to LCIA. This revised definition also was reflected in changes in the text of the standards. 3.2 Principles of LCA Both current and new ISO 14040 have the title 'principles and framework', but the current version does not include any principles. To remove this inconsistency the following principles were added to the new ISO 14040. \u2022 Life cycle perspective. LCA considers the entire life cycle of a product, from raw material extraction and acquisition, through energy and material production and manufacturing, to use and end of life treatment and final disposal", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8889, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Through such a systematic overview and perspective, the shifting of a potential environmental burden between life cycle stages or individual processes can be identified and possibly avoided. \u2022 Environmental focus. LCA addresses the environmental aspects and impacts of a product system. Economic and social aspects and impacts are, typically, outside the scope of the LCA. Other tools may be combined with LCA for more extensive assessments. \u2022 Relative approach and functional unit. LCA is a relative approach, which is structured around a functional unit. This functional unit defines what is being studied. All subsequent analyses are then relative to that functional unit as all inputs and outputs in the LCI and consequently the LCIA profile is related to the functional unit. \u2022 Iterative approach. LCA is an iterative technique. The individual phases of an LCA use results of the other phases", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8890, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "\u2022 Iterative approach. LCA is an iterative technique. The individual phases of an LCA use results of the other phases. The iterative approach within and between the phases contributes to the comprehensiveness and consistency of the study and the reported results. \u2022 Transparency. Due to the inherent complexity in LCA, transparency is an important guiding principle in executing LCAs, in order to ensure a proper interpretation of the results. \u2022 Comprehensiveness. LCA considers all attributes or aspects of natural environment, human health and resources. By considering all attributes and aspects within one study in a cross-media perspective, potential tradeoffs can be identified and assessed. \u2022 Priority of scientific approach. Decisions within an LCA are preferably based on natural science. If this is not possible, other scientific approaches (e.g. from social and economic sciences) can be used or international conventions can be referred to", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8891, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "If this is not possible, other scientific approaches (e.g. from social and economic sciences) can be used or international conventions can be referred to. If neither a scientific basis exists nor a justification based on other scientific approaches or international conventions is possible, then, as appropriate, decisions may be based on value choices. It is explained that these principles are fundamental and should be used as guidance for decisions relating to both the planning and the conducting of an LCA. As a general requirement in ISO 14044 it is stated that LCA is to be conducted in accordance with the principles and the framework described in ISO 14040. 3.3 LCA intended to be used for a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public The current standards of LCA have a specific set of requirements for LCA intended to be used for a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8892, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "This is a crucial part of the standards as it serves to protect third party interests and aims at restricting misuse of public application of LCA. All relevant requirements for this application of LCA are still part of the new standards. However, several inconsistencies were removed and clarifications were added. Among the inconsistencies of the current standards was the problem of many different formulations to address the same issue. In the new standards, the unambiguous formulation 'LCA intended to be used for a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public' is used throughout the whole text. The working group realised that this is a rather lengthy and cumbersome formulation. However, the attempts to shorten it or to define an appropriate abbreviation failed", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8893, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The working group realised that this is a rather lengthy and cumbersome formulation. However, the attempts to shorten it or to define an appropriate abbreviation failed. The main reason was that an exact and clear description of this application of LCA requires the two intentions: the intention for the use for a comparative assertion and the intention to disclose it to the public. Because of the importance of this issue for the overall credibility of LCA, unambiguousness, clarity and accuracy were seen as more crucial than conciseness in this case. Another clarification for this topic was the introduction of a requirement for the goal definition of a study to unambiguously state whether the results are intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8894, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 4, "book_page": 83, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Commentaries Int J LCA 2006 11 11 (2) 2006 3.4 Life cycle impact assessment The general procedure and outline for LCIA were reconfirmed in the revision of the standards. Also, the limitations and restrictions were confirmed to be still valid, e.g. the statement that there is no scientific basis for reducing LCA results to a single overall score or number or the requirement that weighting is not allowed for LCA intended to be used for a comparative assertion intended to be disclosed to the public. For weighting, there was the clarification that weighting steps are based on value-choices and are not scientifically based, where the current text relates this statement to natural science. A new section was added between the mandatory and optional elements of LCIA that addresses resulting data after characterization", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8895, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "A new section was added between the mandatory and optional elements of LCIA that addresses resulting data after characterization. It clarifies that after characterization and before further optional elements, the inputs and outputs of the product system are represented by e.g.: \u2022 a set of impact category indicator results; \u2022 a set of inventory results that are elementary flows but have not been assigned to impact categories; \u2022 a set of data that do not represent elementary flows. 3.5 Life cycle interpretation The final objective of this phase according to the current standards is to draw conclusions and to make recommendations reflecting the identification of significant issues and the evaluation element. A clarification added in the new standards is the requirement to identify limitations when drawing conclusions and making recommendations", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8896, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "A clarification added in the new standards is the requirement to identify limitations when drawing conclusions and making recommendations. Methodological and study limitations were also added to the list of items that need to be checked for consistency when assessing preliminary conclusions from the study. Therefore, the term 'limitations' is also added to the relevant section heading and to the figure describing the interpretation phase (Fig. 4 in the new ISO 14044 which was originally Fig. 1 in ISO 14043). Another inconsistency that has been removed was the missing link between the requirements for conclusions and recommendations. The new standards clarify that conclusions shall be drawn from the study and that recommendations shall be based on the final conclusions of the study, and shall reflect a logical and reasonable consequence of the conclusions. 3.6 Critical review and reporting For the critical review of LCA, several clarifications were added to the new standards", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8897, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "3.6 Critical review and reporting For the critical review of LCA, several clarifications were added to the new standards. The section for internal critical review and external critical review were merged. In the scope definition phase, it was added that, not only whether and how a critical review is conducted and the type of critical review as well as who conducts the review needs to be defined, but also that the level of expertise of the reviewers needs to be justified. Finally, it was clarified that review panels, especially for the review by interested parties, consist of at least three members. For reporting, an important clarification was added to the section of third party reports. The new ISO 14040 contains a clause that a third party report can be based on study documentation that contains confidential information that may not be included in the third party report", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8898, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "The new ISO 14040 contains a clause that a third party report can be based on study documentation that contains confidential information that may not be included in the third party report. 3.7 Informative annex on applications of LCA The new ISO 14040 includes an entirely new informative annex on applications of LCA. In this annex applications of LCA in the field of other environmental management systems and tools are addressed, e.g.: \u2022 environmental management systems and environmental performance evaluation (ISO 14001, ISO 14004, ISO 14031 and ISO 14032) e.g", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8899, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "identification of significant environmental aspects of the products and services of an organization; \u2022 environmental labels and declarations (ISO 14020, ISO 14021 and ISO 14025); \u2022 integration of environmental aspects into product design and development (Design for environment) (ISO 14062); \u2022 inclusion of environmental aspects in product standards (ISO Guide 64); \u2022 environmental communication (ISO 14063); \u2022 quantification, monitoring and reporting of entity and project emissions and removals and validation, verification and certification of greenhouse gas emissions (ISO 14064); The variety of potential further applications in private and public organizations is addressed as well. These techniques, methods and tools are not based on the LCA technique as such, but the life cycle approach, principles and framework can be beneficially applied to them. There is no single solution as to how LCA can best be applied within the decision-making context", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8900, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "There is no single solution as to how LCA can best be applied within the decision-making context. Each organization has to solve and decide on each case depending \u2013 among other things \u2013 on the size and culture of the organization, its products, the strategy, the internal systems, tools and procedures and the external drivers. LCA can be used for a broad spectrum of applications. The individual use, adaptation and practice of LCA for all potential applications are based on ISO 14040 and ISO 14044. In addition, the LCA technique with proper justification could be applied in studies, which are not LCA or LCI studies. Examples are: \u2022 cradle-to-gate studies; \u2022 gate-to-gate studies; \u2022 specific parts of the life cycle (e.g. waste management, components of a product).", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8901, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 5, "book_page": 11, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Commentaries ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 Int J LCA 11 11 (2) 2006 For those studies most requirements of ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 are applicable e.g. data quality, collection and calculation as well as allocation and critical review, but not all requirements for system boundary. For specific applications, it can be appropriate, as part of the LCIA, to determine the indicator results of each unit process or of each stage of a life cycle individually and to calculate the indicator results of the whole product system by adding up the indicator results of the different unit processes or stages. This procedure is within the framework of this International Standard, provided that \u2022 it has been defined within the goal and scope definition phase; \u2022 it is shown that the results of such an approach are identical with the results of an LCA which applies the sequence of steps according to the guidance of ISO 14040 and ISO 14044", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8902, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Finally, the annex addresses application approaches for the consideration of the decision-making context when defining the scope of an LCA. Discussion, Conclusion and Outlook The two new standards, ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, reconfirm the validity of the main technical content of the previous standards. Errors and inconsistencies were removed and the readability was improved. The added technical content is in line with the previous requirements and serves mainly as a clarification of the technical content. The unanimous vote on the Draft International Standard versions proved that this was achieved on the basis of the broadest possible international consensus. Currently the national member bodies undertake the final voting on the FDIS-versions of the standards. Based on the voting results at the previous stages of the documents, a positive result is expected", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8903, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Based on the voting results at the previous stages of the documents, a positive result is expected. The publication of the new international standards for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040 and ISO 14044) is expected around mid-2006. For the sake of the international and stakeholder acceptance of LCA, it is recommended that the new standards serve as core reference documents for the users and practitioners of LCA. Acknowledgement. The authors would like to express their deep appreciation and gratitude to all experts involved in the WG6-work for the very productive, cooperative and consensus-oriented work input and atmosphere. This was the basis for the good progress on the documents well within the time schedule", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8904, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "References ISO 9000: Quality management systems \u2013 Fundamentals and vocabulary ISO 14001: Environmental management systems \u2013 Requirements with guidance for use ISO 14004: Environmental management systems \u2013 General guidelines on principles, systems and supporting techniques ISO 14020: Environmental labels and declarations \u2013 General principles ISO 14021: Environmental labels and declarations \u2013 Self-declared environmental claims (Type II environmental labelling) ISO 14025: Environmental labelling and declarations \u2013 Type III environmental declarations \u2013 Principles and procedures ISO 14031: Environmental management \u2013 Environmental performance evaluation \u2013 Guidelines ISO 14032: Environmental management \u2013 Environmental performance evaluation \u2013 Examples of environmental performance evaluation (EPE) ISO 14040: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Principles and Framework ISO 14041: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8905, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "ISO 14040: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Principles and Framework ISO 14041: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis ISO 14042: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Life Cycle Impact Assessment ISO 14043: Environmental Management \u2013 Life Cycle Assessment \u2013 Life Cycle Interpretation ISO 14062: Environmental Management \u2013 Integrating environmental aspects into product design and development ISO 14063: Environmental communication \u2013 Guidelines and examples ISO 14064: ISO 14064-1 Greenhouse gases \u2013 Part 1 \u2013 Specification for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of entity emissions and removals; ISO 14064-2 Greenhouse gases \u2013 Part 2 \u2013 Specification for the quantification, monitoring and reporting of project emissions and removals; ISO 14064-3 Greenhouse gases \u2013 Part 3 \u2013 Specification and guidance for validation, verification and certification ISO Guide 64: Guide for the inclusion of", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8906, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "reporting of project emissions and removals; ISO 14064-3 Greenhouse gases \u2013 Part 3 \u2013 Specification and guidance for validation, verification and certification ISO Guide 64: Guide for the inclusion of environmental aspects in product standards Kl\u00fcppel H (2002): The ISO Standardization Process: Quo Vadis? Int J LCA 7 (1) 1 (2002) Kl\u00fcppel H (2005): The Revision of ISO Standards 14040-3", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8907, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Int J LCA 10 (3) 165 (2005) Received: January 30th, 2006 Accepted: February 24th, 2006 OnlineFirst: February 25th, 2006 Matthias Finkbeiner: Previous publications in Int J LCA Schmidt WP, Dahlqvist E, Finkbeiner M, Krinke S, Lazzari S, Oschmann D, Pichon S, Thiel C (2004): Life Cycle Assessment of Lightweight and End-of-Life Scenarios for Generic Compact Class Passenger Vehicles. Int J LCA 9 (6) 405\u2013414 Finkbeiner M, Krinke S, Oschmann D, Saeglitz T, Sch\u00e4per S, Schmidt W-P, Schnell R (2003): Data Collection Format for Life Cycle Assessment of the German Association of the Automotive Industry (VDA). Int J LCA 8 (6) 379\u2013381 Inaba A, HunkelerD, Rebitzer G, Finkbeiner M, Siegenthaler C, Saur K (2003): The Fifth International Conference on Ecobalances. Practical Tools and Thoughtful Principles for Sustainability (November 6\u20138, 2002, Tsukuba, Japan). Int J LCA 8 (1) 1\u20135 Finkbeiner M, Matsuno Y (2000): LCA in Japan \u2013 the Past, the Present, the Future (Editorial)", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8908, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Int J LCA 8 (1) 1\u20135 Finkbeiner M, Matsuno Y (2000): LCA in Japan \u2013 the Past, the Present, the Future (Editorial). Int J LCA 5 (5) 253\u2013254 Finkbeiner M, Saur K, Eyerer P, Matsuno Y, Inaba A (1999): Analysis of the Potential for a Comprehensive Approach Towards LCA and EMS in Japan. Int J LCA 4 (3) 127\u2013132 Finkbeiner M, Wiedemann M, Saur, Konrad (1998): A Comprehensive Approach Towards Product and Organisation Related Environmental Management Tools. Life Cycle Assessment (ISO 14040) and Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001). Int J LCA 3 (3) 169\u2013178", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8909, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 6, "book_page": 4, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}
{"text": "Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.", "metadata": {"chunk_id": 8910, "book": "finkbeiner", "chapter": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)", "pdf_page": 7, "source": "Finkbeiner et al., The New International Standards for LCA: ISO 14040 & 14044, Int J LCA 11(2):80\u201385 (2006)"}}