205, 211, 215, 216, 219, 221, 224, 250–255, 257, 258, 261, 273, 434, 439, 440, 467, 473, 477, 484, 579, 606, 611, 613, 614, 617, 628, 646, 696, 725, 726, 728, 730, 734, 747, 749 Water availability, 197, 251, 253, 254 Water depletion, 82 Water footprint, 196, 198 Water quality, 179, 219, 253, 257, 776 Water reclamation, 840, 841 Water resources, 202, 749 Water scarcity, 11, 13, 253, 473 Watershed, 253, 255 Water supply system, 835, 839–841, 844, 851–854 Water technologies, 22, 37, 52, 87, 110, 111, 134, 147 Water use, 21, 179, 196, 251, 253, 257, 273, 302, 439, 477, 640, 644, 646, 647, 649, 654, 727, 744, 749, 770, 776 Weighting, 63, 82, 83, 113, 182, 191, 193, 194, 240, 325, 381, 413, 418, 732, 734, 736 Weighting and scoring of impacts, 329 Well-being quantification, 917 Well to wheel WTW, 672, 674, 681 What-if scenario, 513 Whole effluent toxicity, 873 Willingness to pay, 194, 263, 392 Wind power, 106, 138, 511, 640, 641, 643, 647, 650, 652, 657 WIOD, 355, 357, 361, 365, 370


WTW, 672, 674, 681 What-if scenario, 513 Whole effluent toxicity, 873 Willingness to pay, 194, 263, 392 Wind power, 106, 138, 511, 640, 641, 643, 647, 650, 652, 657 WIOD, 355, 357, 361, 365, 370 Withdrawals, 255 WMO, 913, 922, 1100 WTA, 255 WWTP, 863–865, 867, 883 WWTT, 865, 873 Y Years of Lifetime lost Due to premature death (YLD), 186, 240 Year equivalents lost due to morbidity (YOLL), 1160 Z Zooplankton, 219, 233

Hauschild et al., LCA: Theory and Practice


EUR 24708 EN - 2010

European Commission – JRC, ILCD Handbook: General Guide for LCA (2010)


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition i The mission of the JRC-IES is to provide scientific-technical support to the European Union‟s Policies for the protection and sustainable development of the European and global environment. Citation: European Commission - Joint Research Centre - Institute for Environment and Sustainability: International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook - General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance. First edition March 2010. EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010 European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability Contact information Address: Via E


EUR 24708 EN. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union; 2010 European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Environment and Sustainability Contact information Address: Via E. Fermi, 2749 – 21027 Ispra (VA) Italy E-mail: lca@jrc.ec.europa.eu Fax: +39-0332-786645 http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ http://www.jrc.europa.eu/ Legal Notice Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of this publication. Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union Freephone number (*): 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed. A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet


A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server http://europa.eu/ JRC 48157 EUR 24708 ISBN 978-92-79-19092-6 ISSN 1018-5593 doi:10.2788/38479 Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union © European Union, 2010 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged Printed in Italy


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition ii Preface To achieve more sustainable production and consumption patterns, we must consider the environmental implications of the whole supply-chain of products, both goods and services, their use, and waste management, i.e. their entire life cycle from “cradle to grave”. In the Communication on Integrated Product Policy (IPP), the European Commission committed to produce a handbook on best practice in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The Sustainable Consumption and Production Action Plan (SCP) confirmed that “(...) consistent and reliable data and methods are required to asses the overall environmental performance of products (...)”. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook provides governments and businesses with a basis for assuring quality and consistency of life cycle data, methods and assessments


The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook provides governments and businesses with a basis for assuring quality and consistency of life cycle data, methods and assessments. This document provides technical guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and provides the technical basis to derive product-specific criteria, guides, and simplified tools. The principle target audience for this guide is the LCA practitioner as well as technical experts in the public and private sector dealing with environmental decision support related to products, resources, and waste management.


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition iii


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition iv Executive summary Overview Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) are the scientific approaches behind modern environmental policies and business decision support related to Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP). The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) provides a common basis for consistent, robust and quality-assured life cycle data and studies. Such data and studies support coherent SCP instruments, such as Ecolabelling, Ecodesign, Carbon footprinting, and Green Public Procurement. This guide is a component of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook. It provides technical guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies and provides the technical basis to derive product-specific criteria, guides, and simplified tools. It is based on and conforms to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards on LCA


It is based on and conforms to the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards on LCA. The principle target audience for this guide is the LCA practitioner as well as technical experts in the public and private sector dealing with environmental decision support related to products, resources, and waste management. About Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a structured, comprehensive and internationally standardised method. It quantifies all relevant emissions and resources consumed and the related environmental and health impacts and resource depletion issues that are associated with any goods or services (“products”). Life Cycle Assessment takes into account a product‟s full life cycle: from the extraction of resources, through production, use, and recycling, up to the disposal of remaining waste


Life Cycle Assessment takes into account a product‟s full life cycle: from the extraction of resources, through production, use, and recycling, up to the disposal of remaining waste. Critically, LCA studies thereby help to avoid resolving one environmental problem while creating others: This unwanted “shifting of burdens" is where you reduce the environmental impact at one point in the life cycle, only to increase it at another point. Therefore, LCA helps to avoid, for example, causing waste-related issues while improving production technologies, increasing land use or acid rain while reducing greenhouse gases, or increasing emissions in one country while reducing them in another. Life Cycle Assessment is therefore a vital and powerful decision support tool, complementing other methods, which are equally necessary to help effectively and efficiently make consumption and production more sustainable


About the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) The ISO 14040 and 14044 standards provide the indispensable framework for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This framework, however, leaves the individual practitioner with a range of choices, which can affect the legitimacy of the results of an LCA study. While flexibility is essential in responding to the large variety of questions addressed, further guidance is needed to support consistency and quality assurance. The International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) has therefore been developed to provide guidance for consistent and quality assured Life Cycle Assessment data and studies. The ILCD consists primarily of the ILCD Handbook and the ILCD Data Network. This document you are reading is part of the ILCD Handbook: The ILCD Handbook is a series of technical documents providing guidance for good practice in Life Cycle Assessment in business and government. It is supported by templates, tools, and other components


It is supported by templates, tools, and other components. The ILCD Handbook equally serves as a "parent" document for developing sector and product-group specific guidance documents, criteria, and simplified ecodesign-type tools.


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition v Such are seen as the most appropriate solutions for enabling the efficient use of reliable and robust life cycle approaches in Small and Medium Enterprises (SME). The development of the ILCD has been coordinated by the European Commission and has been carried out through a broad international consultation process with experts, stakeholders, and the public. Role of this document within the ILCD Handbook This document provides detailed guidance for planning, developing, and reporting both life cycle emission and resource consumption inventory (LCI) data sets and Life Cycle Assessment studies. The exact provisions are given at the end of the chapters. These "Provisions" are also available in a separate 'cook-book' style guide for daily reference for the more experienced practitioners and reviewers


These "Provisions" are also available in a separate 'cook-book' style guide for daily reference for the more experienced practitioners and reviewers. This document also serves as an introduction to the main principles and concepts of Life Cycle Assessment. It is not intended, however, to be a comprehensive and detailed introduction or training manual for beginners. Within the ILCD Handbook, this document has the role of providing the general, overarching guidance for detailed Life Cycle Assessment (see figure). It is complemented by specific guides on the development of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data sets, the development of Life Cycle Impact Assessment models & indicators, as well as on performing reviews of LCI data sets, LCA studies, and of specific guides and simplified approaches. This guide is further supported with an LCA study report template, an LCI data set documentation format, a document on nomenclature and other conventions, and a terminology


This guide is further supported with an LCA study report template, an LCI data set documentation format, a document on nomenclature and other conventions, and a terminology. These supporting documents and applications are available separately. Approach taken and key issues addressed in this document This document further details the ISO 14044 provisions and differentiates them for the three main types of questions that are addressed with LCA studies:  "Micro-level decision support": Life cycle based decision support on micro-level, i.e. typically for questions related to specific products. “Micro-level decisions” are assumed to have limited and no structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they are supposed not to change available production capacity.  "Meso/macro-level decision support": Life cycle based decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options)


 "Meso/macro-level decision support": Life cycle based decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options). “Meso/macro-level decisions” are assumed to have structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they are supposed to change available production capacity.  "Accounting": Purely descriptive documentation of the system's life cycle under analysis (e.g. a product, sector, or country), without being interested in any potential additional consequences on other parts of the economy. Focus is given to methodological issues that result in relevant differences in current practice of developing Life Cycle Inventory data sets and performing LCA studies. Review ISO 14040, 14044 Life Cycle Assessment data and studies for Sustainable Consumption and Production in government and business Review ISO 14040, 14044 Life Cycle Assessment data and studies for Sustainable Consumption and Production in government and business


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition vi CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................... .IV 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ................................................................................. 1 2 HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT ................................................................................... 5 2.1 Structure of the document ....................................................................................... 5 2.2 How to work with this document ............................................................................. 7 2.2.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications ......................................................... 7 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C ............


7 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C ............. 8 2.2.4 How to perform an LCI or LCA study in accordance with this document ........... 10 2.3 ILCD compliance and the "Provisions" within this document ............................ 16 2.4 Dealing with potential omissions and contradictions in the ILCD Handbook ... 17 Provisions: 2 How to use this document ....................................................... 18 3 KEY DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................... 21 4 THE ITERATIVE APPROACH TO LCA ......................................................................... 25 Provisions: 4 The iterative approach to LCA ................................................ 28 5 GOAL DEFINITION – IDENTIFYING PURPOSE AND TARGET AUDIENCE ............................ 29 5.1 Introduction and overview .....................................................................................


29 5.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................... 29 5.2 Six aspects of the goal definition .......................................................................... 30 5.2.1 Intended application(s) ....................................................................................... 30 5.2.2 Method, assumption and impact limitations (e.g. Carbon footprint) ................... 32 5.2.3 Reasons for carrying out the study, and decision-context ................................. 33 5.2.4 Target audience ................................................................................................. 34 5.2.5 Comparisons intended to be disclosed to the public .......................................... 34 5.2.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors ..................................... 35 Provisions: 5.2 Six aspects of goal definition ..............................................


34 5.2.6 Commissioner of the study and other influential actors ..................................... 35 Provisions: 5.2 Six aspects of goal definition ............................................... 35 5.3 Classifying the decision-context as Situation A, B, or C .................................... 36 5.3.1 Possible decision-context situations .................................................................. 36 5.3.2 Studies on decisions .......................................................................................... 37 5.3.3 Studies of descriptive character ......................................................................... 37 5.3.4 Situation A .......................................................................................................... 38 5.3.5 Situation B .........................................................................................................


38 5.3.5 Situation B .......................................................................................................... 40 5.3.6 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation A and B ......................... 41 5.3.7 Situation C ......................................................................................................... 43 5.3.8 Guidance for clearly differentiating between Situation C and A / B .................... 45 Provisions: 5.3 Classifying the decision-context ......................................... 46 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness ..................................................................... 49 Provisions: 5.4 Need for flexibility versus strictness ................................... 49 5.5 Optionally extending the goal ................................................................................ 50 Provisions: 5.5 Optionally extending the goal .............................................


50 Provisions: 5.5 Optionally extending the goal .............................................. 50 6 SCOPE DEFINITION - WHAT TO ANALYSE AND HOW .................................................... 51 6.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................... 51 6.2 Overview and basic requirements ......................................................................... 52


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition vii 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions, and data ............................................... 52 Provisions: 6.2.1 Consistency of methods, assumptions and data ............ 52 6.2.2 Reproducibility.................................................................................................... 53 Provisions: 6.2.2 Reproducibility ................................................................... 54 6.3 Types of LCI and LCA deliverables and intended applications .......................... 54 Provisions: 6.3 Types of LCA deliverables and intended applications ...... 59 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow ....................................................... 59 6.4.1 Detailed identification of the process(es) or system(s) to be analysed .............. 59 6.4.2 Quantitative aspects of the functional unit ........................................................


59 6.4.2 Quantitative aspects of the functional unit ......................................................... 61 6.4.3 Qualitative aspects of the functional unit ............................................................ 62 6.4.4 Working with obligatory and positioning properties ............................................ 63 6.4.5 Using technical standards for defining function and functional unit ................... 64 6.4.6 Functional unit and/or reference flow? ............................................................... 65 6.4.7 Comparisons of systems and the functional unit ................................................ 67 Provisions: 6.4 Function, functional unit, and reference flow ..................... 68 6.5 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) modelling framework .................................................. 70 6.5.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................


70 6.5.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................. 70 6.5.2 The two main LCI modelling principles .............................................................. 70 6.5.3 LCI method approaches for solving multifunctionality ........................................ 72 6.5.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 72 6.5.3.2 The ISO hierarchy for solving multifunctionality ......................................................... 74 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C ........................................... 81 6.5.4.1 Introduction and overview ........................................................................................... 81 6.5.4.2 Situation A: "Micro-level decision support" ................................................................


81 6.5.4.2 Situation A: "Micro-level decision support" ................................................................. 81 6.5.4.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 81 6.5.4.2.2 LCI modelling provisions ..................................................................................................... 82 6.5.4.3 Situation B: "Meso/macro-level decision support" ...................................................... 85 6.5.4.3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 85 6.5.4.3.2 LCI modelling provisions ..................................................................................................... 85 6.5.4.4 Situation C: “Accounting” ...........................................................................................


85 6.5.4.4 Situation C: “Accounting” ............................................................................................ 86 Provisions: 6.5.4 LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C ...... 87 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) ...................... 93 6.6.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................. 93 6.6.2 Qualitative definition of system boundaries ...................................................... 100 6.6.3 Quantitative definition of system boundaries – the cut-off criteria .................... 102 Provisions: 6.6 Deriving system boundaries and cut-off criteria (completeness) ............................................................................................... 105 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ................................................


105 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ................................................. 108 6.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 108 6.7.2 Identifying LCIA methods to be applied ........................................................... 109 6.7.3 Carbon footprint and other selected indicators ................................................ 111 6.7.4 Inclusion of non-standard impacts and of non-standard elementary flows ...... 111 6.7.5 Spatial and other differentiation / modification of impact factors ...................... 112 6.7.6 Selection of normalisation basis and weighting set .......................................... 113 6.7.7 Documentation of decision on LCIA methods, impact level, normalisation basis, and weighting factors ..................................................................................................


115 Provisions: 6.7 Preparing the basis for the impact assessment ............... 116


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition viii 6.8 Representativeness and appropriateness of LCI data ...................................... 122 6.8.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 122 6.8.2 Technological representativeness .................................................................... 123 Provisions: 6.8.2 Technological representativeness .................................. 126 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness .................................................................... 128 Provisions: 6.8.3 Geographical representativeness ................................... 131 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness ...................................................................... 132 Provisions: 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness ...................................


132 Provisions: 6.8.4 Time-related representativeness .................................... 134 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information .......................... 135 6.9.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 135 6.9.2 Data quality needs in light of the intended applications ................................... 136 6.9.3 Inventory data needs and sources ................................................................... 137 6.9.4 Other inventory-related data and information needs and sources ................... 138 6.9.5 Impact assessment models and factors, normalisation basis, and weighting set needs 138 Provisions: 6.9 Types, quality and sources of required data and information ..................................................................................................... 139 6.10 Comparisons between systems..........................................................................


139 6.10 Comparisons between systems........................................................................... 140 6.10.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 140 6.10.2 Strengthening affected stakeholders in non-assertive comparisons and multi system type studies ...................................................................................................... 140 6.10.3 Considered alternatives, the functional unit, and assumptions ........................ 142 6.10.4 Methodological, assumptions and data consistency ........................................ 143 6.10.5 Data quality requirements ................................................................................ 144 6.10.6 Identical parts of the compared systems .......................................................... 144 6.10.7 Scenarios in support of comparisons ..............................................................


144 6.10.7 Scenarios in support of comparisons ............................................................... 144 6.10.8 Carbon footprint studies and other selected comparisons ............................... 145 Provisions: 6.10 Comparisons between systems ....................................... 145 6.11 Identifying critical review needs .......................................................................... 148 Provisions: 6.11 Identifying critical review needs ...................................... 149 6.12 Planning reporting ................................................................................................ 149 Provisions: 6.12 Planning reporting ............................................................. 151 7 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY ANALYSIS - COLLECTING DATA, MODELLING THE SYSTEM, CALCULATING RESULTS ............................................................................................


151 7 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY ANALYSIS - COLLECTING DATA, MODELLING THE SYSTEM, CALCULATING RESULTS ............................................................................................. 153 7.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 153 7.2 Identifying processes within the system boundaries ........................................ 154 7.2.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 154 7.2.2 Part-system and system-system relationships ................................................. 155 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling ................................................ 158 7.2.3.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 158 7.2.3.2 Processes to be attributed to the analysed system .................................................


158 7.2.3.2 Processes to be attributed to the analysed system .................................................. 159 7.2.3.3 Initial description of identified processes .................................................................. 162 Provisions: 7.2.3 Identifying processes in attributional modelling ........... 162 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling ............................................ 164 7.2.4.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 164 7.2.4.2 Consequences to be considered .............................................................................. 166 7.2.4.3 Constraints and other market imperfections to be considered ................................. 169


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition ix 7.2.4.4 Identifying the processes of the consequential model .............................................. 169 7.2.4.5 Further aspects, recommendations, and observations ............................................ 172 7.2.4.6 Solving multifunctionality of processes in consequential modelling ......................... 174 7.2.4.7 Initial description of identified processes .................................................................. 175 Provisions: 7.2.4 Identifying processes in consequential modelling ....... 175 7.3 Planning data collection ....................................................................................... 183 7.3.1 Overview .......................................................................................................... 183 7.3.2 Foreground system data - specific, average, or generic .................................


183 7.3.2 Foreground system data - specific, average, or generic .................................. 184 7.3.3 Background data for attributional and consequential models .......................... 185 7.3.4 Need for multi-annual average data or generic data ........................................ 186 7.3.5 Primary and secondary data sources ............................................................... 187 7.3.6 Focus on most relevant data and information .................................................. 187 Provisions: 7.3 Planning data collection ..................................................... 188 7.4 Collecting unit process LCI data ......................................................................... 190 7.4.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 190 7.4.2 Basic data collection towards unit processes ..................................................


190 7.4.2 Basic data collection towards unit processes ................................................... 191 7.4.2.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 191 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision ............... 192 Provisions: 7.4.2.2 Avoiding black box unit processes by subdivision and virtual subdivision ......................................................................................... 194 7.4.2.3 Describing what the modelled unit process represents ............................................ 195 Provisions: 7.4.2.3 Describing what the unit process represents ............. 195 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................................................................. 196 Provisions: 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................


196 Provisions: 7.4.2.4 Types of input and output flows to collect ................. 196 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets ..................... 197 Provisions: 7.4.2.5 Data and information types for specific, future and generic data sets ............................................................................................ 199 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow .................................................................. 200 Provisions: 7.4.2.6 Reference amount of the reference flow ..................... 200 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions ................................................ 201 Provisions: 7.4.2.7 Representativeness regarding operation conditions 201 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ................................................................................................. 202 Provisions: 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ....................................................


202 Provisions: 7.4.2.8 Checking legal limits ..................................................... 202 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory .................................................................. 203 Provisions: 7.4.2.9 From raw data to unit process inventory .................... 204 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues .................................................................................... 204 Provisions: 7.4.2.10 Solving confidentiality issues .................................... 204 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control for improving data quality ...................................................... 205 7.4.2.11.1 General approach ............................................................................................................. 205 7.4.2.11.2 Obtaining better unit process data ...................................................................................


205 7.4.2.11.2 Obtaining better unit process data .................................................................................... 206 7.4.2.11.3 Dealing with remaining unit process data gaps / missing data ......................................... 209 7.4.2.11.4 Documentation ................................................................................................................. 210 Provisions: 7.4.2.11 Interim quality control ................................................. 211 7.4.3 Overarching method provisions for specific elementary flow types ................. 214 7.4.3.1 Introduction and overview ......................................................................................... 214 7.4.3.2 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups .........................


214 7.4.3.2 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups .......................... 215 Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of measurement indicators and elementary flow groups ..................................................................................................... 216 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds ................................................................................... 218 Provisions: 7.4.3.3 Emission of ionic compounds ..................................... 218


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition x 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air ........................................................................................ 218 Provisions: 7.4.3.4 Emission of particles to air ........................................... 220 7.4.3.5 Emission of substances of complementary, alternative action schemes ................. 220 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows ...................................................................................... 220 7.4.3.6.1 Energy resources ............................................................................................................. 220 7.4.3.6.2 Ores for winning metals or other elemental constituents .................................................. 221 7.4.3.6.3 Land use ..........................................................................................................................


221 7.4.3.6.3 Land use ........................................................................................................................... 221 7.4.3.6.4 Fossil and biological CO2 uptake and release of CO2 and CH4 ........................................ 222 7.4.3.6.5 Water use ......................................................................................................................... 222 Provisions: 7.4.3.6 Resource elementary flows .......................................... 223 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows ................................................................... 225 7.4.3.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................................


225 7.4.3.7.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................................. 225 7.4.3.7.2 Differentiating the inventory of interventions in the more remote future (long-term emissions beyond 100 years) ............................................................................................................................ 225 7.4.3.7.3 Temporary carbon storage, delayed greenhouse gas emissions, delayed credits for solving multifunctionality ............................................................................................................................... 226 7.4.3.7.4 Long-term storage of potential emissions beyond 100 years ............................................ 229 Provisions: 7.4.3.7 Future processes and elementary flows ..................... 229 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows ........................................................................................................


229 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows ......................................................................................................... 232 Provisions: 7.4.3.8 Reminder flows .............................................................. 232 7.4.4 Overarching method provisions for specific process types .............................. 233 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems ....................................................................... 233 Provisions: 7.4.4.1 Modelling agro- and forestry systems ......................... 238 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment ........................................................................................ 242 Provisions: 7.4.4.2 Modelling waste treatment ........................................... 244 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ........................................................................ 244 Provisions: 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ......................................


244 Provisions: 7.4.5 Naming and other conventions ....................................... 245 7.5 Developing generic LCI data ................................................................................ 246 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets ...................................................................... 247 Provisions: 7.6 Selecting secondary LCI data sets .................................... 248 7.7 Averaging LCI data................................................................................................ 248 7.8 Modelling the system ............................................................................................ 251 Provisions: 7.8 Modelling the system .......................................................... 253 7.9 Solving multifunctionality of processes in attributional modelling ................. 254 7.9.1 Introduction and overview ...............................................................................


254 7.9.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 254 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision of virtual subdivision .................................. 255 Provisions: 7.9.2 Avoiding allocation by subdivision or virtual subdivision ......................................................................................................................... 256 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ............................................................. 257 7.9.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 257 7.9.3.2 First criterion “Determining physical causality” ......................................................... 257 7.9.3.3 Second (general) criterion “Economic value” or QFD .............................................. 263 Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ........................


257 7.9.3.3 Second (general) criterion “Economic value” or QFD .............................................. 263 Provisions: 7.9.3 Solving multifunctionality by allocation ......................... 266 7.10 Calculating LCI results ......................................................................................... 273 Provisions: 7.10 Calculating LCI results ...................................................... 273 8 LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT - CALCULATING LCIA RESULTS .......................... 275 8.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 275 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results .................................................................................. 276 Provisions: 8.2 Calculation of LCIA results ................................................. 280 8.3 Normalisation ........................................................................................................ 281


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xi Provisions: 8.3 Normalisation ....................................................................... 282 8.4 Weighting ............................................................................................................... 282 Provisions: 8.4 Weighting ............................................................................. 283 9 LIFE CYCLE INTERPRETATION ............................................................................... 285 9.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 285 9.2 Identification of significant issues ...................................................................... 286 Provisions: 9.2 Identification of significant issues ....................................


286 Provisions: 9.2 Identification of significant issues ..................................... 287 9.3 Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 288 9.3.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 288 9.3.2 Completeness check ........................................................................................ 289 Provisions: 9.3.2 Completeness check ........................................................ 293 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of achieved accuracy and precision) ................................... 295 Provisions: 9.3.3 Sensitivity check (of accuracy and precision) ............... 298 9.3.4 Consistency check ........................................................................................... 299 Provisions: 9.3.4 Consistency check ..........................................................


299 Provisions: 9.3.4 Consistency check ........................................................... 300 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations .............................................. 300 Provisions: 9.4 Conclusions, limitations, and recommendations ............. 304 10 REPORTING ......................................................................................................... 307 10.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 307 10.2 Reporting principles ............................................................................................. 307 Provisions: 10.2 Reporting principles .......................................................... 308 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements ............................................................... 309 10.3.1 Report for internal use.....................................................................................


309 10.3.1 Report for internal use...................................................................................... 309 10.3.2 Third party report.............................................................................................. 309 10.3.3 Report on comparative studies to be disclosed to the public ........................... 310 10.3.4 Reporting elements .......................................................................................... 310 Provisions: 10.3 Three levels of reporting requirements ........................... 314 11 CRITICAL REVIEW ................................................................................................ 321 Provisions: 11 Critical review ....................................................................... 321 12 ANNEX A: DATA QUALITY CONCEPT AND APPROACH .............................................. 323 12.1 Introduction and overview ...................................................................................


323 12.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 323 12.2 Data quality aspects ............................................................................................. 324 12.3 Data quality indicators .......................................................................................... 329 12.4 ILCD Handbook compliance criteria .................................................................... 333 13 ANNEX B: CALCULATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS FROM LAND TRANSFORMATION ........... 337 14 ANNEX C: MODELLING REUSE, RECYCLING, AND ENERGY RECOVERY ...................... 343 14.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 343 14.2 True joint process and true co-product .............................................................. 345 14.3 Concepts: Closed-loop and open-loop recycling .............................................


345 14.3 Concepts: Closed-loop and open-loop recycling .............................................. 346 14.3.1 Closed-loop recycling ....................................................................................... 346 14.3.2 Open-loop recycling ......................................................................................... 347 14.3.2.1 Open loop - same primary route ............................................................................... 348 14.3.2.2 Open loop - different primary route ........................................................................... 348 14.4 Recycling in attributional modelling ................................................................... 349 14.4.1 Detailed aspects of attributional modelling of recycling ................................... 349


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xii 14.4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 349 14.4.1.2 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is above zero, i.e. it is a co-product ...... 350 14.4.1.3 Market value of waste / end-of-life product is negative (i.e. a waste treatment fee is to be paid) 352 14.5 Recycling in consequential modelling ................................................................ 354 14.5.1 Introduction and overview ................................................................................ 354 14.5.2 Recyclability substitution approach .................................................................. 354 14.5.3 Detailed aspects of using the recyclability substitution approach of consequential modelling ..............................................................................................


354 14.5.3 Detailed aspects of using the recyclability substitution approach of consequential modelling ............................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.2 Determining recyclability ........................................................................................... 358 14.5.3.3 Changes of inherent technical properties of the secondary good ............................ 359 14.5.3.4 Identifying superseded processes in line with market consequences to consider ... 360 14.5.3.5 Time aspects in “delayed” recycling of long-living products ..................................... 363 15 ANNEX D: AVOIDING MISLEADING GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION ......................................................................................................


363 15 ANNEX D: AVOIDING MISLEADING GOAL AND SCOPE DEFINITION AND RESULTS INTERPRETATION ....................................................................................................... 365 15.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 365 15.2 Misleading goal definition and scoping .............................................................. 365 15.2.1 Functional unit .................................................................................................. 366 15.2.2 Modelling principle ........................................................................................... 367 15.2.3 Drawing of system boundaries ......................................................................... 367 15.2.4 Choice of LCIA impact categories, LCIA methods, normalisation and weighting sets 15.2.5 Representativeness of data ............................................................................


369 15.2.5.1 Technological representativeness ............................................................................ 369 15.2.5.2 Geographical representativeness ............................................................................. 370 15.2.5.3 Time-related representativeness .............................................................................. 370 15.2.6 Consistency in comparison of systems and products ...................................... 371 15.3 Misleading interpretation...................................................................................... 371 15.4 Misleading reporting and communication .......................................................... 372 15.5 Integrated example of misleading goal and scope definition and interpretation: cups for hot drinks ........................................................................................................


373 16 ANNEX E: ADDRESSING UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA .................................................... 377 16.1 Introduction and overview .................................................................................... 377 16.2 Types and sources of uncertainty in LCA .......................................................... 377 16.3 Aggregating uncertainties over the life cycle ..................................................... 379 17 ANNEX F: SYSTEM BOUNDARY TEMPLATE ............................................................. 381 18 ANNEX G: DEVELOPMENT OF THIS DOCUMENT ....................................................... 383


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xiii PROVISIONS PROVISIONS: 2 HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT ............................................................... 18 PROVISIONS: 4 THE ITERATIVE APPROACH TO LCA ....................................................... 28 PROVISIONS: 5.2 SIX ASPECTS OF GOAL DEFINITION ...................................................... 35 PROVISIONS: 5.3 CLASSIFYING THE DECISION-CONTEXT ................................................ 46 PROVISIONS: 5.4 NEED FOR FLEXIBILITY VERSUS STRICTNESS ........................................ 49 PROVISIONS: 5.5 OPTIONALLY EXTENDING THE GOAL .................................................... 50 PROVISIONS: 6.2.1 CONSISTENCY OF METHODS, ASSUMPTIONS AND DATA ...................... 52 PROVISIONS: 6.2.2 REPRODUCIBILITY .........................................................................


52 PROVISIONS: 6.2.2 REPRODUCIBILITY .......................................................................... 54 PROVISIONS: 6.3 TYPES OF LCA DELIVERABLES AND INTENDED APPLICATIONS .............. 59 PROVISIONS: 6.4 FUNCTION, FUNCTIONAL UNIT, AND REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 68 PROVISIONS: 6.5.4 LCI MODELLING PROVISIONS FOR SITUATIONS A, B, AND C ............... 87 PROVISIONS: 6.6 DERIVING SYSTEM BOUNDARIES AND CUT-OFF CRITERIA (COMPLETENESS) .......................................................................................................................... 105 PROVISIONS: 6.7 PREPARING THE BASIS FOR THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ....................... 116 PROVISIONS: 6.8.2 TECHNOLOGICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ....................................... 126 PROVISIONS: 6.8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ......................................... 131 PROVISIONS: 6.8.4 TIME-RELATED REPRESENTATIVENESS ..........................................


126 PROVISIONS: 6.8.3 GEOGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIVENESS ......................................... 131 PROVISIONS: 6.8.4 TIME-RELATED REPRESENTATIVENESS ........................................... 134 PROVISIONS: 6.9 TYPES, QUALITY AND SOURCES OF REQUIRED DATA AND INFORMATION 139 PROVISIONS: 6.10 COMPARISONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS................................................. 145 PROVISIONS: 6.11 IDENTIFYING CRITICAL REVIEW NEEDS ............................................. 149 PROVISIONS: 6.12 PLANNING REPORTING ................................................................... 151 PROVISIONS: 7.2.3 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN ATTRIBUTIONAL MODELLING ................. 162 PROVISIONS: 7.2.4 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN CONSEQUENTIAL MODELLING ............... 175 PROVISIONS: 7.3 PLANNING DATA COLLECTION..........................................................


162 PROVISIONS: 7.2.4 IDENTIFYING PROCESSES IN CONSEQUENTIAL MODELLING ............... 175 PROVISIONS: 7.3 PLANNING DATA COLLECTION........................................................... 188 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.2 AVOIDING BLACK BOX UNIT PROCESSES BY SUBDIVISION AND VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION ............................................................................................................. 194 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.3 DESCRIBING WHAT THE UNIT PROCESS REPRESENTS .................... 195 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.4 TYPES OF INPUT AND OUTPUT FLOWS TO COLLECT ....................... 196 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.5 DATA AND INFORMATION TYPES FOR SPECIFIC, FUTURE AND GENERIC DATA SETS ............................................................................................................... 199 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.6 REFERENCE AMOUNT OF THE REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 200 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.7 REPRESENTATIVENESS REGARDING OPERATION CONDITIONS .......


199 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.6 REFERENCE AMOUNT OF THE REFERENCE FLOW .......................... 200 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.7 REPRESENTATIVENESS REGARDING OPERATION CONDITIONS ........ 201 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.8 CHECKING LEGAL LIMITS ............................................................ 202 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.9 FROM RAW DATA TO UNIT PROCESS INVENTORY ........................... 204 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.10 SOLVING CONFIDENTIALITY ISSUES ........................................... 204 PROVISIONS: 7.4.2.11 INTERIM QUALITY CONTROL ...................................................... 211 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.3 EMISSION OF MEASUREMENT INDICATORS AND ELEMENTARY FLOW GROUPS ................................................................................................................... 216 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.3 EMISSION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS ................................................ 218 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.4 EMISSION OF PARTICLES TO AIR ................................................. 220


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xiv PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.6 RESOURCE ELEMENTARY FLOWS ................................................ 223 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.7 FUTURE PROCESSES AND ELEMENTARY FLOWS ........................... 229 PROVISIONS: 7.4.3.8 REMINDER FLOWS ..................................................................... 232 PROVISIONS: 7.4.4.1 MODELLING AGRO- AND FORESTRY SYSTEMS .............................. 238 PROVISIONS: 7.4.4.2 MODELLING WASTE TREATMENT ................................................. 244 PROVISIONS: 7.4.5 NAMING AND OTHER CONVENTIONS................................................ 245 PROVISIONS: 7.6 SELECTING SECONDARY LCI DATA SETS ........................................... 248 PROVISIONS: 7.8 MODELLING THE SYSTEM ................................................................. 253 PROVISIONS: 7.9.2 AVOIDING ALLOCATION BY SUBDIVISION OR VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION ...


248 PROVISIONS: 7.8 MODELLING THE SYSTEM ................................................................. 253 PROVISIONS: 7.9.2 AVOIDING ALLOCATION BY SUBDIVISION OR VIRTUAL SUBDIVISION .... 256 PROVISIONS: 7.9.3 SOLVING MULTIFUNCTIONALITY BY ALLOCATION ............................. 266 PROVISIONS: 7.10 CALCULATING LCI RESULTS .......................................................... 273 PROVISIONS: 8.2 CALCULATION OF LCIA RESULTS ..................................................... 280 PROVISIONS: 8.3 NORMALISATION ............................................................................. 282 PROVISIONS: 8.4 WEIGHTING ..................................................................................... 283 PROVISIONS: 9.2 IDENTIFICATION OF SIGNIFICANT ISSUES ............................................ 287 PROVISIONS: 9.3.2 COMPLETENESS CHECK ...............................................................


287 PROVISIONS: 9.3.2 COMPLETENESS CHECK ................................................................ 293 PROVISIONS: 9.3.3 SENSITIVITY CHECK (OF ACCURACY AND PRECISION) ....................... 298 PROVISIONS: 9.3.4 CONSISTENCY CHECK ................................................................... 300 PROVISIONS: 9.4 CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................... 304 PROVISIONS: 10.2 REPORTING PRINCIPLES ................................................................ 308 PROVISIONS: 10.3 THREE LEVELS OF REPORTING REQUIREMENTS ................................ 314 PROVISIONS: 11 CRITICAL REVIEW ............................................................................. 321


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xv FIGURES Figure 1 Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040:2006; modified) ............... 1 Figure 2 ILCD Handbook approach of harmonising existing practice in line with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 ...................................................................................................... 2 Figure 3 Main differentiation of the document for the three goal situations A, B, and C. .... 10 Figure 4 The iterative nature of LCA (schematic).. ............................................................. 25 Figure 5 Details of the iterative approach to LCA, with focus on inventory data collection and modelling (from ISO 14044:2006, modified). ................................................. 27 Figure 6 Multifunctional process. ........................................................................................ 73 Figure 7 Black box unit process and single operation unit process.


27 Figure 6 Multifunctional process. ........................................................................................ 73 Figure 7 Black box unit process and single operation unit process.. .................................. 75 Figure 8 Solving the multifunctionality problem by subdivision of the black box unit process.. ............................................................................................................... 76 Figure 9 Solving the multifunctionality problem by substitution of the not required cofunctions, schematic. ............................................................................................ 78 Figure 10 Equivalence of additive and subtractive ("substitution") system expansion ......... 79 Figure 11 Solving the multifunctionality problem by allocation of the inventory to the cofunctions (illustrative). . ........................................................................................


80 Figure 12 Cradle to grave, cradle to gate and gate to gate data sets as parts of the complete life cycle; schematic.. ............................................................................................ 96 Figure 13 Foreground system and background system in the specificity perspective (see box); (illustrative).. ................................................................................................ 99 Figure 14 Flow chart of the foreground system (schematic).. ............................................. 101 Figure 15 Life cycle impact assessment (schematic). ........................................................ 108 Figure 16 Limited or non-scalability of supplies in a market. The example of hydropower; illustrative. . ........................................................................................................


The example of hydropower; illustrative. . ......................................................................................................... 125 Figure 17 Part-system relationships: example of car starter battery (illustrative). .............. 156 Figure 18 System-system relationships: example of an electricity using product . ............. 158 Figure 19 Schematic and simplified supply-chain life cycle model of a product. . .............. 158 Figure 20 Identifying processes within system boundary, starting from the central process or analysed system. Example of a window, illustrative.. ......................................... 161 Figure 21 Decision tree for consequential modelling. Terms, concepts, and explanations see text ........................................................................................................................... . ...........................................................................................................................


166 Figure 22 Processes averaging ("horizontal averaging", top) and systems averaging ("vertical averaging", bottom); schematic. .......................................................... 249 Figure 23 Illustration of the trade-relations between countries, as basis for calculating the production, consumption and supply mixes of products. .................................... 250


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xvi Figure 24 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) of complex products as an approach for obtaining as allocations factors the relative relevance of functions for the product users. .................................................................................................................. 264 Figure 25 The elements of the interpretation phase and their relations to other phases of the LCA and within the interpretation phase (from ISO 14044:2006, modified) ....... 286 Figure 26 Focussing efforts on key data.. ........................................................................... 298 Figure 27 The four quality aspects completeness and technological, geographical and timerelated representativeness (illustrative). ............................................................. 325 Figure 28 Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e


325 Figure 28 Illustration of the concepts of precision (i.e. uncertainty) and accuracy (i.e. representativeness and methodological consistency) ........................................ 326 Figure 29 True joint process and true co-product . ............................................................. 345 Figure 30 "Closed loop" recycling (schematic).. ................................................................. 347 Figure 31 “Open loop - same primary route” recycling (schematic): ................................... 348 Figure 32 “Open loop - different primary route” recycling. (schematic). .............................. 349 Figure 33 Allocation of waste / end-of-life products if the management / treatment processes result in any valuable product (schematic).. ....................................................... 353 Figure 34 Recyclability substitution approach (schematic).


353 Figure 34 Recyclability substitution approach (schematic).. ............................................... 357 Figure 35 System boundary diagram template for technical audience.. ............................. 382


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xvii TABLES Table 1 Key terms and definitions ..................................................................................... 21 Table 2 Combination of two main aspects of the decision-context: decision orientation and kind of consequences in background system or other systems. .......................... 38 Table 3 Most common types of LCI/LCA study deliverables required for specific LCA applications (indicative overview). . ...................................................................... 56 Table 4 Example for function, functional unit and reference flows in a comparative case: Outdoor wall paints comparison (illustrative) ........................................................ 64 Table 5 Overall inventory data quality (validity) and its main 6 aspects .......................... 329 Table 6 Quality levels and quality rating for the data quality indicators. .........................


329 Table 6 Quality levels and quality rating for the data quality indicators. .......................... 330 Table 7 Overall quality level of a data set ........................................................................ 332 Table 8 Illustrative example for determining the data quality rating. ................................ 332 Table 9 ILCD compliance of LCI and LCA studies and data sets, direct applications, and derived more specific guidance documents / Product Category Rules (PCR).. . 335 Table 10 Native soil carbon stocks under native vegetation ............................................. 338 Table 11 Land use factors ................................................................................................. 338 Table 12 Land management and input level factors for cropland ..................................... 339 Table 13 Land management and input level factors for grassland ................................... 340


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xviii TERMS AND CONCEPTS Situation A ("Micro-level decision support") ........................................................................... 38 Situation B ("Meso/macro-level decision support") ................................................................ 40 Situation C ("Accounting") ...................................................................................................... 43 Function, functional unit, and reference flow .......................................................................... 60 Attributional modelling ............................................................................................................ 71 Consequential modelling .......................................................................................................


71 Consequential modelling ........................................................................................................ 71 Subdivision of multifunctional processes ................................................................................ 75 System expansion / substitution ............................................................................................. 77 Allocation ................................................................................................................................ 79 Technosphere and ecosphere – clearer defining the boundary ............................................. 94 Foreground system and background system ......................................................................... 96 Cut-off criteria ......................................................................................................................


96 Cut-off criteria ....................................................................................................................... 102 Technological representativeness of process and product .................................................. 123 Market .................................................................................................................................. 128 “Comparison” vs. “comparative assertion disclosed to the public” ....................................... 140 Part-system relationships including energy related products ............................................... 155 System-system relationships ................................................................................................ 156 Secondary consequences .................................................................................................... 168 Specific, average and generic data sets .............................................................................


168 Specific, average and generic data sets .............................................................................. 246 Reuse/recycling/recovery and secondary good ................................................................... 343 Recycling in ISO 14044:2006 ............................................................................................... 344 Recyclability substitution approach ...................................................................................... 354


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition xix FREQUENT ERRORS Comparisons not based on the relevant functional unit ......................................................... 62 Using inappropriate technical standards to quantify the functional unit ................................. 65 Subjective or unsystematic choice of LCI modelling principles and method approaches ...... 70 Incompatible LCIA methods, normalisation basis, and weighting set .................................. 113 Use of LCI data with another geographical scope ................................................................ 130 Misleading/wrong use of "time representativeness" ............................................................. 133 General or un-reflected exclusion of activity-types ..............................................................


133 General or un-reflected exclusion of activity-types ............................................................... 162 Wrong focus of data collection ............................................................................................. 187 Misleading description beyond what is represented by the actual data ............................... 195 Un-reflected use of machine specifications .......................................................................... 203 Unit conversion errors .......................................................................................................... 203 Incomplete modelling of waste management ....................................................................... 243 Insufficient methodological consistency of background data ............................................... 247 Wrong type/reference of market value ................................................................................


247 Wrong type/reference of market value ................................................................................. 265 Incomplete LCIA factor assignment to elementary flows ..................................................... 277 Inappropriate results interpretation in case of insignificant differences ................................ 303 Overly reliance on stochastic data uncertainty calculations ................................................. 328 Omission or double counting/modelling of recycling ............................................................ 344


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview 1 Introduction and overview Overview This guide is a component of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Handbook. It provides a detailed technical guidance to the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). The overall objective of the ILCD Handbook is to provide a common basis for consistent and quality-assured life cycle data and robust studies. These support coherent and reliable Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) policies and solid decision support in the public and private sectors related to products, resources and waste management. Scope of this document This general guide provides comprehensive and detailed method provisions for Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies as covered by the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards


The outcome of LCI and LCA studies is the basis for all types of applications of LCA. Figure 1 shows the Life Cycle Assessment framework. Figure 1 Framework for life cycle assessment (from ISO 14040:2006; modified) Table 3 lists the most widely used LCA applications and their relationship to the guidance provided in this document. The subsequent use of the LCI data and LCA studies in other LCA applications is not within the scope of this document; this is analogous to ISO 14044:2006. Since this general guidance document is applicable to a wide range of different decisioncontexts and sectors, it cannot directly provide tailor-made, specific provisions, such as product-group specific guidance. It can however serve as “parent” document for specific guidance documents, such as for Product Category Rules (PCR) and other product-group specific guidance documents and for simplified yet reliable tools, such as ecodesign type tools


Life cycle assessment framework Goal definition Scope definition Inventory analysis Impact assessment Direct applications: • Product development and improvement • Strategic planning • Public policy making • Marketing • Other Interpretation


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Screening or streamlined Life Cycle Assessment studies are typically not compliant with ISO 14044:2006 and therefore not explicitly addressed as a separate approach in this document. They are only implicitly addressed in this document as the first iterative step of an LCA. Purely methodological LCA studies may not be able to comply with the ILCD Handbook and the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006, since the analysed methodological options may deviate from the ILCD provisions. Such studies may draw on the ILCD Handbook, but compliance cannot be claimed and the impression shall be avoided that such would exist. Approach of this document and added value compared to ISO 14044 Until today, no commonly accepted guidance exists that would complement the general framework provided by ISO 14040 and 14044:2006


Approach of this document and added value compared to ISO 14044 Until today, no commonly accepted guidance exists that would complement the general framework provided by ISO 14040 and 14044:2006. The ILCD has been developed to fill this gap as decision makers in government, public administration and business rely on consistent and quality-assured life cycle data and robust assessments in context of Sustainable Consumption and Production. The relevant ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards, a range of Life Cycle Assessment manuals, and the general LCA literature have been analysed to identify the “needs for guidance” and to obtain input in the form of good practice approaches and arguments. Together with the extensive and detailed input and feedback received in the invited and public consultations, workshops, and other meetings, this analysis provides the evidence base for this guide. Figure 2 illustrates this approach. The contributors and the sources consulted are documented in annex 18


Figure 2 illustrates this approach. The contributors and the sources consulted are documented in annex 18. An Explanatory Memorandum is separately available. Figure 2 ILCD Handbook approach of harmonising existing practice in line with ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 Principles followed in developing the provisions of this document The following principles were applied:  ISO compliance: being in line with the requirements of ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 National LCA project XY-land Manual for LCI data modelling National LCA project XY-land Manual for LCI data modelling National LCA project Country X Manual for LCI data modelling XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Association Method handbook for LCA of XY products XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual XY Research & Consulting Centre Attributional LCA method manual


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Best practice: representing or building on current best practice in LCA in industry, government, research, and consultancy.  Reliability: forming a reliable basis for robust life cycle based decision support, for improving reproducibility and quality of LCI studies and data sets, and for coherent, ILCD-compliant product-group specific guides and simplified approaches and tools.  Efficiency: balancing theory with practicality and cost-efficiency.  Flexibility: permitting exceptions of provisions as and where needed for different questions addressed with LCA and for different processes, products and other systems that are analysed. Deviations need to be documented and explicitly be considered in the results interpretation.  Fairness and acceptance: providing a level playing field across competing products, processes and industries


 Fairness and acceptance: providing a level playing field across competing products, processes and industries. Exceptions must not relatively disfavour competitors. The role of interested parties and of review is strengthened for achieving broad stakeholder acceptance. Protecting confidential and proprietary information in confidential reports that are available exclusively to the critical reviewers.  Transparency and reproducibility: request comprehensive documentation and mechanisms that allow reviewers to verify/review all data, calculations, and assumptions.  Assured quality: require qualified and independent and/or external review as indicated by the type of study and target audience (detailed provisions given in separate document) Differentiated guidance for main goal situations encountered in LCA practice Building on the state-of-the-art analysis of best practice, this document has been developed to provide comprehensive and generally applicable yet practical guidance


This involves adding substantial detail and further specifying and clarifying the ISO provisions from the perspective of the three main goal situations encountered in LCA studies:  Situation A ("Micro-level decision support"): Decision support on micro-level, typically for product-related questions. “Micro-level decisions” are assumed to have only limited and no structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. do not change available production capacity. The effects are too small to overcome the threshold to be able to cause so called large-scale consequences in the background system or other parts of the technosphere  Situation B ("Meso/macro-level decision support"): Decision support at a strategic level (e.g. raw materials strategies, technology scenarios, policy options, etc). “Meso/macro-level decisions” are assumed to have also structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they do change available production capacity


“Meso/macro-level decisions” are assumed to have also structural consequences outside the decision-context, i.e. they do change available production capacity. The analysed decision alone results in large-scale consequences in the background system or other parts of the technosphere  Situation C ("Accounting"): Purely descriptive documentation of the system under analysis (e.g. a product, sector or country), without being interested in any potential consequences on other parts of the economy. Situation C has two sub-types: Situation C1 that includes existing benefits outside the analysed system (e.g. credits existing recycling benefits) and Situation C2 that does not do so.


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 1 Introduction and overview Main methodological issues addressed in this document The key issues in LCA within the scope of ISO14044:2006 and hence of this document are generally understood to be the questions:  Which LCI modelling principle to follow (i.e. attributional or consequential)?  Which LCI method approaches to employ for solving multifunctionality of processes (i.e. allocation or system expansion/substitution)? These issues are those where the three goal situations differ most in terms of LCI method provisions


In addition, the following main issues need guidance and are hence addressed in detail:  System boundaries: the definition and application of system boundaries and of quantitative cut-off criteria (including the question which kind of activities to include in LCA);  Avoiding misleading LCA studies: how to avoid misleading goal and scope definition, results interpretation, and reporting (what relates to a number of more specific issues);  Transparency: how to meet the principle of transparency in the context of potentially sensitive or proprietary process data and information;  Reproducibility and robustness: how to improve reproducibility in data collection and modelling and the documentation of LCI data sets, and the robustness of conclusions and recommendations of LCA studies;  Primary and secondary data: when to use primary data and when secondary data can be used (and what is a suitable concept for the foreground and the background system);  Quality: how to capture the


 Primary and secondary data: when to use primary data and when secondary data can be used (and what is a suitable concept for the foreground and the background system);  Quality: how to capture the various quality aspects of LCI data and of LCA results


Further topics in focus Product group and sector specific guidance is outside the scope of this document and will need product-group specific guides to be developed. However, for certain types of processes the application of LCA is less straightforward and divergent approaches have been developed in practice. These types are mainly agricultural and similar processes, waste deposition, the use stage of consumer products, and services (as opposed to goods). The first two are addressed in own chapters. The use stage of consumer products is covered as a smaller sub-chapter. Services are generally addressed throughout the document, explicitly or in examples; however, more guidance is seen beneficial for services. One of the methodologically more difficult topics is often understood to be the modelling of reuse, recycling and recovery of secondary goods from end-of-life products and production waste


One of the methodologically more difficult topics is often understood to be the modelling of reuse, recycling and recovery of secondary goods from end-of-life products and production waste. While methodologically these are all cases of multifunctionality, this topic has a longer dedicated chapter in the annex. "Time in LCA", finally, is one of the topics that recently gain more attention with various approaches emerging in LCA practice. Issues such as long-term emissions, temporary and permanent carbon storage, and delayed emissions of greenhouse gases are hence addressed in some detail.


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document 2 How to use this document 2.1 Structure of the document Building on scope and structure of ISO 14044 This document follows the main structure of ISO 14044:2006. In the ILCD Handbook, the five main phases of Life Cycle Assessment (goal definition, scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation) each have their own chapter1; see Figure 1. As in ISO 14044:2006, additional principal chapters address reporting and critical review. A number of issues that are not addressed in ISO 14044:2006 - or to only a limited extent - have been added or expanded on, typically in the form of individual chapters, such as on the selection of the appropriate LCI modelling frame


A few key issues that are addressed as parts of several chapters throughout ISO 14044:2006, such as on the iterative nature of LCA and how it best implemented, have been combined into individual chapters. Several key concepts of LCA are explored in more detail, especially where different meanings or terms are used. Frequently made errors in LCA practice are identified within the respective chapters, to help avoid and overcoming them. The special relevance of the scope definition phase of a LCI or LCA study is often neglected in today‟s practice. In the scope phase, crucial decisions are made for the entire LCI or LCA study; these are derived from the goal definitions. These decisions include the already named identification of the LCI modelling frame, the selection of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) methods and - if included - the normalisation basis and weighting set, as well as identifying review and reporting requirements


Actual LCI data collection and modelling are then addressed in the LCI phase. The LCIA phase serves to calculate LCIA results and - if included - normalised and weighted results. Compared to ISO 14044:2006, the structure of this guidance document has been adjusted to better reflect the workflow steps when performing an LCA. References to the corresponding chapter in the ISO 14044:2006 standard are given in each chapter. Formatting elements Five formatting elements have been used throughout the document to address different aspects: Main text body: gives the detailed explanations to the guidance. The brief in-line examples are set in a grey font so as to minimise the disturbance of the reading flow. 1 ISO 14044 joins goal and scope into one phase. It is argued here to better reflect the different nature and purpose of these two steps to treat them as separate phases


1 ISO 14044 joins goal and scope into one phase. It is argued here to better reflect the different nature and purpose of these two steps to treat them as separate phases. In addition to the resulting five phases, also reporting and review could be considered own phases; while this is not done here, they have own main chapters.


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document Provisions: Set within a dashed-dotted green border, the "Provisions" outline the provisions for ILCD-compliant studies, as comprehensive yet concise checklists for daily reference. The combined "Provisions" are also available as a separate document. Terms and concepts: In highlighted blue boxes, the more complex terms and concepts of often diverging use in LCA practice are explained and illustrated; often supported with graphics. Frequent errors: Frequently made errors in LCA practice are addressed in highlighted purple boxes, to help avoiding and overcoming them. Annexes: The annexes provide detail on broader issues that are relevant but which would disturb the reading flow if kept within the main text. Annexes are provided e.g


Annexes: The annexes provide detail on broader issues that are relevant but which would disturb the reading flow if kept within the main text. Annexes are provided e.g. on the data quality concept of the ILCD, modelling of waste & end-of-life product reuse, recycling and energy recovery, and on how to avoid misleading LCA studies. Related topics addressed in other ILCD Handbook components A number of nomenclature and other conventions help to improve compatibility of data sets developed throughout this document, and aid an understanding of LCA study reports developed by different experts. (Further detail is provided in the separate document "Nomenclature and other conventions"). An electronic LCA report template supports effective and compatible reporting of LCA studies. The electronic LCI data set format supports effective and compatible reporting of LCI data sets


An electronic LCA report template supports effective and compatible reporting of LCA studies. The electronic LCI data set format supports effective and compatible reporting of LCI data sets. It is supported by a data set editor application and a complete set of reference elementary flows, flow properties and units. Both the report template and the data set format are referenced from chapters 6.12 and 10. Guidance for developers of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models, methods and indicators is given in the separate document "Framework and requirements for Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) models and indicators". In this guide, chapter 6.7 points to that document. This topic is supported by the background document "Analysis of existing Environmental Impact Assessment methodologies for use in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)"


This topic is supported by the background document "Analysis of existing Environmental Impact Assessment methodologies for use in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)". The detailed provisions for reviewing LCI and LCA studies and data sets are given in the separate guidance documents on "Review schemes for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)",


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document "Reviewer qualification", and "Review scope, methods, and documentation". In this document, chapters 6.11 and 11 refer to these documents. General applicability of guidance The deliverables of an LCA can range in complexity and extent from a single operation unit process to a comparative assertion of two or more products or strategies (for a complete list see chapter 6.3). A number of provisions apply only to the more complex deliverables, while they are inapplicable to the more basic deliverables. This is highlighted at the beginning of the respective "Provisions". However, this general guide needs to be applicable (as with ISO 14044) for a wide range of deliverables, for different study objects (e.g. process step, product, country, etc.), and for a huge variety of questions addressed in the study


process step, product, country, etc.), and for a huge variety of questions addressed in the study. This makes it unavoidable to formulate the provisions in a fairly generic manner. It would be impractical to approach all the specific kinds of cases specifically. For key types of deliverables, however, specific guidance documents are seen as beneficial. Such a separate document is provided for the "Development of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data sets". LCA as an iterative process The work on an LCA is a systematic process, which involves iterations: Some issues cannot be addressed initially, or only touched on. However, they will be addressed, improved, or revised in the typically 2 to 3 iterations of almost any LCI or LCA study. Chapter 4 has more on this. To ease the workflow, it is generally explicitly stated in the "Provisions" what should be done in the initial round and what in the later iterations


Chapter 4 has more on this. To ease the workflow, it is generally explicitly stated in the "Provisions" what should be done in the initial round and what in the later iterations. The iterations thereby draw on steps that have been performed earlier in the study. For example, the iteration of collecting better data draws on the identification of significant issues carried out in the preceding iteration based on the preceding LCI model. However, the respective provisions e.g. on identification of significant issues are necessarily found later in the document. The need to understand and consider later steps when performing the preceding steps can make it difficult for less experienced practitioners to find an efficient way to perform an LCA study. Therefore, cross-references are put in many cases


Therefore, cross-references are put in many cases. 2.2 How to work with this document 2.2.1 Overview The concept of this document is to help practitioners to conduct LCI and LCA studies in line with the three main goal situations that are encountered in LCA practice. This chapter aims to support an efficient and effective workflow and focuses on those steps that are needed for a given study. It provides "guidance to the guide", by giving an overview of the key provisions, informing which parts of the document differ among the three archetypal goal situations, and explains how to efficiently work through the "Provisions". To enable easier identification of the chapters required for a given case, notes at the beginning of the respective "Provisions" and cross-references are put. 2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications In most cases, it is quite straightforward to develop an ILCD compliant LCI data set or LCA study using this document


2.2.2 Theoretical approaches and simplifications In most cases, it is quite straightforward to develop an ILCD compliant LCI data set or LCA study using this document. This is because some simplifications are put in place that avoid the need for applying some of the more complicated procedures, such as those for identifying processes in consequential modelling including secondary consequences and market constraints. These


ILCD Handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment - Detailed guidance First edition 2 How to use this document slightly simplified provisions substantially reduce the effort, while not relevantly harming the accuracy or robustness of the results. They even further increase the general reproducibility and better reflect established practice in industry. These simplifications draw on the detailed and differentiated method provisions that are therefore necessary and that are to be fully applied in a few cases. For these cases they are essential; hence the detailed provisions need to be kept as well. Most aspects of doing an LCA are the same for all goal Situations. Among these aspects are those that are always to be followed or checked. Conversely there are some, often very specific aspects that apply in only few cases. As an LCA may include many processes, some of the specific provisions are typically required for each study, but only for selected processes


As an LCA may include many processes, some of the specific provisions are typically required for each study, but only for selected processes. It is also noted that the unit process inventories are basically the same for all Situations, while some specific, additional information is required when using them in the context of the specific 'Situation' (e.g. on the amount of products involved and the size of the respective market). The main difference between Situation A, B and C lies hence in the selection of the processes that are included in the system boundary and how the life cycle is modelled by connecting them. 2.2.3 Overview of differences in the provisions for the Situations A, B, and C Overview This chapter provides a very condensed orientation of the differences in the provisions that apply to the three goal Situations A, B, and C


The overview graphic of Figure 3 identifies the chapters which have substantially different provisions for the individual goal situations A, B, and C. Note that a few other chapters that apply to all situations have single aspects that are differentiated for the three goal situations. The detailed method provisions for the differentiated archetypal goal situations A, B, and C as well as explanations and illustrations are given in the respective chapters. Orientation for experts: the differentiated LCI modelling provisions for Situations A, B, and C The main differences between the archetypal goal Situations A, B, and C lie in the LCI modelling. In a condensed form for overview, this document makes the following specific provisions. Effectively, there are only a few but very relevant and necessary differences in which the provisions for these Situations differ


Effectively, there are only a few but very relevant and necessary differences in which the provisions for these Situations differ. (NB: If you are not familiar with the used terms and concepts, please see the later chapters): Situation A: This comprises micro-level, product or process-related decision support studies. The life cycle is modelled by depicting the existing supply-chain, i.e. attributionally. The foreground system should aim at using primary data from the producer / operator and secondary data from suppliers and downstream users/customers. Background processes should represent the average market consumption mix. Generic data from third-party data providers can be used for the background system. They can also be used for the foreground system if they are of better overall quality for the given case than available primary or secondary data from direct suppliers or downstream operators


They can also be used for the foreground system if they are of better overall quality for the given case than available primary or secondary data from direct suppliers or downstream operators. Cases of general multifunctionality, of recycling, and of reuse and recovery are preferably solved via subdivision or virtual subdivision. If this is not possible or feasible, then a substitution of the market mix of the not required co-functions should be performed as second alternative