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200	"Logic" The development of first-order logic is usually attributed to Gottlob Frege, who is also credited as one of the founders of analytic philosophy, but the formulation of first-order logic most often used today is found in Principles of Mathematical Logic by David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928. The analyti...
201	"Logic" For instance the modal formula ◊ P {\displaystyle \Diamond P} can be read as "possibly P {\displaystyle P} " while ◻ P {\displaystyle \Box P} can be read as "necessarily P {\displaystyle P} ". Modal logics can be used to represent different phenomena depending on what flavor of necessity and possibility is unde...
202	"Logic" Within philosophy, modal logics are widely used in formal epistemology, formal ethics, and metaphysics. Within linguistic semantics, systems based on modal logic are used to analyze linguistic modality in natural languages. [92] [93] [94] Other fields such computer science and set theory have applied the relati...
203	"Logic" In classical first-order logic, quantifiers are only applied to individuals. The formula " ∃ x ( A p p l e ( x ) ∧ S w e e t ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \exists x(Apple(x)\land Sweet(x))} " ( some apples are sweet) is an example of the existential quantifier " ∃ {\displaystyle \exists } " applied to the individual v...
204	"Logic" In this case, the existential quantifier is applied to the predicate variable " Q {\displaystyle Q} ". [7] [96] [97] [98] The added expressive power is especially useful for mathematics since it allows for more succinct formulations of mathematical theories. [7] But it has various drawbacks in regard to its met...
205	"Logic" Intuitionism was further pursued by Gerhard Gentzen, Kurt Gödel, Michael Dummett, among others. Intuitionistic logic is of great interest to computer scientists, as it is a constructive logic and sees many applications, such as extracting verified programs from proofs and influencing the design of programming l...
206	"Logic" [103] [104] [105] These logics have seen applications including to presupposition in linguistics. Fuzzy logics are multivalued logics that have an infinite number of "degrees of truth", represented by a real number between 0 and 1. [106] The pragmatic or dialogical approach to informal logic sees arguments as s...
207	"Logic" [30] The initial position of each player is characterized by the propositions to which they are committed and the conclusion they intend to prove. Dialogues are games of persuasion: each player has the goal of convincing the opponent of their own conclusion. [23] This is achieved by making arguments: arguments ...
208	"Logic" Besides these positive arguments leading one closer to victory, there are also negative arguments preventing the opponent's victory by denying their conclusion. [23] Whether an argument is correct depends on whether it promotes the progress of the dialogue. Fallacies, on the other hand, are violations of the st...
209	"Logic" They achieve this by linking justified beliefs to beliefs that are not yet justified. [107] Correct arguments succeed at expanding knowledge while fallacies are epistemic failures: they do not justify the belief in their conclusion. [34] [30] In this sense, logical normativity consists in epistemic success or r...
210	"Logic" Degrees of belief are understood as subjective probabilities in the believed proposition, i.e. as how certain the agent is that the proposition is true. [108] [109] [110] On this view, reasoning can be interpreted as a process of changing one's credences, often in reaction to new incoming information. [30] Corr...
211	"Logic" [4] [5] In other cases, logic itself is made the subject of research in another discipline. This can happen in diverse ways, like by investigating the philosophical presuppositions of fundamental logical concepts, by interpreting and analyzing logic through mathematical structures, or by studying and comparing ...
212	"Logic" [4] Philosophical logic is one important area within the philosophy of logic. It studies the application of logical methods to philosophical problems in fields like metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology. [81] [16] This application usually happens in the form of extended or deviant logical systems. [83] [6] Math...
213	"Logic" [116] The latter was a major concern in early 20th century mathematical logic, which pursued the program of logicism pioneered by philosopher-logicians such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Mathematical theories were supposed to be logical tautologies, and the programme was to show this by means of a redu...
214	"Logic" Recursion theory captures the idea of computation in logical and arithmetic terms; its most classical achievements are the undecidability of the Entscheidungsproblem by Alan Turing, and his presentation of the Church–Turing thesis. [118] Today recursion theory is mostly concerned with the more refined problem o...
215	"Logic" [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] Computer scientists also apply concepts from logic to problems in computing and vice versa. For instance, modern artificial intelligence builds on logicians' work in argumentation theory, while automated theorem proving can assist logicians in finding and checking proofs. In ...
216	"Logic" The field was developed by Richard Montague and Barbara Partee in the 1970s, and remains an active area of research. Central questions include scope, binding, and linguistic modality. [126] [127] [128] [129] What is the epistemological status of the laws of logic? What sort of argument is appropriate for critic...
217	"Logic" [131] Another paper of the same name by Michael Dummett argues that Putnam's desire for realism mandates the law of distributivity. [132] Distributivity of logic is essential for the realist's understanding of how propositions are true of the world in just the same way as he has argued the principle of bivalenc...
218	"Logic" A building, for example, both moves and does not move; the ground for the first is our solar system and for the second the earth. In Hegelian dialectic, the law of non-contradiction, of identity, itself relies upon difference and so is not independently assertable. Closely related to questions arising from the ...
219	"Logic" Graham Priest, the main proponent of dialetheism, has argued for paraconsistency on the grounds that there are in fact, true contradictions. [133] [ clarification needed ] Logic arose from a concern with correctness of argumentation. Modern logicians usually wish to ensure that logic studies just those argument...
220	"Logic" [134] The idea that logic treats special forms of argument, deductive argument, rather than argument in general, has a history in logic that dates back at least to logicism in mathematics (19th and 20th centuries) and the advent of the influence of mathematical logic on philosophy. A consequence of taking logic...
221	"Logic" [135] [ page needed ] The philosophical vein of various kinds of skepticism contains many kinds of doubt and rejection of the various bases on which logic rests, such as the idea of logical form, correct inference, or meaning, sometimes leading to the conclusion that there are no logical truths. This is in cont...
222	"Logic" mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms—in short... metaphors which are worn out and without sensuous power; coins which have lost their pictures and now matter only as metal, no longer as coins". [136] His rejection of truth did not lead him to reject the idea of either inference or logic com...
223	"Logic" [138] This position held by Nietzsche however, has come under extreme scrutiny for several reasons. Some philosophers, such as Jürgen Habermas, claim his position is self-refuting—and accuse Nietzsche of not even having a coherent perspective, let alone a theory of knowledge. [139] Georg Lukács, in his book The...
224	"Logic" [141] Logic was developed independently in several cultures during antiquity. One major early contributor was Aristotle, who developed term logic in his Organon and Prior Analytics. [142] [143] In this approach, judgements are broken down into propositions consisting of two terms that are related by one of a fi...
225	"Logic" The later logician Łukasiewicz described this insight as "one of Aristotle's greatest inventions". [143] Aristotle's system of logic was also responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syllogism, [144] temporal modal logic, [145] [146] and inductive logic, [147] as well as influential vocabulary such as t...
226	"Logic" Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037 CE) was the founder of Avicennian logic, which replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world, [149] and also had an important influence on Western medieval writers such as Albertus Magnus [150] and William of Ockham. [151] [152] Ibn Sina wrote on ...
227	"Logic" [153] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's " first figure " and formulated an early system of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). [156] In Europe during the later medieval period, major efforts were made to show that Aristotle'...
228	"Logic" In 1323, William of Ockham 's influential Summa Logicae was released. By the 18th century, the structured approach to arguments had degenerated and fallen out of favour, as depicted in Holberg 's satirical play Erasmus Montanus. The Chinese logical philosopher Gongsun Long ( c. 325–250 BCE ) proposed the parado...
229	"Logic" [157] Innovations in the scholastic school, called Nyaya, continued from ancient times into the early 18th century with the Navya-Nyāya school. By the 16th century, it developed theories resembling modern logic, such as Gottlob Frege 's "distinction between sense and reference of proper names" and his "definiti...
230	"Logic" The syllogistic logic developed by Aristotle predominated in the West until the mid-19th century, when interest in the foundations of mathematics stimulated the development of symbolic logic (now called mathematical logic ). In 1854, George Boole published The Laws of Thought, [159] introducing symbolic logic a...
231	"Logic" In 1931, Gödel raised serious problems with the foundationalist program and logic ceased to focus on such issues. The development of logic since Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein had a profound influence on the practice of philosophy and the perceived nature of philosophical problems (see analytic philosophy ) a...
232	"Reasoning" Traditions by region Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. [1] [2] It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is ...
233	"Reasoning" Aristotle drew a distinction between logical discursive reasoning (reason proper), and intuitive reasoning, [6] in which the reasoning process through intuition—however valid—may tend toward the personal and the subjectively opaque. In some social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reason...
234	"Reasoning" For example, reasoning is the means by which rational individuals understand sensory information from their environments, or conceptualize abstract dichotomies such as cause and effect, truth and falsehood, or ideas regarding notions of good or evil. Reasoning, as a part of executive decision making, is als...
235	"Reasoning" Using reason, or reasoning, can also be described more plainly as providing good, or the best, reasons. For example, when evaluating a moral decision, "morality is, at the very least, the effort to guide one's conduct by reason —that is, doing what there are the best reasons for doing—while giving equal [an...
236	"Reasoning" Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason. In the English language and other modern European languages, "reason", and related words, represent words which have always been used to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in the sense of their philosophical usa...
237	"Reasoning" [12] Some philosophers, Thomas Hobbes for example, also used the word ratiocination as a synonym for "reasoning". The proposal that reason gives humanity a special position in nature has been argued to be a defining characteristic of western philosophy and later western modern science, starting with classic...
238	"Reasoning" [13] It has been defined in different ways, at different times, by different thinkers about human nature. For many classical philosophers, nature was understood teleologically, meaning that every type of thing had a definitive purpose that fit within a natural order that was itself understood to have aims. ...
239	"Reasoning" Within the human mind or soul ( psyche ), reason was described by Plato as being the natural monarch which should rule over the other parts, such as spiritedness ( thumos ) and the passions. Aristotle, Plato's student, defined human beings as rational animals, emphasizing reason as a characteristic of human...
240	"Reasoning" [16] But teleological accounts such as Aristotle's were highly influential for those who attempt to explain reason in a way that is consistent with monotheism and the immortality and divinity of the human soul. For example, in the neoplatonist account of Plotinus, the cosmos has one soul, which is the seat ...
241	"Reasoning" [19] For example, the greatest among the early saint Church Fathers and Doctors of the Church such as Augustine of Hippo, Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa were as much Neoplatonic philosophers as they were Christian theologians and adopted the Neoplatonic view of human reason together with the associa...
242	"Reasoning" [20] Among the Scholastics who relied on the classical concept of reason for the development of their doctrines, none were more influential than Saint Thomas Aquinas, who put this concept at the heart of his Natural Law. In this doctrine, Thomas concludes that because humans have reason and because reason i...
243	"Reasoning" Other Scholastics, such as Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus, following the example of Islamic scholars such as Alhazen, emphasised reason an intrinsic human ability to decode the created order and the structures that underlie our experienced physical reality. This interpretation of reason was instrumental to...
244	"Reasoning" [23] Nature was no longer assumed to be human-like, with its own aims or reason, and human nature was no longer assumed to work according to anything other than the same " laws of nature " which affect inanimate things. This new understanding eventually displaced the previous world view that derived from a ...
245	"Reasoning" In his search for a foundation of all possible knowledge, Descartes deliberately decided to throw into doubt all knowledge – except that of the mind itself in the process of thinking: At this time I admit nothing that is not necessarily true. I am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is a ...
246	"Reasoning" Breaking with tradition and many thinkers after him, Descartes explicitly did not divide the incorporeal soul into parts, such as reason and intellect, describing them as one indivisible incorporeal entity. A contemporary of Descartes, Thomas Hobbes described reason as a broader version of "addition and sub...
247	"Reasoning" Hume took it in an especially skeptical direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of deducing relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise. [27] [28] Hume famously remarked that, "We speak not strictly and philosophically...
248	"Reasoning" [31] It followed from this that animals have reason, only much less complex than human reason. In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant attempted to show that Hume was wrong by demonstrating that a " transcendental " self, or "I", was a necessary condition of all experience. Therefore, suggested Kant, on the basi...
249	"Reasoning" Kant was able therefore to reformulate the basis of moral-practical, theoretical and aesthetic reasoning, on "universal" laws. Here practical reasoning is the self-legislating or self-governing formulation of universal norms, and theoretical reasoning the way humans posit universal laws of nature. [32] Unde...
250	"Reasoning" He formulated such a principle, called the " categorical imperative ", which would justify an action only if it could be universalized: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law. [34] In contrast to Hume then, Kant insists that reason itse...
251	"Reasoning" [35] According to Jürgen Habermas, the "substantive unity" of reason has dissolved in modern times, such that it can no longer answer the question "How should I live?" Instead, the unity of reason has to be strictly formal, or "procedural". He thus described reason as a group of three autonomous spheres (on...
252	"Reasoning" [36] Hamann, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Foucault, Rorty, and many other philosophers have contributed to a debate about what reason means, or ought to mean. Some, like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Rorty, are skeptical about subject-centred, universal, or instrumental reason, and ...
253	"Reasoning" [13] In the last several decades, a number of proposals have been made to "re-orient" this critique of reason, or to recognize the "other voices" or "new departments" of reason: For example, in opposition to subject-centred reason, Habermas has proposed a model of communicative reason that sees it as an ess...
254	"Reasoning" [39] In the essay "What is Enlightenment?", Michel Foucault proposed a concept of critique based on Kant's distinction between "private" and "public" uses of reason. This distinction, as suggested, has two dimensions: The terms logic or logical are sometimes used as if they were identical with the term reas...
255	"Reasoning" [42] Reason and logic can however be thought of as distinct, although logic is one important aspect of reason. Author Douglas Hofstadter, in Gödel, Escher, Bach, characterizes the distinction in this way: Logic is done inside a system while reason is done outside the system by such methods as skipping steps...
256	"Reasoning" [44] [45] Psychologist David Moshman, citing Bickhard and Campbell, argued for a " metacognitive conception of rationality" in which a person's development of reason "involves increasing consciousness and control of logical and other inferences". [45] [46] Reason is a type of thought, and logic involves the...
257	"Reasoning" [48] When Aristotle referred to "the logical" ( hē logikē ), he was referring more broadly to rational thought. [49] As pointed out by philosophers such as Hobbes, Locke and Hume, some animals are also clearly capable of a type of " associative thinking ", even to the extent of associating causes and effect...
258	"Reasoning" [50] Human reason requires more than being able to associate two ideas, even if those two ideas might be described by a reasoning human as a cause and an effect, perceptions of smoke, for example, and memories of fire. For reason to be involved, the association of smoke and the fire would have to be thought...
259	"Reasoning" [52] One example of such a system of artificial symbols and signs is language. The connection of reason to symbolic thinking has been expressed in different ways by philosophers. Thomas Hobbes described the creation of "Markes, or Notes of remembrance" ( Leviathan Ch. 4) as speech. He used the word speech a...
260	"Reasoning" [54] Reason and imagination rely on similar mental processes. [55] Imagination is not only found in humans. Aristotle, for example, stated that phantasia (imagination: that which can hold images or phantasmata ) and phronein (a type of thinking that can judge and understand in some sense) also exist in some...
261	"Reasoning" The recent modern writings of Terrence Deacon and Merlin Donald, writing about the origin of language, also connect reason connected to not only language, but also mimesis. [57] More specifically they describe the ability to create language as part of an internal modeling of reality specific to humankind. O...
262	"Reasoning" Starting with a modern author, Merlin Donald writes [58] A dog might perceive the "meaning" of a fight that was realistically play-acted by humans, but it could not reconstruct the message or distinguish the representation from its referent (a real fight). [...] Trained apes are able to make this distinctio...
263	"Reasoning" What Klein refers to as dianoetic eikasia is the eikasia concerned specifically with thinking and mental images, such as those mental symbols, icons, signes, and marks discussed above as definitive of reason. Explaining reason from this direction: human thinking is special in the way that we often understan...
264	"Reasoning" Donald writes [61] Imitation is found especially in monkeys and apes [... but...] Mimesis is fundamentally different from imitation and mimicry in that it involves the invention of intentional representations. [...] Mimesis is not absolutely tied to external communication. Mimēsis is a concept, now popular ...
265	"Reasoning" Intentions are nothing more than imagined actions, internalizings of the external. All action is therefore imitation of action; it is poetic... [63] Donald like Plato (and Aristotle, especially in On Memory and Recollection ), emphasizes the peculiarity in humans of voluntary initiation of a search through ...
266	"Reasoning" [66] Recollection is a deliberate effort to search for and recapture something once known. Klein writes that, "To become aware of our having forgotten something means to begin recollecting." [67] Donald calls the same thing autocueing, which he explains as follows: [68] "Mimetic acts are reproducible on the...
267	"Reasoning" but also "...the origin of language and of the mind". A subdivision of philosophy is logic. Logic is the study of reasoning. Looking at logical categorizations of different types of reasoning, the traditional main division made in philosophy is between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Formal log...
268	"Reasoning" One classic example of deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the following: The reasoning in this argument is deductively valid because there is no way in which the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false. Induction is a form of inference producing propositions about ...
269	"Reasoning" Instead, the conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree of probability. Relatedly, the conclusion of an inductive argument contains more information than is already contained in the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is ampliative. A classic example of inductive reasoning comes from ...
270	"Reasoning" [71] Analogical reasoning often leads to wrong conclusions. For example: Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation, is a form of reasoning that doesn't fit in deductive or inductive, since it starts with incomplete set of observations and proceeds with likely possible explanations so the conc...
271	"Reasoning" For example, when a patient displays certain symptoms, there might be various possible causes, but one of these is preferred above others as being more probable. Flawed reasoning in arguments is known as fallacious reasoning. Bad reasoning within arguments can be because it commits either a formal fallacy o...
272	"Reasoning" Philosophy is sometimes described as a life of reason, with normal human reason pursued in a more consistent and dedicated way than usual. Two categories of problem concerning reason have long been discussed by philosophers concerning reason, essentially being reasonings about reasoning itself as a human ai...
273	"Reasoning" Since classical times a question has remained constant in philosophical debate (which is sometimes seen as a conflict between movements called Platonism and Aristotelianism ) concerning the role of reason in confirming truth. People use logic, deduction, and induction, to reach conclusions they think are tr...
274	"Reasoning" [73] This leads to the question of what types of first principles, or starting points of reasoning, are available for someone seeking to come to true conclusions. In Greek, " first principles " are archai, "starting points", [74] and the faculty used to perceive them is sometimes referred to in Aristotle [7...
275	"Reasoning" This approach always leads to the controversial conclusion that absolute knowledge is not attainable. Idealism, (associated with Plato and his school), claims that there is a "higher" reality, from which certain people can directly arrive at truth without needing to rely only upon the senses, and that this ...
276	"Reasoning" Such an approach allowed religious philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Étienne Gilson to try to show that reason and revelation are compatible. According to Hegel, "...the only thought which Philosophy brings with it to the contemplation of History, is the simple conception of reason; that reason is the...
277	"Reasoning" Kant attempted to show that pure reason could form concepts ( time and space ) that are the conditions of experience. Kant made his argument in opposition to Hume, who denied that reason had any role to play in experience. After Plato and Aristotle, western literature often treated reason as being the facul...
278	"Reasoning" [80] [81] [82] After the critiques of reason in the early Enlightenment the appetites were rarely discussed or conflated with the passions. [ citation needed ] Some Enlightenment camps took after the Stoics to say Reason should oppose Passion rather than order it, while others like the Romantics believed th...
279	"Reasoning" [ citation needed ] Rousseau first proposed, in his second Discourse, that reason and political life is not natural and possibly harmful to mankind. [84] He asked what really can be said about what is natural to mankind. What, other than reason and civil society, "best suits his constitution"? Rousseau saw ...
280	"Reasoning" This effectively puts the human race into slavery. Rousseau says that he almost dares to assert that nature does not destine men to be healthy. According to Richard Velkley, "Rousseau outlines certain programs of rational self-correction, most notably the political legislation of the Contrat Social and the ...
281	"Reasoning" In various ways, German Idealism after Kant, and major later figures such Nietzsche, Bergson, Husserl, Scheler, and Heidegger, remain preoccupied with problems coming from the metaphysical demands or urges of reason. [86] The influence of Rousseau and these later writers is also large upon art and politics....
282	"Reasoning" Damasio argues that these somatic markers (known collectively as "gut feelings") are "intuitive signals" that direct our decision making processes in a certain way that cannot be solved with rationality alone. Damasio further argues that rationality requires emotional input in order to function. There are m...
283	"Reasoning" [89] [90] Religious adherents sometimes respond by arguing that faith and reason can be reconciled, or have different non-overlapping domains, or that critics engage in a similar kind of irrationalism: Some commentators have claimed that Western civilization can be almost defined by its serious testing of t...
284	"Reasoning" To consider to what extent Eastern philosophy might have partaken of these important tensions, Strauss thought it best to consider whether dharma or tao may be equivalent to Nature (by which we mean physis in Greek). According to Strauss the beginning of philosophy involved the "discovery or invention of na...
285	"Reasoning" [101] Although there is this special history of debate concerning reason and faith in the Islamic, Christian and Jewish traditions, the pursuit of reason is sometimes argued to be compatible with the other practice of other religions of a different nature, such as Hinduism, because they do not define their ...
286	"Reasoning" It is a key research question in the psychology of reasoning and cognitive science of reasoning. Rationality is often divided into its respective theoretical and practical counterparts. Experimental cognitive psychologists carry out research on reasoning behaviour. Such research may focus, for example, on h...
287	"Reasoning" [104] They test whether people can make valid deductions about spatial and temporal relations, e.g., A is to the left of B, or A happens after B, and about quantified assertions, e.g., All the A are B. [105] Experiments investigate how people make inferences about factual situations, hypothetical possibilit...
288	"Reasoning" Research in this area includes research into the structure and function of normally functioning brains, and of damaged or otherwise unusual brains. In addition to carrying out research into reasoning, some psychologists, for example, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists work to alter people's reasoni...
289	"Reasoning" A species could benefit greatly from better abilities to reason about, predict and understand the world. French social and cognitive scientists Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier argue that there could have been other forces driving the evolution of reason. They point out that reasoning is very difficult for huma...
290	"Reasoning" Any group that managed to find ways of reasoning effectively would reap benefits for all its members, increasing their fitness. This could also help explain why humans, according to Sperber, are not optimized to reason effectively alone. Their argumentative theory of reasoning claims that reason may have mo...
291	"Reasoning" For example... It is clear, then, that a human being is more of a political [ politikon = of the polis ] animal [ zōion ] than is any bee or than any of those animals that live in herds. For nature, as we say, makes nothing in vain, and humans are the only animals who possess reasoned speech [ logos ]. Voic...
292	"Reasoning" But speech [ logos ] serves to make plain what is advantageous and harmful and so also what is just and unjust. For it is a peculiarity of humans, in contrast to the other animals, to have perception of good and bad, just and unjust, and the like; and the community in these things makes a household or city ...
293	"Reasoning" The reason is that injustice is most difficult to deal with when furnished with weapons, and the weapons a human being has are meant by nature to go along with prudence and virtue, but it is only too possible to turn them to contrary uses. Consequently, if a human being lacks virtue, he is the most unholy a...
294	"Reasoning" Peter Simpson's translation, with Greek terms inserted in square brackets.) The concept of human nature being fixed in this way, implied, in other words, that we can define what type of community is always best for people. This argument has remained a central argument in all political, ethical and moral thi...
295	"Reasoning" [111] Friendship [ philia ] seems to prevail [in] man and woman according to nature [ kata phusin ]; for people are by nature [ tēi phusei ] pairing [ sunduastikon ] more than political [ politikon = of the polis ], in as much as the household [ oikos ] is prior [ proteron = earlier] and more necessary than...
296	"Reasoning" Thus they supply each other, putting their own into the common [ eis to koinon ]. It is for these [reasons] that both utility [ chrēsimon ] and pleasure [ hēdu ] seem to be found in this kind of friendship. ( Nicomachean Ethics, VIII.12.1162a. Rough literal translation with Greek terms shown in square brack...
297	"Reasoning" In other words, according to Rousseau, reason, language and rational community did not arise because of any conscious decision or plan by humans or gods, nor because of any pre-existing human nature. As a result, he claimed, living together in rationally organized communities like modern humans is a develop...
298	"Reasoning" According to Rousseau, we should even doubt that reason, language and politics are a good thing, as opposed to being simply the best option given the particular course of events that lead to today. Rousseau's theory, that human nature is malleable rather than fixed, is often taken to imply, for example by K...
299	"Counting" Counting is the process of determining the number of elements of a finite set of objects, i.e., determining the size of a set. The traditional way of counting consists of continually increasing a (mental or spoken) counter by a unit for every element of the set, in some order, while marking (or displacing) t...

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